ABSTRACT

This document introduces the Pressure Vessels. This

document projects the introductory knowledge
regarding the ins and outs of Design, Maintenance,
and Safety hereby. No matter how unimportant it may
seem at the start, yet it will always be lucrative of
career in this segment. Hope you find this as an
effective guide for a start.

NIKHIL DESHPANDE
Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering, AMIE, Diploma in
Mechanical CADD, 4 years + Experience.
PRESSURE VESSELS –
DESIGN
MAINTENENCE AND
SAFETY
BY - NIKHIL DESHPANDE
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INDEX
Contents Page Number
Cover Page 0-0
Index 1-1
Points of Notice 2-3
Design and its building
Installation Operation & Maintenance
Safety and Inspection
Fabrication
Bibliography

CHAPTER COVERAGE

BibliographyCover Page
Fabrication
Points of Notice Cover Page
Points of Notice
Design
I, O & M
Safety Design Safety
Fabrication
Bibliography
I, O and M
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POINTS OF NOTICE
1. A pressure vessel is a container subjected to internal pressure due to its content or process
involved. Any vessel made up of a metal, will have to be more than 2.06 Kg/cm 2 – gram at 550C
for base for refrigerated vessel.
2. For refrigerated vessel, it should be more than 2.06 Kg/cm2 – gram at 550C. It should also be noted
that, it should not be not be subjected to vacuum after the hydro-test drain of the water.
3. A Gas under Liquid State under pressure or gas under pressure more than 1.5 KgL/cm 2 at 150C is
called compressed gas.
4. Design temperature for Pressure vessels is 550C, which helps us to determine the minimum
thickness of the Pressure vessel.
5. Design pressure for liquefiable gas can be up to 5% more than the vapor pressure at 550C, if
nothing is mentioned.
6. If nothing is mentioned, then, 1.5mm to 3mm can be considered as the corrosion allowance for
Carbon steel material. No corrosion allowance to be considered for Stainless steel material.
7. Assumptions for design pressure for vertical P.V. can be taken as the pressure exerted by the
water column at the bottom of the vessel.
8. For static vessel, the ratio of height (in meters) of P.V. to the pressure (in kg/cm2) should be 10:1.
This ratio of thickness is usually used in dish thickness.
9. Every vessel should keep vapor space with minimum of 5% of water capacity for static vessels
used for thermal expansion of liquid and 10% for mobile vessel for the same purpose.
10. For mobile vessel, pressure exerted by the bulk of liquefied gasses caused by acceleration or
deceleration (minimum of 3 gram) has to be added to internal design pressure.
Example: Height be 2.25 meter, where, internal diameter carries 18 ton of liquefied gas, and then
it would amount to additional internal pressure of –
=3xg
= 3 x Weight / (Area of Cross-section).
= 3 x (18000 kg) / {(π x 2.252)/4}
= 1.36 Kg/cm2.
11. Baffles should not be provided inside mobile vessel.
12. Tank Accessories:-
a. Nozzles
b. Flanges
c. Man-hole
d. Pressure Gauge
e. Temperature gauge
f. Saddle (Maximum 2 nos. for horizontal vessels)
g. Dip Pipe (To be used for vertical vessel for liquid inlet nozzle to avoid development of static
charge during freefall of liquid. Drilled holes will be provided to avoid siphon actions at the
top of the vessel)
h. Nozzle Flanges – Diameter should be 4 times bigger than of provided bolts hole on the nozzle.
Reinforcement (compensating) pad should be provided for all nozzles above 2” N-bits.
i. Gasket – Outer diameter should be less than pitch circle diameter (PCD) of bolt holes of the
flange.
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13. A Safety relief valve is a self-contained, self-activating and is capable of closing again, once the
excess pressure is released and abnormal situation is subsided.
14. Safety Return Valve (SRV) –
a. Rating is procedure to calculate the quantity of gas evolved out of the vessel equal to the free
air in kg/hr.
b. Minimum of 2 SRV’s has to be provided, each one to be capable of protecting the vessel
completely, respective of pressure discharge volume. This is to keep the other one to be used
as stand-by.
Example – If 5 SRV’s to be used, then,
5 – 1 = 4,
4 of them put together should have relieving capacity. Here the last one is a stand-by.
15. Required Volume (water capacity) in the vessel –
Required Vol. = (Capacity in Kg) / (Liquid density in m3/kg).
= …………..…. In Litres.
16. Excess Flow Valve – Arrests the excessive flow during the rupture of a pipeline or hose, which
might force the EFV against the spring pressure.
17. Water-Seal Arrangements: Gas Holders or similar type of vessels operating at very low pressures
or under a slight vacuum conditions are provided with water seal arrangements. This seal is a U-
pipe or a vessel fitted with water with one end and the other connected to the side of the vessel
where the low pressure is present and the other side of the water seal is vented to the
atmosphere.

