AREMA Practical Guide PDF

I N T R O D U C T I O N
Practical Guide to Railway

Engineering
Introduction
I was at work when I answered my phone to hear an enthusiastic chorus talking into
the speakerphone. It was AREMA Committee 24, Education and Training, the group
responsible for this book. I was unable to attend the meeting in New Orleans, so they
called to check up on me and to clarify a minor point or maybe it was to gloat about
the good time they were having, good friends can be that way. Among other things,
we discussed how we would acknowledge the hard work of all the people that made
this book possible. I suggested that we include some acknowledgements in the
introduction. The group started laughing. It became apparent what I had just done.
You see, if you are a member of this committee, it is quite likely that if you come up
with an idea or suggest something, you may be tagged with that task. I sealed my fate
twofold. I made the suggestion and I wasn’t at the meeting to defend myself. It is
much less bothersome to assign somebody something if they do not have the
opportunity to say no. Actually, I am honored. It has been a pleasure to serve on
Committee 24 and be associated with such an extraordinary group of railroaders.
There is the thought, sometimes deserved, that if you wish to accomplish nothing,
form a committee. I can assure you, this is not the case here. We sometimes spin our
wheels, but we more than make up the time by burning the midnight oil to get the job
done. What separates an ineffective committee and this one is leadership.
This book is an outgrowth of a dream. It started with Charley Chambers, our past
committee chairman and visionary of this project. This project has been Charley’s
dream for years. It was Charley that convinced us that the industry needed a “Railroad
101” course.
You see, a few years ago, we as a committee were musing about the future of the
railway industry that we all love so much. We agreed the future was strong, but it had
changed since we hired on. How could our committee address the problem created by
railway downsizing that has reduced the large engineering departments, allowing the
consultants to fill the void. We wanted to address the lack of mentoring available for
those young civil engineers who were finding employment in the industry through
consultants. How do we ramp up young talent in today’s environment that doesn’t
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allow for the long on the job training orientation into railway engineering that most of
us received from our mentors?
We met in Kansas and formed an outline for a course. We then met in Calgary and
detailed the outline. We then met in Chicago and revisited our outline. You see the
challenge was not finding enough information, but to decide all the information that
we would cut out so as to not overwhelm the participants. Trimming is not an easy
task by a committee. All the stakeholders had something that they held to dearly and
thought was too important to cut. From that, the project evolved. We knew that there
was so much good information that we would need to put it in a book of some sort.
Our first thought was a short manual as an introduction to the railroad industry, sort of
a pocketbook. As you can see by the size, you would need big pockets. We wanted to
help you get started on the right foot - you be the judge.
The good leadership continued when Joe Riley became our Committee 24 Chairman.
Joe has made the Practical Guide to Railway Engineering possible by using his most
effective managerial tool - GUILT. The names you see that have contributed to each
and every chapter in this comprehensive book got the job done because they believed
in the project and they didn’t want to let Joe down. We know how hard he works and
felt that we should at least contribute a fraction of his efforts. Without Joe’s
determination, I don’t think this monumental task would have ever been completed.
But, it really was the collective efforts of the committee and friends of the committee,
fifty people representing well over 1200 years of railroad experience contributed to this
book. Even with all their expertise, they all drew from the knowledge and experience
of so many more of their mentors and peers. I don’t believe you will find another
book quite like it.
There is so much you can learn about railroading. You don’t need to know it all at
once, you just need to know that our industry has so much to offer and that the
learning journey is challenging and rewarding. Along that journey, you will meet and
collaborate with talented, dedicated people, who will be more than happy to share their
knowledge - just as we have in our journey to put together this guide. Enjoy the
reading.
With but a casual browsing of the topics covered in this book, one is struck by the
interrelationships that exist between the various disciplines that make up railway
engineering. The railway engineer of today must take a systems approach to any design
task. Every project has stakeholders with needs that must be identified and addressed
if the project is to be successful. It is essential that today’s railway engineer has a basic
understanding of track, ROW & roadway, drainage, structures, signals and
communications, environmental permitting, and in some cases, electrical traction and
passenger, transit & high speed rail – regardless of his or her special expertise.
Although no one can be an expert in all fields, to not give consideration to these other
elements in any project is an invitation to disaster. Chapter 13 provides several actual
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case studies built into a committee-designed template that the engineer could utilize to
help identify critical stakeholder issues. A web page under the Committee 24 page
(www.arema.org) has been established to offer a library of similar project surveys. You
are invited to submit additional successful and even unsuccessful project surveys within
the template form to help build the library for the benefit of the industry.
It seems appropriate that this book should be dedicated to someone. As a Committee,

we would like to dedicate this book to Charley Chambers. Charley Chambers is what
this book is all about. Charley has experienced both sides of the equation; first as a
field engineer for the Milwaukee Road, several years working for a railroad contractor
in Oregon, then as Assistant Chief Engineer for Montana Rail Link, a stint as a railroad
construction estimator for Morrison Knudsen to his present position as Vice President
for Hanson-Wilson, Inc. Charley represents the quintessence of railway engineering.
He is a railway engineer’s engineer. For over 30 years, Charley has labored on behalf of
Committee 24. It was Charley, who as Committee Chairman, successfully melded
together the former Roadmasters’ Training Committee (representing for the most part
mid-level experienced field supervisors) with the core engineers from AREA
Committee 24 Education and academia from the leading Transportation Engineering
universities in North America. This was not an easy task to do, but with grace,
persistence and the ability to organize effectively, he forged this diverse and sometimes
contentious group into the effective organization that Committee 24 is today. Charley,
it is with pride and pleasure that Committee 24 fulfills your dream.
If you decide or already have decided to make a career in the railroad industry, I can
assure you that you will hear fantastic stories and in no time at all you will have your
own adventures to share with the fraternity of railroaders.
As a person that has inspected and maintained a railway infrastructure for thirty years, I
would like to leave you with this. While it is important to finish a project on time and
under budget, that accomplishment will be forgotten shortly after the ribbon cutting
ceremony. You will be remembered for the quality of the work.
Remember what you design, someone must maintain!
Bill Ross
Manager
Kootenay Valley Railway
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FOREWORD
In September 2000, AREMA’s Committee 24, Education and Training, recognized a need for
people entering the specialized field of Railway Engineering, to enable an individual who is not
familiar with the railway industry to be conversant with railway operations and practices particular
to railroads. This Practical Guide to Railway Engineering represents thousands of hours of
volunteer effort put forth by this Committee.
These dedicated committee members shouldered themselves with the enormous task of
completing this project in a two-year time frame, coupled with maintaining the responsibilities of
their careers. The Committee’s work stretched into many late evenings and weekends. To this
end, this extensive guide meets and surpasses their original vision of “providing the rail industry
with a comprehensive information source covering the practical engineering aspects of the railway
business.”
Inasmuch as this is a “Practical Guide” the proper application of this tool is essential. The
intended purpose is to present an easy to understand text in order to familiarize those that have
not been exposed to the many nuances and terms of the industry. For more detailed engineering
studies and technical resources, the current edition of the AREMA Manual for Railway
Engineering remains the definitive work in the specialized field of railway engineering. This
“Practical Guide” is not intended to replace any part of the “Manual” but rather, if used in
tandem, to enhance the understanding of both.
Committee 24 welcomes the input and suggestions of the book’s readers. A special web page is
provided under the Committee 24 page (www.arema.org) to record comments for later revisions.
A separate errata page will also be provided under the Committee page for necessary corrections
or updates.
The AREMA membership is forever grateful for the outstanding accomplishment put forth by
this Committee in the creation of this “Practical Guide to Railway Engineering.”
Andrew Sensing (CN-IC)

AREMA Functional Vice-President Engineering Services
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Contributors to the Practical Guide to Railway
Engineering
Donald Cleveland – University of Michigan (Retired) Mark Urban - HNTB
Robert Morrish – Canadian Pacific Rail (Retired) Donald Briggs – Kansas City Southern
Paul Li – UMA Group Denis Morin – Canadian National Railways
Maxwell Mitchell – Norfolk & Southern Railway (Retired) Patrick McCarthy – H. W. Lochner
Charley Chambers – Hanson - Wilson Inc Dallas Richards – HSMM Inc.
Brian Lindamood – Hanson – Wilson Inc. Larry Slater – TrackSense
Ronald Berry - Burlington Northern Santa Fe Railroad Craig Kerner – TrackSense
James Strong – Parsons Transportation Group Kevin Keefe – Union Pacific

Joseph Riley – Metra Eugene Russell – Kansas State University
Fred Aubertin – Canac Miodrag Budisa – CTE
Mark Acosta – Canadian Pacific Railway
Bernard Forcier – Railway Consultant
Gray Chandler – CSX Transportation
Dutch Miller – Hanson - Wilson Inc.
Andrew Gillespie – LTK
Allison Conway Smith – Railway Consultant
Thomas Devenney – LTK
H. Ian Hayes – LTK
Michael Trosino - Amtrak
Drew Galloway – Amtrak
Robert Humbert – DMJM + Harris
Johnny Johnson – RailPros
Kevin Bollinger – Bollinger, Lach & Associates
Steven Sumner – Metra
Paul Bollinger – Bollinger, Lach & Associates
Daniel Thatcher - HNTB
William Ross – Kootenay Valley Railway (CPR)
John Unsworth – Canadian Pacific Railway
David Staplin - LTK
Michael Franke – Amtrak
William Riehl III – Niemeyer & Associates
James McLeod – UMA Group
Greg McCarthy – Canadian National Railway
Wayne Clifton - Clifton & Associates
John Leeper – Burlington Northern Santa Fe Railroad
Clive MacKay – Canadian Pacific Rail
Tim Fitzpatrick – Visualarity Communications
Mario Ruell – Canadian National Railway
Ralph Zimmer – Montana State University
Tim Keegan – Canadian National Railway
Christian Brown - HNTB
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T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S
Table of Contents
Introduction ___________________________________________________________________________________1
Chapter 1 - Railway Development___________________________________________________________________5

1.1 Introduction _____________________________________________________________________________7
1.2 Determinants of Transportation Development ___________________________________________________9
1.3 Pre-railway Transportation in North America __________________________________________________10
1.4 Physical Determinants of Land Movement_____________________________________________________12
1.5 North American Railway Development and Impacts _____________________________________________15
1.6 Developments of the Twentieth Century ______________________________________________________19
1.7 Development of Canadian Railways__________________________________________________________21
1.8 Mexican Railway Development _____________________________________________________________23
1.9 Institutional Controls _____________________________________________________________________24
1.10 History of Railway Bridge Engineering ______________________________________________________25
1.11 New Technology – Bridge Developments in the Last Twenty Years ________________________________27
1.11.1 Existing Railway Bridges: Inspection and Assessment _______________________________________27
1.11.2 New Railway Bridges: Materials, Design, Fabrication and Construction__________________________28
1.12 Trade Journals _________________________________________________________________________29
1.13 Other References _______________________________________________________________________30
Chapter 2 - Railway Industry Overview______________________________________________________________31

2.1 Introduction ____________________________________________________________________________33
2.2 Railway Companies ______________________________________________________________________33
2.2.1 Organization of a Railway Company _____________________________________________________34
Transportation Department ________________________________________________________________35
Engineering Department __________________________________________________________________36
Mechanical Department ___________________________________________________________________37
Marketing Department ____________________________________________________________________37
2.3 Regulatory Agencies and Railway Associations_________________________________________________38
2.3.1 Regulatory Agencies __________________________________________________________________38
United States ___________________________________________________________________________38
Canada ________________________________________________________________________________39
2.3.2 Railroad Associations _________________________________________________________________39
AAR and RAC __________________________________________________________________________39
AREMA_______________________________________________________________________________40
REMSA _______________________________________________________________________________40
RSSI__________________________________________________________________________________40
2.4 Operations of Railways ____________________________________________________________________ 41
2.4.1 Safety First in Railway Operations _______________________________________________________41
2.4.2 Bibles of the Railways for Safe Operations_________________________________________________42
2.4.3 Tracks and Authority of Movements______________________________________________________43
2.4.4 Speeds _____________________________________________________________________________44
2.4.5 Rail Traffic Control Systems____________________________________________________________45
Radio Communication of Train Orders _______________________________________________________45
Train Spacing and Block Separation _________________________________________________________46
Track Circuit ___________________________________________________________________________46
Signal Block Length _____________________________________________________________________47
Centralized Traffic Control ________________________________________________________________47
Additional Information ___________________________________________________________________49
2.5 Railway Cars ___________________________________________________________________________49
2.5.1 Freight Cars_________________________________________________________________________49
Boxcars _______________________________________________________________________________50
Insulated Boxcars and Mechanical Reefers ____________________________________________________50
Intermodal Cars – Piggyback Trailers and Containers ____________________________________________50
Flat Cars_______________________________________________________________________________51
Auto Rack Cars _________________________________________________________________________51
Gondola Cars ___________________________________________________________________________51
Hopper Cars ____________________________________________________________________________52
Rotary Gondola/Hopper Cars_______________________________________________________________52
Tank Cars______________________________________________________________________________52
Maintenance-of-Way Cars _________________________________________________________________52
Schnabel Cars __________________________________________________________________________52
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2.5.2 Hazardous Commodities _______________________________________________________________53
2.5.3 Passenger Cars ______________________________________________________________________53
2.6 Locomotives ____________________________________________________________________________53
2.6.1 Horsepower (hp) and Tractive Effort _____________________________________________________54
2.6.2 Tractive Force and Adhesion ___________________________________________________________55
2.6.3 Drawbar Pull ________________________________________________________________________55
2.6.4 Train Resistance _____________________________________________________________________56
Rolling Resistance _______________________________________________________________________56
Davis Formula __________________________________________________________________________56
Starting Resistance_______________________________________________________________________57
Grade Resistance ________________________________________________________________________57
Curve Resistance ________________________________________________________________________57
2.6.5 Compensated Grade __________________________________________________________________58
2.6.6 Acceleration and Balance Speed _________________________________________________________59
2.6.7 Tonnage Ratings of Locomotives ________________________________________________________60
2.6.8 Ruling Grade________________________________________________________________________60
2.6.9 Momentum Grade ____________________________________________________________________60
2.6.10 Power to Stop ______________________________________________________________________61
2.7 Traffic Systems _________________________________________________________________________62
2.7.1 Priority of Trains_____________________________________________________________________63
2.7.2 Effects of Sharing Tracks by Freight and Passenger Trains vs. Track of Single Use _________________64
2.7.3 Overcoming the Delays that Occur in Freight Yards__________________________________________65
Chapter 3 - Basic Track__________________________________________________________________________67

3.1 Track Components ______________________________________________________________________69
3.1.1 Rail _______________________________________________________________________________69
Identification of Rail _____________________________________________________________________70
3.1.2 Ties _______________________________________________________________________________72
Timber Ties ____________________________________________________________________________72
Concrete Ties ___________________________________________________________________________75
Steel Ties ______________________________________________________________________________75
Alternative Material Ties __________________________________________________________________76
3.1.3 Ballast Section ______________________________________________________________________76
3.1.4 Rail Joints __________________________________________________________________________78
Standard Joints__________________________________________________________________________79
Compromise Joints_______________________________________________________________________79
Insulated Joints _________________________________________________________________________80
3.1.5 Tie Plates ___________________________________________________________________________82
3.1.6 Rail Anchors ________________________________________________________________________83
3.1.7 Fasteners ___________________________________________________________________________83
Spikes ________________________________________________________________________________84
Bolts__________________________________________________________________________________85
3.1.8 Specialized Components _______________________________________________________________85
Derails ________________________________________________________________________________86
Wheel Stops and Bumping Posts ____________________________________________________________86
Gauge Rods ____________________________________________________________________________87
Sliding (Conley) Joints____________________________________________________________________87
Mitre Rail______________________________________________________________________________87
Bridge/tunnel/overpass Guard Rails__________________________________________________________88
3.2 Turnouts ______________________________________________________________________________88
3.2.1 Types of Turnouts ____________________________________________________________________88
Basic Turnout Terminology ________________________________________________________________89
3.2.2 Switch _____________________________________________________________________________90
3.2.3 Switching Mechanism_________________________________________________________________91
3.2.4 Turnout Rails _______________________________________________________________________91
3.2.5 Frog_______________________________________________________________________________92
Rail Bound Manganese (RBM) _____________________________________________________________92
Spring Frog ____________________________________________________________________________93
Solid Manganese Self-guarded Frog _________________________________________________________93
Bolted Rigid Frogs _______________________________________________________________________94
Movable Point Frogs _____________________________________________________________________94
Determining Frog Number_________________________________________________________________94
3.2.6 Switch Ties _________________________________________________________________________95
3.2.7 Stock Rails _________________________________________________________________________95
3.2.8 Switch Points _______________________________________________________________________96
Identifying Left or Right Hand Points ________________________________________________________97
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3.2.9 Specialty Components_________________________________________________________________97
Switch Clips____________________________________________________________________________97
Switch Rods ____________________________________________________________________________98
Types of Switch Rods ____________________________________________________________________98
Connecting Rod _________________________________________________________________________99
3.2.10 Special Turnout Plates________________________________________________________________99
Gauge Plates ___________________________________________________________________________99
Switch Plates __________________________________________________________________________100
Rail Braces____________________________________________________________________________100
Heel Block Assembly____________________________________________________________________101
Turnout Plates _________________________________________________________________________101
Hook Twin Tie Plates ___________________________________________________________________101
Frog Plates ____________________________________________________________________________102
3.2.11 Guard Rails _______________________________________________________________________102
3.2.12 Switch Stands _____________________________________________________________________103
Spring Switch__________________________________________________________________________103
3.3 Railway Crossings and Crossovers _________________________________________________________104
3.4 Highway Crossings _____________________________________________________________________106
3.4.1 Crossing Construction and Reconstruction ________________________________________________108
3.4.2 Crossing Warning Devices ____________________________________________________________110
3.5 Utility Crossings _______________________________________________________________________111
3.6 Track Geometry________________________________________________________________________112
3.6.1 Gage _____________________________________________________________________________114
3.6.2 Alignment _________________________________________________________________________115
Full Body of the Curve___________________________________________________________________116
Transition Spiral of the Curve _____________________________________________________________117
Curve Elevation ________________________________________________________________________117
3.6.3 Surface ___________________________________________________________________________118
3.7 Safety ________________________________________________________________________________120
3.8 Maintenance Activities __________________________________________________________________122
3.8.1 Track Disturbance ___________________________________________________________________124
3.8.2 Track Disturbance Activities___________________________________________________________125
3.8.3 Rail Lubrication ____________________________________________________________________126
3.8.4 Rail Grinding ______________________________________________________________________127
3.8.5 Rail Defect Testing __________________________________________________________________128
3.8.6 Geometry Cars _____________________________________________________________________128
3.8.7 Gauge Restraint Measuring System (GRMS) ______________________________________________129
3.8.8 Vegetation Control __________________________________________________________________129
3.8.9 ROW Stabilization & Drainage_________________________________________________________131
3.8.10 Welding__________________________________________________________________________132
3.9 Production Gangs _______________________________________________________________________133
3.9.1 Production Rail Gang ________________________________________________________________134
3.9.2 Production Tie Gang _________________________________________________________________136
3.9.3 Production Undercutting ______________________________________________________________138
3.9.4 Production Surfacing Gangs ___________________________________________________________139
3.9.5 Road Crossing Renewal Gangs _________________________________________________________142
3.9.6 Turnout Renewal____________________________________________________________________143
3.9.7 New Track Construction/Cutovers ______________________________________________________144
References_______________________________________________________________________________147
Chapter 4 - Right-of-Way & Roadway_____________________________________________________________ 149

4.1 Introduction ___________________________________________________________________________151
4.2 Right-of-Way __________________________________________________________________________152
4.2.1 Right-of-Way Width _________________________________________________________________152
4.2.2 Fences ____________________________________________________________________________153
4.2.3 Utilities ___________________________________________________________________________153
4.2.4 Vegetation_________________________________________________________________________154
4.3 Roadway______________________________________________________________________________155
4.3.1 Soils _____________________________________________________________________________155
Definition_____________________________________________________________________________155
Soil Types ____________________________________________________________________________157
Major Soil Divisions ____________________________________________________________________157
Soil Texture and Composition _____________________________________________________________160
4.3.2 Geotechnical Processes _______________________________________________________________161
The Concept of Stress and Strain ___________________________________________________________161
Effective Stress ________________________________________________________________________162
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The Effect of Porewater Pressure___________________________________________________________162
Clays ________________________________________________________________________________163
Sand and Gravel________________________________________________________________________163
Silt __________________________________________________________________________________164
Soil Behavior Under Rapid Loading ________________________________________________________164
Effect of Shear Strain____________________________________________________________________164
Settlement ____________________________________________________________________________165
Seepage ______________________________________________________________________________166
4.3.3 Track Structure _____________________________________________________________________167
Historical Background ___________________________________________________________________167
Components and Functions _______________________________________________________________168
Subgrade _____________________________________________________________________________169
Sub-ballast ____________________________________________________________________________170
How Track Fails________________________________________________________________________170
4.3.4 Instability _________________________________________________________________________172
Main Features of Landslides ______________________________________________________________172
Slides that Affect the Track _______________________________________________________________172
Triggering Mechanisms __________________________________________________________________174
Remediation___________________________________________________________________________175
Soil Improvement_______________________________________________________________________176
Improved Slope Geometry ________________________________________________________________176
Reduce Seepage Pressure_________________________________________________________________177
Structural Support ______________________________________________________________________179
Inspection of Slopes _____________________________________________________________________180
Monitoring Slope Movements _____________________________________________________________180
Areas With the Greatest Hazard____________________________________________________________181
4.3.5 Settlement _________________________________________________________________________182
Basic Theory __________________________________________________________________________182
Influence of Construction Methods _________________________________________________________183
Influence of Soil Type ___________________________________________________________________183
4.3.6 Hazard Identification_________________________________________________________________184
Understanding the Factors ________________________________________________________________184
Understanding the Mechanisms ____________________________________________________________185
Identifying the Hazard ___________________________________________________________________185
4.3.7 Summary__________________________________________________________________________185
Chapter 5 - Drainage___________________________________________________________________________189
5.1 Hydrology ____________________________________________________________________________191
5.1.1 Equations and Programs ______________________________________________________________192
5.1.2 Rainfall Intensity or Precipitation _______________________________________________________195
5.1.3 Time of Concentration _______________________________________________________________197
5.1.4 Distribution ________________________________________________________________________198
5.2 Hydraulics ____________________________________________________________________________198
5.2.1 Open Channel Hydraulics _____________________________________________________________198
5.2.2 Culvert Hydraulics __________________________________________________________________202
5.3 Recommended Procedures ________________________________________________________________210
5.3.1 Existing Drainage Study ______________________________________________________________210
5.3.2 Proposed Drainage System ____________________________________________________________211
5.3.3 Floodplain Encroachment Evaluation ____________________________________________________212
5.3.4 Erosion Control Evaluation____________________________________________________________213
Chapter 6 - Railway Track Design_________________________________________________________________215

6.1 Stationing _____________________________________________________________________________218
6.2 Horizontal Alignments ___________________________________________________________________219
Staking Spirals by Deflections _____________________________________________________________227
Staking Spirals by Offsets ________________________________________________________________228
Applying the Spiral to Compound Curves (AREMA 1965)_______________________________________228
6.3 Vertical Alignments _____________________________________________________________________229
6.4 Alignment Design_______________________________________________________________________232
6.5 Turnouts ______________________________________________________________________________244
6.6 Design of Yards ________________________________________________________________________253
6.7 Clearances ____________________________________________________________________________256
References________________________________________________________________________________261
Chapter 7 - Communications & Signals___________________________________________________________ 263

7.1 Introduction to Signals ___________________________________________________________________ 265
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7.1.1 Railway Operation__________________________________________________________________ 265
7.1.2 Timetable Operation_________________________________________________________________ 266
7.1.3 Wayside Signals____________________________________________________________________ 268
7.1.4 Color Light Signal___________________________________________________________________ 269
7.1.5 Signal Terminology__________________________________________________________________ 269
7.1.6 Searchlight Signal___________________________________________________________________ 270
7.1.7 Operating Principle __________________________________________________________________270
7.1.8 Automatic Block Signals______________________________________________________________ 271
7.1.9 Signal Location_____________________________________________________________________ 272
7.1.10 Common Terms____________________________________________________________________ 273
7.1.11 Automatic Block Signal System_______________________________________________________ 274
7.1.12 Centralized Traffic Control (CTC)______________________________________________________ 275
7.2 Energy Source _________________________________________________________________________275
7.2.1 Batteries___________________________________________________________________________ 275
7.2.2 Battery Charging____________________________________________________________________ 276
7.2.3 Lightning Protection__________________________________________________________________ 278
7.3 Track Circuits___________________________________________________________________________ 279
7.3.1 DC Track Circuits___________________________________________________________________ 279
7.3.2 Track Circuit Operation_______________________________________________________________ 280
7.3.3 Train Shunting______________________________________________________________________ 282
7.3.4 Coded DC Track Circuit ______________________________________________________________283
7.3.5 Style "C" Track Circuit________________________________________________________________ 286
7.3.6 Overlay Track Circuits________________________________________________________________ 287
7.3.7 Overlay Track Circuits Operation_______________________________________________________ 288
7.3.8 Track Coupling Unit__________________________________________________________________ 288
7.3.9 AC Track Circuits and Relays__________________________________________________________ 289
7.3.10 Apparatus Used with AC Track Circuits_________________________________________________ 290
7.4 Track Switches__________________________________________________________________________ 291
7.4.1 Hand Operated Switch with SCC _______________________________________________________291
7.4.2 Electric Switch Lock__________________________________________________________________ 293
7.4.3 Dual Controlled Power Switch Machine__________________________________________________ 294
7.5 Highway Crossings_______________________________________________________________________ 297
7.5.1 Crossing Operation___________________________________________________________________ 298
7.5.2 Crossing Gates______________________________________________________________________ 299
7.5.3 Crossing Motion Detector/Predictor _____________________________________________________300
7.6 Centralized Traffic Control (CTC) __________________________________________________________302
7.6.1 Operation _________________________________________________________________________302
7.6.2 Sequence of Operation _______________________________________________________________305
7.6.3 Microprocessor Based Coded Track Circuits ______________________________________________308
7.6.4 Theory of Coded Track Circuit Operation_________________________________________________ 309
7.6.5 Solid State Interlocking_______________________________________________________________311
7.7 Defect Detectors_________________________________________________________________________ 313
7.7.1 Hot Box Detector____________________________________________________________________ 313
7.7.2 Hot Wheel Detector _________________________________________________________________313
7.7.3 Dragging Equipment Detector__________________________________________________________313
7.7.4 Wheel Defect Detector________________________________________________________________ 314
7.7.5 Slide Fence_________________________________________________________________________ 315
7.7.6 Flood Detectors______________________________________________________________________ 316
7.7.7 Fire Detectors_______________________________________________________________________ 316
7.7.8 High/Wide Load Detectors_____________________________________________________________ 316
Chapter 8 - Railway Structures___________________________________________________________________317

