Divine Council

A Divine Council is an assembly of deities over which a higher-level god presides.

Contents
Historical setting
Archaic Sumerian
Akkadian
Council of gods before the
Old Babylonian
Deluge. Engraving by Virgil Solis
Ancient Egyptian for Ovid's Metamorphoses Book I,
Babylonian 162-208. Fol. 4v, image 7.
Canaanite
Hebrew
Chinese
Celtic
Ancient Greek
Ancient Roman
Norse
See also The Council of Gods (Sketch for
References the Medici Cycle) No.14, Peter
Paul Rubens (1577–1640), Alte
External links
Pinakothek

Historical setting
The concept of a divine assembly (or council) is attested in the archaic Sumerian, Akkadian, Old Babylonian, Ancient Egyptian,
Babylonian, Caananite, Israelite, Celtic, Ancient Greek and Ancient Roman and Nordic pantheons. Ancient Egyptian literature
reveals the existence of a "synod of the gods". Some of our most complete descriptions of the activities of the divine assembly are
found in the literature from Mesopotamia. Their assembly of the gods, headed by the high god Anu, would meet to address various
concerns.[1] The term used in Sumerian to describe this concept wasUkkin, and in later Akkadian and Aramaic was puhru.[2]

Archaic Sumerian
One of the first records of a divine council appears in the Lament for Ur, where the pantheon of Annunaki is led by An with
Ninhursag and Enlil also appearing as prominent members.[3]

Akkadian
The divine council is led byAnu, Ninlil and Enlil.[4]

Old Babylonian
In the Old Babylonian pantheon,Samas (or Shamash) and Adad chair the meetings of the divine council.[4]
Ancient Egyptian
The leader of the Ancient Egyptian pantheon is considered to either beThoth or Ra, who
were known to hold meetings atHeliopolis (On).[5][6]

Babylonian
This seal depicts a favorite scene
Marduk appears in the Babylonian Enûma Eliš as presiding over a divine council, of the Old Babylonian period in
deciding fates and dispensing divine justice.[7] which a worshiper stands among
a number of gods. The worshiper,
in a long robe and cap, offers an
Canaanite animal to the sun-god Shamash,
who rests one foot on a stool and
Texts from Ugarit give a detailed description of the Divine Council's structure of which holds the saw of justice in his
El and Ba'al are presiding gods.[8] outstretched hand. The sun disk,
nestled in a crescent, floats
between the two. The goddess
Hebrew Lama stands with her hands
In the Hebrew Bible, there are multiple descriptions of Yahweh presiding over a great raised in supplication. Behind her,
a male figure in a kilt holds a
assembly of Heavenly Hosts. Some interpret these assemblies as examples of Divine
curving weapon at his side, and
Council: another figure behind Shamash
holds the bucket and "sprinkler"
The Old Testament description of the "divine assembly" all suggest that associated with fertility.
this metaphor for the organization of the divine world was consistent
with that of Mesopotamia and Canaan. One difference, however, should
be noted. In the Old Testament, the identities of the members of the
assembly are far more obscure than those found in other descriptions of
these groups, as in their polytheistic environment. Israelite writers
sought to express both the uniqueness and the superiority of their God
Yahweh.[1]

The Book of Psalms (Psalm 82:1), states "God (‫אלֹ ים‬

ֱ elohim) stands in the divine
assembly (‫אֵל‬-‫ ;) בַּעֲ דַת‬He judges among the gods (‫אלֹ ים‬
ֱ elohim)" (‫אלֹהִים נ ִצ ָּב‬
ֱ
A meeting of gods on the Tablet
‫פֹט‬
ּ ְׁ‫אלֹהִים יִש‬
ֱ ‫קר ֶב‬
ֶ ּ ְ‫)בַּעֲ דַת־אֵל ב‬. The meaning of the two occurrences of "elohim" has of Shamash, British Library room
been debated by scholars, with some suggesting both words refer to Yahweh, while 55. Found in Sippar (Tell Abu
others propose that the God of Israel rules over a divine assembly of other Gods or Habbah), in Ancient Babylonia ; it
angels.[9] Some translations of the passage render "God (elohim) stands in the dates from the 9th century BC
and shows the sun god Shamash
congregation of the mighty to judge the heart as God (elohim)"[10] (the Hebrew is
on the throne, in front of the
"beqerev elohim", "in the midst of gods", and the word "qerev" if it were in the plural
Babylonian king Nabu-apla-iddina
would mean "internal organs"[11] ). Later in this Psalm, the word "gods" is used (in the (888-855 BC) between two
KJV): Psalm 82:6 - "I have said, Ye [are] gods; and all of you [are] children of the most interceding deities. The text tells
High." Instead of "gods", another version has "godlike beings",[12] but here again, the how the king made a new cultic
word is elohim/elohiym (Strong's H430).[13] This passage is quoted in the New statue for the god and gave
privileges to his temple.
Testament in John 10:34.[14]

In the Books of Kings (1 Kings 22:19), the prophet Micaiah has a vision of Yahweh
seated among "the whole host of heaven" standing on his right and on his left. He asks who will go entice Ahab and a spirit
volunteers. This has been interpreted as an example of a divine council.
The first two chapters of the Book of Job describe the "Sons of God" assembling in the
presence of Yahweh. Like "multitudes of heaven", the term "Sons of God" defies certain
interpretation. This assembly has been interpreted by some as another example of divine
council. Others translate "Sons of God" as "angels", and thus argue this is not a divine
council because angels are God's creation and not deities.