The degree of low pressure under which the vessel operates can be regulated by the ‘X’ and the
‘Y’ distances. With pressure rise above the set limit, the water is forced out of the pipe, open to
the atmosphere, thus relieving the excess pressure.

The gas holders covered under Rule 73A, are those which have storage capacity of more than
140m3 and are used for storage and combustible gases. There are special requirements of internal
and external examinations including ultrasonic method to determine the thickness of their side
and crown plates. Provisions of schedule XVI require, amongst other provisions, for providing limit
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switches for the movement of the bell and in addition sensitive negative pressure switches to
switch off the compressor, in order to prevent the possibility of creating vacuum inside, with
disastrous effects.

18. Vacuum Breakers: It is important to protect a pressure vessel from collapsing under vacuum or to
protect against bursting due to excess pressure. A Mechanical vacuum breaker, similar to spring
loaded safety relief valve or a weight balanced vacuum breaker, is brought to practice. Generally
in the case of pressure vessels which work under ordinary circumstances and under pressure, but
where occurrences of vacuum conditions cannot be ruled out because of the rapid cooling of
steam, a check valve should be installed to the valve disc or flap facing inside the vessel. Normally,
pressure vessels with high safe working pressure can withstand usual vacuum conditions also.
However, those which cannot, should be provided with such vacuum breakers to prevent them
from collapsing.

19. Evaporating Pans: Theses are, generally, open pans, ordinarily hollow and contain steam oils,
which when the pans are in operation, are fully immersed in the liquid / material being treated.
The main hazard is to prevent the soils from the atmosphere, whereby a small quantity of the
material can be over heated or even ignited, if sufficient high temperature is maintained in the
lower part of the vessel and never be kept uncovered or allowed to heat dry.

20. Rupture / Bursting Discs are required to provide under certain statutory regulations as well as
additional or alternate safety relieving devices or as protective devices for safety valves. It is
accepted that all types of rupture discs available for high temperatures and pressure applications
are not yet available indigenously. A safety disc may not so easily clog as easily as the spring loaded
safety valves.

A provision of a safety disc as a protective device for safety valves and rupture discs has been
practiced on a limited scale since some time. A rupture disc may however clog in processes such
as manufacture of resins and other viscous materials, where they can be coated with such
different material to such an extent as to effect even the rupturing pressure of the disc. Discs
mounted up-stream of valves in series, prevent the process material from coming into contact
with the costly internal parts of the valve, until over-pressure occurs and the disc bursts, thus
preserving the original condition of the valves in which it was installed.

Such discs are leak free, which is a positive advantage from pollution point of view. These are
made up of precise thin foils of aluminum, stainless steel or some other special material of
construction such as silver, platinum, Nickel, or Monel Metal depending upon pressure and
temperature applications. With a disc fitted up-stream of the valve, testing the valve also becomes
simple and by keeping up the up-stream less corrosion occurs, due to which even the less
expensive valves can serve the purpose.

The venting capacity of the rupture discs is usually excellent since on its burst, the disc becomes
fully open. However, the discs cannot be tested for their reliability of operations, except using
destructive methods. Rupture discs are highly stresses elements of very small thickness ad are
often exposed to corrosive materials. Even the slight reduction in their thickness will cause them
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to fail. Because of this problem, no single material of construction can satisfy all the needs of the
industry and as such considerable amount expenditure may be involved in developing such discs.
21. General speaking, fitting of Rupture discs as primary relief valves are required or permitted by
statutory provisions of:
a. Fluids are present which can interfere with the efficient functioning of a pressure relief valve.
Eg: Fluids can be highly corrosive and may tend to coagulate or leave sediments which can
clog inside the internal of the pressure relief valves.
b. If materials within the vessel can give rise to explosive reaction Eg: highly exo-thermic or run
away types, where once the critical temperature is allowed to be exceeded, the rate of
pressure rise with the temperature will be very high and it will be impossible to withstand to
design any pressure vessel to withstand with safety with elevated pressure inside the vessel.
In such a case a quick relief valve from the ruptured disc upwards and thereby prevent
damage to the personnel and the environment to the maximum possible extent.
c. If during operations, the plant may come under vacuum conditions, a combination of rupture
discs along with safety relief valves have to be used.
22. Commercial LPG –
a. The vapor pressure of the mixture of butane and propane has been changed to 16.87 kgf/cm2
at 650C. Earlier it was used at 10 to 20 kgf/cm2.
b. Commercial LPG may be any mixture of gases like propane, butane, CH-butane, iso-butane or
butylene.
c. Extinguishes – Dry-powder or CO2 type.
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DESIGN
(For Non-IBR, unfired Pressure vessels)
1. Chemical composition should be known and confirmed.
2. Prediction of possible formation of chemicals and by-products needs to be done.
3. Due to corrosion, the vessel may lose thickness, thus, the rate of corrosion has to be taken into
account depending of the various factors like, location, usage, purpose, life-cycle.
4. The allowable stress is determined by dividing the ultimate stress or yield stress (at designed
temperature) supported by factor of safety.
5. Relief Valve – Two or more pressure relief shall be connected to the vapor space with spring
loaded relief valve set to discharge not more than 110% of working pressure. Similarly, relieving
capacity to prevent maximum pressure in the vessel not more than 120% of design pressure.
MAWP of SRV be = 120% of Design Pressure.
SRV Discharge Set pressure should be = 110% of Working Pressure.
6. For thin pressure vessels, the ratio of thickness to diameter should be less than or equal to
0.01mm. If this condition does not fit, it is considered to be as a thick pressure vessel.
7. For copper and any non-ferrous metal cylinders, periodic hydraulic testing is not required.
8. For such copper of non-ferrous pressure vessels, safe working tensile stress should be 350 Kg/cm2
and longitudinal stress to be half of circumferential stress.
9. Note (for ferrous pressure vessels):-
a. External Inspection – 6 Months.
b. Internal Inspection – 12 Months.
c. Hydraulic Inspection – 4 years.

