Metabolism and thermoregulation.

108. The physiological importance of proteins and their transformation in the body?

Protein Functions:
1. Structural: Forms structural frame work of various parts of the body. E.g. collagen in bone and other
connective tissues, keratin in hair and finger nails
2. Regulatory: Functions as hormones that regulate various physiological processes, control growth and
development and as a neurotransmitter it mediates responses of the nervous tissue e.g. insulin and
Epinephrine
3. Contractile: allow shortening of muscle cells which produces movement e.g. actin and myosin
4. Immunological: aid responses that protect the body against foreign substances and invading pathogens
e.g. antibodies and interleukins
5. Transport: carry vital substances throughout the body. E.g. hemoglobin, transferrins
6. Catalytic: act as enzymes that regulate biochemical reactions e.g. Salivary amylase and ATPase

109. Nitrogen balance, protein minimum, optimum protein, biological value proteins?
Nitrogen balance: is a measure of nitrogen input minus nitrogen output if Nitrogen is greater than Nitrogen
output then it’s a positive nitrogen balance. This is typical during muscle growth, pregnancy and recovery from
infection. Negative Nitrogen input is typical for startvation
Minimum protein: 0.8gram per kilo of lean mass in adults
Note that protein requirement will increase with increasing activity and is also different for different ages and
sexes and that pregnant and breastfeeding women should consume more

110. The physiological significance of fats, their transformation in the body?

Lipid Functions:
1. Storage of energy for long-term use (e.g. triglycerides) and of fat soluble vitamins A, D, E, K
2. Absorption: required for the absorption of fat soluble vitamins
3. Hormonal roles (e.g. steroids such as oestrogen and testosterone)
4. Insulation – both thermal (triglycerides) and electrical (sphingolipids)
5. Protection of internal organs (e.g. triglycerides and waxes)
6. Blood clotting: thromboplastin
7. Transport: lipoproteins are used to transport cholesterol throughout the body
8. Structural components of cells (e.g. phospholipids and cholesterol) and myelin sheaths

111. The physiological significance of carbohydrates, their transformation in the body?

Carbohydrate functions: because glucose is the body’s preferred source for synthesizing ATP, its use depends
on the needs of body cell
1. ATP production: in body cells that require immediate energy, glucose is oxidized to produce ATP.
Glucose not required for immediate ATP production can enter several metabolic pathways
2. Amino acid synthesis: cells throughout the body can use glucose to form several amino acids, which the
can be incorporated into proteins
 3. Glycogen synthesis: hepatocytes and muscle fibers can perform glycogenesis in which hundreds of
glucose monomers are combined to form the polysaccharide glycogen. total storage in liver is 125g and
in skeletal muscles 375g
4. Triglyceride synthesis: when the glycogen storage areas are filled up, hepatocytes can transform the
glucose to glycerol and fatty acids that can be used for lipogenesis (the synthesis of triglycerides). The
triglycerides are then deposited in adipose tissue in which there is unlimited capacity

112. The regulation of metabolism of proteins, fats and carbohydrates?

Anabolism Catabolism
Carbohydrates insulin glucagon
Lipids insulin Norepinephrine and epinephrine due to sympathetic
regulation
Growth hormone, Adrenocorticotropic hormone,

Proteins Insulin like growth factors Cortisol

Thyroid hormones T3 and T4
Sex hormones e.g. testosterone
Growth hormone

Hormonal regulation of Metabolism in the absorptive state

Process Location Main Stimulating hormone
Facilitated diffusion of glucose into Most cells Insulin*
cells
Active transport of amino acids Most cells Insulin
into cells
Glycogenesis (glycogen synthesis) Hepatocytes Insulin
Protein Synthesis All body cells Insulin, thyroid hormones (T3, T4)
and insulin like growth factors
Lipogenesis Adipose cells and hepatocytes Insulin
*
Facilated diffusion of glucose into hepatocytes and neurons is always turned on and deos not require insulin

Hormonal regulation of metabolism in the Post absorptive state

Process
Glycogenolysis (glycogen break
down)
Lipolysis (triglyceride break down) adipocytes
Protein breakdown
Gluconeogenesis (synthesis of
glucose from non carbohydrates)
Location
Hepatocytes and skeletal muscle
fibers
Most body cells but especially
skeletal muscle fibers
Hepatocytes and kidney cortex cells
Main stimulating hormone
Glucagon and epinephrine
Epinephrine, norepinephrine,
cortisol, insulin like growth factors,
thyroid hormones
Cortisol
Glucagon and cortisol

113. The physiological significance of vitamins?

Vitamins are organic nutrients that mainly function as coenzymes. They do not provide energy or serve as
building blocks. Most vitamins can’t be synthesized by body and are ingested by food other vitamins such as
vitamin K are produced by bacteria in GI tract and then absorbed.
Provitamins are vitamins that are assembled by the body from raw material such as vitamin A which is
produced form the provitamin beta-carotene

Vitamins are divided into two main groups: fat-soluble and water-soluble. The fat-soluble vitamins, vitamins A,
D, E, and K, are absorbed along with other dietary lipids in the small intestine and packaged into chylomicrons.
They cannot be absorbed in adequate quantity unless they are ingested with other lipids.