"The role of the divine assembly as a conceptual part of the background of Hebrew
prophecy is clearly displayed in two descriptions of prophetic involvement in the
heavenly council. In 1 Kings 22:19-23... Micaiah is allowed to see God (elohim) in Divine council in Olympus:
action in the heavenly decision regarding the fate of Ahab. Isaiah 6 depicts a situation in Hermes with his mother Maia,
which the prophet himself takes on the role of the messenger of the assembly and the Apollo playing kithara, Dionysos
message of the prophet is thus commissioned by Yahweh. The depiction here illustrates and a maenad. Side B of an Attic
red-figure belly-amphora, ca. 500
."[15]
this important aspect of the conceptual background of prophetic authority
BC.

Chinese
In Chinese theology, the deities under the Jade Emperor were sometimes referred to as
the celestial bureaucracy because they were portrayed as organized like an earthly
government.

Celtic
In Celtic mythology, most of the deities are considered to be members of the same The Council of Gods, Giovanni
family - the Tuatha Dé Danann. Family members include the Goddesses Danu, Brigid, Lanfranco (1582–1647), Galleria
Airmid, The Morrígan, and others. Gods in the family include Ogma, the Dagda, Lugh Borghese
and Goibniu, again, among many others. The Celts honoured many tribal and tutelary
deities, along with spirits of nature and ancestral spirits. Sometimes a deity was seen as
the ancestor of a clan and family line. Leadership of the family changed over time and
depending on the situation. TheCeltic deities do not fit most Classical ideas of a "Divine
Council" or pantheon.

Ancient Greek
Zeus and Hera preside over the divine council in Greek mythology. The council assists
Odysseus in Homer's Odyssey.[16] Loggia di Psiche, ceiling fresco by
Raffael and his school (The

Ancient Roman Council of The Gods), Villa

Farnesina, Rome, Italy, by
Jupiter presides over the Roman pantheon who prescribe punishment on Lycaon in Alexander Z., 2006-01-02
Ovid's Metamorphoses, as well as punishing Argos and Thebes in Thebaid by
Statius.[17]

Norse
There are mentions in Gautreks saga and in the euhemerized work of Saxo Grammaticus of the Norse gods meeting in
council.[18][19][20] The gods sitting in council in their judgment seats or "thrones of fate" is one of the refrains in the Eddic poem
"Völuspá"; a "thing" of the gods is also mentioned in "Baldrs draumar", "Þrymskviða" and the skaldic "Haustlöng", in those poems
always in the context of some calamity.[21] Snorri Sturluson, in his Prose Edda, referred to a daily council of the gods at Urð's well,
citing a verse from "Grímnismál" about Thor being forced through rivers to reach it.[22][23] However, although the word regin
usually refers to the gods, in some occurrences of reginþing it may be simply an intensifier meaning "great", as it is in modern
[24]
Icelandic, rather than indicating a meeting of the divine council.