If internal inspection not possible, hydraulic inspection has to be done in 2 years.

10. Experience shows the reduction of 4% in safe working load in pressure vessels every year after
first five years. Here we consider welding efficiencies ranging 65% to 100%.
11. A spherical pressure vessel is an ideal pressure vessel stress-wise having equal longitudinal and
circumferential stress levels. But, the fabrication of such vessels are shoots to high budgets.
12. General Design – The detail of internal structures and supports should conform to good practice.
It should also be taken care that, external temperatures should not develop stresses in the
structure. If required, lagging should be applied to limit the temperature exposure. Supporting
structures should not produce stresses. To avoid such a happening, stiffeners can be used,
conforming to IS 800-1962, which does not form a part of the vessel. When these supports are
made of concrete structures, it should conform to IS 456-1962.
13. Vertical Vessels:-
a. Bracket Support - When vertical vessels are supported by lugs or brackets attached to the
shell, the supporting members under the bearing attachments shall preferably be as close to
the shell as clearance for insulation will permit. The choice of number of brackets will depend
of the vessel.
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b. Column Support – Vertical vessels supported by posts or columns may require bracing or
stiffening by means of a ring girder, internal partition or similar device in order to reduce the
force tending to buckle the vessel wall.
c. Skirt Support – This type of support should not be less than 7mm thick in corroded condition.
Here the product of skirt diameter (in mm), thickness (in mm), if temperature at the top of
the skirt above ambient (in deg) exceeds 16 x 106 (in mm2 degrees) account should be taken
for discontinuity stresses in both skirt and vessel induced by temperature in the upper section
of the skirt.
Where the value of the product is less than 16 x 106 (in mm2 degrees), the nominal
compressive stress in the skirt should not exceed 1.5 times the yield stress of the skirt
material.
Thus, temperature in skirt is given by –
Fmax = { (0.125 x E x t) / D } x cosα.
Where,
E = Elastic Modulus in kgf/mm2
t = Skirt thickness in mm.
D = diameter of skirt in mm
α = half the top angle of the conical skirt (for cylindrical skirt α = 1)
14. Horizontal Vessels:-
a. Such vessels may be supported by saddles, equivalent leg supports or ring supports. The weld
ring supports to the vessel should have a minimum leg length equal to the thickness of the
thinner of the two parts being joined together.
b. Saddles may be used for the vessels of which the wall is not too thin. Saddles should
preferably extend over at least 120 degrees of the circumference of the vessel. For thin
vessels, it may be desirable to place the saddles at points near to the vessel.
c. For thin walled vessel, where excessive distortion due to weight of the vessel may be
expected. Where practicable, ring supports are also recommended.
15. Internal Structures:-
a. Internal structures and fittings shall be designed in accordance with good engineering practice
and shall be arranged so far as far as practicable to avoid local stresses.
b. Local loads from internal structures or from vessel contents shall be carried, where possible,
by means of suitable stiffeners and or spacers directly to the vessel supports and thus to the
foundations without stressing the vessel walls or ends.
c. Horizontal cylindrical vessels, which are provided with vertical external tower like extensions,
should, wherever necessary, have the extensions supported independently by the vessel.
16. Design considerations for Unfired Pressure Vessels:
a. Whilst designing, the designer takes into account:
i. The chemical composition of the material to be used or to be introduced inside the
vessel.
ii. The possible formation of the chemicals as reaction or by products during the process
and their effects on the material of the vessel.
iii. Chemical corrosion, physical erosion and electrolytic waste etc.
b. The material of the vessel may, in course of time, be reduced in thickness due to corrosion,
erosion or wastage. The rate of such corrosion should be ascertained before designing the
vessels. On these rates are known, the expected life of the vessel can be determined.
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c. All parts of the vessel including the joints (welded or riveted) gaskets, holding down bolts for
the covers such as for digestors and vulcanizers and even inlet and outlet pipes should be
designed to withstand the maximum pressure that is likely to be introduced or developed
inside the pressure vessel.
d. Similarly, pressure vessels will have to be designed to withstand any vacuum that may be
formed, particularly in case of those vessels having low safe working pressure.
e. Supporting structures for the pressure vessel should be properly designed for it carries the
total weight of the vessel including the contents thereof. It should be noted that the
foundation of such vessels have to be properly designed to prevent subsidence due to
excessive load.
f. If riveted construction is used, butt straps construction is preferable to lap riveted
construction. Lap riveted cylindrical vessel with lap do not form proper circular shape, thereby
creating uneven stresses.
g. Erosion occurs not only on the sides of the vessels, but more at the mouth of the blow down
pipes, etc….

