TRADE CENTRES

TRADE CENTRES

Indian History speaks the rise and fall of the three different

periods of Urbanisms. The first is said at the time of Indus valley

Urbanism1. Second from 5th Century B.C. to 4th Century A.D. and the

thrid one is at the medieval time. These three urban growths are differ­

ent in their character and also it is considered that there is no interlink

between these three periods. Regarding the Indus civilisation we can

say it never infuluenced or helped in the Gangetic Valley urban devel­

opment. The raise of urban centres between 4th century B.C. to 4th

Century A.D. were independent in character. This is because of the

foreign trade. Romans, Greeks and the Sri Lankan traders influenced

in this period. Because of this the small market places became well

know urban centres.

R.S. Sharma in his work explained the raise and fall of

urban centres in between 4th Century B.C. to 5th Century A.D. In his

work he states how the internal and external trade helped for the growth

of ancient urban centres and also about the urban development in

south India. He explained Arikamedu in detail because his work based

only on excavation report . Punnampalam Ragupathy also worked the

early settlement in Jaffna.

120
 Magalithic monuments help to get the knowledge about the

political and social life of the Sengam people. Megalithic excavation

tells the occupation of the people such as agriculture bead making in­

dustry and trade. Hundreds of artifacta are excavated in this megalithic

burials. Among those potsher some bear grafiti like Swesthik, sun, moon,

star, fish, bow, comb etc are said to mention 4. These excavation

materials speaks about the life of the various clases.

Not only in megalithic but also in Sangam literature the 'Kudi'

is mentioned5. In Sangam literature it is said certain areas are called cil

kudi' and 'cirukudi'6. Sudharshan Seneviratne worked as 'Pre state to

state socities in Tamil Nadu. The result of this research may help to

rewrite the society of Tamils.

We can come across 'Kudi' in all the Dravidian languages7.

Thoda which is one among the Dravidian lanugage gives several

g
meanings for Kudi, Kulam, father's clan are meaning for Kudi Thoda

language confirms that ancient people and animals lived under one roof.

In Payampalli houses of megalithic people were excavated. These huts

are constructed with mud walls and like round Buddha stupa.

In Marutham 'Ur' means the place where group of people

lived. Nagaram, Pattinam, also metioned. Even though the Sangam

121
litenAature speaks about the various people lived at various places but it

did not help us to know about development of culture the real nature in

the ' Kudi1 to ' Padi1 and ' Ur1 to ' Urban1. But cultural anthropology shows

the development from nomadic to pasture and to agriculture and finally

to urban raise. The results of anthropology helps to identify the raise of

urban centre and trade centre.

Because of trade and also other geographical conditions the

ancient people may settle at a particular place which is convenient for

them in all their day to day activities. Before this they were just nomads

for want of pasture lands they roamed. After entering in other activities

such as producing food (in river beds) and other commodiies, they

started to exchange their excess products. This terms as gift trade and

their settlement developed as urban centres.

Urban system is the outcome of internal factors. The initial

urban growth of a major centre is based such as long distance trade and

not upon purely internal demands.

Accoding to O.P. Bharadwaj pre modern urban development

under goes 7 stages. Such as (1) Preurban (2) Urban with weak links

with other ares (3) state city (4) gmperial city (5) standard marketing

(6) intermediate marketing and (7) national marketing 9 . With the help

122
of available materials we cannot bring out our ancient urban sites in these

above mentioned categories. Ancient urban sites had a close link with

Roman countries. This trade even collapsed the Roman economy. So,

urban centres of our period had international marketing places.

We can identify certain diagnostic marks of urbanisation.

Coins have been unearthed at numerous sties and constitute a striking

mark of the urbanisation of ancient settlements. Money was the symbol

of urban prosperity and its shortage an indication of disintegration of

urban life.

Pottery - The higher material culture is attested by the use

of the sophisticated types of pottery. Both internal and external make

clearly shows their contact with outer world. There is a possibility of

pottery industry in certain sites. Hence the disappearance of fine pot­

tery is a symptom of urban decline. Many dies made of stone, bone and

terracotta possibly used by goldsmiths come from various sites proves

the development of their period. Probably there was some trade in

terracttas between important urban centres. This can be said on the

basis of exact similarities between tercottas belonging to distant urban

sites.

123
 In the first two centuries of the Christain era some crafts

such as the making of stone beads manufacture of shell objects and above

all fabrication of ivory and glass goods reached their peak. Signifi­

cantly enough after the 4th century archaeological evidence for such trade

is lacking.

Some ancient urban settlements were indulged in the

production of iron artefacts. Crucibles, furnances and iron slag

indicating the casting of iron tools are quite impressive.

There are enough foreign coins and pottery to prove close

and continued contact between Tamil Nadu ports and cities on the one

hand and foreign countries on the other. The above stated are certain

diagnostic makrs to identify urban centers.