See also
Sons of God
War in Heaven

References
1. Sakenfeld, Katharine ed., "TheNew Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible" Volume 2, pg 145, Abingdon Press,
Nashville.
2. Freedman, David N. ed., "The Anchor Bible Dictionary" o
Vlume 2 pg 120, Doubleday, New York
3. E. Theodore Mullen (1 June 1980).The divine council in Canaanite and early Hebrew literature(https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=ko0SAQAAIAAJ). Scholars Press. ISBN 978-0-89130-380-0. Retrieved 25 September 2012.
4. Leda Jean Ciraolo; Jonathan Lee Seidel (2002).Magic and Divination in the Ancient World(https://books.google.co
m/books?id=VJ-kv9ueQREC&pg=PA47). BRILL. pp. 47–. ISBN 978-90-04-12406-6. Retrieved 25 September 2012.
5. Virginia Schomp (15 December 2007).The Ancient Egyptians(https://books.google.com/books?id=Fj_V0k_URowC&
pg=PA71). Marshall Cavendish. pp. 71–.ISBN 978-0-7614-2549-6. Retrieved 25 September 2012.
6. Alan W. Shorter (March 2009).The Egyptian Gods: A Handbook(https://books.google.com/books?id=xRxTOSQ865
kC&pg=PA42). Wildside Press LLC. pp. 42–.ISBN 978-1-4344-5515-4. Retrieved 25 September 2012.
7. Leo G. Perdue (28 June 2007).Wisdom Literature: A Theological History(https://books.google.com/books?id=AN9lx
YT0ZGUC&pg=PA130). Presbyterian Publishing Corp. pp. 130–.ISBN 978-0-664-22919-1. Retrieved 25 September
2012.
8. Mark S. Smith (2009).The Ugaritic Baal Cycle(https://books.google.com/books?id=in1lCQ0yF40C&pg=P
A841).
BRILL. pp. 841–. ISBN 978-90-04-15348-6. Retrieved 25 September 2012.
9. Michael S. Heiser. "Divine Council 101: Lesson 2: The elohim of Psalm 82 – gods or men?"
(http://www.thedivinecou
ncil.com/Psalm_82_overview.pdf) (PDF).
10. " "Psalms 82:1" " (http://bible.cc/psalms/82-1.htm).
11. HamMilon Hechadash, Avraham Even-Shoshan, copyright 1988.
12. "godlike beings, in JPS 1917"(http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt2682.htm#6). Retrieved 18 March 2013.
13. "Psalm 82:6 KJV with Strong's H430 (elohim/elohiym)"(http://www.blueletterbible.org/Bible.cfm?b=Psa&c=82&v=6&t
=KJV&sstr=0#conc/6). Retrieved 18 March 2013.
14. "John 10:34" (http://www.blueletterbible.org/Bible.cfm?b=Jhn&c=10&v=34&t=KJV#34). Retrieved 18 March 2013.
15. Freedman, David N. ed., "The Anchor Bible Dictionary" o
Vlume 2 pg 123, Doubleday, New York
16. Bruce Louden (6 January 2011).Homer's Odyssey and the Near East(https://books.google.com/books?id=AKDfiWr
XAx8C&pg=PA17). Cambridge University Press. pp. 17–.ISBN 978-0-521-76820-7. Retrieved 25 September 2012.
17. Randall T. Ganiban (8 February 2007).Statius and Virgil: The Thebaid and the Reinterpretation of the Aeneid(http
s://books.google.com/books?id=y1qV2wyyxF AC&pg=PA54). Cambridge University Press. pp. 54–.ISBN 978-0-521-
84039-2. Retrieved 25 September 2012.
18. John Lindow (2002) [2001]. Norse Mythology: A guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals and Beliefs(https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=jME8hD2UO4QC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Lindow ,+Norse+Mythology&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKE
wjm1vyjkNvRAhUT_WMKHU5DAcoQ6AEIJjAA#v=snippet&q=assembly%20of%20gods%20to%20set%20the%20fat
e%20of%20the%20hero%20Starkad&f=false) . Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.p. 26.
ISBN 9780195153828.
19. Viktor Rydberg (1907) [1889]. Teutonic Mythology (https://books.google.com/books?id=wnnXAAAAMAAJ&printsec=f
rontcover&dq=Rydberg,+Teutonic+Mythology&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiInom4mdvRAhVPwGMKHXrIC1IQ6AEI
HTAA#v=onepage&q=opponents%20in%20this%20council&f=false). 1 Gods and Goddesses of the Northland.
Translated by Rasmus B. Anderson. London, New York: Norroena Society. pp. 210–11. OCLC 642237 (https://www.
worldcat.org/oclc/642237).
20. Samuel Hibbert (1831). "Memoir on the Tings of Orkney and Shetland" (https://books.google.com/books?id=SRFaA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA178). Archaeologia Scotica: Transactions of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. 3: 178.
21. Ursula Dronke (2001) [1997]. The Poetic Edda (her translation of rǫkstólar). 2 Mythological Poems. Oxford, New
York: Clarendon Press, Oxford University Press. pp. 37, 117. ISBN 9780198111818.
22. The Prose Edda of Snorri Sturluson: T ales from Norse Mythology (https://books.google.com/books?id=4Zwd99MRC
2EC&pg=PA44&dq=Prose+Edda+Thor+wades+Kerlaugar&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjGlLSoqtvRAhVQ52MKHS2
GDP0Q6AEIJDAA#v=onepage&q=Prose%20Edda%20Thor%20wades%20Kerlaugar&f=false) . Translated by Jean
Young. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1964 [1954]. pp. 43–44.ISBN 9780520012325.
23. Lindow, p. 290 (https://books.google.com/books?id=jME8hD2UO4QC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Prose+Edda+Thor+
wades+Kerlaugar&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjGlLSoqtvRAhVQ52MKHS2GDP0Q6AEIOjAE#v=onepage&q=Kerla
ugar&f=false).
24. Lindow, p. 148 (https://books.google.com/books?id=jME8hD2UO4QC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Lindow
,+Norse+Myt
hology&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjm1vyjkNvRAhUT_WMKHU5DAcoQ6AEIJjAA#v=snippet&q=appears%20simpl
y%20to%20be%20a%20great%20assembly&f=false) .

External links
Translation of the Lament, from the Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature
Michael S. Heiser's Divine Council Website

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