PHYS1001 School of Physics, The University of Western Australia

MECHANICS
Mechanics summary for problem-solving in dynamics

Contents:

§1 - basics: vectors, co-ordinate systems & differentiation

§2 - particle motion in 3D

§3 - the equation of motion

§4 - conservative forces, friction and dissipation

§5 - general motion in 3D

§6 - rotational motion

§7 - analysis of collisions

References:

• Recommended text: R. Wolfson, "Essential University Physics", Pearson, 2nd Edn. 2012.
(denoted W) [chapters 1 to 12, Appendix A-1]

• Halliday, Resnick & Walker, 8th Edn., 2008. (denoted HRW) [chapters 1 to 13]

• Secondary references:
Young & Freedman, 11th Edn., 2004. (denoted as Y&F) [chapters 7, 8, 9, 10 & 12]
GR Fowles "Analytical mechanics", 1986. (Denoted F) [chapters 1 to 7]

In sections 1 to 3 we present a concise summary of elementary mechanics as covered in detail

in Wolfson (chapter 1 to 9 and apendix A). Useful mathematical relations are presented here
for easy reference.

Ralph James
School of Physics
The University of Western Australia
ralph.james@uwa.edu.au

1
1 Basics: vectors, co-ordinate systems & di erentiation
• Define standard units:

quantity unit definition

Time second 9,192,631,770 cycles of radiation from the lowest transition of a
cesium atom.
Length metre the distance light travels in vacuum in 1/299,792,458 s.
Mass kilogram mass of standard platinum-iridium alloy cylinder kept at the
International Bureau of Weights & Measures in Sevres, France.
• Vector algebra:

A = (Ax , Ay , Az ) generic element Ai ⌥ R

A=B ⌃ Ai = Bi i

A+B =B+A
⌅ ⇧ ⌅ ⇧
A+ B+C = A+B +C

cA = Ac c⌥R
⇥1/2
• magnitude: |A| = A = A2x + A2y + A2z

• vector components:

A = Ax x̂ + Ay ŷ + Az ẑ
= A n̂A
x̂, ŷ, ẑ: unit vectors along axes
n̂A : unit vector in direction of A

• scalar product:
⌃
A•B = Ai Bi = A B cos⌅
i

B•A=A•B
|A|2 = A • A
⌅ ⇧ ⌅ ⇧
A • B = A B • n̂A = B A • n̂B

2
 ⌅ ⇧ ⌅ ⇧
A+B =C ⌃ C • C = A + B • A + B = A • A + 2A • B + B • B

C 2 = A2 + B 2 + 2 A B cos⌅ (“cosine rule”)

• vector cross product: (vertical lines indicate matrix determinant or magnitude)

⇤ ⇤
⇤ x̂ ŷ ẑ ⇤ ⇤ ⇤ ⇤ ⇤ ⇤ ⇤
⇤ ⇤ ⇤Ay Az ⇤ ⇤Az Ax ⇤ ⇤Ax Ay ⇤
A ⇥ B = ⇤⇤Ax Ay Az ⇤⇤ = x̂ ⇤ ⇤
⇤By Bz ⇤ + ŷ
⇤ ⇤
⇤Bz Bx ⇤ + ẑ
⇤ ⇤
⇤Bx By ⇤
⇤Bx By Bz ⇤

= (Ay Bz Az By ) x̂ + (Az Bx Ax Bz ) ŷ + (Ax By Ay Bx ) ẑ

B⇥A= A⇥B
⌅ ⇧
A⇥ B+C =A⇥B+A⇥C
⌅ ⇧ ⌅ ⇧ ⌅ ⇧
m A ⇥ B = mA ⇥ B = A ⇥ mB
⌅ ⇧2
|A ⇥ B|2 = A2 B 2 A•B

|A ⇥ B| = A B sin⌅ direction by “right hand rule”, depends on choice of axes

⌅ ⇧ ⌅ ⇧
• triple scalar product A• B⇥C = A⇥B •C
⌅ ⇧ ⌅ ⇧ ⌅ ⇧
• triple vector product A⇥ B⇥C = A•C B A•B C
⌅ ⇧
⇠ dAx dAy dAz
• differentiation dA
du
= du
, du , du
⌅ ⇧ ⌅ ⇧
d ⇠
dA ⇠
dB d dn ⇠
du
A+B = du
+ du du
nA = du
A + n dduA
⌅ ⇧ ⌅ ⇧
d ⇠
dA ⇠
dB d ⇠
dA ⇠
dB
du
A•B = du
•B+A• du du
A⇥B = du
⇥B+A⇥ du