Failure of a pressure vessel will certainly cause substantial loss of production and affecting also
consequential down-stream processes. To avoid such failure, the pressure vessels must not only
be well-designed, fabricated, manufactured, but properly installed and operated and the vessels
and associated safety devices must be well maintained, both in respect of their general
maintenance as well as carrying out periodically the required statutory and non-statutory
examinations and tests. The mechanical design, construction, fabrication, etc… must conform to
one of the standard codes such as ASME, British Standard, API, Indian standard, etc. In respect of
fired pressure vessels such as steam boilers must conform to Indian Boiler Regulation or ISO. The
Loyd’s register devices pressure vessels into two central classes, Class 1 and class 2.

Class 1 is for the fired ad unfired above 50 psi – Steam and Class 2 for other unfired pressure
vessel. The codes merely specify the minimum safety requirements and additional precautions
are often necessary, depending upon actual service conditions. Basically, the design approach is
the same in all the above standards. However, the allowable stresses permitted for use in design
are different for a given material. The allowable stress is determined by dividing the ultimate
stress or yield stress of the material at the design temperature by a factor of safety that varies
from 4 – 6 based on ultimate stress to about 1.5 times based on yield stress, depending upon the
codes determined on the above considerations, the thickness are to be increased by values known
as allowances for corrosion etc.

Thus the material must be partly elastic and partly plastic in behavior to be suitable for a pressure
vessel. It should have the ability to yield under high peak or a local stress and so accommodate
the applied loading by a more favorable distribution of internal stresses.

17. Insulated vessels with internal pressure greater than 2.06 Kg.cm2 g of Maximum working pressure
(MWP).
18. Hydrogen Fluoride Chloride (HFC) does not have vapor but still included SMPV (U) as:-
a. It is highly corrosive.
b. It is highly toxic.
19. Vessels with less than 1000 liters of water capacity will not include SMPV.
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20. Major dimensions will include the Diameter and the ratio of Length and Height for cylindrical
vessel. The ratio of Length and Height to the diameter should be greater than 1.5 times of
diameter.
Mathematically,
Diameter / (Ratio of Length and Height) > 1.5 times of Diameter.
21. Bursting Force = Pressure x (π/4 x D2)
22. Bursting Pressure for Shell = 0.5 x p x l x Di.
23. Hydro Test Pressure = 0.3 times of Bursting Pressure. = 1.3 times of Design Pressure
24. Maximum Working Pressure = Hydro Test Pressure / 1.5.
25. Resisting Force = Longitudinal force in the wall x Area pressured by Tank.
= S x (π x Di x tr), where, Di = Internal Diameter
tr = Required minimum thickness.
26. Here, Resisting Force (RF) ≥ Bursting Force (BF)
→ S x (π x Di x tr) = P x (π/4 x D2)
→ tr = (P x Di) / 2S, which is a case of residual load.