So far more than 100 megalithic sites have been identified

We cannot say that all these sites as urban centres. There are many

reason fro this. First only few sites are excavated like Kodumanal

Aiangulam, Arikamedu etc. Secondly there is no habitation sites near

certain megalithic. So, we cannot say those megalithic sites as urban

centres. In future there is a possibility to establish and prove so many

urban centres like Deccan and North India. But now we can recon­

struct the urban centres only upon the few excavation sites with those

unearthed materials.

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 ANCIENT PORTS CONNECTED WITH ROMAN TRADE

Ancient Port Modern Name

1.Nnura Cannanore 9. Karaikadu Karaikadu
2.Tyndis Tondi 10. Poduke Arikamedu
3.Muciri Mtiziris 1 l.Sopaima Marakkanani
4.Ne!cynda Kottayam 12. Vasavasamudram Vasavasamudran
5.Bacare Varkkalai 13. MamaIIapurain Mamallapurara
6.Kolklioi Korkai 14. Manarpha Mylapore
7.AJagankulam Alagankulam V Palghat pass
8.Camara Kaveripumpaltinam

Alagankulam may be identified with ancient Saliyur.

 The following are the important urban centres in Tamilnadu

in ancient period. Most of the sites are near the coastal area or near

river banks. This proves the people's geographical knowledge of that

time Water becomes one of the easiest means of communication to them.

Alagankulam, Arikamedu, Korkai, Kaveripattiam (Poompuhar),

Vasavasmudram, Kadal Mallai, Marakanam, Nagapattinam,

Devipattinam, Kayalpatinam, Uraiyur, Tondi, Muchiri, Kodikari,

Kadumanal, Tirukampuliyur, Karur, Boluvampatti, Avinashi, Kanchi,

Chengam, Vellalur - these are the important urban centres. Among these

Alagankulam, Arikamedu, Korkai, Poompuhar, Vasavasamudram,

Uraiyur, Kodumanal, Karur, Tirukampuliyur are excavated. Remaining

sites are not fully exacavated. Unearthed materials show the clear pic­

ture of ancient Tamilnadu with Roman contacts. There is a well flour­

ished foriegn trade prevailed at that time. This was supported by the

literary evidence and foriegn authours notice also. The materials exca­

vation in all these sites are more or less belong to same period. So they

will have contact with one another urban centre.

Excavated Evidences :
Nearly 25 years excavations are going on in Tamil Nadu,

Karur, Uraiyur, Puhar, Boluvampatti, Kanchipuram, Korkai,

Vasavasmudram, Arikamedu are important places, where we get enough

information to prove that these are urban centres.

125
 <x~
Except few, most of all the excavated sites are belong to

sangam age. These excavations also not in a large area, it covered only

small area. So it is difficult to map the raise of urban centre till the

decay. These excavations shows the urban history of ancient period.

Which show the urban people from 7th Century B.C. There are no

data to identify the settlement before this period data to identify the

settlement before this period Sowe can very well say the permanent

settlement starts atleast from 7th Century B.C. onwards.

Tamilnadu occupied the stratergic place in the world trade

map. It is situated between eastern and western countries. It is easy to

contact both the world. Sea routes went around the world by touching

of Tamilnadu. So trade centres and urban centres started to raise in 2nd

Century B.C. onwards. Eastern seacoast covers the important ports

like Korkai, Pukar, Alakankuiam, Arikamedu, Sopattinam, Mavilangai,

Vasavasamudram, Mamallai and Mavilangai Naravu, Manthai, Vanchi,

Musiri are located in the western coastline of Tamilnadu.

Naravu:
Naravu is mentioned as 'Cudanaravu' in Patirrupattu 11.

It is considered both Sangam text Naravu and Naura are smae as at-

tested by periplus 12 . Ptolomy says this is the first port on west coast

where as far as Damirica was concerned 13 .This is said as a wealthy

126
place because of the arrival of Yavana ships. Periplus refers to as

navra and Pliny's work mentioned it as Nithris which refers this

Naravu. This is identified with Mangalapuram situated in Nethravathy

river which is now in South Karnataka 1:\ Deccan which is north of

Tamilnadu is said as Ariyakam 16. Naravu situated Southern end of

Ariyakam.Here who ceralatham from Dhandagaruyan who lifted sheeps

and Ilancheralirumporai are said to have ruled this place 17

Manthai:
Only in Sangam literture this place is said as coastal centre.

Some of the Sangam works speaks about this centre 18 . It attracted

many people. Chera ruler collected tributous from other rulers in

Manthai19.

Elil Kundrara :
This is called as Elil Malai and Ramakundam 20 . Today it is

situated in Magi which was French colony. Gold is taken from Konkan

country which is around this mount, as atteated by Sangam text 21 . Aagnanuru

22
speaks about the 'Pali1 a Nagaram situated in this country .'Param a

nagaram also under Nannan 23 . It is a wealthy place.