3
• plane polar co-ordinates: [HRW §10-2, 10-5, F: §1.13]

In these notes I shall follow the common convention in physics that a dot above a symbol
indicates a time derivative. Unit vectors are indicated by a ^ above the symbol.

r = r êr in 2D: cartesian {rx , ry }; polar {r, ⌅}

v = d⇠
r
dt
= ṙ êr + r dêdtr = ṙ êr + r ⌅˙ ê⇥

⌅ ⇧
a = d⇠v
dt
= r̈ êr + ṙ dêdtr + ṙ ⌅˙ + r ⌅¨ ê⇥ + r ⌅˙ dêdt

⌅ ⇧ ⌅ ⇧
= r̈ r ⌅˙ 2 êr + 2 ṙ ⌅˙ + r ⌅¨ ê⇥

The first term represents the radial or centripetal component, the second term the transverse
or tangential component of the acceleration vector.

Geometric measures:
circle radius R circumference 2 ⇥ R area ⇥ R2

sphere radius R surface area 4 ⇥ R2 volume 4

3
⇥ R3

Useful identities:
sin2 + cos2 = 1 and tan = sin
cos
for any
logb (c)
loga (c) = logb (a)
for any positive a, b, and c.

Useful approximations:
(1 + ⇤)n ⌅ 1 + n ⇤ for any n, ⇤2 ⇧ 1
sin⇤ ⌅ ⇤ ⌅ tan⇤ ⇤2 ⇧ 1
1
cos⇤ ⌅ 1 2
⇤2 ⇤2 ⇧ 1
ex ⌅ 1+x x2 ⇧ 1 (Note: also true for complex ez , |z|2 ⇧ 1)
ln (1 + x) ⌅ x x2 ⇧ 1

e.g. for x2 ⇧ b2
⇥ 1/2 ⇥
⇥a = ⇥a 1+ x
⌅ ⇥a 1 1 x
= ⇥a xa
b+x b b b 2 b b 2 b3/2

e.g. for x2 ⇧ 1
1 3
(1 sinx)3
⌅ (1 x) ⌅ 1 + 3x

4
2 Particle motion in 3D
The trajectory of a body is described in general by a vector ⇤r (t) with three components x (t),
y(t) and z (t).

• particle motion:

position: ⇤r = (x, y, z)

velocity: ⇤v = d⇤
r
dt
= (vx , vy , vz )
⇥
v = |v| = ẋ2 + ẏ 2 + ż 2

displacement: ⇤r = ⇤r (t + t) ⇤r (t)
d2 ⇤
acceleration: ⇤a = d⇤v
dt
= dt2
r

• normal and tangential components of acceleration: [F §1-12]

For velocity in 3D: ⇤v = v ⇤⇥

v2
Then: ⇤a = v̇ ⇥ˆ + n̂

tangential and centripetal acceleration

where v is speed and the radius of curvature: = ds

d⇥

5
3 The equation of motion
• Newton’s laws of motion: [W §4-2, 4-6]

1. ⇤v = 0 or constant unless an external force acts on the system

2. change of motion ⇤ applied force, and in the same direction

3. for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction

• linear momentum: [W §9-2]

p⇤ = m ⇤v and F⇤ = d⇤
p
dt

If the sum of external forces on a body is zero,

the total linear momentum of that body is conserved .

F⇤ = d(m⇤v )
dt
= m d⇤
v
dt
(m constant)

• third law: d
dt
(⇤pA + p⇤B ) = 0 ⇥ p⇤A + p⇤B = constant

d⇤
pB d⇤
pA
dt
= dt

NOTE: The third law can fail as stated if for example A interacts with B over a distance
mediated by a force field which propagates with a finite velocity (eg: force between electric
charges), but we can recover constancy by treating the field as a third "body".