8.1 Introduction to Railway Structures __________________________________________________________320
8.2 Major Bridge Components ________________________________________________________________321
8.2.1 Substructure _______________________________________________________________________322
Investigate Underlying Soil & Geologic Conditions ____________________________________________322
Piling ________________________________________________________________________________322
Abutments and Piers ____________________________________________________________________327
8.2.2 Superstructure ______________________________________________________________________329
8.2.3 Bridge Deck _______________________________________________________________________330
Open Bridge Decks _____________________________________________________________________331
Ballasted Decks ________________________________________________________________________333
Open Deck Vs. Ballast Deck ______________________________________________________________335
8.3 Bridge Types __________________________________________________________________________337
8.3.1 Timber Trestles _____________________________________________________________________337
Terminology __________________________________________________________________________337
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Caps _________________________________________________________________________________339
Stringers______________________________________________________________________________339
Timber Connectors______________________________________________________________________340
8.3.2 Steel Bridges _______________________________________________________________________340
Girder Spans __________________________________________________________________________340
Truss Spans ___________________________________________________________________________342
Steel Trestles __________________________________________________________________________345
Viaducts ______________________________________________________________________________345
8.3.3 Concrete Bridges____________________________________________________________________346
Arches _______________________________________________________________________________346
Rigid-Frame Bridge _____________________________________________________________________346
Slab Bridges___________________________________________________________________________347
Concrete Trestles _______________________________________________________________________347
Concrete Girders _______________________________________________________________________348
8.3.4 Moveable Spans ____________________________________________________________________349
Bascule Bridges ________________________________________________________________________349
Swing Span Bridges_____________________________________________________________________351
Vertical Lift Bridges ____________________________________________________________________352
8.4 Other Structures ________________________________________________________________________355
8.4.1 Drainage Structures__________________________________________________________________355
8.4.2 Retaining Walls_____________________________________________________________________356
Gravity Retaining Walls__________________________________________________________________356
Crib Walls ____________________________________________________________________________356
Sheet Piling ___________________________________________________________________________358
Mechanically Stabilized Earth _____________________________________________________________359
Drainage of Retaining Walls ______________________________________________________________360
8.4.3 Tunnels ___________________________________________________________________________361
Tunnel Construction Methods _____________________________________________________________362
8.4.4 Sheds_____________________________________________________________________________364
8.5 Structural Design Considerations ___________________________________________________________365
8.5.1 Introduction________________________________________________________________________365
8.5.2 Bridge Loading ____________________________________________________________________366
Dead Load ____________________________________________________________________________366
Live Loads ____________________________________________________________________________367
Impact _______________________________________________________________________________370
Centrifugal Load _______________________________________________________________________372
Lateral Loads __________________________________________________________________________374
Longitudinal Loading____________________________________________________________________375
Wind Loading _________________________________________________________________________377
Stream Flow, Ice and Buoyancy____________________________________________________________378
Seismic Loads _________________________________________________________________________379
Combined Loads _______________________________________________________________________381
8.5.3 Other Structure Design Criteria_________________________________________________________381
Fatigue _______________________________________________________________________________381
Fracture Critical Members (FCM) __________________________________________________________382
Structure Serviceability __________________________________________________________________383
Bearings and Volumetric Changes __________________________________________________________385
Composite Design ______________________________________________________________________387
Bridge Design Assumptions and Constructibility Issues _________________________________________388
Recommended Construction Considerations __________________________________________________389
8.5.4 Retaining Wall Loads ________________________________________________________________391
References________________________________________________________________________________392
Chapter 9 - Railway Electrification________________________________________________________________393

9.1 Introduction ___________________________________________________________________________395
9.2 Development of Motive Power for Railways __________________________________________________395
9.2.1 Pioneers of Electric Traction Development ________________________________________________398
9.3 Rail Operation Classification ______________________________________________________________401
9.4 Mainline Railways and Independent Short Lines _______________________________________________403
9.4.1 Mainline Electrification Studies ________________________________________________________404
9.4.2 Mainline Infrastructure Compatibility____________________________________________________406
Maintenance___________________________________________________________________________407
Staff Safety ___________________________________________________________________________408
9.4.3 Impacts of Mainline Railway Electrification on Communities _________________________________408
9.5 Urban Railways ________________________________________________________________________409
9.5.1 Impacts of an Urban Electrified Light Rail or Commuter Rail System on the Community____________410
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9.6 Existing Electrification Systems____________________________________________________________411
9.7 New Electrification Systems_______________________________________________________________413
9.7.1 Sources of Primary Power______________________________________________________________414
9.7.2 Substations _________________________________________________________________________415
9.7.3 Power Distribution Systems ____________________________________________________________416
Feeder Cable Sub Systems ________________________________________________________________417
Negative Feeder Cable Sub Systems ________________________________________________________417
Contact System Sub Systems ______________________________________________________________417
9.7.4 Current Collectors ___________________________________________________________________419
Contact Shoe __________________________________________________________________________419
Trolley Poles __________________________________________________________________________419
Pantographs ___________________________________________________________________________420
9.7.5 Characteristics of Third Rail System_____________________________________________________420
Conductor Rail Supports _________________________________________________________________421
9.7.6 Characteristics of an Overhead Contact System ____________________________________________421
Single Wire System _____________________________________________________________________422
Catenary Systems_______________________________________________________________________425
9.7.7 OCS Style Selection _________________________________________________________________428
Location and Environment________________________________________________________________428
Copper Cross-sectional Area ______________________________________________________________429
Economics ____________________________________________________________________________429
Cost Factors of OCS Styles _______________________________________________________________432
OCS Design Basics _____________________________________________________________________433
9.8 Electrification Interfaces with Other Rail Elements _____________________________________________434
9.8.1 Right-of-Way ______________________________________________________________________434
Track Layout/Realignment________________________________________________________________434
Substations____________________________________________________________________________434
Supporting Structures for the Contact System _________________________________________________434
Systemwide Ductbanks __________________________________________________________________435
9.8.2 Track Structure _____________________________________________________________________435
9.8.3 Civil Structures _____________________________________________________________________436
Tunnels to be Electrified _________________________________________________________________436
Bridges Over Electrified Track ____________________________________________________________436
Bridges Under Electrified Track ___________________________________________________________436
Station Canopies _______________________________________________________________________437
OCS Attachments_______________________________________________________________________437
9.8.4 Signals and Communications __________________________________________________________437
9.9 Interfaces with Project-Wide Staff __________________________________________________________439
Bibliography ______________________________________________________________________________443
Chapter 10 - Passenger, Transit & High Speed Rail__________________________________________________445

10.1 Introduction __________________________________________________________________________447
10.2 Passenger Rail Modes___________________________________________________________________448
10.3 Distinctions between Railway Operations and Transit Operations _________________________________449
10.4 Passenger Rail Service and Vehicle Characteristics by Mode ____________________________________450
10.5 Passenger Rail Infrastructure Characteristics by Mode__________________________________________451
10.6 Passenger Railway Infrastructure Characteristics ______________________________________________453
10.6.1 High-Speed Rail (HSR)______________________________________________________________453
Route Alignment Considerations ___________________________________________________________453
Regulatory Compliance __________________________________________________________________454
10.6.2 Intercity Rail and Commuter Rail ______________________________________________________455
General_______________________________________________________________________________455
Track Standards ________________________________________________________________________455
10.7 Transit Infrastructure Characteristics _______________________________________________________457
10.7.1 Rapid Transit______________________________________________________________________457
Track Standards ________________________________________________________________________457
10.7.2 Light Rail Transit (LRT) _____________________________________________________________459
Track Standards ________________________________________________________________________459
10.7.3 Streetcar and Vintage Trolley _________________________________________________________461
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Track Standards ________________________________________________________________________461
10.8 Passenger Railway Maintenance Considerations ______________________________________________462
Maintenance Philosophy _________________________________________________________________462
Maintenance Practices ___________________________________________________________________462
10.9 Transit Maintenance Considerations________________________________________________________463
Maintenance Philosophy _________________________________________________________________463
Maintenance Practices ___________________________________________________________________464
10.10 Special Topics Associated with Passenger Railway Operations __________________________________465
10.10.1 Passenger Railway Line Capacity _____________________________________________________465
10.10.2 The Impact of Superelevation (Or Cant Deficiency and Why It’s Important) ____________________467
10.11 Conclusion __________________________________________________________________________469
Chapter 11 - Environmental Conditions & Permitting_________________________________________________471

11.1 Introduction __________________________________________________________________________473
11.2 Environmental Regulations of the United States ______________________________________________473
11.2.1 Wetlands Regulations________________________________________________________________474
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Regulatory Boundaries __________________________________________476
11.2.2 Wetland Definition ___________________________________________________________________477
11.2.3 Wetland Regulations __________________________________________________________________481
Nationwide Permits _____________________________________________________________________481
General Permits ________________________________________________________________________486
USACE Non-Jurisdiction Over Isolated Wetlands______________________________________________487
11.2.4 Best Management Practices ___________________________________________________________488
11.2.5 Endangered Species _________________________________________________________________488
11.2.6 Cultural Resources __________________________________________________________________491
11.2.7 Phase I Environmental Assessment _____________________________________________________492
11.2.8 Hazardous Waste ___________________________________________________________________494
11.2.9 Brownfields _______________________________________________________________________496
11.2.10 Asbestos _________________________________________________________________________496
11.2.11 Air Quality _______________________________________________________________________497
11.3 Environmental Regulations of Canada ______________________________________________________499
11.3.1 Canadian Wetlands Environmental Assessment Guidelines___________________________________500
11.3.2 Endangered Species ________________________________________________________________502
11.3.3 Hazardous Waste___________________________________________________________________503
11.3.4 Air Quality _______________________________________________________________________504
11.4 Environmental Regulations of Mexico ______________________________________________________504
11.4.1 Regulations _______________________________________________________________________505
11.4.2 Mexico Regulation for Hazardous Waste ________________________________________________506
11.5 Wetland Case Study ____________________________________________________________________507
Chapter 12 - European Curve and Turnout Mechanics________________________________________________511

12.1 Introduction __________________________________________________________________________513
12.2 Curves ______________________________________________________________________________514
12.2.1 Curve Definition ___________________________________________________________________514
12.2.2 Gage ____________________________________________________________________________515
12.2.3 Elevation in Curves _________________________________________________________________517
12.2.4 Elevation Transition ________________________________________________________________518
12.2.5 Track Warp _______________________________________________________________________523
12.2.6 Horizontal Transition Curves _________________________________________________________524
12.2.7 Theory of the Transitional Curves______________________________________________________526
12.3 Gradient Change_______________________________________________________________________529
12.4 Turnouts and Turnout Design_____________________________________________________________531
12.4.1 Measuring the Frog Angle ____________________________________________________________533
12.4.2 Turnout Calculations ________________________________________________________________534
12.4.3 Clothoidal Turnout__________________________________________________________________537
12.5 Speed Raising Improvements _____________________________________________________________540
12.5.1 Curve Improvements________________________________________________________________542
12.5.2 Surfacing and Lining________________________________________________________________543
Chapter 13 - Case Studies_______________________________________________________________________ 546

13.1 Introduction___________________________________________________________________________ 548
#1 - Casky, KY – Project Survey ______________________________________________________________549
#2 - Crestline, OH – Project Survey ____________________________________________________________555
#3 - FEC/SFRC Connection, West Palm Beach, FL for Amtrak Service – Project Survey ___________________559
#4 - Ft. Washington, PA – Project Survey________________________________________________________565
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Appendix_____________________________________________________________________________________A-1
Applied Science for Railway Tracks ________________________________________________________A-3
Turnouts, Connections and Crossings ___________________________________________________________B-1
Turnouts________________________________________________________________________________B-1
Location of Turnouts ____________________________________________________________________B-1
Turnouts from Straight Track______________________________________________________________B-1
Turnouts from Curved Track ______________________________________________________________B-3
Connections _____________________________________________________________________________B-3
From Straight Track_____________________________________________________________________B-3
Turnout from the Inside of a Curved Main Track ______________________________________________B-5
Turnout from the Outside of a Curved Main - Track ___________________________________________B-12
Parallel Tracks - Sidings __________________________________________________________________B-17
Parallel Tracks Both Straight Tracks _______________________________________________________B-17
Parallel Tracks - Curved Tracks __________________________________________________________B-18
Parallel Tracks - Crossovers _______________________________________________________________B-22
Crossovers - Straight Tracks. _____________________________________________________________B-23
Crossovers - Curved Tracks ______________________________________________________________B-24
Ladder Tracks __________________________________________________________________________B-25
Intersecting Tracks_______________________________________________________________________B-27
Intersecting Tracks - Both Tracks Straight___________________________________________________B-27
Intersecting Tracks - One Straight and One Curved Track_______________________________________B-31
Intersecting Tracks - Both Tracks Curved ___________________________________________________B-34
Wye Tracks ____________________________________________________________________________B-35
Wye Track - Straight Main Track _________________________________________________________B-36
Wye Track - Curved Main Track __________________________________________________________B-37
Diamond Turnouts _____________________________________________________________________B-38
Crossings ______________________________________________________________________________B-39
Crossing Data_________________________________________________________________________B-40
Straight Crossings _____________________________________________________________________B-41
Single-Curve Crossings _________________________________________________________________B-42
Double-Curve Crossings ________________________________________________________________B-42
Example Curve Problems With Solutions ________________________________________________________C-1
PROBLEM 1. _________________________________________________________________________C-1
PROBLEM 2. _________________________________________________________________________C-1
PROBLEM 3. _________________________________________________________________________C-1
PROBLEM 4. _________________________________________________________________________C-2
PROBLEM 5. _________________________________________________________________________C-2
PROBLEM 6. _________________________________________________________________________C-3
PROBLEM 7. _________________________________________________________________________C-4
PROBLEM 8. _________________________________________________________________________C-8
PROBLEM 9. _________________________________________________________________________C-9
PROBLEM 10.________________________________________________________________________C-13
PROBLEM 11.________________________________________________________________________C-18
Spiral Problems & Solutions _________________________________________________________________ D-1
Determining Degree of Curvature ______________________________________________________________E-1
Method of Determining Degree of Curvatue ______________________________________________________E-2
String Lining Curves ________________________________________________________________________ F-1
Stringlining of Railroad Curves________________________________________________________________G-1
Maintenance Processes _____________________________________________________________________ H-1
Ballast Unloading _____________________________________________________________________ H-3
Gauging on Wood and Concrete Ties ______________________________________________________ H-7
Mechanical Surfacing of Track__________________________________________________________ H-11
Switch Tie, Yard and Siding Ties and Programmed Maintenance Tie Renewal_____________________ H-17
Rail Train Rail Pickup ________________________________________________________________ H-22
CWR Rail Relay on Wood or Concrete Ties _______________________________________________ H-27
Mechanized Tie Renewal ______________________________________________________________ H-32
Track Abandonment __________________________________________________________________ H-37
Track Sledding ______________________________________________________________________ H-44
Installation of Panelized Turnouts _______________________________________________________ H-50
Unloading Continuous Welded Rail (CWR)________________________________________________ H-57
GLOSSARY ______________________________________________________________________ Glossary-1
ix
x
1
Chapter
AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING AND

MAINTENANCE OF WAY ASSOCIATION
Practical Guide to Railway Engineering
Railway
Development
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AREMA COMMITTEE 24 - EDUCATION & TRAINING
Railway Development
Prof. Don Cleveland, P.E. (Retired)
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, MI 48103-6141
doncleve@umich.edu
Robert R. Morrish, P. Eng.(Retired)
Canadian Pacific Railway

West Vancouver, BC. V7T 1P5
lbmorrish@shaw.ca
John F. Unsworth, P. Eng.

Calgary, AB. T2P 4Z4
John_unsworth@cpr.ca
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1
Chapter
C H A P T E R 1 – R A I L W A Y D E V E L O P M E N T
Railway Development
1.1 Introduction
History
“Ring Out, oh bells. Let cannons roar
In loudest tones of thunder
The iron bars from shore to shore
Are laid and Nations wonder”
T his quote from the May 11, 1869 The Chicago Tribune celebrated the
completion in Utah of the first transcontinental railway connection in North
America. By 1885 the Canadian Pacific completed the first single company
transcontinental line and the Atlantic and Pacific were also first linked in Mexico in the
19th century. The exciting impact of a technology that reduced a six-month to a six-day
trip can hardly be imagined today. In the lifetime of anyone reading this, we have seen
nothing with the impact on all aspects of life as the development of the railway.
Only 44 years earlier on October 27, 1825 George Stephenson’s steam locomotive,
“Locomotion Number 1” hauled a 90 ton load consisting of 36 cars carrying more
than 500 passengers and some freight at a sustained speed of 12 mph along the
Stockton and Darlington Railway in northern England. This was the culmination of
decades of imagination, promotion, engineering and experimentation.
What is a railway? A railway can be defined as an engineered structure consisting of

two metal guiding rails on which cars are self-propelled or pulled by a locomotive. In
his book John Armstrong defines a railway as:
“A railroad consists of two steel rails which are held a fixed distance apart on a
roadbed. Vehicles, guided and supported by flanged steel wheels and connected into
trains, are propelled as a means of transportation.” Webster’s Dictionary (1986)
defines a railroad as “1. A road laid with parallel steel rails, along which cars carrying
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passengers or freight are drawn by locomotives, 2. A complete system of such roads,

including land, rolling stock, stations, etc. 3. The persons or corporation owning and
managing such a system.”
The terms railway and railroad are sometimes used interchangeably. However, for
this book, railway will generally refer to the track and other closely associated
items, i.e., signals, crossings, bridges, etc. Railroad will be used where the usage
connotes the bigger system.
In commencing a railway engineering career, you are joining many fellow workers
in a complex and increasingly coordinated activity that is an integral part of any
civilized society. About one-seventh of the workers in advanced economies are
involved in some phase of transportation. Transportation, the movement of
persons and goods, of which railroading is a large and vital part, is tied in with the
location and magnitude of all kinds of human activity which depend on the timely
availability of quality goods and services. This ranges from the necessities of food
and fuel and work to leisure pursuits.
Many of you will be considered as transportation engineers specializing in railway

engineering (not operating trains). We can define railway engineering as that branch of
civil engineering involved in the planning, design, construction, operation and
maintenance of railway land facilities used for the movement of people and goods
serving the social and economic needs of contemporary society and its successors. The
complete railway engineer is active in all aspects of civil engineering practice, surveying,
geotechnics, hydrology, hydraulics, environmental and sanitary and structural design as
well as construction technology.
You will frequently encounter the word “mode” in your railway practice. A mode of
transportation is no more than a particular type of transportation defined in enough
detail for the purpose at hand. It can be as general as the medium through or on which
transportation takes place; for example, air, sea and land modes. The walking or
pedestrian mode involves the moving human. The public transportation mode
includes those systems such as rail commuter lines and public bus and taxi service.
Often, far more detailed descriptions are needed for effective analysis, communication
and understanding. The railway mode is a type of a land transportation mode as
defined above. The light rail transit mode is a further more specifically defined type of
rail service, typically today an urban, electrically powered system operating on its own
right of way with intersections with intersecting public streets. Other terms used in
railway engineering are listed and defined in the Glossary found at the end of this
Manual.
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1.2 Determinants of
Transportation Development
Transportation is rarely an end in itself except for those modes designed for the
enjoyment of passengers such as roller coasters. With these exceptions, transportation
serves only to provide a linkage between separated locations. Its usefulness can be
measured by the way in which this service impacts the:
Time needed to move from an origin to a destination.
Departure and arrival time.
Reliability of moving the actual or potential demand for movement.
Safety and comfort dimensions are also highly important.

Transportation of some sort beyond the human leg has always been needed since only
in the tropical paradise of a small Pacific Island could food, lodging, individual and
social needs be met. Society places a value, a willingness to pay, on the availability of
something at a location at a particular time. If that good can be purchased at another
location and if the total of that cost and the transportation cost is less than what the
buyers will pay, then there is an advantage to be gained from providing the
transportation service. Goods in Baltimore have no value to residents of Philadelphia.
Making them available in Philadelphia gives these goods a value. For example, an 1854
analysis of moving corn from an agricultural area in the USA to a potentially expanding
market place by horse and wagon equaled the cost of the corn after a distance of only
165 miles. The same analysis showed that the railway technology of that time could
extend this distance by a factor of ten to more that 1,600 miles.
An ideal transportation system would have no costs, take no time, be available at all
times, be capable of moving as little or as much demand as exists, do no damage to the
item being moved, meet comfort needs, be safe and be completely reliable. It is clear
that no mode can meet these ideals and that the components which contribute to the
potential of a mode depend on technology, human performance, capital availability,
organization, governmental support, regulation and interference, competing entities in
the same and other modes of travel and undoubtedly other factors.
Providing modern forms of transportation requires large initial investments and

continuing operating costs. All successful improvements in transportation are based
on demonstrating that the benefits or utility, results of improvements in service, exceed
the costs. These benefits can come from technological improvements, from
institutional opportunities flowing from relaxed constraints and from the availability of
capital investment. We will now consider some examples of the development of
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North American transportation innovations, which contributed immensely in benefits

and resulted in great societal changes.
1.3 Pre-railway Transportation in

North America
Through the fifteenth century, Native Americans relied on movement by water
wherever possible. Light and strong canoes constructed of wood and animal skins
could move up and downstream and be easily portaged between river headwaters and
lake access points by human carriers. Movement by land was limited to human power
with goods being carried or dragged necessarily short distances. This type of
transportation system appears to have been in place for hundreds of years and shaped
all aspects of native life. (See Figure 1-1)
Technology
Drag
Horse
Figure 1-1 Primitive North American Transportation
The first “technological” change was the 16th century introduction of the horse by the
Spanish settlers of Florida and the Southwest. Some of these horses escaped and were
quickly recognized by the natives as increasing their choices in all aspects of living,
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hunting, moving, warfare and the demands and pleasures of daily life. (The impact of
the horse in these primitive economies was probably as great as that of the railway in
the 19th century.) The natives needed no assistance in mastering control of this mode
of transportation and soon became expert in the care and use of horses as person
carriers as well as goods movers. Eastern Native American tribes did not have the
advantage of ready access to horses and their civilizations, which were close to the
immigrant European settlers, did not have time to benefit from this mode before they
were overwhelmed by westward expansion.
European immigrants introduced the use of the wheeled cart to North America. While
dry natural earth surfaces used by foot and horse traffic are satisfactory in dry weather
they quickly deteriorate into bumps and ruts from rain and frequent wheeled vehicle
traffic. The effective use of the horse-drawn wheeled vehicle for many uses depended
on the development of spring systems and a suitable surface. Consequently, the first
function is to pave the surface to provide a continuous smooth, load-bearing and
weatherproof surface. Of course, Europe was laced with the still suitable 1,500 year
old, immensely costly to build, often 40 feet wide stone surfaced Roman road network.
However, these massive (often 5-foot deep) structures were not economically feasible
in a young society unable to allocate capital for material and labor (free or slave) to
such an activity.
It was in the late 18th century that modern concepts of road building began to emerge
in Europe. It was realized that a proper surface rests on a base of rock aggregates,
which distribute the loads from the wheels to the subgrade below as well as draining
water away from the subgrade. Since massive quantities of such materials are needed in
a meaningfully extensive road system, such a road structure system must be economical
of materials and construction and maintenance effort if they are to consistently meet
the needs of traffic. Where built with these principles in mind, it became possible to
move persons and goods on land with horse drawn wheeled vehicles supplanting the
pack horse or human. In the United States, there was an extensive development of toll
roads and bridges and Federal support for a road-building program was initiated before
1800.
The generally dominant mode of transportation before and even after the emergence
of the science and engineering of improved road surfaces remained of course, the
water mode. Cities of any size were ports on oceans or navigable rivers. DaVinci
engineered a successful lock system in the 16th century and by the 18th century the
European development of an extensive canal system was followed by a similar
movement in North America. Investments in canals in the Eastern United States were
extensive and there was much governmental as well as private support for this early in
the 19th century. Interestingly, these investments peaked just as the railway explosion
decade of the 1830’s began. Although slow, the quantities movable by barge were
relatively large and operating costs were low.
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1.4 Physical Determinants of Land

Movement
Moving a vehicle on and/or through a medium, land, sea or air, requires overcoming
resistances to motion. For land vehicles, the total resistance (pounds or Newtons) is a
quadratic function of the vehicle’s speed. There is an initial constant resistance to
which is added a term, which is linear with speed, V. And another term captures
primarily the effect of the air resistance, which has been found to increase with the
velocity squared, V2.. The resulting relation is
R = a + bV +cV2
The shape, frontal area and sides of the vehicle or train are the primary determinants of
the constants associated with this air resistance. The overall effect of air resistance on
useful haulage comparisons among ground modes operating at the same speed is not
great.
The resistances between the vehicle contact point and the surface of the roadway are
very different for rubber-tired wheels on any kind of surface and metal wheels on metal
rails. Typical results for a motor truck and a train can be expressed in g’s in the
following table:
Speed, V
10 mph 60 mph
Railway 0.001 g 0.024 g
Truck 0.009 g 0.090 g
This significant advantage of railways in overcoming resistances can be used in several

ways. The train can operate at higher speeds, carry more payload, reach higher
elevations easier or use less power. (See Figures 1-2 and 1-3)
In the long run it is the cargo capacity that counts most in comparative energy
requirement analyses. Morlok presents a comparison of several transportation modes,
using as a measure of effective performance, the combined speed and size of the cargo
being moved in a day, this being expressed as ton-miles per day. For example, a
human can carry 100 pounds 20 miles in a day, producing one-ton mile. Both the pack
horse and wheelbarrow can produce 4 ton-miles/day, a horse cart on good pavement
10, a fully utilized truck 20,000 and a long haul train more than 500,000 net ton-
miles/day. Clearly, moving large quantities of freight long distances along the same
route favors the railway mode. Table 1-1 shows these findings published before 1840.
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There are several forms of motive power, which are used to overcome resistances to
motion along a railway route. The primary source of energy for movement comes
from converting fuel to heat and then to propulsive force in the locomotive. However,
there are also the accelerative force of gravity on downgrades, the stored energy
manifested in the speed of movement of the large mass of a train and energy in its
many rotating parts. When one considers the available designed horsepower of the
railway locomotive, the barge power plant, or the engine of a truck as well as the weight
of the vehicle needed to handle cargo, one finds that the slow moving barge requires
only 0.2 hp/net ton carried, the railway and pipeline 2.5 and the truck 10. However, at
higher speeds, the railroad becomes, by far, the most economical mode of
transportation.
Figure 1-2 Model Resistance
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Figure 1-3 Train Resistance
Table 1-1 Early Studies of Resistances and Transportation Efficiencies
Source: Day; 1831
Resistive Force Resistance Ton miles Net ton miles Cost/net

