.

\ 4.1 Introduction :

Measurement is a process of comparing an unknown quantity with a standard

quantity.
The knowledge of any parameter depends on the nieasurement. The indepth
knowledge of
the parameter oan be easily understood by the use of measurement and'iri-odiflcation
*uJJ, i= :
Measuring is a
process of monitorinji'''our.*ing. a parameter" using,lnrtru,o.rtruno
expressing the parameter in terms of meaningful numbers.
The measuring instrument is a device for determining the magnitude
of the parameter being
measured.

Y ff.2 Definitions :
1' Accuracy : It is the degree of correctness or closeness with which the measured reading
approaches the true (expected) va1ue. It denotes of the quantity
and also indicates the
ability of the inslrument to measure the true value"
2' Precision : It is the measure of consistency or repeatability of measurement"
It rei'ers to
the degree of closeness within a group of measuiement" Iiis usually
expressed in terms
of deviations in measurement.
3' Resolution : It is the smallest increment of quantity being measurement
rvhich can
be detected" The smallest change in a measured variable to lvhich an instrument will
respond.
4' Significant Figures : The significant figure conveys the actual information about the
magnifude and precision of the quantity.
For example : A voltage of I l0V, specifled by an instrument may be closer
to l09V or I i I v.
Thus are 3 signiflcant figure while
ll0.0V is closer to 110.1 V oi toq.sV. T'hus there are row
four signifi cant figures"

p.3 Types of Emor :

The difference between the measured value and the true value
of the quantity is known as
static error"
The static errors are categorised as
1" Gross errors (or) Human errors.
2. Systematic errors
3. Random errors.
Gross Errors : These errors are mainly due to human mistakes in observing
and recording
the quantity. These error occur due to incorrect adjustments of instruments
and computational
mistakes. These errors cannot be treated mathematically. The elirnination
of gross error is not
possible, but can be minimised.
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Systematic Errors : A constant deviation of the operation of the instrument is known as

systematic errors. 'Ihe systematic errors are mainly resulting due to the short comings of
the instrument and the characteristics of the instrument, such as wom parts, ageing efrect,
environmental effects etc.
There are 3 types of systematic errors
L lnstrumentai Errors
2" Envirorunental Errors
3. Observed Errors.
Random Errors : The random errors are accidental, small and independent" These errors cannot
be predicted and cannot be determined in the ordinary process of taking the measurement.
These errors are generally small. I-lence these errors are of real concern only u'hen high degree
of accuracy is required"
'fhe only way to reduce these errors is by increasing the number of obsen'ations and using the
statistioai method to obtain the best approximation of the reading'

t4.4 Absolute and Relative Errors :

Absolute Error : When the error is specified in terms of an absolute quantity and not as a
percentage, then it is cailed an absolute error^
Eg : 10 + 0.5V indicates *
0.5V as an absolute elror.
Relative Error : When the en"or is expressed as a percentage or as a fraction of the toral
quantity to be measured, then it is called relative error'
/. \
Eg:100f) t 5% then + 5%o or + { } ]it tt . r.lative error
[ 20,
Relative error is also called fractional error.

t,{"5 Statistical Analysis :

' The objective of the statistical method is to achieve consistencl'of the measured value and
not their accuracy. To make statistical analysis meaningful a large number of measurements is
usually required.
1. Arithmetic mean : The most probable value of measured variable is the arithmetic mean
of the number of readings taken. The best approximation of the quantity is possible when the
number of readings of the quantity is very large'
The arithmetic mean of n measurements of the variable x is given by the expression.

Xl + X: t
-. -"-, X, *""""* Xn lxn

Where i -+ fuithmeticmean

xr toxn -+ i" tonth readingtaken

n -> Total number of readings
2. Deviation from the mean : This is the deviation of a given reading from arithmetic mean of
the group ofvalues.

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The deviation of the first reading x I is d i and that of second reading x2 is d2 and so on
lhe deviation fiom mean can be expressed as d, : x, - x, d, :az - x etc -
1'he algebraic sum of deviation is zero.
3" Average Deviations : It is def,ned of an infinite number of data is defined as the square root
of the sum of individual deviations squared divided by the number of readings.
Thus standard deviation is expressed as

o=

Practically the number of reading is finite, when the number of reading is small (n < 30) the
denominator is (n - 1) and the standard deviation is represented by S.

di +d?r+d]+......+d:
S-

The standard deviation is also called as mean square deviation.