Poozi Nadu:
Next to Chera Nadu Poozi is situated for sometimes it was under

127
 24
Cheras. In Pattirru Pattu it is mentioned . Pooziar lived by cattle breeding

and bead making, Strabo says that Indo-Greek ruler Drimitris extended his

army till Cheranadu and Poozi Nadu in west coast , This is to occupy the

trade centres ofTamilnadu in west coast under him. This cities were recov-

ered from Indo Greek ruler is said in Pattirupattu 26 .

Tondi:
In sangam text it is mentioned as Chera city. Sangam

literature says Tondi was surrounded by paddy fields 27 . In foreign

notices it is explained a well known trade centre and.many yavana ships

visited here . Silapathigaram and Agananuru speaks about Tondi. The

goods which are exported to Tondi and from Tondi it went to Madurai.

Excavation proves that it was a Sangam age site. Shell beads and black

and redware potteries are excavated.

Musiri :
In Sangam literature it is mentioned as trade centre Yavana

ships arrived herg.to get pepper in exchange of their gold 29 . Ptolomy

and periplus refer to about Musiri . According to Periplus, Greek mer­

chants from Egypt brought wine, brass, lead, glass,etc, for sale to Muchiri

(Musiri) and Vaikkarai (Bakara) and who purchased from these ports

pepper, betel, ivory, pearl and fine muslins.The Greeks sailed from Egypt

in the month of July and arrived at Muchiri in about forty days. They

128
stayed on the Malabar coast for about three months and commenced

their return voyage from Muchiri in December or January.

Kutta Nadu :
People who lived here is called Kuttuvar 3 1 . Bead making

industry and cattle breeding are their occupation. By this these people

are wealthy. These beads might have bought by Yavana trader Ptolemy

mentions this Kuttunadu 32 . He also speaks about Nelkienda 33 . Aynadu

is mentioned by Ptolomy 34 . This Aynadu people may also involved in

trade with

East coast centre :

From Sangam literature and Ptolomy work we get informa­

tions about east coast trade centres. Periplus did not give much details

about this east coast. Korkai, Alagankulam, Marunkur Pattinam, Puhar,

Puduke, Sopatma, Mavilankai, Vasavasamudram, Mamallai are noteable

centres. Among these Alagankulam, Korkai. Puhar, Puduke,

Vasavasamudram are excavated. Among this Korkai and Algankulam

are dated to 7-5th Century B.C. Northern Blackware pottery are ex-

cavated at Korkai 35

Alagankulam :
It is Situated in Ramanathapuram, northern bank of Vaigai.

129
The excavation gives so many evidence to construct that, it was a well

flourished urban centre. Large number of Yavana potsheds were un­

earthed. A potsherd is inscribed with graffiti mark 'Thisan'. It is dated

1st centuary A.D . This is in Srilankan Bhrami letters. This proves,

there must be a close and regular contact with Srilankan traders by our

traders. The place where this trade centre situated is also proves the

contact with Srilanka.

Iron furance is excavated 37 . Large number of crucibile which

are used for iron melting is excevated. Melted waste iron slags are

excavated. The un earthed beads reveal the possibility of bead industry

here. Raw material may be taken from Nilgiri . Carnelian beads also

excavated Northren blackpolished ware are excavated. The date of

this site is earlier than 5th Century B.C. This centre flourished as a

trade centre till 4th Century A.D.

Korkai :
This is mentioned in Sangam literature in various ways 39 . It

is know for pearl port trade centre and capital for Pandian rulers. It is

situated on the banks of Tambrabrani river.

Its early date is 7th Century B.C. Black and redware

potsherds with Brahmi letters are excavated 40 . These belong to 2nd

130
century Ptolomy refers that place as Kolchi or Colchi and says that it

was an emporium . Periplus says "From comari towards the north

this region extends to cokhi (korkai) where the pearl fisheries are and it

belongs to Pandian kingdom 42. Ptolomy visited Korkai in the 2nd

century A.D. He also speaks about the pearl of Korkai and their export43

Ancient port town of Kaveripatinam extended from

Puddupuram north of Kannagi statue at Poompuhar as far south as

Vanagiri, where the Kaveri presently joins the sea.

Ancient township of Poompuhar of 3rd Century B.C.

indicated by the brick wharf of Kilaiyur was destroyed by the sea and

as a sequel to the transgression of the sea the township was shifted

landward in the 2nd, 3rd Century A.D It extends Vanagiri,

Pallanewaram and Velliyan Irupu. Ancient city of Poompuhar was not

confined to the present mouth of Kaveri near Vanagiri. Terracotta ring

wells and jars were discovered between Vanagiri and Tranquehar dated

1 - 5 century A.D .

To place brick structures in the first few centuries before

christ because they are in 5m depth whereas Tirukampuliyur ring wells

are almost on shore, c14 date of the brick wharf of Kilayur onshore,

excavated by the archaeologists in the sixties is 3rd Century B.C .