INSTALLATION OPERATION AND MAINTAINENCE

1. Insulating materials outside the shell of Pressure vessel should not contain chlorides, else may
result to stress and corrosion.
2. The pressure vessels and the plants must be installed on a suitable foundations and supports.
3. All moving parts should be properly and securely guarded.
4. All valves and control devices should be accessible in a safe manner.
5. Platforms, Hand-rails and Ladders are to be provided, wherever required, a per standard codes.
6. Pressure and Temperature indicators should be so installed that they are clearly visible from the
operating areas.
7. Every pressure gage, stop valve, nipple and globe valve have to be mounted at a height not
exceeding 1.5 Mtrs. from the working level, as per amended rule 65.
8. The external surfaces of the vessel shall be protected to prevent corrosion. Careful selection of
insulating material for this purpose is necessary.
9. It may be noted that chlorides in the insulating material may cause stress, corrosion in stainless
steel; chloride are common cause of stress, corrosion and cracking.
10. Special precautions are necessary regarding installation of pressure relieving devices. The
material, design, construction of all safety devices have to be such that there will be no significant
change in the functioning of the devices and no serious corrosion or deterioration of the material
within the period between renewals due to service conditions, will arise.
11. Recording devices must be as close as possible to the vessel, and the pipe leading to other
recoding and indicating instruments should be so placed that any damage to these parts, resultant
leakage would not affect the workers nearby.
12. Loss of containment from the pressure system generally occurs not from the pressure vessels but
from pipe work and the associated fittings. It is important, therefore, to pay attention to the pipe
work as much as to the vessels. Pipe work assembly must be adequately supported. Any Pressure
vessel which is likely to be shaken violently, as a result of the agitation of the air or steam etc.,
should be mounted with heavy coil springs for absorption of shocks. Agitators and Paddles fitted
in the Pressure Vessels should be such that they can be locked in “off” position, whenever any
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person is required to enter into such a vessel. This applies to both mechanical and electrical
drivers of these devices as well as for the valves that bring steam, air, or other gases. The locking
keys of these “off” devices should be preferably carries away by the person entering the vessel,
to prevent any other person from either operating the agitators and paddles under power or from
opening the valves inadvertently. This would also apply to locking devices and switches for the
electrical motors, which may start pumps and such apparatus.
13. Operation and Upkeep: All operators have to be properly trained in regard to the do’s and don’ts
under normal as well as emergency conditions. At times, display of written instructions regarding
operational and emergency procedures becomes necessary. At times, for the operators engaged
in highly hazardous operations, they have to be located behind a barrier or screen wall, from
where they can operate and mirrors could be strategically placed so that they can observe the
operation of the vessel and yet they are protected by the wall, in case, of the serious mishap of
the vessel.
Periodic statutory and non-statutory inspections and tests of the vessels interior and exterior
surfaces, inspection of safety devices and also of the other parts such as motors, gear boxes,
stuffing boxes, bearings, belts etc. have to be carries out.

14. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN THE OPERATION OF PRESSURE VESSELS

Blow down Valves and other control devices:

If any pressure vessel is required to blow down any liquid contents, after process of each batch is
completed, blow-down valves should be operated as far as possible. The contents of these valves
should be passed to a pit or a drain so as to prevent splashing of the floor nearby. It would be
safer if the valves can be operated from the normal working position by an extended valve
spindles.

Process Steam:
Often, live steam is used directly into a pressure vessel for heating. Instead of bringing the steam
through a reducing valve station, process steam is at times obtained through the intermediate
stage of non-condensation steam turbine. However, during the rest interval, when the boiler is at
times provided for such heating by process steam. Care should be taken under when using such
method of taking steam directly from a boiler having working pressure higher than the safe
working pressure of the pressure vessel, to ensure that a reducing valve is provided an the steam
pipe.

Breaking Vacuum:
Many times, inert gas contents from gas cylinders are used for work such as for breaking vacuum
etc. There is a danger involved, since the filling pressures of such cylinders are very high. An
Intermediate tank with safe lower working pressure could be used to store this inert gas.

Flash Steam:
Vessels used for storing condensate, from various steam heated equipment need special
attention. Such vessels should be treated as pressure vessels and should be provided with safety
valves and pressure gages, even when pipelines exposed to atmosphere, used on the condensate
tanks. Flash steam can create heavy damage if the condensate tanks are not properly designed to
withstand the steam pressure.
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15. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) installations involve following considerations –

Maximum filling density of LPG, pipeline material, size, permitted liquid and vapor pressure in the
pipelines, isolation valves types, Flanges and fittings, Bolting, Hoses, Hose vaporizers, Vaporizers,
Earthlings and bonding, Discharge capacity of SRV, Pumps, Compressors and meters, General
safety requirements, Transfer of LPG, Fire protection and etc.

SAFETY and INSPECTIONS

Locating pressure vessels, close or distant to each other is also an important aspect towards safety:

Toxic and flammable gas container.

Capacity of pressure vessels. Safety distance from Inter-distance between

Boundary vessels
Up to 2 KL 05 meter 1.0 meter
2 – 10 KL 10 meter 1.0 meter
10 KL – 20 KL 15 meter 1.5 meter
20 KL – 40 KL 20 meter 2.0 meter
Above 40 KL 30 meter 2.0 meter

Non-Toxic and Non-Flammable gas container.

Capacity of pressure vessels. Safety distance from Inter-distance between

Boundary vessels
Up to 2 KL 05 meter 1.0 meter
2 – 10 KL 05 meter 1.5 meter
10 KL – 20 KL 10 meter 2.0 meter
Above 20 KL 10 meter 2.0 meter

Safety for device & fittings of pressure vessels.

1. Provision of manholes, hand-holes, etc…, has to be mandate.

2. Openings for cleanings and inspections are also important.
3. If a removable head is provided, then, additional manholes may not be necessary.
4. Pressure vessel over 6 meter in length should have at least 2 manholes.
5. Pressure vessel mandatory holes for cleaning and inspection:

Inside vessel diameter Requirement

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Up to 230mm 2 openings, each not less than 30mm clear bore

230mm to 400mm 2 openings, each not less than 50mm clear bore
400mm to 600mm Two circular openings, each of 90mm diameter or two elliptical
openings of minimum dimensions 90mm x 70mm.
600mm to 900mm One manhole or two elliptical inspection openings of minimum
dimensions 125mm x 75mm and if circular, if equivalent area.
900mm and above At least one manhole except where the shape or use of vessel makes
this impracticable, in which case it shall be provided with sufficient
elliptical hand-holes of minimum dimension of 150mm x 100mm, and
if circular, of equivalent area.