5" Variance : The square ofstandard deviation is called variance.

rd'
v = (o)' = [,8.l=
n n
\r )
"
Forsmallnumberof rea drng
Id'
V=5"=n_l

t 9.6 Problems on Statistical Analysis :

1. For the given readings 1.34, 1.38 , 1.56, 1.47, 1.42, 1.43, 1.54, 1.48, 1.49, 1.50.
Calculate.
L."Arithmetic Mean 2. Average deviation
3. Standard deviation 4. Variance

Sol : Given: Readings ; 1.34, 1.38, 1.56, L47, L43,1.54,1"48,1"49, 1.50

n: 10 [ 10 readings]
1. Arithmetic Mean :
n

Y"
- i=, =a[x, + x2 + x, +,..... + xn]
,(-J'^t I

x
n n'
1.34 + 1.38 + 1.56 + 1.47 + 1.42 + I "43 + I.54 + 1.48 + 1.49 + 1.50
10

ii. Averagc deviation :

dr = Xr -x = I .34 -1.461 = -0"121

d, -- \, - x = 1.38 - I 461= -0.081

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d: = X: - x = 1.56 -1.461= +0.099
do = X, - x = 1.47 - 1.461= +0.009

ds = Xs -i=1.42-1.461= +0.041

do = Xe -i =1.43 -1.461= +0.031

dt =x, - x = 1.54 -1.461= +0.079
dr = - x = 1.48 -1.461= +0.019
Xs

ds = Xs -i=1.49 -I.461= -0.029

d,o = X,o -f = 1.50 -1.461= 0.039

---..- - r---:-a:
Averagedevlatlon
^
-.-- f ldl
n
-
0.121 + 0.081 + 0.099+0.009 + 0.041 + 0.031 + 0.079 + 0.019 + 0.029 + 0.039
10

iii" Standard Deviation :

Since the number of readings is < 30.

/=-;
Standard eviation is S =
^lLo'
V n-l

(o.ztz)' + (o"os r)' + (o.oee)'? + (o.ool ' + (o.o+t)' + (o.o: t

ls = 01688l
iv. Varia nce :

V=Sj= (o.ooss)' = 0.004733

iy oro4d
=
2. For the following readings calculate
i. Arithmetic mean.
ii. Deviation of each value
iii. Algebraic sum of deviations
49.7 , 50.1, 50.3, 49.5, 49.7
Sol : Given : Readings : 49"7,50.1, 50.3, 49.5,49.7 n: 5
(i)e'ritirmeticMean:x =
xra x' I:::::-xo
= 12{ t!9Ji{'3 + 49'5 + 49'7
n5
,: +q.ae
(ii) Deviations from each vaiue
d, = X, -i = 49.7 - 49 "86 = -0^ 16
du = xz - * = SO.i - 49.86 = +0.24

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d: =X, -*=SO.:-49 86=+0"44

do =X: -*=qg.S-49"86 =-0"36
ds =Xs -'x=49.1 -49.86=-0.16

(iii)elgeUraic sum of deviation is

d,o,ur = -0'1 5 + 0'24 + 0'44 - 0"36 - 0'16
dtotur =+0'68-0'68
d,o,nt =0

3. The accuracy of five digital voltmeters are checked by using each of them to measure
a standard 1.0000V from a calibration instrument. The voltmeter readings are as
follows :
V, = 1.001V, V, = 1.002, V. = 0"999V, V. = 0"998 and V, = 1'000
calculate the average measured voltage and average deviat;on.
Sol : i. Average Measure Voltage
;lr,
A_ _y+v,+%+vo+v,
_yav
5
1.001+ 1.002 + 0.999 + 0.998 + 1.000
=
5
(.-
u", =i tr- rvl
ii. Average deviation
, la,l+la,l+la,l+la.l+la'l
_:T
d, =V, -Vo, =1.001-1.000=0.001
d, =Y, - V"u = 1.002 - 1.000 = 0.002
d, =V, -V", =0'998-1'000=-0.001V
do = Vo - Vu, = 0.998 -1.000 = -0.002V
d, = % - V", = 1.000 - 1.000 = 0V
0.001+ 0.002 + 0.001 + 0.002 + 0
a=

a-o'ooq=o.oo12
5

ld = 0.0012V1

Note:
Probable error =0.67 45 o
di + d3 +...... + di
o = Standard deviation =
n

s
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1.7 Probability of Error :

All
observations include a large number of small random errors
that may be both +ve and
-ve. There is a greater probability of small and large
errors.
Probable'error of one reding :

rr = 0.6745o (or) o"67a5s

o forn>30
Sforn<30
Probable error of mean:

.- I t.or n <30
Vn-i
r,^
r_ = __6 forn >30
Vn

1.8 Limiting Errors :

The manufactures specifu the accuracy of the instruments r,vithin

a certain percentage of full
:
scale reading' R * 5%" 'llhis percentage inriicates the deviations
tiom the national or
lpecifled
value of particular quantity" These c{eviations from the specified
value are called Limiting
Errors.
The relative error is deflned as the ratio of the error to the specified
magnitude of a quantity"
lf Es *
Specified quantify- of a parameter
& Ea -+ Actual or Erroneous quantity
then Error: Ea - Es

RelativelimitingError p. = E, -E,
'E"
Percentage limiting Error o/oBr =8, * 100
I

1.9 Problems on Limiting Errors l

1. For the following resistance yalues

Rl 25Q * lYo' IL * 1.0f2, R. = 45f) + 47o
Determine the following :
1. Limiting Values
2. Fercent limiting error
Sol : i. Limiting value of resultant res.istance.