131
Puhar :
Kaveripattinam, Poompuhar, Traguebar purananuru explains the

goods in this trade centre for trade. Ptolony and periplus refers to Puhur as

Kaheris and ' {Camera1 45 . There was a colony for Yavanas or Greeks called

Yavanarirrukai46. The date for this centre is 3rd Century B.C.

Kilaiyar a part of Kaveripattinam. Here beads, semi­

precious stones and amphoraepieces are excavated47. Significant

discovery is an I shaped brick structure exposed in the ancient channel

of Kaveri at Kilaiyur which is now completely sitted up Carban date is

316+103 B.C.

The brick structure with a drain for water flow and a

platform supported by wooden posts for handlingcargo served as a what

, 43
built in the channel of the river Kaveri . The Sanskrit scholars called

this town as charitrapura 49

Tranquebar (Taran^tmbadi) which was a satellite port or

suburb of Poompuhar. The city of Puhar takes shape and form under

the spreading light of the eastern sun open terraces, the harbour with its

various machines the top rows of windows of tall mansions shaped like

the eye of deer, the distinguishable dwelling places of the Greeks and

the Romans eye catching in their different type of architecture, the

seaside colonies of many foreigners at home attracted to the city of Puhar

132
by its seaborne trade become visible in the enveloping light of the
50
sea

It itinerant sellers of aromatic oils and unguents, of various

sweet smelling powders & sandal paste, of flowers in packets singly

displayed or strung into garlands of famed perfumes delicately

compounded and mixed are already busy crying their wares in the streets.

There are also weavers of animal fur, silk and cotton displaying their

multi-coloured goods to those interested. There are also those who

deal in coral, sandal, myrrh, jewelleries of many kinds, of gold of sur­

passing purity, of precious stones to be set in jewels who were busy

going about crying their own places. And there were the grain mer­

chants who displayed grains and pulses in mounds in their markets.

Carriers of readymade morning foods were busy doing their trade. To­

day selling fisherwomen raised their voices in a strident recognisable

cry. Vendors of white salt, of fish fresh from sea and river were crying

their wares. Here were to be found meatsellers with kids and other

flesh in plenty. The betel chewers had already begun their days de­

struction of betel leaves chewing them with appropriate accompaniments.

Workers in bronze, copper, gold and strong iron were busy

in their respective places so were the skilled workers in wood, hewers

and splithers, carvers and makers of furniture in traditional or new

133
patterns they had begun their day's work. They had always a lot of work

on hand. Workers in pith, makers of dolls from rags. Painters of clay,

goldsmith and those who work in gems polishing or setting them to

work a greater harmony, tailors and tinkers, leather craftsmen,all were

busy. There were modest handicraftsmen busying themselves about their

handworks which would bring them their day's food, if they were lucky.

Each had his own allotted quarter in the part of the city, this street for

this craftsmen, that street for that workers or artist.

There lies the broad royal road for the use of king and nobles.

There is the wide road on which festive days the temple's decked

wooden car is dragged with pomp and ceremony and pipe and drum

with plays flying and streaning banners. There is the bazaar continue to

be busy till night is far advanced.

Adjacent to the bazaar is the street of the merchant princes

of proud lineage whose mansions are tall, each with a lower or high,

stately and of immense properties. Beyond are the residences of the

learned ones the Brahmins of the city, but their residences are of modest

proportions though wellkept. Beyond the street of the Brahmins lie the

street of the formers, they who love to till the land making it yield rich

harvests enough to feed the people of the city and the kingdom. Be­

yond that lie the streets of the Ayurvedic Physicians who know all about

134
human illnesses and can cure some of them for a fee or for love. The

street of the Astrologers who can consult the stars and predict what

year even though there is no certainty that it will happen as they predict

lies beyond that of the physicians. They are well ordered and set apart

and self contained, each in its places.

The counch workers of Puhar are famous throughout the

land and can turn out a delicate bangle with great skill and labour. They

manufacture things that are ever in demand among women folk.

On the other side, between the dwellings of the workers and

the street of the workers and the streets of the rich, lies the open

market place. It is the Day Market where the sheds are set up with live

trees for pillars. It is on open area vast and wide the only sound of

battle we are likely to hear where is the battle of the buyers and the

sellers quarrelling about the prices of merchandise. There is nothing in

the world that you can not buy in the Day market of Puhaar if you pay
51
the price

Veerai :

This is also one of the coastal city. Aganaunuru says salt

' y? 52
manufacture in the important occupation . It is considered that

135
Arikamedu is the Sangam age Veerai 53 . But it must have situated at the

coast of Tanjore district.

Arikamedu :
Ptolomy's work states, 'Puduke' is situated north of Puhar34.

Puducheri may be identified with Puduke 33. The excavated materials

proves it was a well known and well flourished trade centre. Building

structure and tiles roof are explains the urban life. Brahmi letters shows

the presence of north Indian traders and Buddhist traders 36. Roman

potties gives the clear cut evidence of the yavana settlement here.

Pottery with graffti marks as ' Valavan' is dated as 1st Century B.C.