Type of Surface
Lb. * g's Moved/day Moved/day Ton-mile
Gravel Road 147 .063 21.4 16.1 5.23 c
Broken Stone Rd. 46 .020 68.5 51.4 1.64 c
Well made pavement 33 .014 95.4 71.6 1.17 c
Tramway 24 .010 133.9 100.5 0.84 c
Railroad 9.8 .004 321.4 241.1 0.35 c

* Weight of wagon is 2,100 pounds
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1.5 North American Railway

Development and Impacts
Modern railway transportation became possible with the invention of the steam engine
by James Watt in the late 18th century. This multiplier of the ability of man to harness
energy initiated the industrial revolution. In the transportation field, the steam engine
was first used in ship transportation to give more flexibility to upstream river and
coastal travel and was immediately seen as a possible portable motive power source for
land vehicle transportation. (See Figure 1-4) Entrepreneurs soon began to push for
necessary governmental approvals to meet the need for land for routes, and both
private and governmental sources were tapped for capital.
The energy saving advantages of a solid rolling wheel on a hard supporting surface for
moving goods were used at least as early as the 17th century. There were fixed and
relatively close origins and destinations, coupled with large amounts of material to be
moved. Such situations were found in moving coal and ore within the mine and from
mine heads to ship side or destination. The propulsion of the carts used for such
movement was often gravity with horses used to back haul the empties back to the
mine. These railway forerunners were first surfaced with wooden rails on stone, then
with these rails covered with iron strips. Of course, it was natural to attempt to
develop a physical means of reliably guiding the vehicle. So-called fixed guideway
systems existed in some Roman roads where rock roads with longitudinal constant
separation (gauge) grooves kept wheeled vehicles fitting these grooves on the desired
path. The flanged wheel with the flanges on the inside of the rail was soon discovered
to be the best way of preventing undesirable lateral movement of the wheel associated
with forces produced while traversing a curve. Trevithick, an English colliery engineer,
put a steam engine on guiding wheels in the early 1800s.
There were active American development attempts well before Stephenson’s 1825
successful demonstration. Between 1786 and 1804 Evans and others had conducted
demonstrations. John Stevens ran a successful rail vehicle in 1810 and advocated the
chartering of railways rather than canals in 1815. He was ignored. Of course, Robert
Fulton’s 1807 steamboat running upstream on the Hudson from New York City to
Albany at an average speed of 5 miles per hour convinced even more skeptics. (See
Figure 1-5)
Within five years of Stephenson’s 1825 English demonstration, the railway

transportation mode in North America had a vibrant beginning. The first track in the
United States was put in service in 1830 on what was to become the Baltimore and
Ohio Railway. (See Figures 1-6 and 1-7) The 1830’s were exciting for railway
development throughout the world. By 1836 railway construction was underway in 14
states and 1,000 miles had been completed by 1840. There was a 163-mile continuous
section in Pennsylvania and 262 locomotives were already in service.
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Side Paddle
Paddle
1807
African Queen Screw 5 MPH
Figure 1-4 Early Steam Applications in Watercraft
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Flange Out
Grooved
Haunch
Ringwalt
Figure 1-5 English Railways and Freight Cars, as Illustrated in Strickland’s Report, 1826
Railways quickly became a major factor in accelerating the great westward expansion,
as well as tying the older eastern population and industrial centers together, by
providing a reliable, economic and rapid means of transportation. As additional lines
were built, they facilitated the establishment and growth of towns in the West. Except
for the trip from farm to railhead in town, the poor roads and limited canals became
irrelevant. The Federal government and states encouraged and provided financial
support through land grants and loans, which were paid back with reduced rates for
half a century.
Since the first railways, there have been many improvements in all aspects of
railroading. For example, the development of the iron flanged “T” rail was achieved by
1840. (See Figure 1-8 for an early track section) Until mass steel making was
developed, there was a continuing controversy between the use of malleable iron vs.
cast iron for rail. By 1840 wooden ties kept in place by ballast stone had replaced
simple stone surface support.
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Figure 1-8 An Early Track Section - Source: Day
1.6 Developments of the

Twentieth Century
The railways peaked in 1920 when there were 250,000 miles in service in the United
States. Following the growth in motor truck usage and the completion of the
Interstate Highway System, this had declined to 155,000 miles in 1983.
In the first 60 years of the twentieth century, there were relatively few, obviously better,
but not widely adopted, technological changes in the railway industry. Notable were
improvements in the development and wide adoption of the diesel-electric locomotive
and signal systems and train control. This was not for a lack of engineering and
scientific advances, but a feature of the regulatory and capital investment climate. The
explosion in the use of the automobile and truck contributed to a decline in adopted
innovations until inter-city rail passenger travel all but disappeared.
Since then, the stability of the transportation market, regulatory constraint loosening
and the incredible advances in electronics have led to a host of innovations universally
adopted and contributing to development of a more efficient rail mode. A partial list
of some of the most important of these follows:
Continuously Welded Rail (CWR) 1/4 mile long on large parts of the rail network.
Concrete tie usage expanding dramatically.
Precast bridge segments.
Geotextile applications in subgrade improvement.
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Double tracking major lines to achieve capacity increases as well as economically

justified realignments.
Increases in clearances to accommodate larger cars.
Highway grade crossing eliminations and protection upgrades.
Elimination of unneeded track by major railways and the emergence of the

“shortline” railway company handling many of these low volume lines profitably
using low cost approaches.
Intermodal terminal and handling technology and the development of new yards.
High-speed rail development, particularly in foreign countries.
The elimination of steam locomotion and advances in diesel-electric propulsion to

include AC traction systems as well as propulsion braking systems.
Development of specialized cars and incorporating them into intermodal

operations including widespread use of containers and container handling
equipment.
Adoption of long known improvements in bearings used in freight cars.
Changes in national and urban area rail passenger transportation to include light
rail transit systems and the formation of public agencies with responsibilities in
these increasingly important areas.
A concern with environmental impacts of all types.
Heightened concern with employee and public safety.
Better scheduling of operations to satisfy the need for more reliable time sensitive
transportation to support “just-in-time” inventory control.
Downsizing employment in the industry and the greater use of contractors and
consultants.
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1.7 Development of Canadian

Railways
The railway has had a tremendous impact on the growth and location of economic
activity in this enormous country. Its size, climate and the immense Rocky Mountain
range pose challenges to any ground transportation system.
The explosion of railway activity in the first half of the 1830’s was not matched in
colonial Canada. There, initial development was delayed a few years, among other
reasons, by the already ongoing investments in canals and waterway transportation in
the eastern populated Upper and Lower Canada.
There had been precursors to railways before that time. As in Britain, moving stone
from quarries short distances to building sites or to water transportation terminals on
tracks with horse drawn cars took place in Canada. The French capitol fortress
Louisburg on Cape Breton had stone moved in this way about 1720. A few years
before railway development, a steam-powered winch was used to pull cars on tracks
carrying materials used to construct Quebec’s Citadel.
Coping with waterways frozen five months per year and poor roads, political and
commercial figures soon saw the potential benefits of a railway system. The first
Canadian railway, the Champlain and St. Lawrence, linking the St. Lawrence and
Richelieu rivers, began passenger and freight service in 1836, three years after President
Andrew Jackson rode as a passenger on the Baltimore and Ohio Railway. Three years
later the 6 mile long Albion Mines Railway, linking that mine to a pier near Pictou,
Nova Scotia, began operation.
The St. Lawrence and Atlantic Railway, linking Montreal and Portland, Maine, and
providing a year round ocean outlet for Montreal, was privately but inadequately
financed by local and English sources. The Guarantee Act of 1849 provided federal
support in the form of a partial interest guarantee on half the bonds, and this line was
then completed in 1853.
The Great Western Railway linking Niagara Falls with Windsor near Detroit was
completed a few months later. This line had also obtained a loan from the government.
Prior to confederation in 1867, the most ambitious project was the Grand Trunk
Railway. It was intended to tap the needs of the Great Lakes area as well as prairie
Canada, and ran from Sarnia at the foot of Lake Huron to Montreal, being finished in
1860. The tunnel linking Sarnia to the United States was completed in 1891 and a new
tunnel was completed in 1995.
The effect of the railways in locating and stimulating growth of newer urban centers
was notable. Toronto, Winnipeg and Vancouver are examples.
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The first Canadian built locomotive was manufactured in Toronto in 1853. Canadians
invested in making almost everything used by the railways. In many smaller
communities, the railway was the largest and dominant employer and its facilities
became the focus for the development of the community’s commercial, industrial and
residential properties. The first successful rail car braking system and the rotary
snowplow were developed by Canadians. Fleming devised the time zone system as a
response to difficulties in coping with innumerable local times along the rail lines.
Formation of the Canadian nation in 1867 emphasized the need for railway
transportation ties. Authorization of the construction of the Intercolonial Railway was
written into that year’s Constitution Act. This railway was owned and operated
federally, being financed primarily by British loans backed by imperial guarantees. It
was completed in 1876 and linked the Maritimes with the main population centers.
In 1871 British Columbia joined the nation with the promise of a rail connection to
eastern Canada. President Lincoln had signed the American Transcontinental Railroad
Authorization Act in 1862 and transcontinental service in the United States was
completed in 1869. The Canadian government, wishing to connect western Canada
with the east, signed a contract with the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) in 1880. The
CPR received cash, land, tax concessions, and 20 years of protection from competition
on the prairies. The CPR was built through the Rockies, in a still admired engineering
and construction feat led by William Van Horne, and was completed to Vancouver in
1885. A passenger train moved from Montreal to the Pacific in the summer of 1886.
Population growth in the prairie west after 1900 strained the CPR capacity and another
phase of expansion began. The Canadian Northern Railway added links to Regina,
Saskatoon and Edmonton. There were other notable efforts including the Grand
Trunk Pacific, constructed between 1906 and 1914 using the Yellowhead Pass to
Prince Rupert, BC.
Overbuilding and World War I caused a crisis. Immigration ended and capital became
harder to secure. In May 1917, nationalization of all but the CPR and American lines
was recommended by a royal commission. The Canadian National Railways, CN, was
the name authorized and its organization was completed in 1923.
Several lines were extended northerly in the following decades. For example, in 1954
the Quebec, North Shore and Labrador Railway accessed the gigantic iron-ore deposits
in that region. The Great Slave Railway opened in 1965 between northern Alberta and
the Northwest Territory at Hay River.
Other important milestones included the introduction of the diesel-electric locomotive

by the CN in 1928. Full dieselization was reached on the CN and CPR in 1960. Long
distance passenger service was provided by VIA Rail in 1978.
In 1984 the CPR pioneered North American use of AC traction for locomotives. The
CN was privatized in 1994.
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James Marsh, writing in the Canadian Cyclopedia (this text adapted in part from his
Railway History article), stated “the building of the Transcontinentals, perhaps
provided for Canada the closest approximation of a heroic age.”
Readers are encouraged to turn to Appendix “A” to read the excellent article prepared
by Robert Morrish, retired Chief Engineer of the Canadian Pacific Railway entitled
“Applied Science for Railway Tracks – 1946 to 2002” to gain, not only an
understanding of the development of maintenance processes in Canada, but in all of
North America as well.
1.8 Mexican Railway Development

As in the United States, the development of railways vastly affected Mexican
commercial expansion and national progress. As early as 1837, a federal decree granted
a concession for a railroad from Mexico City to Vera Cruz on the Gulf Coast.
However, nothing came of this. The first of the large railways, the Mexican Railway,
finally began this project in 1867 with the delay being due to national political
instability. The line was completed in 1873. The resulting advantages were so great that
a connection with the United States became imperative and capital was readily made
available for railway access to a mountainous country without navigable rivers or
canals.
The Central, formed in 1880, served the backbone of the country traversing the ridge
of the plateau and the flattened crest of the Mexican Andes from Mexico City to the
Rio Grande, with branches going from intermediate points to both the Atlantic and
Pacific coasts. The first train crossed the border at El Paso, Texas in 1882.
The National, authorized in 1880, was a long narrow gauge railroad with a total
length of 2,000 miles, which ran from Mexico City west to the Pacific and entered
the Unites States at Laredo, Texas. It created a direct link from New York to
Mexico City, a distance of almost 3,000 miles. The Morelos, another narrow
gauge line, crossed the country from Vera Cruz to Acapulco. It was entirely
developed with Mexican capital, engineering and labor. A portion was opened in
1881 and one week later a bridge foundation was washed out, resulting in the loss
of life for 200 passengers.
Following the 1914 revolution, the Mexican Constitution mandated that the Federal
Government own the only still surviving railroad, FNM (Ferrocarriles [iron horse]
Nacionales de Mexico). As has often been the case, governmental operation led to
shortcomings in efficiency, reliability, service and competitiveness. Even with Mexico’s
poor highways, FNM carried only 15% of the nation’s freight in 1995. In 1995, a
privatization of the rail system was authorized and by the end of the century, seven
separate regional rail systems had been sold by public auction. Franchises can extend
as long as 100 years.
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The largest and most heavily used (46% of tonnage) system is the Northeast Railroad
or TFM, connecting Mexico City with Laredo, Texas (> 50% of US trade crosses
here). It has branches to Brownsville, Texas and the Gulf and Pacific coast ports,
operates on 2,600+ miles of track and began operations in 1997. Forty-nine percent
ownership is held by KCSI. The second largest system, partially owned by the UP,
Ferrocarril Mexicano, operates about 5,000 miles of track in northwestern Mexico with
connections to the southwest United States.
Mexican rail transportation is highly competitive with trucks as shipments are generally
much shorter than in the United States. The absence of intermodal facilities and
customs clearance problems is a current challenge.
1.9 Institutional Controls

A particular institutional and usage challenge was placed by the fact that before the
railway, there was no transportation system able to carry various types of traffic
combined with single ownership and control of the way, cars and propulsion system.
It is clear that significant efficiencies were obtained when this occurred, although early
systems with ownership and control of the road in one hand and all cars and power
owned by several private entities were tried.
Federal control of many aspects of railway operation and service has been a feature
since their founding. Until 1980 railways were the most and longest regulated
American industry. The Interstate Commerce Act was passed in 1887 to rein in
monopolistic practices and provide fair access at reasonable rates to shippers.
In the 1976-80 period, it was finally recognized that the need for railway regulation in
all aspects of operation was no longer necessary and the Staggers and other Acts freed
the marketplace somewhat. Labor agreements between the railways and the
brotherhoods have improved flexibility of operations. There were no important
railway mergers between 1910 and 1955. Since 1980, three-quarters of the railways
have been merged out of existence. Intercity passenger movements have been in the
hands of heavily subsidized AMTRAK for more than 30 years. AMTRAK operates
trains on private railway tracks under agreement. AMTRAK also operates a high-
speed service on its own ROW in the Boston-New York Northeast Corridor.
Current regulatory bodies include the Federal Railway Administration, FRA, in the
United States and Transport Canada. OSHA and Labor Canada have a strong say in
workplace safety.
With the mergers and capital analyses, a large civil engineering force at each of the
railways, capable of designing, constructing and maintaining the way has virtually
disappeared. Many of these activities are now performed by consulting engineers and
contractors. This Practical Guide to Railway Engineering is an attempt by
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engineers with decades of experience to share with engineers new to railway

engineering, much of the knowledge they have acquired over their professional careers.
1.10 History of Railway Bridge

Engineering
William Worthington of the Smithsonian Institution presented a historical survey of
American railway bridges at the 1991 meeting of the American Railway Bridge and
Building Association. He covered 19th and early 20th century developments
thoroughly and this section summarizes part of his presentation.
Displayed in the National Museum of American History next to the John Bull,
Stephenson's steam locomotive, which ran in New Jersey in 1831, is the nation's first
cast and wrought iron railroad bridge, built in 1845 by Richard Osborne for the
Philadelphia and Reading RR. This bridge was in use until 1901.
Of course, stone was the preferred bridge material when promptly and economically
available. However, stone construction was slow and expensive. Fortunately, the
continent was covered with forests and wood was the best solution where available,
despite its structural limitations and fire hazard. Many stone bridges were constructed
and a large number of these 19th century masonry bridges are still in use.
Using wood, American railway bridge designers soon played a lead role in bridge truss
design. Almost one wooden bridge design patent was issued each year in the first half
of the 19th century. Among those were the Pratt and Howe truss designs, which could
be used with both wood and metal structures. Although their life was limited, wood
bridges made it possible to extend a line quickly and cheaply.
A key wooden structure, making it possible to keep railway grades low, was the timber
trestle. It could be constructed quickly and would have a life of at least 15 years.
Numerous trestles were ultimately converted to fills by hauling material to the site
cheaply by train. Worthington believes that the 1892 Two Medicine Bridge on the St.
Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba Railway is perhaps the ultimate example of the 19th
century wooden bridge builders' art. It was 750 feet long and 210 feet high. Of
particular interest is that by that time steel was the material of choice. But location,
cost and time constraints dictated a wooden trestle at this location
The distinctive Bollman truss, incorporating elements of truss and suspension bridge
design, was used in the 1850-70 period to replace many of the first generation wooden
bridges, particularly on the B & O RR.
As in other parts of the world, there were failures. One notable 1887 accident, costing
23 lives, occurred on the Boston and Providence RR. Before the failure, loose nuts
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had occasionally been found below the bridge. The failure was traced to the fracture of
two hangers suspending the track structure from the top chord. They were poorly
designed and of inadequate strength and the fracture had existed for a considerable
time. Theodore Cooper, father of the bridge loading analytic system still in use,
characterized this as
"An abortion in design and construction in which no engineer had any part."
Perhaps the most unusual American railway bridge of that century was the Niagara
Gorge suspension bridge designed and built in the 1860's by John Roebling, designer
of the Brooklyn Bridge. The only feasible construction technique available was the
suspension type, which with stiffening could accommodate the light railway fleet of the
day. Rail traffic used the upper deck and vehicular movements were on the lower level.
Despite limiting rail traffic to 5 mph the deck truss flexed somewhat. In 1869, Mark
Twain observed that when crossing it you:
"Divide your misery between the chances of smashing down 200 feet into the river
below and the chance of having the railroad train overhead smashing down on you.
Either possibility is discomforting taken by itself, but mixed together they amount to
positive unhappiness."
One of the most significant steps taken in bridge construction after the Civil War was
the application of the ancient method of cantilever construction.
During the 1870-90 period, steel manufacturing developments created a market for this
material and the steady supply of reasonably priced products in many shapes permitted
construction of all-steel bridges. As bridges became stronger, more powerful and
heavier, locomotives required even stronger bridges. For example, on the B&O RR,
the heaviest engine in 1865 weighed 91,000 pounds, while in 1890 it had increased to
133,00 pounds and another 25 years later in 1915, it reached 463,000 pounds
To accommodate these increased weights, speeds on older bridges had to be limited to

an unacceptable 15 mph and bridge replacements were necessary. The first all-steel
bridge in Glasgow, MO was replaced in 1901 after only 22 years of service.
Twentieth century bridge design exhibited a sturdy sameness. Smaller bridges were
likely assembled of Pratt or Warren designs. Some longer and higher bridges were
built, culminating in the high Huey P. Long Bridge over the Mississippi River at New
Orleans.
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1.11 New Technology – Bridge

Developments in the Last Twenty
Years1
Innovation and technology development over the past twenty years has focused on the
challenges related to the maintenance of existing railway bridges; as well as the design
and construction of new bridges required to improve railway infrastructure safety and
reliability.
1.11.1 Existing Railway Bridges: Inspection and

Assessment
Like many railway-engineering personnel, the railway bridge infrastructure is aging. The
existing bridge infrastructure is also being subjected to heavier axle loads and increased
traffic volumes. The planning and design work associated with the assessment and
maintenance of existing railway bridges is an engineering challenge requiring an
understanding of the modern railway live load regime and the behavior of railway
bridge structures.
Inspection of railway bridges has improved thorough the use of on-track bridge
inspection vehicles and various non-destructive testing techniques that allow the
engineer or inspector to obtain a thorough understanding of existing bridge conditions
in a safe manner. There have also been many bridge access safety improvements in
recent years such as the provision of fall protection lifelines and walkways on bridges.
Modern railway live loads are of large magnitude and frequency. While heavy
locomotive weights have not increased substantially since the 1920’s, car weights have
increased considerably. Modern car axle loads are of the same magnitude as
locomotive axle loads. This means that existing railway bridges are subjected to many
more applications of heavy axle loads than envisaged at the time they were originally
designed and constructed.
The resulting increased stress ranges and greater number of cycles of load precipitates
fatigue damage accumulation in some bridge components. Recent developments
associated with structural analysis, stress-life fatigue behavior and crack behavior,
enable the railway bridge engineer to assess the safe fatigue life of railway bridges. The
railway bridge engineering community has been instrumental in developing
improvements in the stress-life testing of components with characteristics typical of
1 John Unsworth, Canadian Pacific Rail.
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existing steel railway bridges. Railway bridge engineers have also been leaders in the use
of linear elastic fracture mechanics in conjunction with acoustic emission monitoring
and other non-destructive techniques for fatigue life assessments.
Modern computer programs have brought a host of analytical tools, such as three-
dimensional structural analysis, to the engineer’s desktop. Modern non-destructive
testing techniques, such as strain measurement and ultrasonic testing, can be used with
advanced structural analysis to gain a better understanding of structural behavior of
components and details. Furthermore, recent developments in railway bridge strength
rating methods have allowed for strength rating calculations based on load regimes on
bridges over an indefinite period of time and at infrequent intervals.
Innovative techniques and materials strengthened with fiber reinforced composite

materials and cable post tensioning have been used to strengthen railway bridges.
Bridge engineers have been able to develop bridge replacements and/or rehabilitations
on a project and program basis through the use of computer based bridge management
inventory and condition rating systems. These developments have enabled railway
bridge engineers to propose appropriate and cost-effective rehabilitation and
strengthening of existing structures to maximize the life of the structure.
1.11.2 New Railway Bridges: Materials, Design,

Fabrication and Construction
Replacement of railway bridges becomes necessary when economical rehabilitation and
strengthening are not feasible. To construct safe, cost-effective and maintainable
railway bridges, engineers have adopted recent technology developments in the areas of
analysis, materials, design and fabrication.
The computer is playing an important role in the analysis of structures. However,

while sophisticated computer analysis is available and used by modern bridge
engineers, it is not a substitute for an understanding of structural behavior. Many
experienced bridge engineers may not know their way around a computer keyboard,
but have an intuitive understanding of structural behavior that electronics technology
cannot completely replicate. However, for experienced bridge engineers, an improved
understanding of the load and force distribution is available through advanced
computer structural analysis.
Over the past 20 years railway car axle loads have increased by more than 30%.
Investigation into the dynamic stresses imposed on railway bridges and the stress-life
behavior of bridge components have permitted improved engineering designs.
Longitudinal traction loads due to new AC high adhesion locomotives have also been
identified and included in modern railway bridge designs. Improved understanding of
serviceability issues such as fatigue, deflection, vibration and concrete crack control
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under heavy axle load regimes has been facilitated by recent railway bridge engineering
research efforts.
Design methods such as limit states methods for concrete structures have improved
the reliability of concrete bridges. Modern seismic deign methods based on
performance limit states have been developed in recent years. Composite steel-concrete
structure design has been developed for railway bridges to produce economical, easily
constructed and maintainable ballasted deck structures.
Material improvements have been considerable over the past two decades. Alloyed
weathering steels that are resistant to atmospheric corrosion with good fracture
toughness and high strength (yield strength up to 70 ksi and 100 ksi) have been used in
the design and construction of new railway bridges. High strength concrete has made
possible the efficient design of heavily loaded railway bridges with improved durability.
Prestressed concrete has also been utilized for short span construction. Economical
concrete box girder and slab bridges using precast prestressed and cast-in-place post-
tensioned technology have been used for ballasted railway bridge construction. Precast
segmental construction has provided for cost effective substructure and superstructure
replacement with minimum interruption to traffic. Technology development for the
economic replacement of existing railway timber bridges has involved developments
such as prestressed concrete rehabilitation and replacement components.
Welding technology improvements have enabled the economical construction of steel

bridges with improved fatigue characteristics. Computerized shop fabrication has
improved fabrication accuracy and efficiency.
In recent years, CWR has been installed on both open and ballasted deck bridges due
to recent work on the understanding of effects of bridge movements due to thermal
expansion, particularly on open deck type bridges.
Protective coatings and paint materials and methods improved considerably over the
past 20 years. Zinc rich paints, epoxy and polyurethane paint systems for shop
painting and overcoating have been developed.
It is expected that technology improvement in the area of railway bridge engineering

will develop at an increased pace due to the need to maintain, rehabilitate and
reconstruct an aging railway bridge infrastructure.
1.12 Trade Journals

Currently one can keep current by reading the following monthly magazines: Railway
Age, Progressive Railroading and Railway Track and Structures. AREMA Proceedings
are an important source of current advanced practices.
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1.13 Other References

In preparing this overview, reference has been made to the 1839 2d. edition of James
Day’s A Practical Treatise on the Construction and Formation of Railways, London,
and J. L. Ringwalt’s self-published in Philadelphia in 1888 Transportation Systems in
the United States. A modern transportation text used in many university courses is
Edward Morlok’s, Introduction to Transportation Engineering and Planning,
McGraw-Hill, New York. Thomas F. Hickerson’s, Route Location and Design,
McGraw-Hill presents many of the geometric problems associated with railroad
surveying practice. Part of the material on Mexican Railways is adapted from a recent
article by Attorney Richard A. Allen of the Zuckert, Scootl and Rasenberger law firm.
William Worthington in the 1991 Bridge and Building Proceedings presented an
historical survey of railway bridge and building history.
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2
Chapter

RailwayIndustry
Overview
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AREMA COMMITTEE 24 – EDUCATION & TRAINING
Railway Industry Overview
Paul Li
UMA Engineering, LTD.