6. In Pressure vessels, location of Holes also play a vital role and hence its location also needs to be
chosen wisely as under:
a. Manholes has to be so placed as to permit ingress and egress of the person.
b. Manholes or hand-holes in cylindrical shell shall, where practicable, be placed away from any
welded seam.
c. Non-circular hand-hole or manhole openings shall, wherever possible, be arranged with their
minor axes parallel to longitudinal axes of vessel.
7. The manhole should have allowance size greater than width of shoulder (8cm in length x 30cm by
width).
8. Lifting lugs at all four sides of the pressure vessel is mandatory with mentioned capacity of lugs.
In absence of such lugs, it is likely that slings may be attached to the nozzles, which can cause
structural damage to the equipment.
9. For pressure vessels expecting corrosion, linings have to be given. It should be in the form of strips
of approximate 100 x 400mm, or in form of plates, provided by plug welds. The welds have to be
dye-checked and the lining could be air tested. Lead, Glass, etc are used for this purpose.
10. Where severe corrosion or abrasion taking place at localized points such as Nozzles, etc…, is likely;
use of local protection or wear plates is recommended at such places of the vessel.
11. Name plate on every pressure vessel is a mandate, having detailed with working pressure, design
pressure, manufacturing data, corrosion allowance, temperature, etc. As per rule 65, the working
pressure and the date of last examination must be painly marked on the pressure vessel or
pressure plant.
12. Safety valves and reducing valves should be tested once in 24 hrs. There are 2 types of SRV
segmented based on the seater inside. The seater is basically the bush used under the spring. In
a soft seater system the bush is made up of plastic or other volcanized rubber. Such an SRV is of
easier mechanism as can be dismantled and arranged back after the servicing.
13. The other type is the hard seater, made up of metal. To service such an SRV is a difficult task and
after dismantling the arrangement for the servicing, it is pretty hard to rearrange the same.
14. The location of the Safety Relief Valve is also equally important. The location of the Safety valve
should be placed so that no stop valve between them and vessel come across. It must be seen
that no pulsation occurs in the location of the Safety relief valve.
15. Certain vessels used in chemical process industries, such a reactors, where inflammable, explosive
and poisonous, hazardous and corrosive materials are likely to escape through such pressure relief
valves or bursting / rupture discs. It must be ensured that the materials released are carried away
safely from the working area. A relief header has to be provided to collect the discharges from
the pressure relieving systems.
13

16. Safety valves and the pressure gages should be mounted on the pressure vessel itself, unless the
contents of the pressure vessel are likely to interfere by clogging and chemical action in the
operation of the safety valves and the pressure gages.
17. Safety testing of SRV (Hard Seater Type) under Rule 18:-
a. SRV are set for 10% more than design pressure of the vessel above normal temp / bore
conditions, resulting to increase in temperature above 550C.
i. For LPG – 16 Kg/cm2 for expansion at ambient 5 Kg/cm2.
ii. For Propane - 21 Kg/cm2 for expansion at ambient 10 Kg/cm2.
b. Testing of SRVs’ to be done once in 12 months.
c. Below SRV, isolation valve to be used.
d. Each tank should have minimum 2 SRV with isolation valves.
e. To be fitted on vapor space of tank.
f. Size and relieving design of SRV is directly proportional to the surface area of the tank.
g. Vent of SRV should be open to the atmosphere.
h. Rain-cap or goose-nuts to be provided.
i. Carrying pipe of SRV also periodically tested as SRV.
j. Soft seat SRV to be provided from top to the body, stem and spring, to be mounted inside
road tanker, used over small sized static vessels.
18. Safety concerns in piping:-
a. Piping should be free from all dents and burs, internally or externally.
b. Piping joints should not be hidden underground or under lifts, shafts, etc.
c. Joints should be welded.
d. Pipes should not be located under extreme of temperatures, or weather conditions to give
rise to condensation or cracking of the gas.
e. Pipelines of diameter 12mm are to be supported at 50cm distance through supports or
saddles.
f. The distance between the gas pipe and electrical wiring system should be at least 60cm. This
arrangement has to be strictly adhered to IS 6044 part 1.
g. The distance between gas piping and steam piping in parallel should be at least 150mm. The
gas pipe should preferably run below the steam piping.
h. Pipes of certain diameter should have bends of radius equal to 5 times of the pipe diameter.
i. Hammering or Plugging at ends is not allowed.
j. No valves should be put before the start of the pipes.

19. Leak testing of Piping:-

a. Parts of installations subjected to cylinder pressure can be tested by applying a test pressure
of 1.5 times the design pressure.
b. Portions of installations not subjected to cylinder pressure but carrying gas at pressure more
than 30 gf/cm2.
Total Pressure = 2 x Max expected operating pressure.
Or, 2 kgf/ cm2. Whichever is more.
c. Portions of installations subjected to gas pressure of 30 gf/cm2 or less should be considered
to have a test pressure of 150 gf/cm2.