Shell bangles, beads, handloom materials, etc are excavated. These are

dated in the time bracket 2nd Century B.C to 4th Century A.D 58

Mavilangai :
Ptolomy states this as a well flourished trade centre . This is

also stated in Sirupannarrupadai. Eeyilpattinam is also mentioned in

Sirupanaarrupadai as trade centre39. Ptolomy's Soptma is identified

this Eyilpartinam 60. Now it is called Cadurangapattinam and Satras.

All these trade centres are under Nalliya Kodan a velir chief. With

Ptolemys evidence P.T. Srinivasa Iyengar states this Mavilangai is the

capital of Aruvanandu, was one of the four dynasty. Other three are

Kerabothros (Keralaputra of Asoka), Pandian, and Sorongos with

136
capitals, karur, Madura and Uraiyur 61.

Aruva Nadu :
North of Mavilangai so many coastal centres are located.

Vasavasaamudram, Mamallai were their trade centres as attested by

excavations 62 . All these are situated in Aruva Nadu. Pattinapalai

mentions these places 63 . In a Buddlist stupa dated 1st century B.C.

written in Brahmi letters as Aruvaka Kulaanisyer 64 . This Aruvalar led

their life as traders.

Thagadur :
It is the capital of Adiyaman. The major trade route went

into Vadugar country touches Thagadur . So, it may a well flourished

trade centre. Agananuru say that people of various languages lived

here65. They had settled for trade. Punch marked coins and Roman

coins are excavated 66. Cattle breeding and bead collecting are their

profession. This led them to live like nomadic people in their home town.

This processds till 5th-6th CenturyA.D.

Karur :
In Sangam literature it is known as Vanchi 67 . This city

situated along the important trade route. So it was a well flourished

137
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trade centre. Agananuru starts this as 'Thirumaviyanagar' 68.

By excavation report it is stated that Karur flourished as a

trade centre between 2nd century B.C. to 4th century A.D. Roman coins,
69
jars, black and redware potteries, red ware, beads are excavated

These are belonged to 1st B.C. century to 3rd century A.D. Spindle

show it is well known textile centre. Tamil Brahmi inscription with

letters "Ponvanigan Nathi" is noticed at Arnattarmalai and it belongs to

70
2nd century A.D . Satavahana's kailoin pottery pieces are also

unearthed . Ptolomy explained clearly in his book about Karur. He

says that Karur was the Royal seat of Chera botras and famous
72
emporium

Vellalur :
It is near Coimbatore thousands of Roman coins are

excavated. These coins belongs to 1st B.C. to 4th A.D. issued by Roman
73
rulers Agastus to Vellentnie . A ring with Roamn women picture and

a golden plate are note worthy. This may enough to say that it is a

centre where often Romans visited and stayed, here.

Podini :
74
Palani is known as Podini in Sangam literature . Near
75
Podini in C.Kalayamuthur, Roman coins are excavated . Podini

138
situated in the important trade route which links Palghat to Madurai. So

it flourished a well knows trade centre.

Vadabudhinatham :
It was situated on the trade route between Palo^at and

Madurai. More than thousand Roman coins are unearthed. These coins

are made of gold, silver, copper . This proves, it is well known trade

centre. Beads and pepper may be the trade goods to Roman from here.

Anaimalai :
Number of Megaliths are identified here. Near Anaimalai in

Singanallur, forty Roman coins are unearthed from a megalithic burial.

It is made up of silver and belongs to Tybirius, who ruled Rome during

first century A. D 77

Pollachi, Vellanthavalam, Dharapuram, Savadipalayam,

Kulathipalayam, Kathangani are the places, where hoards of Roman coins

78
are unearthed . So we can say that they may once flourished a well

known trade centre. There must be a close contact between Roman

country and Tamil people.

Koval :
Modern Thirukolilur is known as Koval in sangam literature.
79
Koval means Mullai land . This lies upon the north Indian route near

139
Koval on the Bank of Pennai, Variety of coins are unearthed. These

coins belong to Chera, dated 2nd A.D. North Indian Punch marked coins
80
also discovered here . This shows the contact with north India. In
O 1

Soraiyapatu near Koval 200 Roman coins are unearthed . There is a

possibility of Roman trade here. At Jambai near Koval inscription of

Adiyaman period is discovered By all this we can come to a

conclusion that jr, there must be a close trade contact with Romans.

Arcot :
There are two Arcots located in Tamilnadu. One is on the

north of Tamilnadu near Palar another one is in Tanjore. Sangam

literature speaks the Tanjore Arcot only 83 Ptolomy points

Arckatoes' . This is the Tanjore Arcot. Sangam literature also

mentions this both Sangam literature and Ptolomy'swork says this Arcot

as a trade centre.

Uraiyur :
It is the capital of Cholas of the Sangam age. Now it is a

such suburban of town of Trichi. It is on the southern bank of Kaveri.