Edmonton, AB. T5S 1G3
pli@umagroup.com
Maxwell B. Mitchell
Norfolk Southern Railway (Retired)

Trion, GA 30753-1703
mbmitchell@att.net
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2
Chapter
C H A P T E R 2 – R A I L W A Y I N D U S T R Y O V E R V I E W
Railway Industry
Overview
2.1 Introduction
T he railway industry encompasses not only the operating railway companies and
transit authorities, but also the various government regulatory agencies, railway
associations, professional organizations, manufacturers and suppliers of
locomotives, railcars, maintenance work equipment and track materials, consultants,
contractors, educational institutes and, most important of all, the shipping customers.
The information in this chapter is of a general nature and may be considered as typical
of the industry. However, each railway company is unique and as such it must be
understood what is included in this chapter may not be correct for a particular
company.
2.2 Railway Companies

Government owned freight railways are nowadays limited to some regional lines where
transportation service must be protected for the economic well being of the
communities. Passenger railways, on the other hand, are generally owned by
governments. Transcontinental services, such as the Amtrak or VIA Rail in Canada,
are corporations solely owned by the respective Federal Governments. These
passenger railway companies normally do not own the trackage infrastructures. Except
for certain connecting routes and dedicated high-speed corridors, they merely operate
the passenger equipment on existing tracks owned by freight railways. Local rapid
transit systems are usually operated as public utilities by the individual municipalities or
transit authorities on their own trackage. Commuter services may be operated by
government agencies or private sector on either their own or other railway owned
trackage.
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Freight railways in North America, including those owned by government, are usually
incorporated as separate legal entities from their owning shareholders. The major
railroads are usually owned by public companies with shares traded through the
various stock exchanges. Due to their age, most of these companies were incorporated
under special charters or acts of Congress. Private companies, the shares of which are
not openly traded, may own the smaller regional or short line railroads.
2.2.1 Organization of a Railway Company
An incorporated railway is governed through a Board of Directors appointed by the

shareholders at the Annual General Meetings (AGM) together with a public auditor.
The Board of Directors normally meets once a month to decide on corporate issues,
budget and major fund appropriation. Day-to-day business is handled by the Chief
Operating Officer (COO), Company Secretary, and Chief Financial Officer (CFO)
reporting to the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) who is the President of the company.
These four senior executives at the corporate level may be appointed by the Board of
Directors or shareholders at the AGM as stipulated in the corporate by-laws.
The COO heads the operation of the railway. Except for the Class 1 railways, the
CEO and COO are often one and the same person. Under the COO, there are four
major departments. These are the Transportation, Engineering, Mechanical, and
Marketing departments. There are other smaller yet important ancillary departments
under the COO that help run the company. These are the Human Resources,
Industrial Relations, Labor Relations, Safety and Loss Control, Occupational Health
Services, Supply Management (purchasing), Real Estate, Public Affairs and Police
Departments. The Corporate Affairs, Legal and Regulatory Affairs departments
usually report to the Company Secretary while the Financial Planning, Budget, Costing,
Accounting, Taxation, Internal Auditing and Information Technology (IT)
departments report to the CFO. The IT department’s reporting to the CFO is
possibly due to the history of computers being first introduced in railways for
accounting purposes. The Investor Relations department usually reports directly to the
CEO.
As the major railways’ networks span thousands of miles or even across the continent,
the operating departments (Transportation, Maintenance of Way and Structures,
Communications and Signals and Mechanical) are normally structured in various levels
of geographic control. In the past, it was common to see four levels of management,
e.g. the Headquarters, Regions, Divisions and Subdivisions. Supervisors and managers
of the different operating departments reported upwards level-by-level, independent of
the other departments, to the three separate headquarter chiefs. There was no
marketing function in those days with all sales handled by the station agents reporting
through the Transportation Department.
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Modern communication facilities have allowed the railways to reduce the levels of
geographic control down to two or three. Some railways have changed their reporting
relation from the former line organization (single line up different department) to a
functional organization where the different operating departments within the same
geographic level report to one General Manager of Operations. The operating
departments of Transportation, Maintenance of Way and Structures, Communications
and Signals and Mechanical transform into functions within one “Operations
Department,” so to speak. These railroads believe that this type of organization
promotes cooperation among the operating departments and improves operations.
However, many railroads have retained the departmental line reporting structure as
outlined in the above paragraph. The departments of such railroads do work closely
with their counterparts in the other departments.
Transportation Department
The Transportation Department is responsible for train operations on lines and in
terminals as well as tracking the locations of all locomotives and rolling stock (loads
and empties). Terminal operation includes supervising of yard crews in the breaking
up of arrived trains, marshaling traffic into different destination blocks, and the making
up of departing trains. Line operation includes the supervision of Rail Traffic
Controllers (train dispatchers and tower operators) and train crews (locomotive
engineers, conductors and trainmen) to ensure on time delivery of trains. While the
yard and train crews report to the front line transportation supervisors and terminal
operations coordinators (trainmasters and yardmasters), crew calling for duty is done in
some railways through a Crew Management Center. The conductor is the head of the
train crew and responsible for the complete train while the locomotive engineer is
responsible for the operation of the locomotives and train handling. In the absence of
the conductor, the locomotive engineer is in charge of the train. In the past,
locomotive engineers reported to the master mechanics because of the specialized
trade knowledge required to operate the locomotives. Nowadays, locomotive
engineers report to the transportation supervisors. Passenger and Commuter/Transit
railways include a Passenger Operations Department to handle the logistics associated
with transporting people including train scheduling, information dissemination,
ticketing and stations, as well as the operations of large passenger terminals. Rail traffic
controllers (dispatchers) report through a separate line of supervisors in the Rail Traffic
Control Centers. With the advance of communication technology, many railways have
centralized their former local dispatching centers under one roof for the entire
network.
The traditional function of Traffic Systems in tracking locations of loads has been
replaced electronically by the universal Automatic Equipment Identification (AEI)
system adopted in North America. However, some car-checkers are still required to
assist the yardmaster in locating specific cars within major terminals.
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The chief of transportation at the headquarters level is now responsible only for
network operations, centralized rail traffic control, motive power control, car
management, traffic system service reliability, service design, Operating Practices (rules
and training) and network capacity planning.
Engineering Department
The Engineering Department is responsible for the maintenance and construction of
plant infrastructures, including track, roadbed, right-of-way, bridges, drainage culverts,
buildings, signal plant, communication systems and electric traction systems.
Much smaller crews covering larger territories now replace former sizable local
maintenance of way crews. Their work consists mainly of small day-to-day
maintenance repairs such as defective rail change out behind rail test cars, correcting
track geometry defects found by the Track Geometry Car, and emergency repairs
necessitated by adverse weather conditions and derailments. The track supervisors
(roadmasters) are responsible for track inspection and workforce management. Much
of the reporting is now commonly done in the field with a portable computer or using
the touch-tone pad of a telephone.
Large mechanized production crews that may travel over sizeable portions of the
railroad, for the most part, now perform programmed or out-of-face rail and tie
renewal work.
The Bridge and Building Group (B&B) is generally responsible for the track carrying
bridges, occasional overhead roadway bridges, under track culverts, and roadway signs.
In the past, the B&B forces also were responsible for the railway’s buildings, hence, the
building portion in the name. However, for the most part, contractors on many freight
railroads handle the building maintenance function. On many commuter and transit
properties, the Bridge and Building Department continues to be responsible for station
buildings and platform structures.
The Work Equipment Group maintains and performs heavy repairs for track and
bridge maintenance machines used by the Maintenance of Way and Structures
department as well as signal & communications and electrical traction equipment. This
group may even design and build machines that the supply industry does not offer the
industry.
Communications and Signals are responsible for maintaining the in-house telephone
and radio communications system, the active wayside train control signals, the rail-
highway grade crossing signals and dispatcher centers.
For electrically powered railways, the Electrical Traction department is also a separate
engineering function, which maintains the electric traction system including
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substations, electrical distribution system, power management systems and required

bonding and grounding.
The Engineering Services (Design and Construction) function looks after all the
technical services, such as liaison with regulatory agencies, surveying, design, drafting,
tendering and contract administration to facilitate construction work. They also handle
all applications for wire, pipe and road crossings, industrial private tracks and 3rd party
construction.
For those railroads where all departments report to a General Manager Operations, the
Chief Engineer at headquarters is primarily responsible for engineering standards,
research and development, maintenance practice, centralized design functions (track,
signals and communications systems, bridges and structures, etc.) and prioritizing the
maintenance and capital budget among division needs. For those railroads where the
departments report through their own departmental chain of command, the respective
headquarters Engineering Department Chief Engineer is responsible for the above
functions as well as the program maintenance functions, structure maintenance and
renewal, signal upgrades and installations, and track, bridge, culvert and signal
inspections.
Mechanical Department
The Mechanical (Motive Power and Equipment) Department at the division level is
responsible for scheduled maintenance, inspections and repair of locomotives and
rolling stock. Day-to-day maintenance of locomotives includes basic inspection,
fueling, sanding, changing brake shoes, flushing out toilets and washing. Minor repairs
to railcars include changing out wheels, air hoses and brake shoes. Major repairs to
locomotives and fleet conversion of railcars are now mostly done at the “back shops”
under headquarters’ control. With some railways, the car mechanics responsible for
inbound and outbound inspections of trains now report to the Transportation
Department. The Mechanical department may also be responsible for the majority of
the MOW rolling stock.
The Mechanical Chief is responsible for equipment standards, maintenance practices

for motive power and rolling stocks, and the major repair shops.
Marketing Department
The Marketing Department concentrates on research and development of various
market sectors (e.g., coal, sulphur, potash, fertilizer, grain, agricultural products, metal
and minerals, timber, pulp and paper, automotive, merchandising and intermodal) and
revenue growth. The Industrial Development group handles the negotiations with
customers in the construction of private trackage. The other functions of Marketing
include customer services, account management, quality assurance and operation
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interface. With some railways, operations of the intermodal terminals and cargo flow
also report to the Marketing Department.
2.3 Regulatory Agencies and

Railway Associations
2.3.1 Regulatory Agencies
United States
The Surface Transportation Board (STB) regulates railroads regarding mergers in the
United States. Additionally, the STB has the power to issue directed service orders to
one railroad to operate another, or a portion of another railroad that is no longer
capable of operating on its own. Such operations normally continue until such time as
either an acquisition is made or it is determined to discontinue service all together. In
the early 1980's, railroads were deregulated in the rate-making arena and Federal
approval is not required for the raising or lowering of rates. Railroads may now enter
into rate contracts with customers.
In the operations area, the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA), a part of the
Department of Transportation, regulates the railway industry. Among the things that
the FRA regulates are locomotive and rolling stock inspections and brake tests, train
operating procedures, radio communications procedures, track and signal safety
standards, fall protection, as well as employee on-track safety. Additionally, the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulates work place safety of
railroads in areas that the FRA does not have specific regulations unless the FRA has
made a determination that regulations are not needed in that specific area.
Additionally, in the United States, the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) is
charged with investigating all major train accidents and the issuance of cause findings
as well as recommendations for the prevention of future occurrences. The NTSB’s
recommendations are not binding unless the FRA adopts them. However, with very
few exceptions, even if the FRA does not adopt the recommendations, the company
on which the train accident occurred will adopt the NTSB’s recommendations in at
least some modified form.
Other governmental authorities exerting regulatory control over the railways include
state agencies, state Departments of Transportation (DOT), commerce commissions
and local governmental entities empowered to enact local ordinances.
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Canada
In Canada, the Canadian Transportation Agency (CTA), Transport Canada (TC), and
the Transportation Safety Board (TSB) regulate the Federally Regulated Railways, the
railways that are inter-provincial. Intra-provincial railroads are provincially regulated.
The CTA addresses rate disputes, switching disputes, cost appropriations disputes
(fencing, installation of crossing warning systems, etc.). They listen to both sides,
consult with Transport Canada, and make determinations within sixty days of hearing
the dispute.
TC regulates railroads at the federal level in a similar manner as the FRA does in the
United States except for on-track safety or fall protection. While the regulations in the
two countries are not identical, they are similar. On-track safety and fall protection are
regulated by Labour Canada. Transport Canada requires that affected railways adopt
and comply with the AREMA Communications and Signals Manual of Recommended
Practice recommendations.
TSB, similar to the NTSB in the United States, investigates serious train accidents.
Recommendations of the TSB are reviewed and sometimes worked into existing rules
or operating practices.
Many provinces adopt some or most of the Federal regulations/rules regarding the
intra-provincial railroads. Other provinces have completely separate regulations for
railroads under their jurisdiction.
2.3.2 Railroad Associations

There are numerous railway associations that address the various functional areas of
the railway industry.
AAR and RAC

The Association of American Railroads (AAR) is the industry lobbying association of
the major freight railroads in United States, Canada and Mexico, as well as Amtrak.
The AAR, working closely with Congressional and government leaders, helps
formulate the framework of railroad operations in North America. It fosters
cooperation among railways and helps set operating rules, regulations on the handling
of inter-line traffic and interchange standards for railway equipment. The Railway
Association of Canada (RAC), with 55 freight, passenger, commuter and tourist railway
members, is the counterpart of AAR in Canada. For more information on AAR and
RAC, visit www.aar.org and www.railcan.ca.
The AAR also provides railroad information exchange services through RAILINC,
one of its two subsidiaries. Transportation Technology Center, Inc. (TTCI) is the
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other AAR subsidiary. With its 48 miles of test track in Pueblo, CO, TTCI focuses on
research programs that will enhance railroad safety, reliability and productivity.
AREMA
The American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association (AREMA)
is the organization that represents the engineering function of the North American
railroads. This organization was the result of the merger in 1997 of the American
Railway Engineering Association (AREA), the American Railway Bridge and Building
Association, and the Roadmasters and Maintenance of Way Association. In 1998, the
Communications and Signals group that had been a part of the Association of
American Railroads (AAR) joined AREMA, thus bringing all of the engineering
functions under a single umbrella. The AREMA mission is centered about the
development and advancement of both technical and practical knowledge and
recommended practices pertaining to the design, construction and maintenance of
railway infrastructure. One of the primary tasks of the 26 committees making up
AREMA is the development and updating of the recommended practices provided in
the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering. For more information, visit
www.arema.org.
REMSA
On the supply side is the Railway Engineering-Maintenance Suppliers Association
(REMSA). This association consists of many of the vendors that supply the products
and services that the railway engineering departments need. REMSA was created in
1965 by the merger of the Association of Track and Structures Suppliers and the
National Railway Appliances Association. The association represents companies and
individuals who manufacture or sell maintenance-of-way equipment, products, and
services, or are engineers, contractors and consultants working in construction and/or
maintenance of railway transportation facilities. The mission of REMSA is to provide
global business development opportunities to members; to transfer knowledge about
markets, products and the industry to members and their customers, and to support
government initiatives that advance the North American railroad industry. For more
information, visit www.remsa.org.
RSSI
Railway Systems Suppliers, Inc. (RSSI) is a trade association serving the
communication and signal segment of the rail transportation industry. RSSI continues
to grow with over 250 member companies. The primary effort of RSSI each year is to
organize and manage a trade show for its member companies to exhibit their products
and services. The association was incorporated in 1966 as the Railway Signal and
Communication Suppliers Association Inc. Previous to that time it existed as two
separate entities, one for the signal area and one dealing in the communications area of
the railroad industry. Although records are vague for the years previous to 1966, there
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are indications that one or both of these entities were in existence as far back as 1906.
In 1972 the corporate name was changed to Railway Systems Suppliers, Inc. The
governing body of the RSSI is made up of fourteen directors from fourteen member
companies and meets five times a year. For more information, visit www.rssi.org.
2.4 Operations of Railways

2.4.1 Safety First in Railway Operations
The safety of operations, being the safety of employees and train operations, is the first
priority of railroads. No one should be exposed to unnecessary hazards and risks.
Responsibility for safety cannot be transferred. Each employee and contractor of a
railroad must accept this principal and each is personally held accountable for his
actions. Safety is a condition of working on a railroad.
Railway transportation entails the movement of heavy equipment carrying people and
goods, some of which can be hazardous or even flammable. An accident inflicts not
only property damage but also personal injuries, occasionally fatal. Where long
stretches of track are destroyed by a derailment, it may take days to restore traffic.
The business of railways has been deregulated by governments, but not the safety of
operations. On issues regarding safety of operations, although the railways are
provided with the opportunity to self-regulate, they remain reportable to the FRA or
Transport Canada. Except for minor incidents involving no personal injury, property
damage or hazardous material release, all accidents must be reported to regulating
agencies. These regulating agencies have authority to issue temporary speed
restrictions or even suspend operations until the investigation is completed and the
cause of the accident determined.
The investors and customers are also concerned about the railways’ safety records.
Wall Street analysts include the railway’s safety performance in their evaluation of the
company’s value. Potential customers, particularly those in the petroleum and
chemical industries, commonly evaluate accident records of the railways on the
proposed routes before choosing a carrier. The business success of a railway depends
greatly on its safety performance.
The Safety and Loss Control Department of a railway is generally set up as a function
independent of line operations but often reporting directly to the COO. This set-up is
to ensure that safety is never compromised by economy of operations. The Safety and
Loss Control Department provides safety training, performs safety audits, makes
recommendations for safety improvement, keeps records of all accidents, and ensures
investigations are done impartially. However, unless safety is ingrained in each and
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every employee, no Safety Department can make a railway safe. The safety process
must be ingrained in all departments from the department head down to each and
every employee as well as contractor/consultant employee with all employees taking
responsibility and accountability for safety.
2.4.2 Bibles of the Railways for Safe Operations
In order to achieve the capacity to move the required amount of traffic safely and
productively under all weather conditions, every railway must have certain “bibles” to
regulate its operations. These are:
The Operating Rules, which are generally adopted from either:
The General Code of Operating Rules (GCOR) by the Association of American

Railways (ARR), or
The Canadian Rail Operating Rules (CROR) by the Railway Association of

Canada,
The NORAC Operating Rules used by some New England & Eastern United
States Railways,
Norfolk Southern Operating Rules,
CSX Operating Rules,
The General Operating Instructions (GOI),
Current Timetable and Terminal Operating Manuals, including special instructions

and subdivision instructions,
General Bulletin Orders (GBO) and Daily Operating Bulletins (DOB).

Each railway requires its operating employees to be re-trained and re-qualified at
regular intervals ranging from one year in the United States to one to three years in
Canada.
Railway Engineering Departments, the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) in the

United States and Transport Canada in Canada issue additional instructions that
regulate how maintenance and construction of the components that make up the
physical elements of the railway structure are to be maintained and/or performed,
including but not limited to:
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MOW Rules or Chief Engineers Instructions/Standard Practice Circulars (SPC’s).
FRA Track Safety Standards.
Transport Canada Track Safety Rules.
FRA Rules and Regulations Governing Railroad Signal and Train Control
Systems.
FRA Fall Protection (Workplace Safety).
FRA On-Track Safety (Workplace Safety).

The AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering, the AREMA Portfolio of Trackwork
Plans and the AREMA Communications & Signals Manual of Recommended
Practices provide industry recommended practices associated with design, construction
and maintenance of railway track, bridges, signal and communication systems,
roadway, roadway related facilities and electric traction systems.
2.4.3 Tracks and Authority of Movements

Tracks are divided into “main tracks” and “other than main tracks” based on the level
of control required for train or engine movements.
The main track is the track extending through yards and between stations, upon which
trains or engine are authorized and governed by one or more methods of control. The
main track must not be occupied without authority or protection. The term
“mainline” is not defined in the rulebooks and generally refers to the series of
subdivisions on which most of the traffic is carried, as opposed to secondary lines and
branch lines.
Portions of the main track may be designated by limit signs in the field and/or by
timetable or special instructions that permit certain types of movements without
specific authority. Certain speed restrictions normally apply. These limits are often
called “Yard Limits”.
Occupancy of “Other Than Main Tracks” does not require authority from a
dispatcher/rail traffic controller (RTC) or tower operator. This class of tracks includes
all tracks other than the main tracks or sidings. Safety of movement on these tracks
depends on the locomotive engineer looking out for other movements, obstructions,
and people working on the tracks. The Rule Book therefore requires that trains or
engines on “Other Than Main Tracks” must move at a speed that allows them to stop
within half the range of vision short of train, engine, or railroad equipment fouling the
track, stop signal or derail or switch lined improperly or a maximum of 20 MPH,
whichever is less (Restricted Speed).
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There is one other type of track, Sidings and Signaled Tracks, that can either be
controlled under main track rules or “other than main track” rules. A siding is defined
as “a track auxiliary to the main track, for meeting or passing trains, which is so
designated in the timetable.” General bulletin orders (GBOs), train orders, or daily
operating bulletins (DOBs) and track bulletins are instructions regarding track
condition restrictions and other information which affect the safety and movement of
a train or engine. Signaled siding and signaled tracks, on which main track rules apply,
are usually listed in the subdivision instructions of timetables. Note that signaled
sidings or tracks refer to those tracks where the entire trackage is bonded with track
circuits and signaled, not just the turnouts.
In the United States, trackage may be designated as “FRA Excepted Track” by the
owner. This trackage is exempt from the FRA Track Safety Standards with the
exception of maintenance of required track inspection frequencies and maximum
permissible gage. The maximum permissible speed operated on these tracks must not
exceed 10 mph. The operation of revenue passenger trains or freight trains with more
than 5 placarded cars (hazardous material) is not allowed. (See Chapter 3 Basic Track –
Track Geometry for more information and requirements associated with Excepted
Track.)
2.4.4 Speeds
Speed is a vital yet conflicting factor in the transportation business. Higher speeds
improve capacity and productivity but increase the safety risk and maintenance costs.
Each railway goes through strenuous analysis to establish the maximum permissible
speeds on its network of main tracks to balance the effect of safety and maintenance
costs against capacity and productivity. Compliance to the speed restrictions is
mandatory to the well-being, of not only the company, but also its operating
employees.
The maximum permissible speeds or zone speeds on main tracks are shown in the
subdivision instructions in the timetable. Separate speeds are usually specified for
passenger, freight, and express trains. Different speeds may also be allowed for
opposing train directions and tracks.
Within a speed zone or designated subdivision, there are usually temporary speed
restrictions (TSR) and permanent speed restrictions (PSR). PSR are listed in the
timetable with the maximum permissible speeds operated over the subdivision and
may have signs along the track, dependent upon the carrier. TSR are usually
designated by bulletins.
At locations where main tracks are connected with turnouts or intersecting each other
with diamond crossings (railroad crossings at grade), movements usually have to slow
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down to a speed that can be safely accommodated by the turnouts or crossings. On

non-signaled tracks, the speed restrictions are listed as PSR in the timetable. On
signaled tracks, the signals are designed to indicate the maximum permissible speed of
the movement through the turnouts and interlocking. Unlike the traffic lights on city
streets, railway signal systems are capable of displaying dozens of different instructions
to the trains through various combinations (up to a hundred for some railways) of
color lights, relative positions of the lights, and use of marker plates. These different
signal aspects are designed to provide speed instructions, not only for that particular
signal location, but also for the second or even third signal further down the track.
Operable speeds over track are also defined by the FRA Track Safety Standards in the
United States and the Transport Canada Track Safety Rules. Speeds are defined by the
Class of Track (Class 1 through 5) and High Speed (Class 6 through 9) in the United
States and Classes 1 through 6 in Canada. Permissible operating speeds are limited by
performance criteria in a number of track oriented parameters. (See Chapter 3 – Basic
Track, Track Geometry for more detail.)
2.4.5 Rail Traffic Control Systems

Before any communication device was available, train movements were by fleet
operations, that is, all trains ran in one direction until all had arrived, then they operated
in the opposite direction. Next came operations by timetable schedules, which allowed
trains to operate in both directions. Trains were classified by superiority to determine
which train would take the siding at a meet. The lower class train had to wait at the
siding until the higher class train had arrived or its schedule became ineffective after 12
hours. With the installation of telegraph lines, a system of train dispatching by
“timetable and train orders” was rapidly adopted due to its ability to handle non-
scheduled or “extra” trains. The train order process is safe but time consuming. In
order to achieve higher capacity, railways have evolved into more efficient traffic
control systems, with or without signal control.
Most of the former train order rules have been eliminated and replaced with
occupancy control system (OCS) rules in the CROR (Canada), or with track warrant
control (TWC) or direct traffic control (DTC) rules in the GCOR (US). These
modern non-signaled systems are modified train order systems that take advantage of
the high-tech radio communication and computers.
Radio Communication of Train Orders

A train order, clearance, authority or instruction that is required to be in writing can be
transmitted by voice radio communication from the dispatcher/operator or in Canada,
the rail traffic controller (RTC), to the train and copied in writing by a member of the
train crew, usually on a pre-printed form. The crew member copying the order must
repeat the order to the dispatcher/operator or RTC, word for word from the copy.
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The dispatcher/operator or RTC checks the repeat against his/her written order for
correctness, underscoring each word and digit as it is repeated. If correct, the
dispatcher/operator or RTC will respond complete, the time and the initials of the
dispatcher/operator or RTC, which are recorded by the crew member. The order is
not complete and must not be acted upon until the crew member has acknowledged
by repeating the complete time and the initials of the dispatcher/operator or RTC to
the dispatcher/operator or RTC and an OK is given by the dispatcher or RTC.
Train Spacing and Block Separation