• equation of motion under several forces: F⇤net = F⇤i = m ⇤a

i

• rectilinear motion with a constant force: ẍ = dv

dt
= F
m
= a = constant

integrate twice: ẋ = v = a t + vo

x = 12 a t2 + vo t + xo

where the integration constants vo , xo are determined by initial conditions.

eliminating t from these last two equations gives: 2 a (x xo ) = v 2 vo2

6
 Since dv
dt
= dv dx
dx dt
we can write:

m d(v )
2
F (x) = m ẍ = m v dv
dx
= 2 dx
= dK
dx
where K = 12 m v 2 (KE)

´x
K Ko = xo
F (x) dx

Thus the change in kinetic energy is equal to the integral of force with respect to distance,
known as the "Work - Energy relation". [W §6-3]

The word "gradient" is commonly used to describe the slope of a surface on the Earth. The
greater the gradient the greater the effective gravitational effects on a body moving over this
slope. [W §7-2, F §2-3] This leads to the following generalisation:

• define the potential energy U (x) by: F (x) = dU

dx

´x ´x
then xo
F (x) dx = xo
dU = U (xo ) U (x) = K Ko

or K + U (x) = Ko + U (xo ) = E = constant

• energy equation: 1
2
m v 2 + U (x) = E

such a force is called conservative

if no such U (x) exists the force is non-conservative (e.g. friction & dissipation)

Example: An object of mass m moving at speed v and height h in Earth’s gravitational field,
close to the surface has gravitational potential energy. Neglecting air resistance and other forces
we have

1
2
m v2 + m g h = E

7
• solution to energy equation:
⇤ ´x
v = dx
dt
= ± 2
m
[E U (x)] or xo ±
⌅ 2 dx =t to
m
[E U (x)]

real solutions require E > U (x)

You may never need to solve this equation in practice, but it is important to realise that its
existence guarantees a solution for E > U and no matter how messy the function U (x), a nu-
merical solution can readily be obtained by computational algorithms in standard mathematical
packages.

Example: The schematic above plots potential energy U versus x for a 1D system. The kinetic
energy K of a particle is equal to (E U ). For example a particle with energy E4 will have
zero kinetic energy at positions a, b and c; can move between points a and b, but cannot access
the region between b and c, where (E U ) would be negative. Similarly a particle with energy
E1 cannot exist anywhere within the plotted region.

8
4 Conservative forces, friction and dissipation
• A conservative force is one for which the work done by it or against it is path independent
and depends only on the start and end points. This allows an associated potential energy to
be defined. It is only the change in the potential energy that has any significant meaning. One
can choose a reference point and value for convenience. [W §7-1, F §4-2]

• central forces:
Any force law of the form F (r) where there is no dependence on ⇤ or ⌅ will necessarily be
conservative and has an associated potential. Familiar examples are Newton’s law of gravity
and Coulomb’s law of electricity.

Newton’s law of gravitation:

F⇧ = GM m
r2
r̂ with r̂ : unit vector outwards from c.m. of M
and G = 6.67 ⇥ 10 11 N m2 kg 2

G mi mj
for multiple bodies: F⇧ij = 2
rij
r̂ij

also by action-reaction (Newton’s 3rd law): F⇧ji = F⇧ij

gravitational potential energy: dW = F⇧ • d⇧r [W §8-4]

´ r2 ⇤ ⌅
dr 1 1
W = GM m r1 r2
= GM m r2 r1
´r
U (r) = G M m dr
⇥ r2
= GM m
r
F⇧ = ⇤U
⇤r
r̂
gravitational field potential:
U GM ⇤
= m
= r
ĝ = ⇤r
r̂

Example: geostationary satellite. [W §8-3]

How much energy is required to place a satellite into geosynchronous orbit about Earth?
For m = 1.0 tonne from r1 = 6370 km to r2 = 42,200 km we have:
´r ⇤ ⌅
W = G M m r12 dr r 2 = G M m 1
r2
1
r1
= 5.3 ⇥ 1010 J = 53 GJ

9
• static friction: [W §5.4]

Cohesive forces between two surfaces can resist an applied force inhibiting relative motion up
to a surface dependent threshold. We refer to a frictional force f which is always in the plane
of the interface and opposing the component of applied force. We define a coe⇥cient which
depends on the two specific surfaces and the presence of interstitial lubricants.