Uraiyur is mentioned by Ptolomy and the periplus of the

Erythreen sea call the city as 'Orthura Regi Somati1 and the latter as
'Argaru1 85. In Sangam literature it is known as Urantai, Koli 86,

Kolimanagar and Varaman. Chalukyan records say 'Uragapura1 .

140
QlcJ~<C- CfcAM A?£*r'
 Potteries which are unearthed here are belonger to 3rd

century B.C 87 . They are black and red ware. Russet coated and

painted ware, Rouletted ware etc. Twenty sherds with Brahmi inscrip-

tions are found and dated as 1st century A.D . They are similar as in

Arikamedu, Korkai and Kanchipuram, various varieties of terracotta

objects were unearthed like human head, male bust, female torse, toys,

Gamesman, spindle whorl, dice, smoking pipes etc 89

Beads such as agate, chalcedony, amethest coral, soapstone

and crystal, glass beads, terracotta beads are unearthed glass bangles,

shell bangles, bone objects, arrow heads are also unearthed 90

There is a possibility of the growth of small industries based

small capital and local people could have involved in this. Iron objects,

broken rails, hooks, knives etc shows the presence of this metal indus­

try. Kaveripattinam may act as outlet for the Uraiyur products.Rouletted

ware shows the contact with foreign world. After the fall of cholas of

the Sangam age in about 3rd A.D. Uraiyur and Kaveripattinam lost its

identity.Tamil inscription in Brahmi character 1st A.D. links Kanchipuram,

Arikamedu, Karur, and Kodumanal. Tamil Brahmi inscription found in

Pugalur upto Tiruneveli district.

141
Madurai

Madurai is mentioned in North Indian works, foreign notices

etc. Tamil Brahmi in inscription speaks about the traders of Madurai.

Madurai is also known as kudal . The Maduraikkanci, the longest

poem in the Pattuppattu collection, and datable to the 2nd A.D. gives a

graphic description of Madurai as a large and beautiful city with a place,

a number of temples, two large markets and well laid out streets with

lofty mansions . Roman coins have been found, some in Madurai itself,

while a hoard of silver punch marked coins, from a place called

Bodinaikkanur, with the double carp symbol on the reverse, has been

assigned to the Pandyas as their issue . Recent discoveries of coins

with the legend ' Valutiy1 or ' peruvaluity’ would add support to the view

that local coin issues were ifluenced by the large maritime commercial

transactions of the period 94

Kacci : (Kanchipuram)

Kanchipuram, well known in history as the capital of Pallavas

as early as mid-fourth century A.D., was the Kacci of the Sangam texts.

In early Tamil literature Kanci is known as Kacci, Kaccimurram and

Kaccippedu, the last one probably a suburb, from where a number of

Tamil poets hailed. Kanci and Kancinallur also refer to the same town.

142
AjAI+/HaA R\+r6f.
The Perumpanarruppatai gives a graphic description Kacci as a Mudur

(old town) formed by a number of settlements 95 . It had tall buildings of

brick and was fortified by high walls.

Kan^t's contacts with the world outside may be traced back

to at least second century B.C, if the work of Pan kou, a Chinese writer

of the first century A. D . is to be trusted . According to Pan kou, the

Chinese emperor sent presents to the king of Houangtche (Kanci) and

asked for a return ‘embassy’ with a live rhinoceros as tribute. Other

goods like shining pearls, glass and rare stone in exchange for gold and

silk are also mentioned. The journey from China took about ten months
97
to one year through Pagan (Burma)

With the Roman world Kancis contacts seem to have been

indirect, perhaps through its port Nirppeyarru . Although no Roaman

from the region around it i.e. in Tondainadu - such as Mamallapuram

(port), Madurantakam ( a place called Alamporai), Saidapet and

Mambalam (both in present Madras city) would point to the regions

participation in the Roman trade .

Kodumanal :

Kodumanal the earliest trade centre was famous for beads

and ornaments l0°. This is attested by Sangam literture and

143
TS^HA Co7TAr
archaeological finds. This Kodumanam was famous for its ornaments.

At Kodumanam many antiquities which belong to the time bracket 3rd

century B.C. to 4th century A.D. had been unearthed. Traders from

Gujarat and Rome might have visited Kodumanal.

Kodumanal excavations reveal the fact that there are many

flouring one on the other which were made in course of time. Each

flouring must have flourished for 50 years time bracket. Then we can

conclude that the settlement must be temporary ones. We cannot give

any valid reason for this settlement patterns. This settlement survived

with jem industry. Raw materials for jem industry might have been

collected by pastoral cum agricultural people. In Padirruppattu, there is

reference about the minerals collected by pastoral people after rains.

These collection ofjems and minerals find market at kodumanal.