When trains were dispatched by timetable and train orders, a train following another in
the same direction relied on time spacing and flag protection to prevent rear-end
collisions. A train was not allowed to depart a station less than five or ten minutes,
depending on the road, after a preceding train in non-signaled territories had departed.
If a train slowed down, the flagman in the caboose had to light and throw off five or
ten-minute fusees to signal the following train to immediately reduce speed to
restricted speed. If the train stopped, the flagman had to scramble back a sufficient
distance to protect the train.
Rear-end collision can be prevented by dividing the track into “blocks” and allowing
only one train in each block at a time. The early Manual Block Signal (MBS) system
had operators stationed at each block entrance to manually set the block signals to
indicate whether the block was occupied or not. The early signals consisted of a black
ball hoisted on a pole, with the high position indicating “proceed,” hence the term
“high ball.” This later evolved into the use of “semaphore” arms and to the current
color lights that can be set by dispatchers hundreds of miles away.
The automatic block signal (ABS) system was developed after Dr. William Robinson
invented the track circuit in 1872. The ABS system is mainly used for directional
operations on two or more tracks with designated current of traffic or on relatively
low-density single tracks.
Track Circuit
Insulated joints are used to separate the track circuit of each block from another. A
battery powered low voltage direct current is passed through the two rails from one
end of a block to energize a relay at the other end of the block. The energized relay
coil picks up the iron relay armature to close the “proceed” signal circuit, which is
powered by another battery. When the track is occupied, the wheels shunt the track
circuit, taking current away from the relay. With the relay coil not energized, the
armature drops by gravitational force (no spring used in railway relays) and opens the
“proceed” signal circuit to give a “stop” indication. The track circuit is a fail safe
design and is often referred to as the Vital Circuit. If any of the components fail, such
as a rail break, the circuit drops to indicate a “stop” signal. This is the basic one-block
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signal plant. Current systems are more sophisticated, using complicated interlocked
switching logic to provide multi-block indications.
Signal Block Length

The single block system is not practical as all trains, not knowing whether the next
block is occupied or not, must slow down such that they are prepared to stop at the
end of each block. The current ABS systems use “two-block, three-indication” as a
minimum standard. With the two-block, three indication system, each block must be
at least as long as the longest normal stopping distance for any train on the route,
travelling at its maximum authorized speed. When a block is occupied, the signal into
this block automatically drops to a “stop” or “restricting” indication, allowing a
following train to proceed only at restricted speed. (On some roads, this may be a
“stop and proceed” indication requiring a train to stop before being permitted to
proceed at restricted speed.) The signal into the block immediately following the
occupied block changes to an “approach” indication when the block is vacated. An
“approach,” allows a following train to proceed into this first vacant block but requires
it to slow down preparing to stop at the next signal. The signal into the second vacant
block (i.e., if both blocks are not occupied) would give an unrestricted “clear”
indication, allowing a train to proceed at track speed. In order to move trains along
smoothly without slowing down due to receiving an approach indication, the trains
must be spaced two blocks or two braking-distances apart. The excess train spacing is
one braking distance.
To increase line capacity, more and more railways are changing to a three-block, four-
indication system by dividing the existing block lengths into halves. The four-
indication system requires the use of an additional secondary approach signal indication
such as an “advance approach,” which indicates to be prepared to stop at the second
signal ahead. The three-block separation, each block being only half the braking
distance, allows trains to be spaced at one and one-half the braking distance apart.
The purpose of automatic block signals is to prevent rear-end collision. The ABS
system is best suited for double or multi track territories with designated “current of
traffic,” normally running on the right-hand track. Passing of a slow train by another
train in the same direction is impossible by ABS alone. When passing is needed, or
when track work or serious delay requires left-hand movements against the current of
traffic, clearances (train orders) are issued. Nowadays, any remaining ABS systems are
mostly operated within OCS or TWC rules.
Centralized Traffic Control

On single track territories or double track sections where crossing over is allowed,
there is no current of traffic. The common signaled system used in such a territory is
the centralized traffic control (CTC) system. The requirement for an absolute “stop”
(instead of the permissive “stop and proceed”) and wait for train meets or passes
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necessitate the use of “controlled signals” at sidings, junctions or crossovers in double

track sections. These controlled signals and the associated switches are lined and
locked by dispatchers remotely located in a centralized rail traffic control (RTC) center
often hundreds of miles away.
All turnouts within a CTC territory are circuit controlled and interlocked with other
track circuits. Turnouts at controlled locations (sidings, junctions and crossovers) are
often equipped with “dual control switches.” A dual control switch is normally power
operated remotely by the dispatchers and electrically locked, but can be released by a
qualified employee for manual operation in the field. Other turnouts (to industrial
spurs, private tracks or some low traffic branch lines) between controlled signals are
normally hand operated and equipped with either an “electric lock” (old regulations) or
a standard key lock.
Authority to enter a CTC main track (or re-enter after having cleared one) at a
controlled location is by signal indication. The train crew (engineer or conductor)
requests permission verbally by radio communication with the dispatcher. After
ensuring that there is no conflicting movement, the dispatcher lines the switch and sets
the signals (remotely) to authorize the train to proceed. For entry through an
electrically locked switch between signals, the dispatcher gives permission to the train.
Controls for a CTC section of track are located on a panel (or recently on a computer
screen) at the dispatcher’s desk with a diagram of the trackage and lights (or indicators)
showing the locations of all trains. The dispatcher makes plans for train movements
and sends his instructions to the interlocking plants at the ends of each siding by
turning a knob, pushing a button, or the use of a computer keyboard. Control of the
signals and switches in an extended territory over only two line wires (or recently by
microwave) was made possible with pulse-code technology developed in the 1930’s.
These are the “non-vital” circuits that can use up-to-date electronics to speed up,
simplify and reduce the cost of transmitting information. The vital-circuit relays in the
field control and interlock switches, signals and track circuits to ensure safety of
movements. When the switch points are lined or the signals have cleared, a message is
sent back from the field location to the dispatcher console to confirm that the action is
complete.
In between sidings, opposing train movements are not possible on the single track, but
following movements in the same direction are allowed. The single track between two
sidings usually includes absolute permissive block (APB) circuits that function with
intermediate block signals between the sidings. These circuits can determine the
direction of a train and drop all opposing signals from one siding to the next to red as
soon as the train heads out onto the single track. The circuits also allow signals behind
the train to clear as it moves from block to block, allowing following train movements.
Most major railways have installed “intermediate signals” between sidings or controlled
signals to facilitate fleeting of trains. Spacing of intermediate signals has the same
effect on line capacity as previously discussed for ABS.
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Single track with CTC is considered to have about 70% of the capacity of ABS double-
track. With longer trains and heavier loading in recent years, many railways are
trimming their excess capacity by converting most of their ABS double-track to single-
track CTC with long sidings and high-speed turnouts for better asset utilization and
improved flexibility in handling train speed differential.
Additional Information
For further information about timetables and signal systems, see Chapter 7 of this
Practical Guide to Railway Engineering [or Chapter 7 of The Railroad What It Is, What It
Does, by John Armstrong].
2.5 Railway Cars

2.5.1 Freight Cars
Most freight cars are configured as a car body (to carry the freight) sitting on two
trucks, each with two axles. A pair of steel wheels is semi-permanently attached to a
steel axle with the wheel flanges installed on the gauge side and the wheel tread on the
field sides. A set of roller bearings (or journal box in older railcars) is bolted to each
end of the wheel-axle, which the truck frame straddles. The truck frame consists of
two side frames connected by a bolster beam. Two or three coil springs between the
bolster and the side frame serve to dampen the shock during motion. Brake rigging
under the truck frame connects the brakes to the brake cylinder. At the center of the
bolster, there is a cast integral truck center plate and a center pin. The car body sits on
each center plate and is connected to the center plate by the pin. Two roller bearings
and housings on each side of the bolster serve to facilitate and limit the swivel of the
truck allowing the railcar to negotiate through curves.
As freight cars are interchanged from railway to railway throughout the continent, they
may require repair at any time or location. All replacement parts for the undercarriage,
including the wheel/truck assembly, brake system, and drawbar/coupler assembly, are
standardized with few variations. This eliminates the necessity for each railway to
maintain an enormous inventory of replacement parts and work force “know how” to
repair the different types of cars from different owners. Furthermore, these parts are
designed for easy removal and replacement to minimize delays to traffic enroute. This
standardization is promoted by the AAR.
Although the basic configuration of the freight railcars never changed over years, the
car bodies have evolved considerably according to the specific requirement for the
different commodities carried.
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Boxcars
The old boxcar, as the name implies, is a plain wooden box on wheels to protect the
lading (cargo) from the weather. A sliding door on each side facilitates loading and
unloading of goods. Newer boxcars are made of steel in various lengths with doors of
larger sizes or types to allow access by forklifts. Some are equipped with interior
bulkheads to restrain loads. Boxcars are the general vehicles for carrying packaged
goods that require protection from rain or snow. The most common types of goods
carried are pulp and paper, plywood and OSB boards, packaged non-perishable food
products and consumer merchandise.
Insulated Boxcars and Mechanical Reefers

Insulated boxcars are used for short haul of perishable produce. For longer haul,
refrigerator cars (commonly known as reefers) are used. These are insulated steel
boxcars with a mechanical refrigeration device to control the temperature.
Intermodal Cars – Piggyback Trailers and Containers

Consumer goods and food produce are normally shipped from the manufacturers and
producers on rail in boxcars over long distances to major distribution centers. From
there, these goods are trans-loaded onto highway trucks for final delivery to the shops
or retailers. With the development of tractor-trailers, most of these goods are now
loaded straight into trailers. To realize the economy of long haul by rail, these trailers
are lifted onto flat deck railcars in an intermodal terminal near the origin and shipped
by express trains to another intermodal terminal near the distribution centers. This
type of intermodal traffic is generally known as trailers on flat cars (TOFC).
A recent development in rail transportation of trailers is to eliminate the use of railcars.

The specially equipped trailers are positioned on special bogies on the track and
coupled together. As this type of train is much lighter than the normal intermodal
trains, specialized smaller motive power units can be used. This type of service has
become so reliable that some carriers operate them over long distances of 1,000 or
more miles.
With much ocean freight now switched to the use of containers, import and export
merchandise is carried in standard 20 foot or 40 foot long containers. On the
highways, these containers are carried on flat deck trailers. On rails, these containers
are loaded onto flat cars. This is termed containers on flat cars (COFC) intermodal
traffic. Double-stacking of these containers on specialized intermodal flatcars allows
shipping of two or four containers on one platform. A loaded double-stack car is over
20 feet tall above top of rail and is significantly taller than the standard 15-foot height
of most railcars. More and more domestic merchandise is now also shipped in
domestic containers, which are longer than the ocean freight containers.
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Double-stacked intermodal trains have become one of the most important parts of
railway business. This is the fastest growing traffic despite severe competition with
highway trucks. Except for the pulp, paper and lumber boards, most boxcar traffic has
now been replaced by the TOFC or COFC traffic. Some of the trailers or containers
are also equipped with a mechanical refrigerating device for temperature control like
the reefers. Intermodal flatcars are often coupled permanently in packs of 2, 3, 4 or 5
platforms. Some multi-pack intermodal platforms are articulately connected with bogy
trucks, i.e., two platforms sharing the same railway truck.
Flat Cars
Flat cars are one of the earliest types of railcars and used for carrying commodities with
lengthy dimensions such as timber logs, cut lumber, pipes and other long finished
metal products. The easy accessibility also makes flatcars an ideal carrier for
construction equipment, machinery and any dimensional loads.
General service flat cars usually have a wood deck to facilitate nailed-down anchorage
for loads. Other flat cars are specially modified for carrying certain types of goods, such
as the built-in center beam and bulkhead ends for carrying lumber and wood products.
TOFC and COFC are other modifications to flat cars.
Auto Rack Cars

Another modification to the flat car is the development of bi-level and tri-level carriers
for finished automobiles. These auto rack cars carry 12 to 18 automobiles each,
making it economical to transport finished autos for long distances at low rates. The
auto racks are now fully enclosed to minimize damage and vandalism.
Gondola Cars
Another common type of railcar is the gondola car. These are open metal wagons on
wheels to facilitate top loading. Some gondola cars are equipped with removable
covers to protect the cargo from rain and snow. To prevent contamination of the
environment by the fine dust, soft covers or spray coatings may be used. The early
gondola wagons were five to six feet deep. As the strength of drawbars and couplers
increased, the gondola wagons increased in height to carry more tonnage per car. The
shallow gondola cars are normally used for heavy commodities such as rocks, metal
products and metal scraps. The tall gondolas are used for carrying loose bulk
commodities such as coal, sulphur, potash, grain, plastic pellets, woodchips and
sawdust. Most tall gondolas used for carrying these loose bulk commodities are built
or modified as hopper cars.
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Hopper Cars
Hopper cars are gondola cars built with hopper doors at the bottom to facilitate gravity
off-loading. The interior side walls of most hopper cars are sloped (in individual
compartments) to funnel the contents through the hopper doors. Some covered
hoppers, such as those carrying grain or cement, may be cylindrically shaped with
smaller openings on the top for loading.
Rotary Gondola/Hopper Cars

For certain commodities, portable devices may be used to shake or vibrate the hopper
cars to promote faster off-loading. Some gondola and hopper cars are equipped with
rotary couplers so that the whole railcar may be rotated on its side to shake the lading
off the top.
Tank Cars
Tank cars are cylindrical in shape. Commodities carried are usually in a liquid state,
such as petroleum and chemicals, including liquefied petroleum (LP) gases and molten
sulphur. As the contents carried in tank cars are usually hazardous or under high
pressure to maintain its liquid state, the design and construction of these cars is
stringently controlled. Some are built to maintain structural integrity to prevent leakage
even after derailment. Handling and switching procedures, including the relative
position of these cars in a train, are strictly regulated. Switching of certain loaded tank
cars over the hump yard is not allowed.
Maintenance-of-Way Cars
The typical maintenance-of-way department will posses a number of specialty cars for
purposes of performing maintenance and construction related work. These cars
include air-dumps for side depositing of fill material and rip-rap for bank stabilization,
ballast hoppers for depositing controlled amounts of ballast through a variety of
controlled bottom dump doors, idler flat cars for rail cranes, Continuous Welded Rail
trains for unloading or loading of CWR, specialized trailer or camp cars for housing
large production gangs, wire cars for installation of overhead catenary wire in electrified
territory, conventional gondola cars for hauling rail and ties and box cars for specialty
mobile storage of materials.
Schnabel Cars
Schnabel cars are designed to carry large,

heavy loads. These cars separate into two
parts with the load becoming an integral part
of the car, as it is attached back together for
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shipment. The car illustrated is just a small version of the many types of Schnabel cars
that have been built.
2.5.2 Hazardous Commodities

Government regulations require that all railcars carrying hazardous or dangerous
commodities display a placard indicating the type of content carried or previously
carried (residual in empties). Movements of these cars on a train must also be
accompanied with documentation for emergency cleanup instructions. If the
document for a certain car is missing, the train can only move at restricted speed to the
next nearest location where the car can be set out.
2.5.3 Passenger Cars

Unlike freight cars, passenger cars are designed and built for the safe and comfortable
carriage of people. The interior of passenger cars is usually specially laid out as
coaches, sleepers, dining cars, sightseeing domes and baggage cars. Passenger cars in
urban transit systems are designed to accommodate both sitting and standing
passengers to achieve maximum capacity.
Over the years, there has been much improvement to passenger cars. The most
significant improvements are in the body structure and under-carriage in the
suspension system. New passenger cars are designed to remain upright after
derailment and have stringent crash worthiness requirements. Some cars are designed
with a suspension mechanism to automatically tilt the car on curves so that the
passenger train may be operated at a higher speed than normally acceptable to older
equipment.
The fastest presently operating passenger train is the French TGV at approximately
200 mph. The Japanese bullet train and the Swedish tilt train operate at about 120
mph. Scientists are developing new propulsion systems, such as magnetic levitation, to
raise the speeds of passenger trains to a higher plateau.
2.6 Locomotives
In North America, all steam locomotives of the old railroad age were long ago replaced
with diesel or electric locomotives, except for a few tour trains. Unlike the steam
locomotive, the mechanical energy developed by the diesel engine is used to generate
electrical power to drive the traction motors at the driving axles and the air compressor
to maintain the air-brake system. The proper term should actually be diesel-electric
locomotives. Electric locomotives do not have the diesel engines and draw electrical
energy directly from the overhead power distribution system or a third rail at the track
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level. (See Chapter 9, Railway Electrification.) Unlike in Europe, use of electric

locomotives in North America is almost exclusively for urban transit. Practically all
freight railways in America use diesel-electric locomotives.
There are different makes and models of diesel-electric locomotives in various sizes
and shapes. Those used in passenger services are more streamlined in shape for high-
speed operations. Dual mode locomotives are utilized on some passenger and
commuter railways. These locomotives have the capability of operating as a straight
electric locomotive in electrified territory or as a straight diesel locomotive where the
overhead electrical propulsive system is not available. The most important factors in
classifying locomotives are:
Horse-power of the engines,
Maximum tractive effort developed,
Weight of the locomotives,
Running gear ratio, and
Number of driving axles.

Trains require little energy to move the goods over level distance, but significantly
more energy to move uphill (or braking energy downhill) even on the gentlest grade.
At 15 mph, the extra energy required to lift a train to an elevation 200 feet higher,
would move the same train about 21 miles at the same speed if it were on level track.
Grade is highly significant for a heavy train. A train powered at 1.5 hp per ton, which
could make 60 mph on level track, will slow to about 22 mph on a 1% grade and to 10
mph on a 2% grade. The same train will eventually stall, as the grade gets steeper.
Railways actually seldom use much more than 0.5 hp per ton to move their heavy
trains.
2.6.1 Horsepower (hp) and Tractive Effort

Horsepower is a measure of the rate of doing work. One horsepower = 550 ft-lbs. per
second or 375 lb-miles per hour. At zero speed, horsepower is also zero. The rated
maximum horsepower of most diesel engines is developed between 800 and 1000 rpm.
The available crankshaft hp is converted (by a generator, alternator or rectifier) to
electricity. After using part of the gross hp to power the cooling fans, blowers, air
brake compressor, etc., the remaining horsepower drives the wheel axles via the
traction motors. With the modern diesel electric locomotives, normally 82% of the
diesel horsepower is available for traction.
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The tractive effort (in pounds) available from a locomotive can be roughly calculated
as:
Tractive Effort (lbs.) = Horsepower X (308)

Speed (mph)
Where 308 is 82% of 375 lb-miles per hour per hp. For example, a 3000 hp
locomotive will have approximately 74,000 lbs. tractive effort at 12.5 mph.
2.6.2 Tractive Force and Adhesion

It is the tractive force at the locomotive driving wheels (drivers) at the rail that starts
and moves tonnage up various grades. The maximum tractive force that can be
developed at the rail is equal to the weight on drivers multiplied by the adhesion
(coefficient of friction) of the wheels on the rail.
The primary factors, among others, affecting adhesion are rail condition and speed.
Adhesion decreases as speed increases. At about 10 mph, adhesion varies from less
than 10% on slimy, wet rail to about 40% on dry, sanded rail. In general, with the aid
of the sanders, approximately 25% adhesion is usually available.
As all the wheels on most diesel locomotives are driving wheels, the weight of the
locomotives must be about four times the tractive force developed. The HHP (high
horsepower) units for main line service weigh about 195 tons each on 6 axles. The
maximum tractive force is therefore approximately 97,000 lb. per locomotive or 16,000
lb. per axle; that is, if there is enough horsepower at the wheel rims to develop the
tractive effort.
2.6.3 Drawbar Pull

After some of the tractive effort is used to move the locomotive itself, the remaining
effort, in the form of “drawbar pull,” is used to move the rest of the train. As the train
speed increases, the tractive effort from the locomotives decreases and the drawbar
pull available to move the train also decreases.
Due to the limited strength of drawbars and coupler knuckles, the number of
locomotives or motorized axles that can be used in the head end of a train is restricted.
Although rated with a minimum strength of 350,000 lb. (general service coupler made
of Grade B steel), coupler knuckle failure may happen at 250,000 lb. due to age and
wear. Grade E knuckles used on some captive services may have an ultimate strength
of 650,000 lb.
To avoid the risk of drawbar failure enroute, it is recommended to limit the number of
motorized axles in a locomotive consist to 18 (three 6-axle units). If more tractive
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effort is required to move the tonnage of a train, the option of in-train motive power
should be considered.
2.6.4 Train Resistance

Train resistance, the force required to move a train, is the sum of the rolling resistance
on tangent level track, grade resistance and curve resistance of the locomotives and
cars. Other resistances due to wind velocity, tunnels or different train marshalling will
not be discussed here.
Rolling Resistance
Rolling Resistance is the sum of the forces that must be overcome by the tractive effort
of the locomotive to move a railway vehicle on level tangent track in still air at a
constant speed. These resistive forces include:
Rolling friction between wheels and rail that depends mainly on the quality of
track.
Bearing resistance, which varies with the weight on each axle and, at low speed,
the type, design and lubrication of the bearing.
Train dynamic forces that include the effects of friction and impact between the
wheel flanges against the gauge side of the rail and those due to sway, concussion,
buff and slack-action. The rail-flange forces vary with speed and quality of the
wheel tread and rail, as well as the tracking effect of the trucks.
Air resistance that varies directly with the cross-sectional area, length and shape of
the vehicle and the square of its speed.
In general, rolling resistance of a train, R (in lb.), can be calculated using an empirical
expression as follows:
R = A + B V + C D V2
where A, B, C & D are coefficients defining the different resistive forces that are either
independent, dependent or affected by the square of the train speed V.
Davis Formula
The first empirical formula to compute rolling resistance was developed by W.L. Davis
in 1926. The original Davis formula provided satisfactory results for older equipment
with journal bearings within the speed range between 5 and 40 mph. Roller bearings,
increased dimensions, heavier loadings, higher train speeds and changes to track
structure have made it necessary to modify the coefficients proposed by Davis. Since
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then, there had been various modifications. Interested readers may refer to Section 2.1
of Chapter 16 in the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering for more information.
Starting Resistance
The resistance caused by friction within a railway vehicle’s wheel bearings can be
significantly higher at starting than when the vehicle is moving. Depending on the type
of bearings, weight per axle, and the temperature of the bearing, starting resistance can
range from 5 to 50 lb/ton. The ambient temperature and the duration of the stop as
shown below affect temperature of the bearing.
Type of Bearings Above Freezing Below Freezing
Journal Bearing 25 lb/ton 35 lb/ton
Roller Bearing 5 lb/ton 15 lb/ton
Starting resistance is generally not much of a problem with the very large tractive effort
available with modern diesel locomotives, except on steeper grades. If necessary, the
locomotive engineer can bunch up the train first, then start the train one car at a time.
The cars already moving will help start the ones to the rear. This is called “taking
slack” to start.
Grade Resistance
Grade Resistance is the force required to overcome gradient and is equal to 20 lb. per
ton per percent grade. This force is derived from the resolution of force vectors and is
independent of train speed. An up grade produces a resistive force while a down grade
produces an accelerating (negative resistive) force. A train moving up a long tangent of
1% grade at 10 mph, a speed that most tonnage trains slow down to at ruling grade
locations, will have a train resistance coefficient of 22.4 to 23.5 lb. per ton with the
grade resistance accounted for over 85% of the total.
Curve Resistance
Curve Resistance is an estimate of the added resistance a locomotive or car must
overcome when operating through a horizontal curve. The exact details of the
mechanics contributing to curve resistance are not easy to define. It is generally
accepted in the railway industry that curve resistance is approximately the same as a
0.04% up grade per degree of curvature (which equals 0.8 lb. per ton per degree of
curvature) for standard gauge tracks. At very slow speeds, say 1 or 2 mph, the curve
resistance is closer to 1.0 lb. (or 0.05% up grade) per ton per degree of curve.
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2.6.5 Compensated Grade

It is a common practice to describe curvature and grade together as compensated
grade. Compensated grade is the algebraic total of the track gradient and the
equivalent grade of the curve.
Gc = G + Dc * 0.04
Where Gc = compensated grade in %
G = track gradient in %
Dc = degree of curvature in decimal number
The track gradient “G” is positive for up grade and negative for down grade. The
equivalent grade of a curve is always positive; i.e., at +0.04% per degree of curve with
tangent tracks as 0.00%. The combined resistance due to track geometry can thus be
calculated by converting the compensated grade at 20 lb. per ton per percent grade as
shown below.
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Track Degree of Compensated Grade and Curve

Gradient Curvature Grade Resistance
+ 0.44 % 3˚ 45’ + 0.59 % + 11.8 lb/ton
+ 0.50 % Tangent + 0.50 % + 10.0 lb/ton
- 0.73 % Tangent - 0.73 % - 14.6 lb/ton
- 0.73 % 4˚ 30’ - 0.55 % - 11.0 lb/ton
Note that curves on down grades help reduce the accelerating force of coal trains
coming down from the mines. In railway operations, keeping a train under control
over a long stretch of steep down grade poses a much bigger problem than powering
the same train uphill.
2.6.6 Acceleration and Balance Speed

It takes about 100 lb. force to accelerate a mass of 1 ton at the rate of 1 mph per
second. The total tractive force, "F" (lb.), required to accelerate a train of "W" tons
(locomotive and cars) at the rate of "A" mph per sec. can thus be calculated
approximately as:
F (lb.) = 100 W (ton) A (mph/sec)
After a portion of the drawbar pull is used to overcome the train resistance, the excess
is used to accelerate the train. Rolling resistance for a train increases as the speed
increases. At the same time, the tractive effort of the locomotive (and thus the
drawbar force) decreases as the speed increases. As the available drawbar force
decreases, the accelerating rate drops. For a train operating on a long stretch of
consistent grade, there is an equilibrium point when the total drawbar pull is equal to
the total train resistance. At this point or speed, the train will accelerate no more. This
is the “balance speed” (or balancing speed) of the particular train on that particular
grade.
If the grade resistance increases after the balance speed is reached, the train will slow
down to another balance speed for the increased grade. If the grade keeps on
increasing, the train will slow to a speed that the locomotive cannot sustain and will
stall.
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At any given speed that the train is to maintain, there is a maximum tonnage that a
locomotive can pull up a specified grade. This is the tonnage rating of the locomotive
for the specified grade.
2.6.7 Tonnage Ratings of Locomotives
Most railways publish “Tonnage Ratings” for their locomotive fleet. These ratings
indicate the maximum tonnage that a specific locomotive can haul over a given
territory at a specified minimum speed.
Obviously, no single rating can be used for assigning maximum tonnage where the
number of cars (axles) and their weights vary from train to train. A system has been
developed and used on most railways, which makes it possible to express tonnage
ratings without regard to the weight of the cars in a train.
2.6.8 Ruling Grade

On any particular section of railway, the ruling grade (compensated) determines how
much tonnage can be hauled. This is the particular point on the section at which the
combined grade and curve resistance makes the train pull hardest and, therefore, rules
how much tonnage can be hauled by a locomotive consist. It is not at the same
location for both directions, and may not be the same location for all trains.
2.6.9 Momentum Grade