Water Soluble vitamins:

114. The main exchange and its definitions conditions, factors affecting its value?
Exchange mechanisms of heat transfer from body:
1. Conduction: at rest about 3% of heat loss occurs via conduction
2. Convection: at rest about 22% of heat loss occurs via convection
3. Radiation: at rest 60% of heat loss occurs due to radiation
4. Evaporation: at rest about 22% of heat loss is due to evaporation

115. The temperature of the human body, its daily fluctuations?

Human are Endotherms (warms blooded). The core temperature (temperature in body structures deep to the
skin and subcutaneous layer) is ≈37oC and the shell temperature (near the surface in the skin and subcutaneous
layer) can be 1-6oC lower than core temperature.
Despite wide fluctuations in environmental temperature. Homeostatic mechanisms can maintain normal range
for internal body temperature.
Temperature classification
Core rectal temperature oC
Hypothermia Less than 35
Normal 36.5-37.5
Fever 37.5-38.3
Hyperthermia 37.5-38.3
Hyperpyrexia Above 40
Note: the difference between fever and hyperthermia is the underlying mechanism

Natural variations in body temperature:

1. Circadian Rhythm: lowest core temperature at 4am while the highest core temperature is between 4-
6pm. Y=typically about 0.5oC difference between highest and lowest
2. Circa mensal rhythm: variation in women core temperature during menstrual cycle.

3. Circannual variation: temperature variation within the season

4. Increase in fitness increases the amount of daily variation in temperature
5. With increased age both average core temperature and amount of daily variability in the body
temperature decreases
116. The physiological significance homoyotermy. Center thermoregulation, thermoreceptors?
Significance of body temperature homeostasis:
 Core temperature that is too low causes cardiac arrhythmias that results in death
 Core temperature that is too high kills by denaturing body proteins
Center of thermoregulation: preoptic area of hypothalamus:
Neurons in anterior part of hypothalamus in the preoptic area generate nerve impulses due to changes in blood
temperature. These impulses travel to two other areas in the hypothalamus:
1. Heat losing center
2. Heat promoting center
When stimulated by the preoptic area they set in motion a series of responses that lower or raise body
temperature
Thermoreceptors:
 Located in the skin and mucous membrane, also in liver, skeletal muscles and hypothalamus to measure
blood temperature
 Cold thermoreceptors are free nerve endings with thin myelinated fibers whereas warm thermal
receptors are free nerve endings with unmyelinated axons

117. The heat in the body, its regulation?

Heat is regulated by negative feedback mechanism. Components:
 Stimulus - Changes in the temperature of our external environment can cause core body temperature
to rise or fall
 Receptors - Nerve endings in the skin and brain (hypothalamus) sense the external and internal body
temperature respectively.
 Control Centre - The hypothalamus (part of our brain) processes signals from the thermoreceptors and
signals various effectors that are used to restore the core temperature to its set point (approximately
37°C).
 Effectors - The following components are used to adjust our core temperature, compensating for the
external environment and restoring our core temperature to its set point.
•Skeletal Muscles: shivering creates heats i.e. thermal generation
•Smooth Muscle Surrounding Blood Vessels: vasodilating to reduce body temperature or
vasoconstriction to decrease heat loss through the skin
•Thyroid Hormones: increase basal metabolic rate there generate heat
•Adrenaline hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine): increase cellular metabolism
therefore generate heat
•Piloerector Muscles: causes goosebumps which lower heat loss from skin due to increased
insulation
•Sweat Glands: release sweat which evaporates by taking heat away from the body
 Effect - Our core body temperature is raised / lowered back to its set point of approximately 37°C

119. Regulation sustainability of body temperature at different ambient temperatures?

Energy from food:

 Protein and carbohydrates 4.1 Kilocalories/gram

 Fats 9.3 Kilocalorie/gram

Summary of Metabolism

Process Comment
Carbohydrates
Glucose Catabolism Complete oxidation of glucose (cellular respiration) is the chief source of ATP in cells and
consists of glycolysis, the Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain. Complete oxidation
of 1 molecule of glucose yields a maximum of 36 or 38 molecules of ATP
Glycolysis Conversion of glucose into pyruvic acid results in the production of some ATP. Reactions do
not require oxygen (anaerobic cellular respiration)
Krebs cycle Cycle includes a series of oxidation reduction reactions in which coenzymes (NAD and FAD)
pick up hydrogen ions and hydride ions from oxidized organic acids and some ATP is
produced. CO2 and H2O are by products. Reactions are aerobic
Electron Transport Third set of reactions in glucose catabolism is another series of oxidation-reduction
Chain reactions in which electrons are passed from one carrier to the next and most of the ATP is
produced. Reaction require oxygen hence cellular aerobic respiration
Glucose Anabolism Some glucose is converted into glycogen (glycogenesis) for storage if not needed
immediately for ATP production. Glycogen can be reconverted to glucose (glyconolysis).
This conversion of amino acids, glycerol and lactic acids into glucose is called
gluconeogenesis
Lipids
Triglyceride Triglycerides are broken down into glycerol and fatty acids. Glycerol may be converted into
catabolism glucose (gluconeogenesis) or catabolized via glycolysis. Fatty acids are catabolized via beta
oxidation into acetyl coenzyme A that can enter the Krebs cycle for ATP production or be
converted into ketone bodies (ketogenesis)
Triglyceride The synthesis of triglycerides from the glucose and fatty acids is called lipogenesis.
anabolism Triglycerides are stored in adipose tissue
Protein
Protein catabolism Amine acids are oxidized via the Krebs cycle after deamination. Ammonia resulting from
deamination is converted into urea in the liver, passed into blood and excreted in urine.
Amino acids may be converted into glucose (gluconeogenesis), fatty acids or ketone bodies
Protein anabolism Protein synthesis is directed by DNA and utilizes cells RNA and ribosomes
There are two types of evaporation with or without warm cells.

Hypothalamus thermal regulator: Anterior – parasympathetic i.e. decrease temp and posterior – sympathetic i.e.
increase temperature

The 4 levels of heat generation:

1. Metabolism
2. Skeletal muscles
a. Increase muscle tone
b. Tremor
c. Involuntary muscle movement – shivering
3. T3 and T4 and Epinephrine and norepinephrine
4. Increase temperature of cells