20. Safety concerns for LPG cylinders:-

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a. The separation distances between LPG tanks to be followed as per Petroleum Rules 1937 or
as specified in the table therein, whichever is more.
b. The number of storage tanks in one storage installation shall not exceed six.
c. The tanks for loading or unloading should be at least 2 meters from the boundary.
d. Fencing should have two openings at least and none of them opening inside.

21. Inspection, Certifications and Testings of Pressure Vessels:

Statutory Provisions of Rule 65 require that no pressure vessel or plant shall be taken into use for
the first time, in any factory, unless a certificate specifying the maximum working pressure and
the tests to which it was subjected to be obtained from the Manufacturer. Similarly, the statute
requires that every pressure vessel or plant which has been previously used or has remained
isolated or idle for a period exceeding 6 months or which has undergone repairs or alterations can
be used in any factory, unless it is examined and tested by a competent person.
The competent person must have access to other detailed information and the history of the
pressure vessel wherever possible. However, the ultimate strength of the weakest part of the
pressure vessel has to be determined with safe factors of 4 to 6 for steel pressure vessels made
of boiler quality mild steel specifications. For non-ferrous metal larger factors of safety may be
necessary.

When testing the vessel hydraulically, a very common mistake that is often committed is to test
the vessel at 1.5 times the normal working pressure. Thus if the intended working pressure is
100psi, then, it would not be quite safe to test at 150psi without prior calculation of safe working
pressure, which could be lower than 100 psi. In such a situation, the safe working Pressure of the
vessel and at times even the yield stress may possibly be exceeded, reaching very nearby the
ultimate breaking stress. It may be possible that, the vessel may not actually burst at the test
stage, but the structure of the metal will certainly deteriorate and the vessel is likely to fail quickly
under increased safe working Pressure.

It is good to remember that the strength lives in the thickness of the side walls and the types of
Material of Construction and not on the pressure valve for which it is tested. The procedure to be
followed in the hydraulically testing is first to determine the ultimate bursting pressure, then with
a suitable factor of safety, determine the safe working pressure and then test the vessel
hydraulically to a pressure 25% to 50% above the safe working pressure could at times be still
lower than this also.

Before applying the hydraulic pressure, a complete inspection from the inside and outside of the
vessel is necessary. Entrapped air, if any, must be removed by opening the vent of the vessel. Any
portion indicating severe pitting should, of course, be opened for internal inspection.
Measurement of thickness of vessels can be done by drilling holes or by the use of tell-tale holes
in respect of vessels for which corrosion and erosion rates are not well-determined due to the
lack of experience of a given process. Tell-tale holes of 1/8” diameter can be drilled from the
outside at intervals along the surface of the vessel to a certain depth. Theoretically, the hole
should be so drilled that the thickness of the metal still remaining, should be able to withstand
the design pressure of the vessel. The tell-tale hole will start leaking, whenever the total thickness
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provided for the corrosion, is eaten up. Instruments for measuring thickness of the metal may
have fairly good results.

Ultrasonic Test is useful for plain and smooth surfaces, but not for welded joints etc… unless
special probes are employed by a skilled and well-trained person. Radiography examination of
welds is a better method, where hydraulic testing is difficult or dangerous or likely to create stress
due to weight of water. Pneumatic testing is permissible, taking added precautions such as
immersion of test vessel in water. However, use of gas or compressed air even for testing the
leaks is not satisfactory, as very serious accidents can occur if the vessel fails to withstand the air
pressure to which it is subjected. Pneumatic testing if codes provide for the same should
preferably be preceded by a standard hydrostatic test, and even under such conditions, it is safer
to carry out the pneumatic test at a pressure of the vessel. While testing pressure vessels with
thin cylinders, if hydraulic test is a must, care has to be taken to ensure that the tests do not
weaken the vessels. Detection of hair cracks and very small leaks at seams may not be easy when
hydraulic test is conducted. Ammonia at 50% of the safe working pressure vessel and thus leaks
from hair cracks can be more easily detected by the use of mops of cloth dipped in hydrochloric
acid (HCL) passing near the suspected areas. The leakage of the Ammonia from these hair cracks
will create white vapor on account of reaction between Ammonia and HCL.

22. Conversion of Old Vessels:

At times, as old boiler shell is required to be converted into a pressure vessel. In this case,
calculating the safe working pressure of the shell is the first essential. It would not be correct to
take the boiler working pressure as the safe working pressure of vessel in such a case, since several
parts of the vessel may have to be removed when used as a pressure vessel. Moreover, shapes
and sizes of their man-holes etc…, may also require a change when the shell, is converted into a
unfired pressure vessel.