The ruling grade may not be the steepest grade on the section. A short grade does not
affect the whole train length at the same time. A short incline may be run as a
momentum grade, if conditions are such that trains can get a good run for the hill. If
the velocity head of the train at the foot of the grade is higher than the actual rise, the
incline is a momentum grade. Velocity head, h in feet, can be calculated as:
h (ft) = v2 / ( 2 g ) where v = train speed in ft/sec at foot of grade,

& g= gravitational acceleration, or
h (ft) = 0.03 V2 where V = train speed in mph at foot of grade
Conversely, if the velocity head, h, is less than the actual rise in feet, the grade is
considered as a ruling grade. The effects of train length must be considered in the
above calculation to ensure a good portion of the train is over the hill when the
velocity head is depleted.
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2.6.10 Power to Stop

In moving traffic over a railway, power to stop can be more important than tractive
force, bigger cars or stronger couplers. In order to maximize the capacity of the
existing line, trains are run as close as possible (with minimum headway) at reasonable
speed without running into each other. That takes reliable braking power.
The air brake used in railway cars is a fail-safe, reversed action system. Plainly
described, the brakes on each car are released when the brake pipe pressure is charged
up and maintained (80 to 90 psi for most freight train operations) throughout the train
by the air compressors on the locomotives (or from a yard air plant prior to departure).
The train brakes are actuated by a controlled reduction (minimum 10 psi reduction to
avoid sticking brakes on release) of the brake pipe pressure. This reduction causes the
valve on each car to release air from the auxiliary reservoir (charged up at the same
time as the train line) to build up pressure in the brake cylinder, applying the brakes.
Each pound of reduction in brake pipe pressure will build up approximately 2.5 psi
pressure in the brake cylinder. At 85 psi brake pipe pressure, a full service reduction of
25 psi will produce approximately 60 psi in the brake cylinder. At this point, the
pressures in the reservoir and cylinder are equal, and any further reduction will have no
further effect.
There is a second “emergency” reservoir on each car. With an emergency application,

the brake valve opens the brake pipe wide. The resulting rapid rate of brake pipe
pressure reduction causes the car valves to dump the air of both auxiliary and
emergency reservoirs into the brake cylinder. The resulting brake cylinder pressure is
approximately 20% higher than that of a full service application. The rate of
application back through the train is as fast as 900 ft. per second.
The braking power is dissipated as heat at the brake shoes and wheels. On long steep
grades, it is necessary to release the brakes intermittently or stop the train to cool the
wheels. Increasing or recharging the brake pipe pressure from the locomotives releases
brakes. Increasing the brake pipe pressure will cause the brake valve to completely
exhaust the brake cylinders and recharge the reservoirs. As it takes time to recharge
the system, the train is momentarily without brakes after a full service application or
series of smaller reductions.
Although the locomotives have independent brakes (straight air system used mainly for
controlling slack and during switching operations) and some locomotives are equipped
with dynamic brakes, to prevent jack-knifing, most of the braking force has to be from
the train brakes. In mountainous territory, keeping the heavy trains under control
should be the key concern in grade designs.
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2.7 Traffic Systems

The railway business is the business of transporting people and goods. The
transportation of people (the most precious commodity of all) requires the highest
standards for safety, comfort and speed. Passenger trains are always operated as
scheduled trains with the highest priority at the fastest speed that is safe for the track
conditions and type of passenger equipment used. Operations of passenger trains
ideally are within minutes of the schedules.
On time delivery of freight trains is also vital to the success of a railway, particularly for
high value commodities and traffic extremely competitive with highway trucks. In
order to keep inventory cost low, customers dealing in high value commodities, such as
the automotive industry, normally keep minimum inventory to meet demands or
production schedules. They do not tolerate late delivery by more than a few hours.
Merchandise and intermodal traffic are highly competitive with other modes of
transportation. The railways must handle this traffic with high priority in order to
remain in the market place. Intermodal and automotive trains are operated as core
scheduled express trains. These trains are designed to bypass as many terminals as
possible and provided with enough horsepower to operate at the maximum allowed
speeds. On time delivery must be achieved within a couple hours of the schedules.
Bulk commodities such as coal, sulphur and grain are normally shipped in unit trains
with no switching between origins and destinations. In exchange for economy of
freight rates, the shippers normally will tolerate some delay except when the trains have
to make a direct connection for a certain ship at the seaport. These heavy tonnage
trains seldom achieve track speed on uphill grades. Bulk trains are usually operated on
an as-required basis using available track time windows between core trains. Schedules
for these trains are usually zero based; i.e., the clock starts ticking when the train
departs at the origin.
Manifest trains handling all other commodities are operated as quasi-core scheduled
trains. Schedules for these trains are normally planned 48 to 72 hours ahead based on
traffic availability by the Network Operations Control and confirmed 24 hours prior to
departures. Traffic on these trains normally requires switching at intermediate
terminals for train connections. The railways usually have a certain amount of
flexibility in handling this traffic and a delay of up to 12 hours may be acceptable.
Wayfreights or road switchers are the work trains that spot and switch traffic for
customers along the line and within terminals. The labor cost to operate a switcher on
a main line subdivision is usually the highest among all trains. While through trains
may be operated with a reduced crew (engineer and conductor), road switchers require
a full crew (1 or 2 additional trainmen) to line switches and derails, apply and release
handbrakes, perform walking inspection of cars and air-brake system, and to protect
pushing movements. The simple “hook and haul” activities of a road switcher, picking
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up (say 5) loads and re-spotting empties at an industry on a line with sidings 20 minutes
apart, will take approximately an hour of the main track time.
The window required for on-line switching significantly impacts the capacity of the
main track to handle through trains. When a road switcher occupies the main track
while picking up or spotting loads/empties at an industry, all through freights are
delayed from running through the block. In most cases, the dispatcher may choose to
delay and hold the road switcher at the nearest siding until there is an adequate window
for the switcher to complete its work and clear the block. On a medium traffic line
handling 20 through freights per day, the average delay to a switcher waiting at a siding
for the one-hour window is approximately 45 minutes to an hour. The total switcher
time to serve this industry is therefore 1.75 to 2 hours.
The duration that a train crew may work on a one-way trip is usually limited by
government regulations or collective labor agreement to 12 hours. After deducting 2.5
hours at the initial terminal for making up the train in the order that cars will be
switched, 3 hours road time and another half hour to tie-up at the final terminal, there
is usually not much time left for actual switching and waiting for work windows.
2.7.1 Priority of Trains

Based on market demand, railways prioritize the dispatching of their trains as follows:
Passenger trains Priority 1

Express intermodal and auto trains Priority 2
Manifest trains Priority 3
Wayfreight and road switchers Priority 3
Bulk trains contracted for specific delivery intervals Priority 3
Other bulk unit trains Priority 4
Other railroads may prioritize their trains differently.
On double track territories, where each track is signaled for traffic in one direction
only, trains operate according to designated current of traffic, except during track
outage or work blocks. In this situation, trains do not have to stop for meets. If all
trains running in the same direction operate at the same speed, they do not have to
stop for passes either. Unfortunately, trains do operate at different speeds by design to
meet the market requirements. On single track territories, which make up the majority
of the North American network, trains have to stop and wait for meets and passes.
In the decision as to which train will take the siding and wait for a meet or pass, the
first factor considered by the train dispatcher is usually the priority of the trains.
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Consider the situation where a double-stack intermodal train is closely followed (say 2
blocks apart) by a higher speed passenger train and has to meet a slow moving heavy
bulk train between sidings A and B. If all these trains are on schedule, the likely
decision by the train dispatcher would be to put both the intermodal train and the bulk
train in the two sidings and let the passenger train pass. The intermodal train would be
the next one cleared onto the main track, while the bulk train remains delayed in the
siding until both other trains have gone by. The dispatcher’s decision may vary if the
passenger train is ahead of schedule or if the computer’s “meet-pass planner routine”
advises that such decision would introduce significant delays to other trains in the
territory beyond acceptable limits.
The railways usually have three different maximum allowed speeds specified for the
same class of track, with the fastest speed for passenger trains, the middle one for
express trains and the slowest speed for all other freight trains. If all trains on a
segment of track are operated at the same speed, higher speeds will allow more trains
to move through the segment. Train delays at sidings for meets are inherent and
unavoidable with single-track territories. The amount of total train delays between two
sidings is related to the running time between the sidings, the efficiency of the signal
system and the number of trains operated per day. Train delays at sidings to let other
trains pass are caused by speed differentials between trains in the same direction. The
greater the speed differential between trains, the more trains that will be delayed “in the
hole” to let the high-speed train by. Speed differential in the same direction, therefore,
introduces more train delays and reduces the capacity of the line segment.
2.7.2 Effects of Sharing Tracks by Freight and

Passenger Trains vs. Track of Single Use
There is a physical limit as to how many trains could be put through a segment of
single track, depending on the siding grid time, signal system and dispatching
efficiency. If one “channel” of the available capacity is required for each normal
through freight, it is generally believed that a conventional passenger train will need 2
channels, while an express train requires 1.5 channels. A passenger train takes up to 2
channels of the available capacity only if it is running at 3-inch unbalance (regarding
curve elevation) over the normal freights. If the passenger train uses specialty
equipment and operates at speeds significantly higher than the freight trains, it will take
up more capacity from the line. It may therefore be advantageous to operate high-
speed passenger trains on dedicated tracks when there are enough trains to justify the
infrastructure investment. There are also other safety advantages to operating
passenger trains on dedicated tracks. The heavy long freight trains, particularly the
bulk trains, kick the track out of line and surface a lot faster than the light passenger
trains. The out-of-surface track does not affect the slow moving freights as much as
the fast passenger trains. If a track is jointly used by freights with passenger trains, the
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safety and comfort level required for the passengers will necessitate more frequent
track re-surfacing than if the track is used for freight alone.
2.7.3 Overcoming the Delays that Occur in Freight

Yards
Freight Yards are necessary in the railway business in order to originate, transport and
terminate shipments of freight. However, they can be real handicaps in that they
inherently cause delays to freight in transit, thereby upsetting shippers. Railways often
spend large sums of money both to construct efficient, high-speed main tracks and to
get trains over the road as rapidly as practicable. But when these trains arrive in
terminals, the cars they brought may sit idle awaiting switching and departure to their
destinations.
In order to eliminate such delays, railways will often "mainline" trains at intermediate
terminals rather than "yard" them there. In this process, locomotives are fueled and
serviced on a main track, or on a track immediately adjacent thereto. Air brake tests
can also be made there if required. Engine and train crews are changed at the same
location, thereby minimizing a yard's effects on a train while taking advantage of its
service capabilities and personnel.
If a train does not require fueling and servicing, crews are sometimes changed at a
siding outlying a terminal, with personnel being transported by van or carryall. Then
the train, with its new crew, simply "runs" the terminal as if it did not exist, saving
many hours or even days of delay.
When a train is run essentially intact over more than one railway, then the same
locomotive consist is often run through on all of the railways. This requires the ability
to change the frequencies of onboard radio equipment to match those of the railroads
being operated on. Preserving the continuity of a train (and its air brake line)
reduces the number of required air brake tests, also saving time. Intermodal trains
usually travel from and to facilities specifically constructed to handle truck trailers and
containers. At these facilities, the switching of trailers and containers (on chassis) is
handled on the pavement by hostler or dray tractors. This rapid handling makes this
service competitive with straight truck transport.
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3
Chapter

_________________________________________
Practical Guide To Railway Engineering
Basic Track
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Basic Track
Joseph E. Riley P.E.
Metra
Chicago, IL 60661
jriley@metrarr.com
James C. Strong P.E.
Parsons Transportation Group

Martinez, CA 94553-1845
strongrrdes@aol.com
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3
Chapter
C H A P T E R 3 - B A S I C T R A C K
Basic Track
The engineer will frequently work from a set of standardized railway
or transit standards when making his or her selection of track
components for any given design project. However, a basic
understanding of elementary track componentry, geometry and
maintenance operations is necessary if intelligent decisions are to
be made within the options that are typically available.
3.1 Track Components
W
e begin our study with the prime component of the track – the rail.
3.1.1 Rail
Rail is the most expensive material in the track.2 Rail is steel that has been rolled into
an inverted "T" shape. The purpose of the rail is to:
• Transfer a train's weight to cross ties.
• Provide a smooth running surface.
• Guide wheel flanges.
2 Canadian National Railway Track Maintainer’s Course
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The first rails were wooden.

Later iron straps were added to
the wooden rails to reduce
wear. This was followed by
cast iron rails and finally, steel
rails were rolled from an ingot.
(See Figure 3-1) Today, steel
rail is rolled in a continuous
casting process.
Over the years, the shape of rail

has also changed. However,
the "T" rail section, first rolled
in 1831, has been the standard Figure 3-1 Rolled Rail – Photo by J. E. Riley
in North America ever since.
Rails vary in weight and shape (known as "section").
Identification of Rail
The weight of rail is based on how much the rail weighs in pounds per yard. Over the
past 200 years, increasingly heavier rail was required to handle the increased weight of
locomotives and rolling stock and traffic volume increases. The largest rail commonly
used today is 136 lb., although 140 lb. is still rolled and second-hand 152 lb. rail is
available in limited quantities. AREMA has recently recommended a new rail section
to maximize available head wear and minimize stress related failures. This section is
the 141 lb., but is not yet widely in use. A rail's weight, along with its section and other
information, is rolled as a raised character onto the web of the rail.
The rail section refers to the shape of the cross-section of a rail. For example, there are
several sections of 100 lb. rail. Rail mills identify the different shapes and types of rails
by codes rolled onto the rail's web. The section code appears right after the weight.
The section codes signify different dimension and shape standards. These codes
further represent the engineering group, which created the design plan (thus, the
standard) for that rail section. Some of the more common section codes are:
RE: American Railway Engineering Maintenance of Way Association

(AREMA).
REHF: AREMA “head free” section.
ARA-A: American Railway Association, “A” section.
ARA-B: American Railway Association, “B” section.
ASCE: American Society of Civil Engineers.
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The rail section base dimension is important when choosing tie plates, rail anchors and
pre-drilled timber ties and concrete ties. The height of the rail and the width of the
head of the rail are important to determine the selection of joint bars. Next, the
method of hydrogen elimination is specified. CC indicates that the rail was controlled
cooled. Controlled cooling was first utilized in the late 1930's. Rail rolled prior to this
date has a proclivity to the formation of dangerous transverse defect type fissures.
Other methods used in new rail today to eliminate hydrogen bubbles, includes
controlled cooling of blooms (BC) and Vacuum Degassing (VT). Finally, the rail
manufacturer, the year rolled and the month rolled are also indicated. On the opposite
side of the web of the rail, additional information is hot stamped indicating whether the
rail has been end hardened (CH), the heat number, rail letter designation if not
continuous cast, indicating from what part of the ingot the rail is from and if of a
special metallurgy, the designation for special alloys.
The information provided by the rail branding and stamping provides valuable insight
to the suitability for reuse of second-hand rail in a variety of situations. For example,
many railways limit the use of rail stamped as an "A" rail within the ingot to slow speed
yards and sidings because of the potential for the creation of seams in the head and
web of the rail called pipe rail or the development of vertical split heads. This does not
mean that “A” rail cannot be used in main tracks, as rail chemistry is probably a better
indicator of the proclivity of the development of such defects.
In general, rail sections smaller than 90 lb. should not be utilized for new construction,
but is available second-hand for replacing rail in trackage utilizing the given section.
Ninety lb. and 100 lb. sections are adequate for many transit and light tonnage
industrial park trackage. New trackage, exposed to 100-ton or heavier cars, should not
utilize rail sections smaller than the 11525 RE. Second-hand 11025 and 11228 RE are
comparable to the 11525 RE section, but have a proclivity to head and web separations
due to the reduced radius in the fillet between the web and the head of the rail. Good
rail in these sections is becoming increasingly more difficult to find and the engineer
may wish to give serious thought about the possibility of securing usable replacement
rail in these sections for maintenance purposes in later years. The common 5-1/2"
base sections (11525 RE and 119 RE) are commonly specified for medium tonnage
and/or commuter/passenger/transit lines. For heavy tonnage trackage, the 6" base rail
sections are preferable. These include 13225 RE, 133 RE, 136 RE, 140 RE and the
new 141 RE sections. Various 130 and 131 lb. sections are available second-hand, but
many have head and web separation related problems.
The engineer wishing to utilize second-hand rail must take into consideration the
amount of tread (top of rail) and gage wear present on the rail. Rail ends bent, kinked
or badly battered may not be suitable for jointed rail relay use. The AREMA Manual
for Railway Engineering has recommended maximum wear and alignment tolerances
that are designated by the category of track usage. If the rail is to be welded into
continuous welded rail strings (CWR), end batter and bent ends can be cropped off,
but gage and tread wear, as well as surface defects such as engine burns or bad shells,
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may make a rail unsuitable for welding. If available, the engineer should attempt to
secure the rail's defect history. The engineer should not be afraid of utilizing second-
hand rail. Indeed, rail exposed earlier in its life to nothing heavier than the 70-ton car
has often become work hardened. New rail today exposed to unit train tonnage is
abraded away before it ever becomes work hardened. On the other hand, today's rail
steels possess improved rail chemistries that permit life expectancies exceeding a billion
gross tons, whereas yesterday’s rail rarely lasted more than 600 million gross tons.
Whenever possible, the engineer should specify the use of welded rail. The elimination
of the joint will reduce future maintenance costs by exponential factors. New rail is
rolled in lengths of either 39 or 80 feet in length. Construction is presently under way
to roll rail in even longer lengths. These rails are then welded in a controlled
environment into individual strings of up to 1600 feet in length for delivery to the field.
3.1.2 Ties
Ties are typically made of one of four materials:3
• Timber
• Concrete
• Steel
• Alternative materials
The purpose of the tie is to cushion and transmit the load of the train to the ballast
section as well as to maintain gage. Wood and even steel ties provide resiliency and
absorption of some impact through the tie itself. Concrete ties require pads between
the rail base and tie to provide a cushioning effect.
Timber Ties
It is recommended that all timber ties be pressure-treated with preservatives to protect
from insect and fungal attack.4 Hardwood ties are the predominate favorites for track
and switch ties. Bridge ties are often sawn from the softwood species. Hardwood ties
are designated as either track or switch ties.
Factors of first importance in the design and use of ties include durability and
resistance to crushing and abrasion. These depend, in turn, upon the type of wood,
adequate seasoning, treatment with chemical preservatives, and protection against
3Canadian National Railway Track Maintainer’s Course
41965 Roadmasters & Maintenance of Way Association Proceedings, Quality Track Maintenance Factors –
Their Relative Importance, W. W. Hay
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mechanical damage. Hardwood ties provide longer life and are less susceptible to
mechanical damage.
Track Ties
Timber track ties are graded with nominal dimensions of 7" x 9" x 8'-6" or 9'-0" or
smaller ties which are 6" x 8" x 8'-0". (See Figure 3-2) The 6" x 8" x 8'-0" are typically
utilized for sidings, industry tracks and very light density trackage. An industrial grade
of both ties is also available. These ties have more wane, bark, splits or other surface
related defects than recommended under the timber grading rules. Both AREMA and
the Railway Tie Association (RTA) publish specifications and standards relating to the
grading of timber and the definitions for the above timber physical characteristics. The
cost savings may make industrial grade ties attractive for some plant trackage exposed
to infrequent and light tonnage. It is generally acknowledged that the quality of
hardwood tie available today does not meet yesteryear's standards. Thus, the additional
cost of providing gang plates, S-irons or C-irons for the tie ends may be a worthwhile
investment in extending tie life from end splitting failures. Track ties may be ordered
adzed and pre-drilled for the appropriate rail section to be used if desired. Second-
hand ties, reclaimed from line abandonments, may also be available. There is wide
debate regarding the suitability and cost effectiveness of using recovered ties.
Deterioration of that part of the tie previously buried in the ballast occurs rapidly once
the tie is exposed to the air. If second-hand ties are used, do not turn the tie over, thus
providing a fresh surface for the top of the tie. These ties will deteriorate very quickly.
Better to plug the tie, adze the surface if necessary and insert the tie as it was originally
orientated. Occasionally, softwood ties may be specified for a track tie. Their use is
limited to temporary track situations such as shoe-fly's, etc., or where tonnage is very
light or hardwood species are prohibitive in cost.
For quality maintenance, ties should be not

less than 8 ft. 6 in. in length. For moderately
heavy or heavy-traffic conditions, especially
on curves of 6 degrees or more, the 9-ft. tie is
preferred, 7 in. by 9 in. in cross-section,
because of the greater stability from the larger
support and friction area. It also assists in
restraining continuous welded rail.
For lines of moderate to medium tonnage, a
tie spacing equivalent to 22 ties per 39-ft. rail Figure 3-2 Hardwood Track Ties – Photo by J. E. Riley
(21-1/4 in.) is sufficient. Heavy tonnage lines
or lines with sharp curves will find 24 ties per rail panel (19-1/2-in.) to have advantages
in holding gauge and reducing bending moment stresses in the rail.
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Switch Ties
Switch ties (Figure 3-3) are commonly

hardwood species, usually provided in either
6" or 12" increments beginning at 9'-0" up
to 23'-0" in length. Nominal cross-section
dimensions are 7" x 9", although larger ties
are specified by some railways. The primary
use for switch ties is relegated to turnouts
(thus their name). However, they are also
used in bridge approaches, crossovers, at hot
box detectors and as transition ties. Some
railways use switch ties in heavily traveled Figure 3-3 Switch Timber – Photo by Craig Kerner
road crossings and at insulated rail joints.
Switch ties ranging in length from 9'-0" to 12'-0" can also be used as "swamp" ties.
The extra length provides additional support for the track in swampy or poor-drained
areas. Some railways have utilized Azobe switch ties (an extremely dense African
wood) for high-speed turnouts. The benefits associated with reduced plate cutting and
fastener retention may be offset by the high import costs of this timber.
Softwood Ties
Softwood timber (Figure 3-4) is

more rot resistant than hardwoods,
but does not offer the resistance of
a hardwood tie to tie plate cutting,
gauge spreading and spike hole
enlargement (spike killing).
Softwood ties also are not as
effective in transmitting the loads to
the ballast section as the hardwood
tie. Softwood and hardwood ties
must not be mixed on the main
track except when changing from
one category to another.
Figure 3-4 Softwood Timber - Photo by J. E. Riley
Softwood ties are typically used in
open deck bridges.
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Concrete Ties
Concrete ties (Figure 3-5) are rapidly
gaining acceptance for heavy haul
mainline use, (both track and
turnouts), as well as for curvature
greater than 2°. They can be supplied
as crossties (i.e. track ties) or as switch
ties. They are made of pre-stressed
concrete containing reinforcing steel
wires. The concrete crosstie weighs
about 600 lbs. vs. the 200 lb. timber
track tie. The concrete tie utilizes a Figure 3-5 Concrete Ties – Photo by Kevin Keefe
specialized pad between the base of the
rail and the plate to cushion and absorb the load, as well as to better fasten the rail to
the tie. Failure to use this pad will cause the impact load to be transmitted directly to
the ballast section, which may cause rail and track surface defects to develop quickly.
An insulator is installed between the edge of the rail base and the shoulder of the plate
to isolate the tie (electrically). An insulator clip is also placed between the contact point
of the elastic fastener used to secure the rail to the tie and the contact point on the base
of the rail.
Steel Ties
Steel ties (Figure 3-6) are often
relegated to specialized plant
locations or areas not
favorable to the use of either
timber or concrete, such as
tunnels with limited headway
clearance. They have also
been utilized in heavy
curvature prone to gage
widening. However, they
have not gained wide
acceptance due to problems
associated with shunting of Figure 3-6 Steel Ties
signal current flow to ground.
Some lighter models have also experienced problems with fatigue cracking.
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Alternative Material Ties

Significant research has been done
on a number of alternative materials
used for ties. These include ties
with constituent components
including ground up rubber tires,
glued reconstituted ties and plastic
milk cartons. Appropriate polymers
are added to these materials to
produce a tie meeting the required
criteria. To date, there have been
only test demonstrations of these Figure 3-7 Alternative Type Material Tie
materials or installations in light
tonnage transit properties. It remains to be seen whether any of these materials will
provide a viable alternative to the present forms of ties that have gained popularity in
use. (Figure 3-7)
3.1.3 Ballast Section

A principal purpose of the ballast section is to anchor the track and provide resistance
against lateral, longitudinal and vertical movement of ties and rail, i.e., stability.5
Additionally, the ballast section bears and distributes the applied load with diminished
unit pressure to the subgrade beneath, gives immediate drainage to the track, facilitates
maintenance, and provides a necessary degree of elasticity and resilience. Good
drainage is of utmost importance to assure required stability.
Ideal qualities in ballast materials are hardness and toughness, i.e., freedom from
shattering under impact, durability or resistance to abrasion and weathering, freedom
from deleterious particles (dirt), workability, compactability, cleanability, availability,
and low first cost. The principal desired characteristic is maximum stability at minimum
over-all economic cost, including frequency of maintenance cycle, life of rails, ties and
fastenings, and the labor costs. Quality maintenance requires that more attention be
given to the quality and characteristics of ballast. The practice of buying ballast purely
because of low first cost or accessibility is clearly suspect.
The ballast sizes recommended in the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering are
time-proven and acceptable. However, a number of AASHTO and ASTM gradations
are similar to AREMA’s and may be acceptable for use in some situations. This may be
more cost effective in locales where AREMA gradations are not readily available but
highway rock gradations are available. The comparison chart found at the back of this
chapter cross-references various gradations.
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More important factors, probably, are the shape of the ballast particle, its degree of
sharpness, angularity, and surface texture or roughness. These factors have been shown
to have a significant effect upon the stability and compactability of aggregates in
general.
The ballast types most nearly meeting the ideal requirements, in order of preference,
are granite trap rock, hard limestone, open hearth and blast furnace slags, other
limestones, prepared gravels, chat, volcanic ash, pit-run gravel and coarse sand (as a last
resort). There are other materials of local deposition that may be usefully considered,
especially for light-traffic and industrial switching tracks.
Keeping ballast in a clean, free-draining condition begins with the selection of a ballast
material that is tough, durable, not subject to abrasion, and free of clays, silts, and soft
and friable pieces. Beyond that, maintaining adequate drainage and cleaning or renewal
should be performed as needed.
Shoulder and intertrack cleaning are satisfactory until the ballast becomes cemented,
too finely abraided, or until mud and dirt have collected under the ties and in the cribs.
At this point, undercutting and cleaning, or undercutting, wasting and replacing with
new ballast is in order. Undercutting may also be a necessary alternative to raising track
during the surfacing and re-ballasting program where overhead clearances are
restrictive. (See the Appendix – Maintenance Processes for specific procedures used in
undercutting.)
The depth of ballast required is a function of the supporting capacity of the subgrade.
It should be sufficient to distribute the pressures to within the bearing capacity of the
subgrade. Uniform distribution of pressures is another factor that varies with depth.
Usually, a minimum depth of 18 to 24 inches is necessary to achieve uniform
distribution. This depth may be distributed between ballast and sub-ballast. The greater
the height of ballast around the tie, the greater is the resistance to vertical displacement.
The same holds true for shoulder and lateral displacement. A full crib of high-grade
ballast should be maintained for continuous welded rail with a ballast shoulder width of
10 to 12 in. beyond the ends of tie considered as ideal. Check individual railway
standards for designated ballast shoulder widths. Typically, 12” is required on the high
side of curves and some railways will specify as little as 6” on tangent shoulders and the
low side of curves. For jointed track, a minimum height of no more than two inches
below top of tie should be held with 6 to 8 in. of ballast shoulder outside the ends of
ties. For gravel, chat and other materials of lesser quality, the crib should be filled to the
top of tie and a 10- to 12-in. shoulder maintained beyond the tie end. The practice of
permitting the sloping of the ballast section downward at the tie ends rather than
maintaining a shoulder may reduce the lateral resistance needed for continuous welded
rail.
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3.1.4 Rail Joints