Muttam:

Muttam was never mentioned in ancient Tamil literature. But

rich archaeological finds are unearthed at Muttam. These fields can be

arranged Chronologically. With support of archaeological finds, one can

reconsstuct the history of Muttam from third century A.D have been

unearthed there. Also punch marked coins were found. Some gold

ornaments which had resemblence to ornaments in teracotta figurires

are also excavated by the archaeologists

144
Nagaram:

'Nagaram' was known for trade guild and for trade centre 102

The word 'Nagarathar' referred in Tamil epic 103 . This shows the

prevalance of trade centres in ancient times. Some inscriptions mention

that the 'nagara' had been guild. Ponnivadi inscription may be cited here.

This guild took part in temple administration, they were requested to

maintain the gift which were given to temples. Piranmalai inscription refers

to about six nagaras in Kongu l04. Eventhough there is no enough

evidence to sate the prevalance of Nagaram in ancient times, but the

excavation materials proves the possibilities of Nagaram in early days.

Avanam :

Avanamarugu mentioned in Agananuru. According to

Lexicon, it means market and street. Padirrupattu gives that a hunter

gave ivory for his toddy credit, to toddy shop where a flag was flying

(Kat Kodi nudangu avanam) *05. This shows that there was a method of

showing the selling product by flags. The word ‘Avanam’ was a corrupt

form of Sanskrit word ‘Apana’ - means ‘people’s gathering’. Apana

Jeeviga was mentioned in the earliest pallava copper plate dated 4th

century A.D 106. This meant the people who lived exclusively by trade.

The word may be split as ‘Apana’ and ‘jeeviga’. Apana means market,

Jeeviga means livelyhood107

145
Nigama :

Urban centres were named as Nigama and Niyama

(Agananuru verse 90) 108 . Nagaram was never mentioned in Tamil

Brahmini Inscription. But they refer to it as ‘Nigama’ 109 . Arittapatti Tamil

Brahmi Inscription mentions Velarai as Nigama. Scholars have interpreted

the word Negama as trade centre and trader Guilds 110. In Padirrupattu

Aricil Kilar had mentioned one Niyamam, which might have been located

in Kongu region (Padirrupattu verse 75)Some scholars had identified

this ‘Niyamam with Negamam’ near Pollachi . The word ‘Nigama’ is

also mentioned in one of the Kodumanal Potsherd . We have no evidence

in Tamil literature or inscriptions which enlighten our knowledge about

the ‘Nigama’ , its organisation and its functioning. Hence we must

turn to North Indian sources for our study about negama 114 .

The prevalance of‘Negama’ gives the idea that the traders

formed in corporate organisation. This reveals the fact that the people

were organised in various communal organisations. But there is no direct

evidence to support this from Tamilnadu.

All the trade centres and administrative centres, which were

unearthed so far had thrived on trade wealth. Archaeological evidence

show that these places were full of jems, gold coins and foreign goods.

146
Hence they were prestigious places. Accumulation of wealth had reached

its peak in the first two centuries of Christian era. Internal restabilization

of political condition and also the fall of Roman trade was the route

cause of deisesfcation of trade centres. But within two centuries trade

was revived. This revival was lasted for five centuries.

147
 1. B.D.ChattopadhyayaUrban Centres in Early Medieval India

an Overview. Situating Indian History, p-11.

2. R.S.Sharma, Urban Decay in India (C 300- C. 1000BC) p.p. 12 -

13

3.Ibid p.p.102-103

4.Ko.Nayagam T.9 Ph.D. Thesis unpublished (in Tamil)

5. Ibid

6. Ibid

7.DED (R) No.1655

8.Ibid

9.Town planning, O P. Bharadwaj

10.Tamulica Vol. 1 p.52

11 .Patirrupattu Verse 51 line 18 verse 85 line 8

12 .K.N.Sivaraja Pillai, The Chronology of the Early Tamils,

NewDelhi, 1984, p. 137.

13. Ibid

14.Ibid

15.Ibid
 16.Ibid

17.Patirpattu Verse 51 line 18 verse 85 line 8

18. Agananuru Verse 127 line 6-9.

19.Ibid

20.K.V.Subrahmanya Aiyer, Historical sketches of Ancient

Dekhan, Vol III Coimbatore 1969. p. 134.

21 .Narrinai, verse 391, line 5-7

22. Agananuru verse 258, line 1-3

23.Agananuru verse 152, line 12-13

24. Patirrupattu 4th Ten epiogue.

25. A. Vincent Smith, Early History of India OUP, 1921, p.237-

F.N

26. Patirrupattu 2nd Ten epiogue.

27. Narrinai verse 8 line 5-9

28.111angulam - Kunchan Pillai Pandiya keralam. Madras, 1970.

p. 107

29. Agananuru verse 149 line 9-11

30.V.S.V.Ragavan, Ptolamy, Madras 1978.P.46-49. Periplus

Madras 1977 p. p.211-225.

31. Tamilnattu Varalaru Kulu, Tamilnattu Varalaru, Sangakala-

Arasieal. p.p.27-28

32. V.S.V.Ragavan Op.cit p.p 58-59

33 .Tamilnattu Varalaru Kulu, Tamilnattu Varalaru, Sangakala-

Arasieal. p.164

34.K.N.Sivaraju pillai Op.cit p. 164.