Case of no slipping: f ⇤ µs FN where µs is the coe⇥cient of static friction.

FN is the total force normal (perpendicular) to the interface. For an object lying on a flat
horizontal surface this is just the weight of the object. Note that f does not depend on the
area of contact.

• kinetic friction: [W §5.4]

Above the static friction threshold, relative motion will occur. The opposing force is called
kinetic (or dynamic) friction. The frictional force f remains in the plane of the interface and
opposes the component of applied force. Again we define a coe⇥cient which depends on the
two specific surfaces and the presence of interstitial lubricants.

dynamic case: f = µk FN where µk is the coe⇥cient of kinetic friction.

Generally the static coe⇥cient is greater than the kinetic coe⇥cient, often leading to a jerk as
the threshold is passed and the object starts to move.

System µs µk
Rubber on dry concrete 1.0 0.7
Rubber on wet concrete 0.7 0.5
Wood on wood 0.5 0.3
Waxed wood on wet snow 0.14 0.1
Metal on wood 0.5 0.3
Steel on steel (dry) 0.6 0.3
Steel on steel (oiled) 0.05 0.03
Teflon on steel 0.04 0.04
Bone lubricated by synovial fluid 0.016 0.015
Shoes on wood 0.9 0.7
Shoes on ice 0.1 0.05
Ice on ice 0.1 0.03
Steel on ice 0.4 0.02

10
• drag forces: [W §5.5, F ]

When a object moves through a fluid (gas or liquid) friction is represented by a drag force which
is in the opposite direction to the velocity vector. In a turbulent situation the relationship is
di⇥cult to describe in analytical form. It is usually a function of the relative speed between
the object and the fluid.

linear drag: f⇧ (v) = c1 ⇧v where c1 is the drag coe⇥cient.

Example: ball falling under gravity

a) with no drag:

choose x axis downwards from initial zero

1
m ẍ = m g ⌅ x (t) = 2
g t2

b) with linear drag (drag force is proportional to velocity in opposite direction):

m ẍ = m g c1 ẋ

where coe⇥cient c1 depends on size, shape, surface roughness and fluid properties (Reynolds
number). For a smooth sphere of diameter D in air

4
c1 1.55 ⇥ 10 D
rewrite as m dv
dt
= mg c1 v

separate and collect terms in v and t:

´t ´v
dt = m dv
m g c1 v
integrate ⌅ o
dt = o
m dv
m g c1 v

⇤ ⌅ ⇤ t
⌅
t = m
c1
ln m g c1 v
mg
⌅ v = mg
c1
1 e where time constant = m
c1

The first term is the limiting value known as the terminal velocity: vt = mg
c1
= g

⇤ t
⌅
v = vt 1 e

So v increases from zero at t = 0, but never exceeds the terminal velocity. The time constant
is a measure of how quickly this velocity is approached. After 3 time constants (t = 3 ) the
projectile will be at 95% of its terminal speed.

11
5 General motion in 3D
• particle in 3D: F⇧ = d⌅
p
dt
with p⇧ = m ⇧v

´t ´t
o
F⇧ (t) dt = p⇧ (t) p⇧ (0) = m ⇧v (t) m ⇧v (0) with o
⇧v (t) dt = ⇧r (t) ⇧r (0)

• angular momentum:

define torque: ⇧ = ⇧r ⇥ F⇧ angular momentum: ⇧ = ⇧r ⇥ p⇧

L

d
dt
(⇧r ⇥ p⇧) = ⇧v ⇥ p⇧ + ⇧r ⇥ d⌅
p
dt
but ⇧v ⇥ p⇧ = 0 since they are parallel
⌅ ⇧ is constant.
so: ⇧= dL
dt
and, in the absence of net torque L

If the sum of external torques on a body is zero,

the total angular momentum of that body is conserved.