R, =25
' ti-r25t1.0f2
100
J
R,- =65r -- x6-5= 65 :2.6t)
100

R,=45=-J_'45=45:lge
' I00

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.'. The limiting valueof resuitant resistance

p = (25+ 65 + 45) t(t.o +2.6+ 1.8)

R=135+5.4f)
Magnitude135O ,r'
Error=+ 5.4O t'
..+ /
z. Awattmeter having a range ot$o0iifi6$nt.f#p/* 1.5% of full scale deflection.
If the true value is 50w. What would be the rightdf readings. If the error is specified
as percentage of true value, what would be the'range of the readings?

Sol : Given : FSR:500 w

Error : *. 1.5 oA
True value Es:50 w.
The magnitude of limiting error at full scale
(r.s \
+l "" Ix 500 = +75 w
\roo/
'l'hus for a true value of 50w the reading in the wattmeter may be 50 I 7"5w i.e.,42.5 to
567.5w

ReiativeErro r E'50
=.7'5 t 100=15%

Nolv if error is specified as percentage of true value then

N{agnitude of Error = *>< ,n = 10.75 w

100
'Ihe meter may read between 50 + 0.7 5ie.e49.25 & 50.75 w

1.1O Formulae Related to Measurement and Error :

xr + x2 + """'\
l.Arithmeticlvlean:i - n
2.Deviationfromthemeafl'd, = x, - *,,1, = x, - x andsoon
3.AverageDeviation d
. -:- Ila,l+la.l
ir I jr r ...."+la"l

4.StandardDeviation: o =

+dl+.....+dl
S_ forn<30

5.Variance:V=o2 or S'[forn>30 or <30]

6. Probable Error for one reading = rr = 0.67 45 o (or) r, = 0.67 45s
T.Probableerrorof mean rm =+ or r* =$
Vn_I VN
forn<30 forn>30
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S.Limiting Enors:
Error=Eu - E,

E, - E,
RelativelimitinsError E-
E,
PercentagelimitingError Y,'E, = E, x 100
A umc,f,t*

'il.l DC Ammeter
The basic of a dc ammeter is constituted by a PMMC galvanometer. Since the coil winding
of a basic movement is small and light, it can carry only very sma1l currents" When large
currents are to be measured the major part of the current needs to be bypassed and this the major
part of the current needs to be bypassed and this is done through a resistance called a shunt
resistance. t

To calculate the shunt resistance consider the figure l.

Rm
Basic
lMeter

Figl : DCAmmeter
From Figure
+I
I=I.snm ..... (1)
Since Rsh and Rm are in parallel. The voltage drop across them are equal.
Where Rsh - Shunt Resistance
Rm - Internal resistance ofthe coil
Im - Full scale deflection cument
{sh - Shunt current
i - Total current
V,r, = v.
Irr, x Rrr, = I. ,, Rr......(2)
From(l) I,n = I-I*.....(3)
(:) in (z)
Substitute

n I-R-
"" I-I

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n I-xR-
K,h = ---7-l-----\' "'(+)

'-[*-',J
m=
L_, (5) m is called multiplying power
;........

E:El
I m-ll
m can be expressed as

m:-
I
Tt =1+R*
R"t

To increase the range of ammeter m times, the shunt resistance required is 1/m- i times the
basic meter resistance

\,4.2 Problem on DC Ammeter :

1. A 5mA meter rvith an internal resistance of 200f1 is to be converted to 0 to 500 mA

ammeter. Calculate the value of the shunt resistance required.
Sol : Given : Rm = 5000, Im:200prA, l:250 mA
2ooPx5oo
'n=1.8",-
R,
I-1. 25om-2oopr =o.ra
, Ji3 Multirange Ammeters :

We know that the range of the basic dc ammeter can be extended by using a shunt resistance.
The range of dc ammeter may be further extended by using a number of shunt resistors and a
selecting switch as shown in figure. Such a meter is called a multirange ammeter.

Pq=&
Rm
Basic
ureter

Fig 2 : MultirangeAmmeter
The circuit has four shunts in parallel and S is a multiposition switch. When s is changed its
position the range changes. Multirange ammeters are used fbr ranges up to 50A.
The position si,vitch is varied to get various (multirange) range.

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\8.4 Problems on Multirang.e Ammeters :

1. A lmAmeter movement having an internal resistance of 100fJ is

used to convert into
a multirange ammeter having the range 0-1OmA, 0-20mA
and 0-50mA. Determine
the value of the shunt resistance required.
Sol: Given I.: I mA. R-: 100 O
i. For the range 0 - lQmA : Given I = l0 mA

'" =55=,
1oo
R.n -=
-1x10-] 9 '-""'
^'1103,'oo
[-1,, 10x10-3 =r1.11,,
(ii) For the range 0 -20mA :Given I =20nr-A

n"' -----l'J!-:1$ - = loo = s :o

20x10-'-lxl0-r lg
(iii) f or the range 0 - 5OmA : Given I = 5OmA
lmA x i00
^K.r, =-:----l--- 100
2 0+ lQ
)umA - tmA
- 49

|,.
R shl R.^
SU

Rm
aslc
meter

18.5 The Aryton or Universat Shunt :

The Universal shunt eliminates the possibility of having a meter
in a circuit without sh,nt.
This advantage is gained at the cost of a slightly higher overall meter
resistance. The Arvton
"
shunl provides an excellent opportunity to apply basic network
theorv to a practical .ilii
Figure 3 shows a circuit of an Aryton shunt ammeter when the ,,1 ,,
switch is in position :