35. Damulica, Vol-1. p.52.

36. NatanaKasinathan et.all, Alagankulam. A preliminary report,

Madras 1992. p.p.10-11.

37. Ibid p.p.13-15

38. Ibid

39.Agananuru verse 350 line p.p 10-13

40. Damulica Vol 1 p.52

4l .K.S.Vaidhyanathan Op.cit p.82

42.Ibid.

43.Ibid.

44.R.Champakalakshmi Op.Cit p. 127

 45. R.Nagasami, Art and culture ofTamilnadu, New Delhi 1980.

p.p. 123-130.

46.N.Subramaniam, Sangam Polity p.24

47.Indian Archeology, 1964-65, A review p.24.

48. Indian Archeology, 1962-63 p. 13

49. Manual of Madras presidency

50. Silappathikaram

51. Ibid

52.Agananuru verse 206.line 13-14

53.S.K.Chitrambalam, Pandaya Tamilagam, Jafna 1991. p.180.

54 Moti Chandra Op.Cit p.118

55.R.E. Martmer Wheeler, My Archaeological Mission to India

and Pakistan, London 1976. p.49.

56.1ravatham Mahadevan," Arikamedu Graffiti A Second Look"

Damulica vol.ll.Part 111 p.62.

57. Dinamani 9-5-1991

58. Ancient India No.2 July 1946. p.p.96,103,29,108

59.Cirupanarruppatai p.p. 116-120

 60. K.N.Sivaraja Pillai, Op.cit p. 177

61.P.T.Srinivasa Iyengar Op.cit p.319

62. R.Nagasami & A. Abdul Majeed, Vasavasamudran , Madras

1978 p.2

63. Pattinapalai p.275.

64. Mayelai Seni Venkataswamy, Samanamum Tamilum I part

Madras 1970. p.39

65. Agananuru verse 212 line 14

66.News heard from Director of Archaeology Department.

67. Purananure verse 387, line 33

68. Agananuru verse 93 line 21.

69. Thu Thulasi Raman Karur Agaldvaivu Karur Varallartu

Karutharangu Karur Vaipahgam 15,16 May 1992.

70. Ibid

71. K Sridharan K. V. Archunan Karur Agalvipahagam Madras -

1992 p. 15

72. R. Poogundran, Karurin Kendhira Mukklyathuvam(Sanga

KalaKarur Varalaru Karutharangu Karur Agal Vaipahgam 15,16, May

1993

73. S.SureshR.A. p.55

74. Agananuru verse 61 line 16

75.Kovai Kilar Kongunattu Varalaru Kovai 1997 p.55

76. Suresh Op.cit p .61

77. S.P.Kandasamy Kongu and Roman Coins, Journal of

Numismatic Society of India. Vol XLVI p. p.39-44.

78. S.Suresh Op.cit p. 15

79. Sundarar devaram, Tiruparnkundram, epiogue verse 1

80.Dinamalar 5-10-98

81. Ibid.

82. The Hindu 8th Oct 1981.

83. Narrinai verse 190 line 6

84. K.S.Vaidyanathan Op.cit p.83

85. P.T. Srinivasa Iyangar Op.Cit. p.319

86 .Agananuru verse 6. line 5

 87. I.A.R. 1964 - 65 p.25 1965 - 66 p.37

88.K.V.Raman Op.cit p.p.96,104,105

89. Ibid

90. Ibid

91.Kudal -Lexicon p,1068 Vol-2

92. Madurai Kanchi Conto 2 p.p33 1 -669

93. Nagasamy Tamil coins p.75

94. Krishnamurthy Report in the Hindu 1997

95. Permarruppatai, 371-6

96. Iandian Archaeological, A review 1969-70. p 35.

c
97. Nilakanta Sasthri foreign notices p.44-5

98. R.Champakalakshmi Op.Cit p. 131

99. Ibid

100.Kodumanal Excavation Report.

101. R.Selvaraj.Dept.of Archaeology Officer - Paper presented

Seminar on Archaeology in Tamil nadu at Tamil University Tanjore-

1982
 102. K.S.Vaidyanathan Op.cit p. 128

103.Manimegali 19,24

104. S I I. Vol-VIII No 442

105. Agananuru verse 122 , Padirrupattru

106. Thirty Pallava Copper Plates p.321

107. Discussion with R.Poongundran, Epigraphist, Coimbatore.

108. Agananuru verse 90

109. Ve.Vedachalam, Thiruvellarai p.5 . Dept.of Archaeology,

Madras 1977.

110. Ibid.

111. Padirrupattu verse 75

112. M.Arokiyaswamy, The Kongu Country, University of Madras,

1955,

113. Kodumanal Excavation Report

114. Kiran Kumar Thaphyal, The Term Nigama with special

reference to the evidence of seals, paper presentred in the ICHR

workshop a Socio-Economic Terms in Ancient and Medieval

Inscriptions help at Mysore Aug.25-27.1989.