• work principle [W §6-4]

The dot-product of force and displacement represents work, the dot product of force and velocity
represents power (P) in watts or joules per second.

P = F⇧ • ⇧v = dK
or F⇧ • d⇧r =
´ ´
dt
dK

Similarly for rotation:

dKrot
P =⇧ •⇥
⇧ = dt

where ⇥
⇧ is the angular velocity vector (direction along the rotation axis)

12
6 Rotational motion
• uniform circular motion:

2D cartesian co-ordinates: [W §10]

⇧r = ro (cos⇥t, sin⇥t) with ro , ⇥ both constants

ro is the radius, ⇥ the angular velocity, or angular frequency

polar co-ords: ⇤ ⌅
⇧ ry ⇥
r = rx2 + ry2 = ro and ⇤ = tan 1
rx
= tan 1 sin t
cos t
= ⇥t

ṙ = r̈ = 0 , ⇤¨ = 0

⌅ ⇧a = d⌅v
dt
= r ⇤˙ 2 êr = ⇥ 2⇧r

⌅ ⇧v = d⌅
r ˙ ⇥ = ro ⇥ ( sin⇥t, cos⇥t)
= r ⇤ê
dt

centripetal acceleration:
d2 ⌅
dt2
r
= ⇥ 2 ⇧r (2nd order d.e.)

13
• mass and spring system: [W §7-2, see also simple harmonic motion §13-2, F §3-2]
Consider a mass m attached to one end of a perfectly elastic spring, with the other end fixed.
Neglect friction between the mass and the surface. The system has a rest length of Lo .

When displaced horizontally from equilibrium by an amount x the spring will provide a restoring
force:
F = kx (Hooke’s law)

Combined with Newton’s 2nd law this gives the 2nd order differential equation:
F = kx = ma or ẍ + k
m
x=0

This has the general solution: x (t) = xo cos (⇥ t + ⌅)

⌃
where ⇥ = m k
,
and xo , ⌅ are determined by the initial conditions
(referred to as the amplitude and phase of the motion).
For ⌅ = 0, this is the same as the x -component of uniform circular motion, with ro = xo .
´x
• elastic potential energy: U (x) = o
F (x) dx = 12 k x2

• energy equation: U + K = 21 k x2 + 12 m v 2 = E
since v (t) = dx
dt
= ⇥ xo sin (⇥ t + ⌅) we find E = 12 k x2o

Graph: KE, elastic PE and total energy (K + U = E) plotted vs time for m = k = xo = 1

14
• rigid body rotation & moment of inertia: [W §10-3, HRW §10-6, 10-7, F §4-1, 4-2]

Choose rotation axis as z -axis. Then for a point {x,y,z } in the body:

ẋ = ⌃y ẏ = ⌃ x ż = 0

or % ⇥ %r
%v = ⌃

Note: ⌃
% here is a vector along the z -axis with magnitude ⌃.

• rotational kinetic energy:

⇤ ⌅
1 1
2
Krot = 2 mi vi = 2 mi ri ⌃ 2 = 12 Iz ⌃ 2
2
i i

where Iz = mi ri2 is called the moment of inertia.

i

• angular momentum: Lz = Iz ⌃

for an extended body about any axis we have: r2 dm

´
I=

for a composite body about the same axis: I= Ii

i

body about axis I

rod (L) thru centre ⌃ length 1
12
m L2
rod (L) thru end ⌃ length 1
3
m L2
plate (a,b) thru centre ⌃ face 1
12
2
m (a + b )2

plate (a,b) along side b 1

3
m a2
hollow cylinder (R1 , R2 ) central axis 1
2
m (R12 + R22 )
solid cylinder (R) central axis 1
2
m R2
thin-walled cylinder (R) central axis m R2
sphere (R) centre 2
5
m R2
thin-walled sphere (R) centre 2
3
m R2

[W Table 10.2, HRW: Table 10.2, Y&F: Table 9.2]

15
• centre of mass of a system of particles: [W §9-1, HRW §9-2]
P P P
mi xi mi yi mi zi
xcm = iP
mi
ycm = iP
mi
zcm = iP
mi
(1)
i i i

• centre of mass for a rigid body:

´ ´ ´
xcm = ´⇤ x dV ycm = ´⇤ y dV zcm = ´⇤ z dV (2)
⇤ dV ⇤ dV ⇤ dV

where is the density and the integrations are performed over the total volume V.