Vessels used for storage only, will naturally not be designed to withstand pressure except
hydrostatic pressure and vapor pressure of the stored liquid. Such vessels too, should not be
converted for the use as unfired pressure vessels without proper calculations etc… to determine
its safe working pressure. Process vessels which are kept at atmospheric pressure only through a
pipe or an open vent, can also develop pressure, if such pipe is clogged; no valve should be
provided on such pipes and the liquid level should not be allowed to reach the pipe opening inside
the vessel.

23. Factor of Safety:

The design of Pressure vessels is based on Empirical Formulae, which are known to be
approximate only. The unknown items such as extent of yielding and certain other omitted factors
in design and material behavior are considered to be provided for the use of working stresses that
are admittedly below those at which the member will fail. Thus, this factor of safety is employed
in design of pressure vessels. Environmental factors such as conditions of external pressure,
temperature and fatigue are also to be considered. Service conditions of constant temperature
and pressure may not always be available.
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For Pressure Vessel, loading is normally due to pressure. The load caused by the pressure creates
stresses in the vessel. There may also be other stresses which include:
a. Residual Stresses
b. Thermal Stresses
c. Local Stresses

24. Residual Stresses:

This results from fabrication and construction processes such as bending, heat treatment, weld
shrinkage or cooling or castings. These stresses are of great importance in brittle materials but
are usually rather less significant in ductile materials, which tend to yield and relieve the stress,
but they can contribute to fatigue failure.

25. Local Stresses:

The Assumption that the stress is of a continuous nature is wrong. The localized stresses are more
important in brittle rather than in ductile materials; but they are significant for fatigue failure.

26. Thermal Stresses:

These are Stresses, which are result from restricting the material growth or construction of a
material due to temperature changes. If uniformly heated, such stresses do not develop.
However, different parts experience different degrees of strain and this differential stress gives
rise to these thermal stresses. With a ductile material stresses do not, on first application, cause
failure by rupture because the material tends to yield and relieve the stress, but their repeated
application can cause fatigue failure. A brittle material, on the other hand, may fail due to thermal
shock.

27. Failure of Pressure System:

Failures of pressure system can be due to:-

a. Mechanical Failure due to stress and fatigue.
b. Corrosion Failure.

Service failures of pressure systems are generally caused by exposure to operation conditions
more severe than those for which the system was originally designed.

28. Mechanical Failure Causes:

a. Excessive Stress: Stress raisers or malpractices such as uneven tightening of flanges.
b. External Aids: Additional Lugs, Supports, Brackets, Hangers, Platforms, Stairs and Ladders,
Movement of foundations, wind and ice formations may cause additional external loads.
c. Overpressure: Failure of pressure relief valve due to poor design, incorrect operations or
some such cause; freezing of liquid particularly in pipe work is another cause of overpressure.
d. Gross Overhearing: Operations carried out well outside the temperature range of the
material. Direct flame impingement can give rise to sudden failures.
17

e. Mechanical Fatigue and shock: There can be variations in internal pressures and flow due to
which non-uniform expansion effect on pressure vessel and fittings can occur added with
imposed vibrations.
f. Thermal Fatigue and Shock: Dealt with above.
g. Brittle Fracture: When a cold fluid contacts with metals below their traumatic temperature, a
brittle fracture may occur.
h. Creep: It is a severe form of heating and is of great relevance in case of fired pressure vessels
and also for unfired pressure vessels which may be exposed to severe temperature variations
on the higher side.
i. Hydrogen Attack: It should be noted that mild steel when exposed to hydrogen, under certain
conditions, is likely to deteriorate in tensile strength. There are two forms of this Hydrogen
attack viz; Hydrogen Embrittlement and Hydrogen Blistering. The letter is more advanced
stage of Hydrogen Embrittlement.

29. Stress Relieving:

Material that has been machined, forged, cold worked, bent or welded is very frequently and
highly stressed in some areas. The stresses may be complex and of such levels that the structure
may warp and crack. Stress relieving is a heat treatment process to reduce or to eliminate such
residual stresses. The vessel is heated to its sub-critical temperature (around 600⁰C for Steel) and
held for some time, depending upon the thickness of the plate. The rate of cooling should be such
as not to create thermal stresses, ASME Codes require stress inside diameter is less than 120 times
the shell thickness minus 50. Lack of stress relieving results in failure of the vessel by cracking.

30. Corrosion Failure:

This is one of the biggest problems in chemical Industry. The cost of corrosion is very much,
indirect losses due to breakdown, stoppage of plants, contamination and accidents arising from
such failures are much higher. Basically, corrosion is chemical reaction such as galvanic current,
heat etc. it can be defined in 3 ways as under:
a. Construction or deterioration of a metal because of reaction with its environment.
b. Construction of materials by means, other than mechanical
c. Extractive metallurgy in reverse, as far as it refers to metals.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
 ASME Section 8 Division 1
 ASME Section 8 Division 2
 ASME Section 8 Division 3
 IS 2825 – 1969 (Safety of Pressure Vessels)
 Factories Act 1948 in INDIA.