+-{+

R'esistance Ra is in parallel with series combination of Ro, R" and

metermovement. Hence
the current through the shunt is more than the current tkough the
meter. Thus protecting the
meter movement and also reducing its sensitivity.
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Case (ii) : Switch is in Position 2 :The series combination of Ra and Rb is in parallelwith the
series combination of Rc and the meter movement. Now the current through the meter is more
then the current through the shunt resistance.
Case are together in paraliel with the meter Hence max
(iii) : Switch in Position 3 : Ra, Rb and Rc
current flows through the meter and very little through the sltunt. This ir,:reases the sensitivity.

t$.6 Requirements of a Shunt :

Material used to join te shunts should have the following properties.

1. Minimum thermo dielectric voltage drop
i.e., Soldering ofjoint should not cause a voltage drop.
2" Solderability
i.e., Resistance of different values and sizes must be soldered with minimum change in
values.
Precautions :

1^ Observe the correct polarity.

2. Never connect an ammeter across a source of emf"
3. When using a multirange meter, first use the highest current range, then decrease the
current until substantial deflection is obtained.

r *J.7 Extending of Ammeter Ranges :

Test Leads

ternal
shunt

Fig.4 : Extending of Ammeters

'fhe range of an ammeter can be extended to measure high range of current using external
shunts connected to the basic meter movement as shown in Fig 4.

\ fi.8 RF Ammeter (Thermocouple) :

Thermocouples consists of a junction of two different lvires, so chosen that a voltage is

generatecl by heating the junction. The output of a thermocouple is delivered to a dc micro
-Ihermocouple
ammeter. are standard instruments for measuring currents at radio frequencies.
The generation of dc voltage by heating the junction is called thermo electric aclion and the
device is called a thermocouple.
Types of Thermocouples :

L Mutual type
2. Contact type
3. Separate heater type
4. Bridge type

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Thermocouple

(a)
Mutual $pe (b)
Contact 1}pe

' (b)
(b) (d)
Seperaie
Sepera Type
ie Heater Type Bridge Type
Fig 5 : Tlpes of Thermocouples

, fl.S t-imitations of Thermocouples :

. 1. Heaters can stand oniy small loads.

2" Withstands lower temperatures. Rise in temperature causes a change in resistance of the
heater.
3. Presence of harmonics changes meter reading.

1.1O Effect of frequency on Calibration :

The effec.t of frequency arises due to the following factors

l. Skineffect
2. Non uniform distribution of current along the heater wire.
3. Spurious Capacitive Currents
1. Skin Effect : The skin effect causes a higher reading at higher frequencies, specially if
the heater wire is small"
2. Non uniform distribution of current : 'Ihis occurs at frequencies where the heater
length is in the order of a fraction of a wavelength. The current distribution along the
heater is not uniform and the meter indication is uncenain. 'Io avoid this the heater iength
should be 1/10 of a wavelength"
3. Spunious Capacitive Current : These occur when the thermocouple instrument is
connected to a potential above ground at both terminals. As the frequency is increased, a
Iarge current flows through the capacitance formecl by the thermocouple leads. To avoid
tkough the capacitive formed by the themocouple leads. To avoid thls proper shielding
of the instrument should be provided.

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'1.11. Measurements of very large currents by thermocouple :

Thermocouples instruments with heaters large enough to carry large currents may have
excessive skin effect. Ordering shunts cannot be used because offrequency effect. ,r )
The solution to this problem consists of minimizing the skin effect by using a heater, whlch,
is a tube of large diameter, but very thin walls.
Employing an array of shunts of identical resistance arrange symmetr:ically as shown in fig.6.a

-+Ips +I
Shunt Condenser
Corru",ll
tobe I d meter
,"'*""{_fl j,
Condenser

(a) (b) (c)

In (a) each fllament of wire has same "inductance, this causes the current to device at high
frequencies.
In (b) the condenser shunt is used to divide current between two parallei capacitors proportional
to their capacitance.
In (c) the current transformer is used to measure ery large RI currents at low and moderate
frequencies using a thermocouple instrument of ordinary range.
The current ratio is given by ''
Primary current
= : E.
Secondary Current k ^! Lp t/ Q,
e, [l = wls / rs

Where L, -+ Secondary inductor

Lo -+ Primary inductance
k + Co - efficient of coupling between L, & L,
r. -> resistance of secondary, including meter resistance.

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I C.t t#7 Introduction :

The measurement of a parameter is the result of comparison of the given parameter and
a defined standard quantity" The instruments used for the measurement are called measuring
instruments" The three main quantities in electrical measurement are currenl voltage and power.
The instruments used to measure the current flowing in the circuit is called ammeter. While
the instrument which is used to measure the voltage across any fwo points of circuit is called
voltmeter.