The centre of mass of a composite body whose components have known masses and centres of
mass can be calculated using equation (1).

• symmetry considerations:

i) If a body has a plane of symmetry then the centre of mass lies in that plane.

ii) If a body has a line of symmetry then the centre of mass lies on that line.

16
• perpendicular-axis theorem for plane lamina:

Iz = mi r2i = mi x2i + mi y 2i = Ix + Iy
i i i

The moment of inertia of any plane lamina about an axis normal to the plane of the lamina is
equal to the sum of the moments of inertia about any two mutually perpendicular axes passing
through the given axis and lying in the plane of the lamina.

• parallel-axis theorem - for any rigid body: [W §10-3, HRW §10-7]

the moment of inertia about some axis, say the z-axis in some co-ordinate system is:

Iz = mi r2i = mi (x2i + y 2i )
i i

change to co-ordinate relative to the centre of mass:

xi = xcm + x̄i and yi = ycm + ȳi

substituting and collecting terms:

Iz = mi (x̄2i + ȳ 2i ) + mi (x2cm + y 2cm ) + 2 xcm mi x̄i + 2 ycm mi ȳ i

i i i i

The first term is the moment of inertia about z through the centre of mass (let us denote as
Icm ). The second term is the sum of the mass times the distance squared from the centre of
mass to the z - axis. Let this distance be ✓.

✓2 = x2cm + ycm
2

Also by the definition of the centre of mass we have:

mi x̄i = 0 and mi ȳ i = 0
i i
Giving us the final general result:

I = Icm + m ✓2

The moment of inertia of a rigid body about any axis is equal to the moment of inertia about
a parallel axis passing through the centre of mass plus the product of the total mass of the body
and the square of the distance between the two axes.

Example: a cylindrical puck of mass m and radius R attached to a string of length ✓, undergoes
circular motion about a fixed centre. What is its moment of inertia?
1
I = Icm + m ✓2 = 2
m R2 + m ✓2

17
• laminar motion of a rigid body:
Laminar here means that the motion is constrained by a plane - such as a cylinder rolling down
an inclined plane. For a rigid body we can treat the motion of the centre of mass and rotation
separately. If friction is sufficient at the contact surface there will be a relationship between
angle and c.m. displacement.
Fundamental equations of motion governing translation:
F = m r̈cm = m v̇ cm = m acm
Fundamental equations of motion governing rotation about the axis C through the centre of
mass:
⇧z = dLdtC = Icm ⌃˙
example: solid sphere, radius R, mass m, rolling without slipping.
vcm
⌃= R
I = 25 m R2
Ktotal = Ktrans + Krot = 12 m vcm
2
+ 21 I ⌃ 2 = 7
10
2
m vcm

Example: body rolling down an inclined plane [W §10-5, HRW §11-2 to §11-4]: consider the
situation in the diagram. Although gravity acts vertically it is useful to choose co-ordinate axes
along the slope and perpendicular to it {x, y}.
In the y direction there is no acceleration, so the forces must cancel:
FN = m g cos
In the x direction we have friction (static at contact if no slipping):
f = µs FN = µs m g cos
The equation of motion along x: m g sin f = m ẍcm
For laminar motion we have: Icm ⌃˙ = R f
Case of no slipping: f ⌅ µs FN where µs is the coefficient of static friction
ẋcm = R ⌥˙ = R ⌃ ẍcm = R ⌥¨ = R ⌃˙ = IRcm f
2
⇧
whence: m ẍcm = m g sin Icm
R2
ẍcm
m g sin g sin
ẍcm = m+ Icm
= 2 = acm = constant
R 2 1+( R )
⌦
where we define ⇤= I
m
(radius of gyration)