The purposes of the rail joint (made up of two joint bars or more commonly called
angle bars) are to hold the two ends of the rail in place and act as a bridge or girder
between the rail ends.6 The joint bars prevent lateral or vertical movement of the rail
ends and permit the longitudinal movement of the rails for expanding or contracting.
The joint is considered to be the weakest part of the track structure and should be
eliminated wherever possible. Joint bars are matched to the appropriate rail section.
Each rail section has a designated drilling pattern (spacing of holes from the end of the
rail as well as dimension above the base) that must be matched by the joint bars.
Although many sections utilize the same hole spacing and are even close with regard to
web height, it is essential that the right bars are used so that fishing angles and radii are
matched. Failure to do so will result in an inadequately supported joint and will
promote rail defects such as head and web separations and bolt hole breaks.
There are three basic types of rail joints (Figure 3-8):
• Standard
• Compromise
• Insulated
Figure 3-8 Conventional Bar, Compromise Bar & Insulated Joint Bar –
Photo by J. E. Riley
6 Canadian National Railway, Track Maintainer’s Course
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Standard Joints
Standard joint bars connect two rails of
the same weight and section. (See Figure
3-9) They are typically 24" in length with
4-bolt holes for the smaller rail sections or
36" in length with 6-bolt holes for the
larger rail sections. Alternate holes are
elliptical in punching to accommodate the
oval necked track bolt. Temporary joints
in CWR require the use of the 36” bars in
order to permit drilling of only the two
outside holes and to comply with the FRA
Track Safety Standard’s requirement of Figure 3-9 Standard Head-Free Joint Bar – Photo by J. E.
maintaining a minimum of two bolts in Riley
each end of any joint in CWR.
Compromise Joints
Compromise bars connect two rails of
different weights or sections together.
(See Figure 3-10) They are constructed
such that the bars align the running
surface and gage sides of different rails
sections. There are two kinds of
compromise joints:
• Directional (Right or Left hand)

compromise bars are used where a
difference in the width of the head
between two sections requires the Figure 3-10 Compromise Joint Bar – Photo by J. E. Riley
offsetting of the rail to align the gage
side of the rail.
• Non-directional (Gage or Field Side) are used where the difference between
sections is only in the heights of the head or where the difference in width of rail
head is not more than 1/8" at the gage point. Gauge point is the spot on the gauge
side of the rail exactly 5/8" below the top of the rail.
To determine a left or right hand compromise joint:
• Stand between the rails at the taller rail section.
• Face the lower rail section.
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• The joint on your right is a "right hand".
• The joint on your left is a "left hand".
Insulated Joints
Insulated joints are used in tracks having track circuits. They prevent the electrical
current from flowing between the ends of two adjoining rails, thereby creating a track
circuit section. Insulated joints use an insulated end post between rail ends to prevent
the rail ends from shorting out.
There are three types of insulated joints:
• Continuous
• Non-continuous
• Bonded
Continuous insulated joints (Figure 3-

11) are called continuous because they
continuously support the rail base.
No metal contact exists between the
joint bars and the rails. Insulated fiber
bushings and washer plates are used
to isolate the bolts from the bars. The
joint bars are shaped to fit over the
base of the rail. This type of insulated
joint requires a special tie plate called
an "abrasion plates" to properly
support the joint. Figure 3-11 Continuous Insulated Joint – Photo by J. E. Riley
Non-continuous insulated rail joints

are called non-continuous because these joints don't continuously support the rail base.
A special insulating tie plate is required on the center tie of a supported,
non-continuous insulated joint. Metal washer plates are placed on the outside of the
joint bar to prevent the bolts from damaging the bar.
There are two common kinds of non-continuous insulated joints:
• Glass fiber.
• Polyurethane encapsulated bar.
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The glass fiber insulated rail joint (See the bar to the right in Figure 3-8) replaces the
joint bar with a reinforced glass filament bar. Metal washer plates are placed on the
outside of the joint bar to prevent the bolts from damaging the bar.
The polyurethane encapsulated

insulated bar (Figure 3-12) is a steel
joint bar completely encapsulated in
polyurethane over the entire joint
bar surface. The Poly joint uses
insulating bushings to insure that
track bolts do not short out the
track.
Figure 3-12 Poly Insulated Joint – Photo by J. E. Riley
Bonded insulated rail joints

(commonly called plugs or slugs)
(See Figure 3-13) are made up of
two pieces of rail, which utilize an
epoxy resin to glue the insulated
bars to the rail sections. They are
bolted together using bushings to
isolate the bar from the rail steel
itself. The bolts maintain the
alignment of the bars and rail until
the epoxy cures. The bars are
typically of a heavier section (D-
section) to provide extra support for
the epoxy. These units can be Figure 3-13 Bonded Insulated Joint (Plug) – Photo by J. E. Riley
purchased in a variety of made up lengths. The completed assembly is then thermit
welded into the track structure. This is the preferred type of insulated joint to use in
continuous welded rail (CWR).
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3.1.5 Tie Plates

The primary purpose of a tie plate is to
provide a smooth and uniform bearing
surface between the rail and the tie.7 This
prevents the rail from cutting into the tie.
The plate also helps to maintain gauge.
Plates that are canted (typical cant is 1 in 40)
tip the rail slightly to better distribute the
wheel load to ties.
Tie plates are designated as either single

shoulder or double shoulder (Figure 3-14).
Single shoulder plates are typically used for Figure 3-14 7-3/4” X 14” Double Shoulder Plates –
rail weights running from 56 lb. through 100 Photo by J. E. Riley
lb. Rail sections larger than 100 lb. generally
use a double shouldered plate. Tie plates can be ordered in a variety of sizes all the way
up to 8" x 18", although the 7-3/4" x 14" plate is probably the most common new
plate produced. Eleven inch and 13" double-shouldered plates are also available in
readily available quantities. Some railways believe that CWR should not be used with
second-hand plates, although it is a common practice on other railways.
Specialty plates (Figure 3-15) used for

elastic type hold-down fasteners, are
also produced in large quantities.
Various types of specialty plates are
used at insulated joint locations where
the rail ends are supported
immediately underneath by a tie. A
non-conductive plate must be used to
prevent the shorting out of the two
insulated rail ends.
Figure 3-15 Pandrol Plate & Fastener on a Concrete Tie
Past practices sometimes constructed

trackage without tie plates. However, under today's wheel loading conditions, tie life
will be severely shortened if the rail is spiked directly to the tie without using a plate to
distribute the applied load.
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3.1.6 Rail Anchors

Rail anchors are used to control the longitudinal running or creeping of the rail caused
by changing temperature, grades, traffic patterns and braking action of trains.8 Anchors
are applied directly to the rail base and lodge up against the tie. The tie is embedded in
the ballast and the completed system together provides resistance against longitudinal
and lateral movement. Anchors are made for a specific rail weight and base width.
Anchors manufactured today can be classified into two major groups: (See Figure 3-
16)
• Drive-On
• Spring-Type
Figure 3-16 Tru-Temper Channeloc Drive On Anchor; Adjacent Photo: Woodings-Verona Spring Anchor, Unit Spring Anchor,
Portec Improved Fair Drive-On Anchor – Photos by J. E. Riley
3.1.7 Fasteners
There are many different types of fasteners commonly used.9 Fasteners can be
grouped by use as either connecting rail or track components together or to fasten rails
to ties. Fastenings and hold-down devices, with modern tie plate design, are aimed
primarily at reducing movement between the tie plate and the tie, both vertically and
laterally. As the track deflects under a wheel load, a reverse curve with upward bending
is formed immediately in front of and behind the wheel. Lateral restraint is necessary
to prevent wide gauge and plate cutting. Vertical restraint also reduces plate cutting.
The rail should be restrained within the tie plate shoulders, its own weight is usually
sufficient, without unduly restricting the wave action in the rail. The plate must be held
firmly to the tie by plate holding spikes to prevent any differential movement between
plate and tie. The AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering gives a recommended

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spiking procedure. However, the Engineer should check to make sure that the railway
has adopted the AREMA spiking standard.
Spikes
Track Spikes
The purpose of the track spike is to first maintain gage between the running rails and
to secondly secure the rail to the tie. The underside of spike head is sloped to fit the
top surface of the rail base (Figure 3-17).
Spikes come in different lengths to ensure an adequate length of spike penetrates into
the tie. The most common track spikes used are the 5/8" x 6" and the 9/16" x 5-1/2"
for smaller rail sections. Spikes can be commonly secured in either 200 lb. kegs or 50
lb. kegs (Figure 3-18).
Figure 3-17 Cut Track Spike (5/8” x 6”) Figure 3-18 200# Kegs of Spikes - Photos Taken By J. E. Riley
Ship Spikes
Ship spikes, also commonly called line spikes, are used to secure timber crossing planks
and to secure shims used in frost heaved track. Ship spikes come in a variety of sizes.
Lag Screws
Lag screws are used to fasten elastic fastener plates as well as other specialty track
componentry to wood ties. The tie must be bored before installing the lag screw.
Drive Spikes
Drive spikes with quadruple threads are used to fasten crossing timbers or rubber/cast
crossing sections to the tie. They may be used in other locations where significant pull-
out resistance is required.
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Bolts
Track bolts
The track bolt (Figure 3-19) is used to
connect rail ends together at a joint. Track
bolt sizes are determined by the section of
rail in use. Check the applicable railway
standard to determine the proper bolt
diameter and length. Track bolts are
normally supplied as oval neck to prevent
the bolt from turning when torqued. Track
bolts are heat-treated and will stretch a little,
thus they must be tightened after initial
application. Track bolts are used with
square nuts and spring washers. Over-
torquing track bolts creates frozen joints, Figure 3-19 1” x 6” Oval Necked Track Bolts – Photo
by J. E. Riley
which in most cases, is undesirable.
Frog/Guard Rail Bolts
Frog bolts are square headed and come in a variety of lengths and diameters depending
on the rail section in use and the location of the bolt in the frog.
Rod and Clip Bolts
Rod bolts are typically square headed and

drilled for a cotter pin to prevent the nut from
falling off. They secure the switch rods in a
turnout to the jaw clips mounted on the
switch points. The clip bolts secure the clip or
side jaw to the switch point and are also
square headed with often a milled head that
will permit the switch point to fit up tight
against the stock rail. (See Figure 3-20)
Figure 3-20 Rod & Clip Bolts – Photo by J. E. Riley
3.1.8 Specialized Components

There are a number of specialty track items with which the engineer must be familiar.10
These components include:
• Derails
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• Wheel stops or bumping posts
• Gauge rods
• Sliding joints
• Miter rails
• Bridge/tunnel guard rails
Derails
The purpose of the derail is to keep tracks free of unsecured rolling stock. When
properly placed and in the derailing position, the derail will guide the wheels off the
track. This prevents unintentional movement of rolling stock from fouling the main
line.
The derail should be left in the derailing position

whether or not there are cars occupying the
track. Derails are designated as right hand or left
hand for derailing in the desired direction. The
engineer must select the appropriate model of
derail on the basis of the rail section to be
utilized. An under-sized derail will not properly
cover the rail head and may not derail the car as
intended. An over-sized derail may be damaged
Figure 3-21 Sliding Derail
because of inadequate support.
There are several different types of derails. These include:
• Hinged derails, which are manually applied. The derail is rotated in a vertical
semicircle to move the derail on or off the rail.
• Sliding derails (Figure 3-21) are mounted on two switch ties and are operated by a
switch stand.
• Switch point derails are used at special locations such as steep gradients or where
the possibility of high-speed movement, for example at movable bridges, could
knock a hinged or sliding derail off the rail, rather than derailing the movement.
Wheel Stops and Bumping Posts

The purpose of the wheel stop is to prevent rail cars from rolling off the ends of stub
tracks and to safeguard against damage to structures. Wheel stops can be classified as
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either rigid, which bind securely to the rail or cast which are one-piece half moons that
are easy to install.
Bumping posts are used for heavier service. Some models actually engage the coupler.
Gauge Rods
The purpose of a gauge rod is to maintain track gauge. They are often used to
supplement the tie in preventing lateral movement of the rail in sharp curvature
locations. They can also be used as a temporary means of maintaining traffic in
defective tie conditions. They are not a permanent alternative to replacing a defective
tie. Most gauge rods are adjustable with a nut on one end.
Gauge rods are provided as either insulated for signaled territory or non-insulated,
where track circuits are not used.
Sliding (Conley) Joints

The purpose of a sliding joint (Figure 3-
22) is to accommodate the longitudinal
expansion and contraction of the rail on
long open decked bridges. Rail anchors
are not typically used on open decked
bridges because of the damage done to the
softwood bridge ties. The sliding joint
accommodates the thermal expansion
produced by enabling the beveled rail ends
to move but yet still maintain the
Figure 3-22 Conley Joint to Permit Expansion on Bridge
continuity of the running rail. Deck
Mitre Rail
Whenever track is to be opened and
closed at frequent intervals, it will be
costly and cumbersome to use regular
joint bars. Mitre rails (Figure 3-23) allow
easy opening of track at drawbridges and
swing spans. Each rail of a track is cut
through on a long angle and planed to
make a neat overlapping fit of the mitred
ends. The rail fits in a special shoe and is
locked in place. The rail on each side of Figure 3-23 Mitre Rails
the mitred cut must be well enclosed to
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maintain a very small gap between the mitred rail ends to allow proper opening and
closing of the joint structure.
Bridge/tunnel/overpass Guard Rails

The purpose of installing bridge guard rails
(Figure 3-24) is to keep derailed equipment
from falling off an overpass or deck of a
bridge, or striking the sides of a structure or
piling up in a tunnel. Typically, the inner
guard rail will be a T-rail section, which does
not extend to the height of the running rail.
The outside guard rails are usually timber
members.
3.2 Turnouts Figure 3-24 Inner Bridge Guard Rails - Photo by J. E.

Riley
A turnout is a combination of a switch, a frog, the rails necessary to connect the switch
and the frog, two guard rails, unless the frog is self-guarded, and a switch stand or
switch machine for operating the switch.11 A turnout begins with the switch and ends
with the frog. The purpose of a turnout is to permit engines and cars to pass from one
track to another.
3.2.1 Types of Turnouts

Turnouts can be categorized into three
groupings:
• Lateral turnouts
• Equilateral turnouts
• Lap turnouts
Lateral turnouts (Figure 3-25) are Figure 3-25 Lateral Right Hand Turnout
defined as right hand when the
diverging track runs to the right and left hand when the diverging track runs to the left
when facing the turnout.
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Equilateral turnouts (Figure 3-26) are

common at the ends of double track
territory (where two tracks go to one
and vice versa). Both routes curve or
diverge as opposed to only one route
diverging in the lateral turnout. They are
used for higher operating speeds or in
congested areas. Half of the curvature is
on the main track side and the other half
is on the turnout side.
Figure 3-26 Equilateral Turnout - Photo by J. E. Riley
Lap turnouts (Figure 3-27) are used when

maximum track lengths and minimum
clearance points are required, for example
in hump yards. They contain two sets of
switch points and three different frogs.
The turnout's direction is determined by
which way the first set of points diverge.
Figure 3-27 Lap Turnout
Basic Turnout Terminology

• Straight side called the main track or straight (normal) route.
• Curved side termed the turnout or diverging route.
• Facing point move is from points toward frog, either route.
• Trailing point move is from frog toward points, either route.
• Point of switch (PS) is the location where the diverging or straight route is
determined.
• Heel of switch (HS) is the location at which the switch point pivots about.
• Switch is the area from Point of Switch to Heel of Switch.
• Toe of frog (TF) is the joint location ahead of the frog point connected to the
closure rails.
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• One-half inch point of frog (PF) is the location behind theoretical point of frog,
where the gauge spread is ½”.
• Heel of frog (HF) is the joint location behind the point of frog.
The true definition of a turnout is the portion of the track assembly from PS to HF.
But we commonly refer to all of the track structure resting on switch ties as the
turnout.
Each turnout is identified as a number

(e.g. # 10). The number of the turnout is
determined by the angle of the frog
(discussed later).
Every turnout consists of the following

components:
Figure 3-28 Switch Section of a Turnout – Photo by J. E.

Riley
3.2.2 Switch
A switch is a device to deflect, at will, the wheels of a train from the track upon which
they are running.12 A switch refers to portion of turnout from Point of Switch (PS) to
Heel of Switch (HS).
The split switch (Figure 3-28) is the most common switch used, although the tongue
switch may be used on transit properties operating within pavement. The split switch
consists of two switch or point rails connected by switch rods and operated as a unit.
The switch rails are of full section at one end, and are tapered to a 1/4-in. or 1/8-in.
point at the other end. The tapered end is called the point of switch and the other end
is called the heel of switch. The switch rails rest upon metal plates fastened to the ties.
The heel of each switch rail is connected to its lead rail by means of special joint bars,
or in some cases is continuous, and the switch as a unit pivots about these connections.
The point of switch moves through a distance of about 5 inches, which is called the
throw. The movement of the switch rails is controlled by a switch stand placed outside
the track on the head block ties. The distance between the gage lines of the main track
and of the turnout at the heel of the switch rails is called the heel spread and varies
from 5-1/2 to 6-1/4 in. The angle between the gage lines of the switch rail and of the
main track rail is called the switch angle, s, and is computed from the equation found
in Figure 3-29:
12 Route Surveying Chapter 7 “Turnouts,” Pickels & Wiley, 1947, John Wiley & Sons
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Figure 3-29 Switch Amg;e
Switch rails vary in length from 11 to 39 ft. and even longer for high turnout numbers,
depending on the weight of the rail and the curvature of the turnout.
3.2.3 Switching Mechanism

There are two means of moving the switch points:13
• Hand operated (switch stand).
• Power operated (machine).
Hand operated switching mechanisms can be rigid (See Figure 3-30) or spring switch
type. A spring switch has special components enabling points to close automatically
after being trailed through from the diverging side. There are also dual-control power
switches (See Figure 3-31) that can be operated either by hand (using the hand throw
lever) or power operated remotely by the dispatcher.
Figure 3-30 Hand Throw Switch Stand Figure 3-31 Dual Control Switch Machine – Photo by J. E. Riley
3.2.4 Turnout Rails

Turnouts are made up of a combination of rails. Some have special names and
purposes, for example.
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Stock rails are the outside rails in a switch that the points bear against.
Closure rails are the connection rails between the heel of the switch points and the toe
of the frog.
Knuckle rails (Figure 3-32) are the rails

that the movable point in a movable
point frog or the rail that the center
point in a double slip switch bears
against.
Figure 3-32 Knuckle Rails in a Double Slip Switch

- Photo by J. E. Riley
3.2.5 Frog
A frog is a device at the intersection of two running rails to permit the flange of a
wheel moving along one rail to cross the other rail.14 Turnout frogs may be classified as
rigid frogs or spring-rail frogs. Both types of frogs are made with straight gage lines,
except those used on street railways. The point is finished with a blunt point about 1/2
in. wide. The distance “P,” between the actual frog point and the theoretical point
(intersection of gage lines) equals the width of the blunt point multiplied by the frog
number (i.e., 1/2 N).
Rail Bound Manganese (RBM)

This is a heavy-duty frog used on mainlines
because of its durability.15 The insert is
made of a one-piece manganese casting.
Lengths of machined rail (binder rails) are
bolted to the insert. (See Figure 3-33)
Figure 3-33 RBM Frog – Courtesy of the Union Pacific

Railroad
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Spring Frog
The spring frog (Figure 3-34) provides
continuous support for the wheel as it
transits through the frog flangeway. This
frog has a moveable wing rail. The wing
rail is held closed by a spring assembly. It
also has an anchor block, thimble and a
bent joint bar at the toe end to allow the
wing rail to pivot. The guardrail pulls the
wheels over, forcing the wing to open on
the diverging side. The wing rail springs
closed again after the wheels are through.
Spring frogs are supplied as either right or Figure 3-34 Spring Frog - Courtesy of the Union Pacific
Railroad
left hand. To determine the hand of a
spring frog, stand at the rigid wing end,
facing the frog. The side the moveable wing is on indicates left or right.
The spring frog is used for trackage with predominate main line traffic, especially high-
speed movements, because there is less pounding and a smoother ride. The
disadvantage is that it requires more maintenance than conventional frogs. Recent
advancements in spring frog design have eliminated some of the rigorous maintenance
needed to keep a spring frog functional.
Solid Manganese Self-guarded Frog

The solid manganese self-guarded frog, also
called SMSG (Figure 3-35) has a built-in guard
rail to prevent wheels from mis-routing. Thus,
conventional guard rails are not required.
SMSG frogs are supplied either with plates as
part of the casting or utilize hook plates to
secure the frog to the switch ties. SMSG frogs
are normally limited to yard use primarily
because of the resultant impact that the
guarding face would suffer at higher speeds.
AREMA does not recommend their use in Figure 3-35 Solid Manganese Self-Guarded Frog
main line trackage with speeds over 30 mph.
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Bolted Rigid Frogs

Bolted rigid frogs (Figure 3-36) are made of
machined rail bolted together. They are cheap
to make and are used primarily in yards and
secondary lines. They are designated as right
or left hand. The straight route side of the
bolted rigid frog point is continuous, whereas
the diverging side of the frog point is milled to
intersect the straight side frog point rail, hence
the need to differentiate the hand of the
frog. Figure 3-36 Bolted Rigid Frog - Photo by J. E. Riley
Movable Point Frogs

Movable point frogs (Figure 3-37) are used
in locations where the crossing angle
between two sets of tracks is less than 14°
15’. The excessively long throat created by
using conventional crossing diamond frogs
would be impractical to maintain and to
guard. A movable point frog consists of
two movable center point rails. The free
points face each other a few inches apart
Figure 3 - 37 Movable Point Frog
where each pair may be alternately operated
against two knuckle rails kinked to a point between the free ends of the movable
points. The closed movable point, thereby maintains the flangeway. High-speed, high-
number turnouts may also utilize a variation of the movable point frog described above
in order to gain the benefits of the continuous flangeway too.
Determining Frog Number

The frog used in a turnout determines the number of the turnout, e.g.:
• # 10 turnout uses a number 10 frog.
• # 12 uses a number 12 frog.
The point of the frog is machined off from the true (theoretical) point to where the
spread is 1/2". This is referred to as the actual point of frog. To find the number of
the frog:
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• Utilizing a tape measure, find the location behind the point of frog where the
spread between the gauge lines equals an even increment of inches.
• Starting at that point, measure along the gauge line to the location where the spread
between gauge lines equals one inch more than that previously measured.
• The distance in inches between the two locations where the gauge spread differed
by one-inch equals the frog number.
3.2.6 Switch Ties

AREMA as well as many railways have
standardized plans for the switch tie layout
for the turnouts utilized on their property.
The two switch ties under the switch
mechanism are called head block ties
(Figure 3-38). The ties under the heel
block assembly are called heel block ties
and those under the frog are called frog
ties.
Figure 3-38 Head Block Ties
3.2.7 Stock Rails

The stock rails (Figure 3-39) are made of rail of the same weight and section as the
switch point. The stock rail on the diverging side is bent (Figure 3-40) so that a proper
fit is maintained between the switch point and the stock rail and to protect the point
from wheel impact. In the case of an equilateral turnout, both stock rails are bent.
Stock rails are either Samson (called "undercut" when ordered) or standard. The
beveled samson stock rail allows the samson point to tuck underneath the stock rail,
thus protecting the point from impact.
Figure 3-39 Point and Stock Rail - Photo Figure 3-40 Stock Rails with Bend - Photo by J. E. Riley
by Craig Kerner
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3.2.8 Switch Points

The switch points (Figure 3-41) are
the movable rails that permit a
change of route direction in the
turnout.16 There are different types
of switch points, each with some
unique characteristics. But the
following parts of switch point are
common to all:
• Tip
• Heel
Figure 3-41 Switch Points - Photo by J. E. Riley
• Planed (or "machined") portion
• Reinforcing bar
• Switch clips
• Stop blocks
The switch points are machined from rails, so that the middle of
the rail becomes the middle of the actual point, to give it
structural support. The switch points are planed at an angle for
about 1/2 of their length down to approximately 1/8 in. wide at
the tip. This permits a snug fit against the stock rail. (See Figure
3-42) As the point begins to move away from the planed
supporting portion, it loses its horizontal support against flexing.
A stop block is mounted on the switch point between the planed
portion and the heel block. The block bears against the stock rail
when the point is in the closed portion, thereby providing
support as the lateral forces from the wheel pushes outward. Figure 3-42 Switch Point Fit
The turnout number or the angle of the frog normally

determines the length of the point required, as well as
whether the switch is a curved switch or straight. All
switch points are either standard or Samson. (Figure 3-
43) The smaller rail section turnouts (under 100 lb.)