I C2 Basic Meter as a DC Voltmeter:

It is required to know the amount of current required to deflect the basic meter to full scale.
This current is known as full scale deflection current lr,o.
Suppose a 50pA current is required for full scare deflection. This full scale value will
produce a voltmeter with a sensitivity of 20,000 f2/V.

Sensitivity s =
/r,,0
=
/rru^= 20, ooo f2l v

Here 0 - 1mA would have a sensitivity of 1 / mA = I kf2 / V

I C.B oc Voltmeter:
The basic D.C voltmeter is nothing but a PMMC D Arsonoval galvanometer. The resistance
is required to be connected in series with the basic meter to use it as voltmeter.
This series resistance is called a multiplexer. The main function of the multiplier is to limit
the current through the basic meter so that the meter current does not exceed the fuil scaie
deflection value" The voltmeter measures the vltage across the tu.o point of a circuit or a voltage
across circuit component. l'he basic D.c voltmeter is shown in te Fi_g. l.
R

lvlultiplier
Rm

Figl:BasicVoltmeter
The voltmeter must be connected across the two points or a componenl to measure the
potential difference, with the proper polarity.
The multiplier resistance can be calculated as :

LetRm : Internal resistance of coil i.e., meter

Rs : Series multiplier resistance

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Im : Full scale deflection current

V : Full range voltage to be measured.
From Fig. 1 ,
V=l-(n.+R.)
V=l**R* lI.R. a

I**Rr=V-Ir*R.

The multiplying factor for multiplier is the ratio of fu1l range voitage to be measured and the
drop across the basic meter.
Let V = drop across the basic meter : I*R*
M: Multiplying factor = V,^/

IR
mm

f--Rl
lM=l + il
I R",l

Hence multiplier resistance can also be expressed as, Rs

: (m-1)
Thus to increase the range of voltmeter'm'times the series resistance is (m - 1) times the
basic meter resistance. This is nothing but extension of ranges of a voltmeter.

Ex 1 : A moving coil instrument gives a full scale deflection with a current of 20mA, with
a potential difference of 200mV across it, Calculate :
i. Shunt required to used it as an ammeter to get a range of 0 - 200 A'
ii. Multiplier required to use it as a voltmeter range 0 - 500V'
Sol : Given values are lm: 20mA, V.:200V
v.=I.*R.
R* =10e)
(i)Forusingit as an ammeter,I =200A
I.R* _ 2omxlo :o.ooro
R-, =
'n I-l- 200-20m
R* = 0.00 1C) (this is the required shunt)

(ii) f or using it as a voltmeter, V = 500V

fi = 24.99ke(This
" I- - R."'= +i
R" = l. - is the required multiplier resistance)
20mA

Ex 2. A. moving coil instrurnent gives a full scale deflection with a curnent of 40irA. While
the internal nesistance of the rneter is 5000. trt is to be used as a voltmeten to rneasure
a voltage range of 0 - tr0v. calculate teh rnultiplier nesistance needed.

Sotnslar ENanro .&anne,r 1"5

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Sol : Given values are Rm : 500CI" Im : 40pA and V=l0V
R" =I-R- _+ . -.500= 24s"sko
I* ' = *0x10-6
This is the required multiplier resistance.

t f,,4. Multirange Voltmeter :

The range of the basic d.c voltmeter can be exlen<led by using

number of muitipiiers and a
selector switch. Such a meter is called Multirange voltometer and
is shown in the Fii-2. The R,,
R , R, and R, are the four series multipliers. When connected is series
with the met-er, they can
give four different voltage ranges.as v,, v,
V, and vo" The selector switch S is muliiposition
switch by which the required multiplier.a, be r.l..t.d in th" circuit.
The mathematical analysis of basic d.c voltmeter is equally applicable
for such multirange
voltmeter.

*, =*-*. *, :*-*, andsoon

Rm
Basic
meter

Fig : Multirange Voltmeter

D
nm
Basic
meter

Fig 3 : Fractical Multirange \zbltmeter

F'igure 2 can be further modifies to flgure 3, which is the practical
arrangement.
ln this alrangement, the multipliers are connected jn series string. The connections
are
brought out from the junctions of the resistance. The selector switch
is usecl to select the
reqr:iredvoltage range.

L6 SrAns*a,r Exaa,r &artrie,r

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When the switch S is at position V', R, + R2 + & * Ro acts as a nrultiplier resistance. Whi]e
when the switch S is at position V. then the resistance R4 only acts as multiplier resistance. The
V4 is the lowest voltage range while V, is the maximum voltage range.
The Multiplier resistance can be calculated as in position Vo the multiplier is R* only.

R-,I*=!

In position V, the multiplier is R, + Ro

.'.p--
'
=Yr/
/L^

".R,
+ Rn = Rr -R.
"'R,=R,-(n.+Ro)
Inposition V,the multiplieris R, + R, + Ro

.'.8-, =Yr/
/L^
.