18
 Useful equations in rotational and translational motion:

Rotational motion about a fixed axis Translational motion

angular speed ⌃ = d⇥/dt translational speed v = dx/dt
angular acceleration = d⌃/dt translational acceleration a = dv/dt
net torque ⇧ex = I net force Fex = ma
⇧ ⇧
⌥ ⌃f = ⌃i + t ⌥ vf = vi + at
if = constant ⇥f = ⇥i + ⌃i t + 21 t2 if a = constant xf = xi + vi t + 21 at2
⌃ 2 ⌃ 2
⌃f = ⌃i2 + 2 (⇥f ⇥i ) vf = vi2 + 2a (xf xi )
´⇥ ´x
work W = ⇥if ⇧ d⇥ work W = xif F dx
rotational kinetic energy Krot = 21 I⌃ 2 kinetic energy Ktrans = 12 mv 2
power P = %⇧ • ⌃
% power P = F% • %v
% = I%⌃
angular momentum L linear momentum p% = m%v
net torque %
%⇧ = dL/dt net force F% = d%p/dt
´t ´t ⇥
angular impulse tif ( %⇧ex ) dt = % tot
L impulse tif F%ex dt = p%tot

Example: a sphere of mass m1 and a block of mass m2 are connected by a light cord that passes
over a pulley as shown. The radius of the pulley is R and its mass M is concentrated on a
thin rim. The block slides on a frictionless horizontal surface. Find an expression for the linear
acceleration of the two objects.

The block pulley and sphere are a non-isolated system, subject to the external torque due to
the gravitational force on the sphere.
At any instant the block and sphere have a common speed v, so the angular momentum of the
sphere is m1 vR , and of the block m2 vR. At the same instant all the points on the rim of the
pulley move at speed v, so the pulley’s angular momentum is M vR.
The gravitational force on the sphere produces a torque about the pulley’s axle of m1 gR.
The total angular momentum of the system is:
L = m1 vR + m2 vR + M vR = (m1 + m2 + M ) vR
%
%⇧ = dL/dt ⇧ m1 gR = d
[(m1 + m2 + M ) vR] = (m1 + m2 + M ) R dv
dt dt

Thus the linear acceleration is: a = dv

dt
= m1 g
m1 +m2 +M

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7 Analysis of collisions [W §9-4 to 9-6, HRW Chapter 9, Y&F - Chapter 8]
• impulse
Force (F ), velocity (v ), momentum (p) and impulse (J ) are all vectors.
The momentum of a particle equals the impulse that accelerated it from rest to its present
speed.
´t
Impulse is defined as: J⌫ = 2 F⌫ dt = p⌫2 p⌫1 = p⌫
t1

The consequence of the impulse is thus the area under the force vs time curve. Depending on
the shape of this curve we can have different outcomes even for the same maximum force.

• collisions without rotation:

Consider the collision of two point masses A and B. Initially we will assume there is no rotation
before or after.

If there is no net force on the system, the total linear momentum is conserved:
mA ⌫vA1 + mB ⌫vB1 = mA ⌫vA2 + mB ⌫vB2
Kinetic energy before and after:
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
K1 = 2
mA vA1 + 2
mB vB1 K2 = 2
mA vA2 + 2
mB vB2
In an elastic collision the total kinetic energy is conserved: K1 = K2
In an inelastic collision there will be a loss of the system’s KE: K = K1 K2
This loss K is the same in all non-accelerating reference frames.

• completely inelastic collisions without rotation:

⌫vA2 = ⌫vB2 = ⌫v2 (A and B stick together after collision)

no net external force on system ⇤ mA ⌫vA1 + mB ⌫vB1 = (mA + mB ) ⌫v2
For an observer with B initially at rest: ⌫vB1 = 0 , ⌫vA1 = ⌫v1
1
(mA +mB ) v22
we have: ⌫v2 = mA
mA +mB
⌫v1 ⇤ K2
K1
= 2
1
mA v12
= mA
mA +mB
2

The first equation implies that the direction of motion after collision is the same as before. The
second equation says that unless the mass of B is negligible compared to that of A, there must
be a loss of KE. So, for example if both masses are equal exactly half of the system’s KE will
be lost during the collision.