.'.(Rr*Rr+Ro)=Rr-R.
R, =Rr -(R, *R, +Ro)
Inposition\ themultiplierisR, + R, + R, + Ro

.'.R-tI-=!
.'.R,+Rr+Rr+Rn-Rr-R.
R, =Rr-(R,*R.+Rr+Ro)
Using equations (1), (2), (3) and (-1) multiplier can be designed" Th advantage of this
u.rung.*"niis that the multiplier exept R4 have standard resistance values and can be obtained,
commercially on precision tolerances. The first resistance is Ro only is the resistance havirig
special value and must be manufactured specially to met the circuit requirements.

Ex 3 : Using a 1mA, 100Q PNIIMC movement, design r multi-range voltmeter rvith the
following range : 0 - 10Y 0 - 250v and 0.500Y what is the maximum voltage.
Measurable by the given PMNIC ?
Sol : Given Irn = lmA, Rm = 1000 ranges : 0-i0V, 0-250V and 500V'
i. Vm = lmA x 100Q:0.lV
ii. Design Multi-range Vbltmeter therefore we need a multiplier for ail ranges.

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pl
zs0vl-lililt---l r I

S : I/IFsd: I/1 mA -- 1000 erv = lkfyv

We have R,: S x Range - R,
Case-1;Range:0 - 10V
ThereforeR, = 1k x I 0 - 100
Rr = 9900f2
Case-2:Range:0-50V
ThereforeR, = lk x 50 - 100
R, = 49'9kf2
Case-3:Range:0-250V
TherefcrreR, = 1k x 250 - 100
Rr = 249.9kf2
Case- 4:Range;0 - 500V
ThereforeR, = 1k x 500 - I 00
Rr = 499.9kfi

! 05. Extending Voltmeter Rang.e :

\bltmeter can be extended to measure high voltage, by using a high voltages,

T'he range of a
by using a high voltage probe or by using an external multiplier res]stor as shown
in p'1g +. rhe
basic meter movement can be used to measure very low ,o1trg.r. However care
to be taken 1o
avoid the voltage exeeding the full scale deflection.

Test Leads

Sensitivity : The sensitivity of voltmeter is the ratio of the total circuit resistance Rt to
the voltage range. Sensitivity is the reciprocal of the fall scale deflection current
of the basic
movement"

1E Sqns*ar Vxam,*-nanv,r

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.".S: 1/10,0 f)'V

Sensitivity S of the voltmeter has the advantage that it can be used to calculate the multiplier
resistor of the dc Voltmeter.
R,=R,-R*andR,=SxV
R,:SxV-R.
Ex 4 : The meter A has a range of 0-100V and multiplier resistance of 25kQ. The meter B
has a range 0-1000 V and a multiplier resistance of 150 kf2. Both meters have basic
meter resistance of 1kf), which meter is more sensitive?
Sol : For meterA, \ : 25kO, Rm : 1kf2, V:100V
Now R.: SV - R*
.'" 25 xl0r = S x 100 - I x 103

".s:260(^},^/
0r meter B, R. l50kC2, R. : : 1kO, V:1000V
R.: SV - R-
"'.150x 103 = S x 1000 - I x 103
. "s: 151CrY
The meter A is more sensitive then meter B
Ex 5 : Calculate the value of the multiplier resistance on the 500V range of a d.c voltmeter,
that uses 50pA meter movement with an internal resistance of 200Q.
Sol : The sensitjvity of the rneter is
._1 1

lm 50 x10{
= 20000Q/v
Nor.v R. : SV -R.
Where V=Voltagerange
R, =20000x500-200
= 9.99MO

tr €6 Loading Effect :

Whlle selecting a meter for a particular measurement the sensitivity rating is very itnportant.
A 1ow sensitivity meter may give the accurate reading in low resistance circuit but will produce
totally inaccurate reading in high resistance circuit.
The voltmeter is always connected across the two points between which the potential
difference is to be measured. lf it is connected across lolv resistance then as voltrneter resistance
is high, most of the current produce the voltage drop which will be nothing but the true reading.
But if the voltmeter is connected across the high resistance than due to two high resistance in
parallel, the current will divide almost equally through the hvo paths. Thus the meter witl record
the voltage drop across the high resistance which will be much lower then the true reading.
Thus the low sensitivity instrument when used in high resistance circuit gives a lower
reading then the true reading. This is called loading effect of the voltmeter. It is called loading
effict of the voltmeters. It is mainly caused due to Iorv sensitivity instrument.

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Ex 6 : The fig 2 shows a simple series circuit of R, and R, connected to a 250V d.c source.
If the voltage across R2 is to be measured by the voltmeters having
i. a sensitivity of 500 O/Y r

ii. a sensitivify of 10,00pC1V.

Find which voltmeter will read more accurately. Both the meters are used on the
150V range.

Sol : By the voltage divider ru1e, the voltage across R, is

v =(zo250
+ zs1
;..
= 13 8"88V
'Ihis is the true voltage across R,
Case(i)S=500Q/V
The voltmeter resistance r,vi11be
Ru =SxV=500x150
... Req R, liR,
25x75
(2s + 75)
= 18.75kC)
Hence the voltage across R.o is" o.t,

Y=, L ,rzso
(R.o + R,)
lg75
= 1875+20 , t-so
= 120.96V
Tnus First voltmerer will read i 20"96V
case(ii) S = to,ooof2tv
The voltmeter resistance will be
Rv =SV
= 10000 x 1 50 as voltagerange 1 50V

2A Sr{ils*ar VN a,vt, Bueanar

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= 1"5mC)
R"o = R' l] R'
25x1.5x106xi03
-/-
(zs"to'+1.5x10")
Hence the voltage across R.o is,

v=, \'o ,r5g-- ?1 Jl *r59

(R"o ' R,) 24.59 + 2o

Thus the second voltmeter reads more accurately. Thus the high sensitivity voltmeter
gives more accurate reading. Though the voltage range for both meters is same.
Ex 7 : Two different voltmeters are used to measure the voltage across Ro shown in the
Fig:

25V

The trvo meters used are as follows :

i. Meter with sensitivit"v llif2./V and range 5V.
ii. Nleter with sensitivifv 2OkO/V and range 5V.
Calculate :
a" 'frue Voltage across Rb
b. Reading on voltmeter 1
c. Reading on voltmeter 2
d" Toerror in the fwo voltmeter
e. Accuracy of the trvo voltmeters"

Sol : a. By voltage divider Ruie, the time voltage across Ro without any meter is,
\/v - Rb .,')(
LJ
- ^
Ru +Ro

-
L^- v '\
-
(r.s)
= - 4.t67V
lk0/
b.Consider first voltmeter wilh S = V
R, =SrV,-*" =lx5=5kC)
l'hus circuit becomes.

o4
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R"o = Ro ii R, = 1r)
1+5
= 0.833kQ
Hence the voltmeter reading is
R"n 0.83 j 25 V
(R"" * R") -"
- v )\-
'
V =
(s . o.s::)
' ., 1i
'

= 3.57 V
c. Consider second voltmeter with S= 20kO / V

"'R, =S*V,-r" =2x5 =100kO

The circuit becomes as shown in the Fi g.l .27 (a) ewlier, now with R, = 100ke)
.".Req Ro llR, = ]9:'1=o.eekcl
' 100+1
Hence the voltage reading is,
Rr
. V,- = ------5-- Y 25
R, +R"o
o'99 *zS
=0.99 +5
= 4.132Y
d. The percentage error can be calculated as :

oZenor in voltmeter True value - Measured value

1 = * , OO
Truevalue
_
_ 4.167 3.571 xtoo
4.167
= 14.3o/o

%oercorinvoltmeter2=
4'167 - 4'132
xrco
4"t67
=0.84o/o
e. The percentage accuracy can be obained as :
% A for voltmeter 1 = 1 00 - o/o
error

= 100 - 14.3

=85.7%o
oZA for voltmeter
2 = 1 00 - 0.84
=99.16Yo
Thus voltme ter 2 is 9 9 . 1 6%oaccurate while voltmeter 1 i s g 5 .7 yo accur ate.

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[ 8.? Transistor Voltmeter [WfU] :

The circuit of a'I\M using emitter followrs is shown in fig. lf the transistor are matched
transistor the circuit is balanced and for zero input voltage, the indication is zero.
VCC

input

Resilto, R is used for calibration purpose. This is to do the accurate ietting of the fuIl-scale
reading of the ammeter. This adjustment is very much required as the characteristics of the
transistor are not same always. The calibration adjustment is mad to give reading of exact voltage.
Advantages of TVM:
1" If both transistors Q, & Q, are similar then the change in ambient temperature, p values
of both transistors will change so their will be no effect on collector current in changed
ambient temperature condition.
2. The change in ambient temperature, saturation current of both tL'e transistor will change
equally and therefore, the meter reading will remain unaffected,
3. The accuracy of calibration of TVM is maintained over a wide range of temperature.
4.Any fluctuation in power supply V.. and Vuu does not affect its performance as it changes
the biasing of both transistor equally.

\ c'B Differential Voltmeter : The differential voltmeter is one of the most common and accurate
@ownvo1tages.Thistechnique,,indicatesthedifferencebetweenthe
unknown voltage and known voltages ie an unknown voltage is compared to a known voltage.
Null Indicator

Unknown Reference
Voltage --' voltage
Potential meter' (known voltage)

Fig : Differential Voltrneten

Operation : The potentiometer is varied until the voltage across it is equal to the unknown
voltage, which is indicated by the null indicator reading zero.