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• elastic collisions:

To avoid confusion with indices let us use small and large caps for our variables mass (m, M )
and velocity (u, v, U, V ) with "u" before and "v " after collision:
dK
dt
= 0 ⇤ 1
2
m u2 + 1
2
M U2 = 1
2
m v2 + 1
2
MV2 (KE conserved)
⌫ ⌫ = m ⌫v + M V⌫
dP
dt
= 0 ⇤ m ⌫u + M U (mtm conserved)

Example: elastic scattering from an oblique collision without rotation

Consider two balls on a billiard table with negligible friction and smooth surfaces. Let the balls
have equal mass m, one moving at initial speed u, the target ball initially stationary.
momentum conserved ⇤ m ⌫u = m ⌫v + M V⌫ ⇤ ⌫u = ⌫v + V⌫ [1]
KE conserved ⇤ 1
2
m u2 = 1
2
m v2 + 1
2
MV2 ⇤ u2 = v 2 + V 2 [2]
Taking the dot product of each side of equation [1] gives:
⇤ ⌅ ⇤ ⌅
u = ⌫v + V • ⌫v + V = v 2 + V 2 + 2 ⌫v • V⌫
2 ⌫ ⌫

Comparing with equation [2] we find: ⌫v • V⌫ = 0

which implies that the balls leave the collision at right angles to each other, regardless of the
offset of the centres of mass (provided they actually hit). This is also true for any value of m
and u.
In the special case of a head-on collision we find that ⌫v = 0 and V⌫ = ⌫u.

21
• collisions involving rotational kinetics:
The resistance of a rotating rigid body to changes in its angular momentum is proportional to
its moment of inertia with respect to the rotation axis. An unconstrained body rotates about
its centre of mass.
If the sum of external forces is zero the linear momentum of the system’s centre of mass is
conserved.

p⌫cm (bef ore) = p⌫cm (af ter)

If the sum of external torques is zero the angular momentum of the system about its centre of
mass is conserved.
⌫ (bef ore) = L
L ⌫ (af ter)

The total kinetic energy now contains both a translational and rotational term.
⇧ 1 ⇥ ⇧ 1 ⇥
Ktotal = Ktrans + Krot = 2
mi vi2 + I 2
2 i i

Example: puck and ruler collision on frictionless surface (airtable)

Assume the puck continues in a straight line through the collision with the puck losing some
linear momentum which is transferred to the ruler. The ruler is propelled to the right with
some rotation about its c.m. Speeds to the right after collision v (puck) and V (ruler), with
rotation (ruler). The point of impact is at a distance b from the ruler’s c.m. (known as the
impact parameter )

The system is isolated with no net external forces or torques.

Linear momentum is conserved: ⇤ mu = mv + M V

⇤ m (u v) = M V [1]

Elastic collision: ⇤ 1
2
m u2 = 1
2
m v2 + 1
2
MV2 + 1
2
I 2

⇤ m (u v) (u + v) = M V 2 + I 2
[2]

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impulse: p = m (v u)

angular impulse: L = b p = b m (v u) = I

⇤ = bM
I
(v u) = bM V
I
[3]

Divide [2] by [1]: ⇤ (u + v) = V + I 2

substitute for using [3] and rearrange:

⇤ ⌅
b2 M
⇤ v = 1+ I
V u

in [1] solve for V :

2“m u
⇤ V = 2
”
M +m 1+ b IM

then: v = u M
m
V , and = bM V
I
(into page)

centre of percussion:

Suppose the bottom end approximately stationary immediately after the collision,

i.e. ⇤ = V 2

so from [3] we require: bM

2I
= 1

For a uniform rod of mass M and length ⌦:

I = 1
12
M ⌦2 ⇤ b = 6
(’sweet spot’)

23