Saorsfar Exa,rn &aorrrerr 23

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Under nu1l condition, the meter does not draw current from reference voltage or unknori,h?
,
voltages. Hence presents an inflnite impedance to the unknown source.
1. Average Responding Voltmeter:
Generally ac Voltmeters are average responding type and the meter is calibrated in terms
of the rms values for a sine wave. Since most of the voltage measurements involve sinusoidal
waveform, this method r,vorks satisfactrily. In case of measurements of non-sinusoicjal waveform
voltage, this meter will give high or low reading depending on the form factor of the waveform
of the voltage to be measured.
The ac voltmeter rectifles type is shown in fig When the ac input is appliecl, for the positive
"
half cycle, the diode Di conducts and causes the meter deflection proportional to the average
value of thar half cycle
In the negative cycle, the diode D2 conducts and D1 is reverse biased" The current tkough
the meter is in opposite direction and hence meter movement is bypassed.
The rectiling action produces pulsatrng dc and the meter indicates the average value of the input.
D

Fig : Basic rectifier type ac voltmeter

Circuit diagram of an average reading ac voltmeter using diodes.
1. AC voltmeter as half - wave rectifier

, -Y'
'*-2[
V*' v-,
" =2xl.llxR= g.45 R
I...
To amplifier 11)o..
and meter "

Vcm= 0.45V

Io" "'=9fh-*-
=F-*.
n."
Io"

ii. AC voltmeter using Full wave rectifier"

V", =Vr" =0.636%
Sensitivity (ac) = O.g x sensitivity (dc)

R- = %'-R
"Io"m
o'9v*'
R= -R
"lo"m

24 Sqns*ay Exarn Scanne,r

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2-.""Pealc Responding AC Voltrneter :

This type of meter responds to the peak value of the ac input signal. The difference between
average responding meter and this meter is the storage capacitors with the rectifying diode.
The storage capacitor charges through the diode upto the peak value ofthe ac input signal"
The dc amplifier then amplifies this signal and provides the necessary current for the meter
movement proportional to the peak value of input.
Two fypes of peak respondirrg volmeters are
i. DC Coupled peak responding voltmeter
ii" AC Coupled peak responding voltmeter"

In DC coupled peak voltmeter in which the capacitor charges to the total peak voltage above
ground reference. In this case the meter reading will be affected by the presence of dc with ac
voltage.
AC coupled peak voltmeter circuit is shown in flg (b). The dc amplifier is used to develop
the necessary mater current.
The main disadvantage of this system is with regards to measurement of low voltage. It
causes error due to harmonic distortion in the input waveforms and limited sensitivity of the
instrument because of imperfect diode characteristics.

l0 .E True RMS Voltmeter :

Generally RMS value of the sinusoidal waveform is measured by the average responding
voltmeter, where the scaie is calibrated in terms of rms value. But sometimes the RMS value
of non sinusoidal waveform is required to be measured" For such measurement a. true RMS
reading voltmeter is needed.
True RMS voltmeter indicates the heating power of the rvavefonn which is proponional to
the square of the RMS value of the voltage.

To measure the heating power, the heating power is amplif,ed and fed to a thermocouple,
',vhose outplit voltage is proportional to Erms. Thermoccruples are non linear devices. This
difficuky" can be overcome by placing fw.o thermo couples in the same thermal environment.

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The non-linear effect of the measuring thermocouple is canceled by the non-linear effect of
.
the feedback circuit (balancing thermocouple).'Ihe two thermocouple form a parl of a bridge.
The unknown ac Voltmeter is amplified and applied to the heading eJement of the measuring
thermocouple. The application ofheat on the heater produces an output voltage that upsets the
balance ofthe bridge"
The dc ampiifler amplies the unbalanced voltage, this voltage is fed back to the heatilg
element of the balancing thermocouple. Now the bridge is balanced again. At this instant, the
ac current in the inputthermocouple is equal tothe dc current of the feedbackthermocouple.
this dc cllrrent is directly proportional to the rms value of the input voltage and is indicated by
the meter in the output circuit of the dc amplifier.
0 " t o.Cnoriderations in choosing an Analog Voltmeter ;
1" Input Impedance : T'he input impedance of the voltmeter should be as high as possible.
It should always be higher than the impedance of the circuit under measurement to avoid
loading effect. At higher frequencies the loading effect of the meter is noticeable.
2. voltage ranges : The scale division should be compatible with the accuracy of the
instrument.
"
3. Decibels : Decibel scale is verv effective fo. *.jrr..*ent covering a wide range of
voltages.
4. Sensitivity v/s Bandwidth : Noise consists of unwanted frequencies and noise is also a
function of bandwidth, a voltmeter with narrow bandwidth picks up less noise than an
voltmeter with larger bandwidth.
5. Battery operated : A voltmeter powered by an internal battery is essential for fleld
work.
6. Current Measurement : Current measurements can be made by a sensistive u. roltrn.t".o' 'l I
and a series resistor.

Multimeter [VOM] :

It is one of the most versatile general purpose instruments capable of measuring dc and ac
voltage, currents and also resistance.
Multimeter consists of the following elements.
1. A balanced bridge dc amplifier and a pMMC meter.
2. An attenuator in input stage to select the proper voltage range.
3. A rectifier battery and additional circuitry for providing dc value.
4. An internal battery and additional circuitry for providing the capability of resistance
measurement.
5. A functional switch for selecting various measurement functions of the meter such as
voltages, current and resistance.
6" The instrument is usually provided with a built in power supply for operations on ac
mains and with one or more batteries for operation as portable test instrument.

26 Safls*ao Exaon &aarno-r

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