Figure 3-43 Samson vs. Standard Switch
Point and Stock Rail
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typically utilize standard points and are straight switches. Larger, newer rail sections
and turnouts located in main line use are typically Samson points and frequently curved
switches. Samson points must be used with a Samson (undercut) stock rail.
Identifying Left or Right Hand Points

The hand of a switch point (Figure 3-44) can be determined by standing at the tip end
of the point and looking along its length:
• If switch clips are on the right side of the point, the point is a left hand switch
point (and vice versa).
Another method when not installed:
• If it looks like an "L" when viewed from the point end, then it is left hand.
3.2.9 Specialty Components
Figure 3-44 Switch Specialty Components – Courtesy of Bernie Forcier
Switch Clips
The switch clips connect the switch rods to the
points. There are different styles such as the
horizontal transit type vs. the vertical MJ type. (See
Figure 3-45)
Figure 3-45 Side Jaw Clip - Courtesy of the

Union Pacific Railroad
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Switch Rods
The switch rods hold the switch points together at a fixed distance.17 They restrict the
up and down movement of the points. The number of rods used depends on the
length and type of switch point. The longer the point, the more rods are required
(from 1 to 7). The rods are spaced from the tip of the point to 1/2 or 2/3 the point
length (depending on the type of point). Switch point rods may be supplied as either
insulated or non-insulated type.
The first rod is called the front or head rod. The last rod is called the back rod and the
others are called intermediate rods.
Types of Switch Rods

There are a variety of available switch rods including:
Horizontal, non-adjustable switch rods (Figure

3-46) typically are used in conjunction with
multiple-hole switch clips to provide adjustment.
The rod bolts can be used in various holes when
adjusting, but they must be in corresponding
holes in the clips, i.e. the same on each side. The
rod must be able to move inside the clips as the
points are lined back and forth. The rod bolts
must be installed with the nut up and cotter pin
installed.
Figure 3-46 Horizontal Non-Adjustable Switch
Rod - Photo by J. E. Riley
Horizontal, adjustable switch rods secures its

length adjustment by interlocking the serrated
edges of the rod to various positions and then
bolting the rod back together. One must ensure
that the teeth properly interlock when installing
or adjusting.
Vertical switch rods are used in conjunction with

MJ and MJS type switch clips. (Figure 3-47)
Figure 3-47 SMJ Rod - Photo by J. E. Riley
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Connecting Rod
Connecting rods are also called the operating or
throw rod. The connecting rod connects the
front switch rod to the switch stand. It may be
attached by an adjustable connection (called a
clevis) to the crank eye bolt in the switch stand
and (by a rigid connection) to the front switch
rod. There are different types of connecting
rods, some are adjustable, some are not. They
come in a variety of lengths depending on their
use and the type of switch stand being used. Figure 3-48 Connecting Rods - Photo by J. E. Riley
(Figure 3-48) On a power switch, the throw
(operating) rod is attached to a barrel shaped basket (Figure 3-47), which is connected
to the No. 1 switch rod. Adjustment of the lock nuts to either side of the basket
enables adjustment of the switch throw.
3.2.10 Special Turnout Plates

Each type of turnout has a specific set of plates.18 The plates differ in type and
quantities for each turnout. These plates include the gauge, switch, heel, hook and frog
turnout plates.
Gauge Plates
Gauge plates are placed under the tip end
and on the first tie ahead of the point of
switch to hold the rails in proper gauge.
Additional gauge plates are used on spring
and power switches to provide rigidity.
Gauge plates are machined to enable the
stock rails to sit in the plate and points to
sit on the plate. A rail brace assembly is
then used to fasten the stock rails to the
plate. (Figure 3-49) Gauge plates are
either right or left hand. They may be
supplied as insulated or non-insulated. A Figure 3-49 Gauge Plates - Photo by J. E. Riley
gauge plate is angle cut on the turnout side
to accommodate the angle of the bent stock rail.
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Switch Plates
At the point of switch, the point is beveled back such that it is below the top of the
stock rail. (See Figure 3-44) However, the base of the point is elevated above the base
of the stock rail. Switch or slide plates are used under the switch points. (Figure 3-50)
Depending on the turnout, they are either of the graduated riser style or the uniform
style. Slide plates maintain the required elevation of the switch points above the top of
the stock rail as one moves back to the heel of switch and presents a smooth surface,
upon which the points may move right or left. (Figure 3-51) The graduated riser plate
has a riser that decreases in thickness, such that at the heel, the elevation of the stock
rail and point are the same. The uniform riser plate is the same thickness all the way
back to the heel, such that the switch point is above the stock rail at the heel. Specialty
turnout plates then lower the raised rail behind the heel back down to the elevation of
the closure rail. In both slide plate types, the riser provides a shoulder to prevent
inward lateral movement of the stock rail. The stock rail is secured against outward
movement by spiking to the ties and by rail braces. One cannot mix the type of switch
plates being used.
Figure 3-50 Graduated Riser Plates - Photo by Figure 3-51 Switch Point Raised Above Stock Rail - Photo by
J. E. Riley J. E. Riley
Rail Braces
A rail brace is used to resist the lateral
thrust on the point and stock rails. Rail
braces bear against the outside of the stock
rails. They are secured to the gauge and
switch plates. There are two general types
in use with many variations of each.
• Adjustable (fastened with bolts).
• Rigid (older type, fastened with track Figure 3-52 Rigid Type Rail Braces
spikes). (Figure 3-52)
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Heel Block Assembly

The heel block assembly maintains the correct distance between the gauge side of the
stock rail and the gauge side of the points. It adds strength and rigidity. The block will
be different for each switch and rail section. The conventional bolted heel block,
assembly, (Figure 3-54) permits movement of the point rails at the heel block. In the
floating heel block (Figure 3-53) the point flexes over its length. The floating heel
block merely acts as a bearing point between point and stock rail to limit movement.
Special plates are used under the heel block assembly.
Figure 3-53 Floating Heel Block Figure 3-54 4-Hole Heel Block
Turnout Plates
Turnout plates are used immediately beyond
the heel block assembly. These plates raise the
switch end of the closure rail to the level of the
heel of the switch point, where uniform riser
plates were used under the switch. (Figure 3-
55)
Figure 3-55 Turnout Plates Through the Closure

Rails - Courtesy of Union Pacific Railroad
Hook Twin Tie Plates

Hook twin tie plates may be used through the
closure rails or in locations where there is no
room for standard tie plates, e.g.:
• Beyond the heel block.
• Before and after the frog.

Figure 3-56 Hook Twin Tie Plates - Courtesy of
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• Under guard rails.
The hook on the plate always goes on the field side of the rail. There are a variety of
hook twin tie plates. They are typically numbered to correspond on the turnout
drawing with the location that they are to be used (Figure 3-56).
Frog Plates
Hook twin tie plates are often used at
the frog. (Figure 3-57) Spring frogs use
special slide plates to allow the wing rail
to move on it. Some RBM frogs use toe
plates to support wheel loads in this
area. Newer style turnouts will often use
full-length base plates under the frog.
Figure 3-57 Hook Twin Plates Under a Frog - Courtesy of the

3.2.11 Guard Rails

Guard rails are used to prevent mis-
routing and derailing at the frog point
and to prevent wheels from striking the
frog point.19 (Figure 3-58) They may be
of either the adjustable or non-adjustable
type. The guard rail captures the back of
the flange on the wheel opposite the
frog and guides the other wheel through
the throat opening of the frog. Thus,
the mid-point of the guard rail must be
positioned ahead of the frog point to
ensure that the wheel is properly Figure 3-58 Guard Rail
tracking when it reaches the throat of
the frog.
The non-adjustable guard rail is secured directly to the running rail with fixed castings.
On the adjustable guard rail, end castings are located at each end of the guard rail,
which are designated as right or left hand (by standing between the rails and facing the
guard rail). An adjustable separator block along with the end castings are used to space
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the flangeway opening initially at 1-7/8 inches. As the outside flange of the wheel
abrades away the gage face of the guard rail, this dimension will increase. The FRA
sets limits defined by the guard face and guard check dimensions to ensure that the
wheel is properly contained through the frog flangeway.
Guard rails are supplied in different lengths as specified by the railway’s standard plan.
They use a variety of plates, which must be spiked on each end, plus spiked between
running rail and guard rail.
3.2.12 Switch Stands

There are a variety of switch stands in
use.20 Typically, high stand switch stands
are used in main line applications; whereas
the ground throw stands (Figure 3-59) are
used in industry or yard applications.
Automatic switch stands are used to
enable the stand to line when points are
trailed through from either route. Main
line switch stands are equipped with a
target that is colored green when the Figure 3-59 Ground Style Switch Stand
switch is lined for the normal route and
red if the switch is reversed. Yard switches equipped with targets are usually green for
the normal route and yellow for the reverse route.
Spring Switch
This is a hand throw switch equipped with a spring mechanism instead of a rigid
connecting rod. It is often called a mechanical switchman because the points return to
normal position after the passage of each wheel. It is designed to allow trailing point
movements from the diverging route without having to stop and reset the switch. The
spring switch stands must be bolted to the ties and be of the rigid type. The spring
switch is typically provided with a target marked “SS” or other designation.
Power Switch
A power switch is an electrically powered machine that lines the switch. Some power
switches are known as dual control switches. Dual control power switches (Figure 3-
60) can be operated either by hand using the hand throw lever, or remotely by the
dispatcher.
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As with the rest of the track, but even more

so, quality turnout and crossing maintenance
demand initially a strong, stable base and
excellent drainage. This may require special
subgrade preparation including asphaltic or
concrete pads, especially under crossings
with high traffic densities. The use of catch
basins and subsurface drainage systems are
recommended where moisture conditions
and traffic are both severe.
The proper location of a crossing or turnout

Figure 3-60 Dual Control Power Switch - Photo by J. E.
is important. It should be placed off of Riley
curves. Sharp curvatures or reversals should
be avoided at the back of the frog to avoid excessive lurching and lateral thrust in the
frog area.
All parts of a turnout or crossing subject to excessive wear and thrust should be of
high-wear resistant materials. Heat-treated or manganese switch points, frogs and
guard rails, and heat-treated stock rails are recommended for heavy tonnage locations.
3.3 Railway Crossings and

Crossovers
Crossovers (Figure 3-61) can be
considered as two turnouts, with
minor limitations. The track
between the two frogs follows the
frog angle. Thus the timber layout
for half of the crossover is different
from that of a turnout.
A crossing is a device used at the

intersection of two tracks.21 It
consists of four frogs and the
necessary connecting rails. Any one
Figure 3-61 Crossover
of the frogs is a crossing frog. The
crossing angle is the angle between the centerline of the tracks at their point of
intersection.
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Crossings are designated as single

curve, double curve or straight,
according to one, both or neither of
the tracks being curved. Crossings are
usually made of rolled rails or
manganese castings fitted together.
When the crossing angle is greater
than about 25°, the various pieces are
cut to fit against each other and are
united by filling blocks and heavy
straps well bolted. This is frequently
termed solid construction. For angles Figure 3-62 Crossing Frog (Diamond)
under about 25°, regular frog point
construction is used, and such crossings are termed frog crossings versus a crossing
frog.
The end frogs of a frog crossing are similar to a standard rigid frog in that there is a
single point on which the wheels run. The middle frogs, however, have two running
points and are therefore frequently termed "double-pointed frogs.”
When "slip switches" are used, the

crossing is made to a standard frog
number, and if located at an
interlocking plant, the middle frogs
are frequently made with movable
points. That is, with movable points
joined in pairs and moving together,
similar to a split switch, in such a
way that the wheels have a solid
bearing and no flangeway to jump.
A "slip switch" or "combination

crossing" (Figure 3-63) is a Figure 3-63 Double Slip Switches - Photo by J. E. Riley
combination of a small angle
crossing with a pair of connecting tracks placed entirely within the limits of the
crossing. They are used in large yards and terminals and are usually made to some
standard frog number.
Very few railways construct their own crossings, but have them built by manufacturers
who make a specialty of such work. The field engineer is rarely called on to compute
the dimensions of a crossing, and to do so is a waste of time if the crossing is ordered
from a manufacturer. It is far more important that the manufacturer has all the data,
and the field engineer is frequently required to furnish the data. The information
required is:
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- The crossing angle.
- The gage of each track.
- The curvature - degree of curve, radii, or the equivalent.
- The direction of curvature.
- The length along each gage line from one gage line intersection (theoretical P.F.) to
the nearest rail joint.
- Length overall along each gage line.
- The height, weight and style of rail of which the crossing is to be made.
- The height, weight, and style of rail in the intersecting track if offset or
compromise joints are to be furnished.
- The spacing and size of holes for joint bars.
- The type of crossing, etc., unless covered by general specifications.
This information can best be given by means of a small sketch. Field dimensions
should he taken to the nearest 1/8 in. (0.01 ft.). Occasionally, the field engineer is
called on to compute the dimensions of a crossing. The values required are the frog
angles F1, F2, F3, F4, the length of sides along the gage lines, and the two diagonals.
The computations should be made with sufficient accuracy to give results correct to
the nearest 1/16 in., which is the working limit of the manufacturers.
3.4 Highway Crossings

The renewal of road crossings represents one of the largest budgetary
expenditures faced by the Maintenance of Way and Signals Departments.
Typically, railways will look for governmental partnership and participation when
contemplating crossing renewal projects on all but farm and private crossings.
Chapter 5, Part 8 of the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering gives specific
guidelines for the design, construction and maintenance of road crossings. The
Commerce Commission of each state in the United States regulates the design,
construction and installation of public road crossings within their respective state.
This information is contained within bulletins accessible through their respective
web pages.
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Road Crossings are where roads, streets or highways intersect the track at grade.22
Road crossings, or grade crossings as they are sometimes called, result in increased
maintenance requirements of the track and the road itself. In addition to the
maintenance requirements, public safety is obviously of serious concern at road
crossings.
There are many different types of road crossing materials that are commonly
found throughout North America. These include: unsurfaced, timber, asphalt,
asphalt with timber headers, concrete (both cast in place and precast) and
pre-manufactured rubber. Some transit and light rail systems utilize specialty rail
chairs to support an inner rail, thereby creating a proper flangeway in highway
crossings. The type of crossing material used is determined primarily by the
amount of vehicular traffic that uses the crossing.
Unsurfaced crossings are typically used at temporary crossing locations such as

shoe-flys or where construction traffic is required to cross the railway. These
crossings may consist of ballast backfilled to the top of rail. Where unsurfaced
crossings are used, care must be taken to maintain a sufficient flangeway for the
train wheels.
Timber crossings may be constructed

of either treated wooden planks (often
used in farm or private crossings)
(Figure 3-64) or full gumwood
crossings, which have been
successfully used for many years. This
type of crossing can be used for all
types of traffic levels from light to
heavy. Figure 3-65 presents a typical
cross section for a full-depth timber
crossing.
Figure 3-64 Plank Crossing - Photo by J. E. Riley
Figure 3-65 Gumwood Timber Crossing – Courtesy of Bernie Forcier
22 US Army Track Maintenance Standards – Bernard Forcier
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Asphalt or Bituminous crossings

(Figure 3-66) are used for crossings
with all levels of traffic from light to
heavy. These crossings are
constructed by filling in the area
between the rails with compacted
base material covered by several
inches of asphalt as surfacing
material. In some cases, full-depth
asphalt may be used between the
rails. Depending on the level of train
and highway traffic, the flangeways
may either be formed in the asphalt
Figure 3-66 Asphalt & Timber Flangeway Crossing - Photo by
itself or formed by the use of timber Robert Schuster
flangeway headers.
Concrete road crossings (Figure 3-

67) may be either cast-in-place or
constructed from pre-cast panels.
Concrete crossings are typically used
at locations with medium to heavy
vehicular traffic. Precast concrete
crossing panels are available from
several different suppliers.
For road crossings with heavy

volumes of vehicular traffic, pre-
manufactured rubber road crossings
are often used. (Figure 3-68) This Figure 3-67 Precast Concrete Crossing - Photo by J. E. Riley
type of crossing may be either a
full-depth rubber material or a
system of wood shims that are
placed on the ties with the rubber
crossing material placed on top of
the shims.
3.4.1 Crossing
Construction and
Reconstruction
The following comments are Figure 3-68 Rubber Crossing - Photo by Robert Schuster
independent of the type of
crossing surface that is used. When crossings are built or rebuilt, it is
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recommended that all of the ties in the crossing itself, and for 20 feet beyond each
end of the crossing, should be replaced with new high-quality, properly treated, 7”
X 9” hardwood ties. Each tie should be tie plated and double spiked with 4 rail-
holding spikes per plate. Box anchor all ties through the crossing. For crossings
having heavy volumes of rail and highway traffic, it may be desirable to install tie
pads beneath the tie plates in the crossing area. The presence of bolted rail joints
in a road crossing compounds the maintenance problems normally associated with
joints. All of the joints in the crossing area and for 20 feet to either side of the
crossing should be welded to prevent these problems.
When a crossing is constructed, care must be taken to insure that the track
structure is sound and durable prior to placing the crossing cover. The rail, tie
plates, spikes and ties should be new. Once the crossing cover is on, track
material replacement becomes difficult and costly. The track geometry (gage,
surface and alignment) should be near perfection prior to placing the crossing
cover. The ballast in and around all of the ties should be well compacted. It is
important that fouled ballast materials be removed during crossing reconstruction
for a distance of at least 20 feet off the ends of the crossing. However, it is equally
important that excavation not penetrate the hardpan found below the ballast/sub-
ballast section. Whenever possible, full closure of a highway crossing from
vehicular traffic is desirable for the longest period possible. This ensures that the
entire crossing can be raised to an elevation that permits surface water drainage
away from the crossing and that provides the greatest amount of train traffic over
the crossing prior to sealing it up. This helps to prevent settlement and other
movement of the crossing that would be difficult to adjust later. Close
communication with local and state/province authorities, arranged well in
advance, can do much towards mitigating problems associated with temporary
crossing closures.
In multiple track territory, it is desirable that the top of the rails for all tracks be in
the same plane (See Figure 3-69). The highway surface should match the plane of
the tracks for at least 24” to either side of the outside rails of the crossing.
Connect this plane to the grade line of the highway each way by vertical curves
sufficiently long enough to provide adequate sight distance and a smooth riding
condition for approaching highway traffic (See Figure 3-70). AREMA
recommends that the highway elevation at 30 feet from the nearest rail be not
more than 3” higher or 6” lower than the top of rail unless track superelevation
dictates otherwise. Tractor trailer rigs can get hung up on a humped crossing.
The engineer should verify that the vertical curve gradients utilized are within local
ordinance or Commerce Commission statutes. Some states require that the
railway assume the responsibility of repaving the approaches if the resultant
crossing reconstruction will raise the approach grade by more than 1%.
Proper drainage away from the road crossing of surface water is essential to the
satisfactory long-term performance of the track and the highway. Inadequate
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drainage leads to water ponding in the crossing area. Water should not be allowed
to pond anywhere on or near the track. Drainage facilities such as ditches, gutters,
catch basins, subdrains and culverts should be in-place, free of debris and working
properly. The use of geotextile fabrics and/or perforated CMP between the
subgrade and the sub-ballast/ballast section is highly recommended to carry away
water trapped within the crossing proper.
Figure 3-69 Maintenance of the Plane Across All Superelevated Figure 3-70 Highway Approach Grade – Photo by J. E. Riley
Tracks - Photo by J. E. Riley
3.4.2 Crossing Warning Devices

The safety of a grade crossing to both the motor vehicles and trains should be a
priority item for both the engineer and the railway. Past experience has shown
that drivers familiar with a crossing may be very cautious when they know that
train traffic is either very heavy or irregular. Conversely, a driver may give little
thought to the grade crossing if experience has shown that trains rarely operate
over it. Therefore warning signs, signals and pavement markings are important
and must be visible and legible to the motor vehicle operators approaching the
crossing. The state/providential Commerce Commission regulates the type of
signage, pavement markings and appliances required. In most cases, they refer to
“The Manual on Uniform Traffic Control for Streets and Highways.”
The U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration Manual

on Uniform Traffic Control Devices provides guidance on marking and signage of
railway grade crossings. The amount of marking and signing required is a function
of the amount of vehicular traffic using the road, the amount of rail traffic, the
type of train operations (e.g., speed, direction, switching operations, etc.) and the
geometrics of the crossing. The minimum requirement is for a crossbuck and
advance warning sign (if applicable). Additional warning signs, signals and
pavement markings may be used as necessary.
In some cases, the crossing may be marked with automatic warning devices
commonly termed flashers. These devices are activated by the approaching train to
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warn vehicles of the train. Gates are sometimes used in conjunction with this type
of signal. Automatic warning devices must be inspected and tested monthly to
insure that they are in proper working order. All inspections and tests conducted
on these automatic signals must be documented and kept on file per FRA
requirement. This provides valuable information in the event of an accident or
other sources of litigation. (See Chapter 7 of the Practical Guide To Railway
Engineering for a complete explanation of how highway crossing warning devices
are activated by the track circuits.)
3.5 Utility Crossings

Because tracks usually traverse great distances, railways will encounter many utility
crossings such as pipes, wires, cables and other conduits.23 These can be longitudinal
along the right-of-way, perpendicular or crossing diagonally. They can also be either
overhead or underground. Most railways and many regulatory agencies have standards
and rules for such installations.
The following are general standards for utility crossings. Check first with the railway to
verify acceptance therewith.
1. Overhead crossings must have adequate support at or above the prescribed

clearances above the top of the high rail.
2. Underground crossings must be in carrier pipes or casings at or below the

prescribed distances below the lowest base of cross tie or other baseline
measurement.
3. Underground crossings must be in carrier pipes or casings of sufficient strength

to withstand dynamic railway loading in addition to the weight of soil
overburden at the crossings.
4. Underground pipes carrying volatile substances often require vented casing

under the railway rights-of-way.
5. Underground pipes, wires and cables should have warning signs at ground
surface identifying the utility type, as well as contact names and telephone
numbers.
6. Some underground installations have color-coded plastic tapes buried just above
them, so that excavators will first encounter the tapes before damaging the utilities.
7. Prior to beginning any excavations on a railway right-of-way, the entity undertaking

the work should have arranged for the location and surface marking of all
23 Railroad Track Design Manual, Prepared for the Parsons Transportation Group by James Strong, PE
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underground pipes, wires and cables (including those owned by the railway). Do
this by checking existing records and through field investigations.
8. Avoid underground crossings very near the ground surface, or those traversing the
track ballast or existing drainage structures. These present tripping hazards to train
crews and expose the utilities to breakage, possibly causing dangerous situations,
contamination and/or erosion.
3.6 Track Geometry

Having now acquired a basic knowledge of the components making up the track
structure, the engineer needs to understand what drives the need for maintenance,
component replacement or track structure rehabilitation and how decisions are made
to prioritize their replacement. For most railways, the decision for component
replacement and the basis of funding justification is driven by:
Maintenance of Safe Operation at Track Speeds - Ensuring the train stays on the track at time
table speeds and that cars, equipment and lading or passengers are not unduly damaged
or injured.
On-Time Performance & Service Reliability - Minimizing speed restrictions by performing

interim maintenance consisting of small-scale replacement of components, touch-up
work (smoothing) and other functions that ensure that the track structure remains
serviceable until it is no longer cost effective to maintain for given speeds or that
customer service commitments are endangered.
Ride Quality - Maintaining the geometry of the track structure, such that it complies not
only with minimum safety standards demanded by the FRA, but also minimizes damage
to lading, as well as ensuring a comfortable ride for the riding public for passenger/transit
railways.
Secure Expected Component Life of the Entire Track Structure - Premature failure of one
component will produce a reduced life span for the remaining track components because
of the interdependent relationships.
Cycle Based Renewals - E.g., tie replacement of 20% of ties every 6-7 years in a given mile to
prevent wholesale failure 30 years down the line. This distributes capital replacement
costs evenly to prevent one time staggering expenditures.
This last criteria has for the most part been attained by the Class 1’s, commuter roads and
bigger regionals through heavy capital investment. Many of the short lines are still
suffering from the effects of years of former deferred maintenance and are unable to earn
the cost of capital required to achieve a cycle based program. It is not desirable to replace
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1200 to 1400 ties per mile (out of the normal 3,200 ties found per mile) just so that one
meets the minimum safety standards required to operate at the speeds desired.
Now let's look at how each of the criteria mentioned are utilized. Safe operation at track
speeds and On-Time Performance (reliability) are for the most part speed related. The
FRA (Federal Railroad Administration) Track Safety Standards define minimum
requirements to which the track structure must be maintained for a given range of speeds.
The following table defines the permissible speed ranges for the Class of Track for freight
trains running up to 80 mph and passenger trains running up to 90 mph.
Over track that meets all of The maximum The maximum

the requirements prescribed allowable speed for allowable speed for
in this part for freight trains is passenger trains is
Excepted 10 N/A
1 10 15
2 25 30
3 40 60
4 60 80
5 80 90
An additional table for passenger trains defines the class of track for speeds between 91
mph and 200 mph (FRA Class 6 – 9). It must be understood that the FRA Track Safety
Standards set the minimum requirements for safe operation of trains. Maintenance
standards must be much more rigorous in order to continue to operate at a given speed.
Design and new construction standards require significantly tighter tolerances than that
employed by maintenance standards i.e., it may not be cost effective to maintain the
railway at the same level of design/new construction standards if safety and service
reliability are not compromised.
In general, track is dynamic. Other than timber ties, it does not degrade under the absence
of train operations. It, however, degrades exponentially as train speeds are increased.
Thus, as speeds go up, the variance or acceptable tolerances from desired parameters
must become tighter. These parameters are broken down into:
- Roadbed
- Geometry
- Track Structure
- Track Appliances
- Inspection Requirements
Specific minimum parameters dependent on the class of track operated (speed

operated) are defined. Railways, not meeting the minimum requirements for the class
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of track being operated, are left with several immediate options to remedy the problem.
They may immediately make repairs such that the track is now in compliance. They
may reduce the speed to a class of track that would be in compliance. They may
classify the track as Sub-Class 1 and operate at Class 1 speeds for a period not to
exceed 30 days prior to repairing the track (assuming the track is safe to operate), or
they may remove the track from service.
On trackage where occupied revenue passenger trains do not operate, and

simultaneous movement at track speeds in excess of 10 mph does not occur within 30
feet of the centerline of track on any adjacent track, and trains do not contain more
than 5 placarded Haz-Mat cars (with several other restrictions), track may be declared
as Excepted Track. Such track may be operated at Class 1 speeds and is exempt from
the 213 Track Safety Standard’s requirements except for a maximum gage limit and the
requirement to perform track inspection at Class 1 frequencies.
Service reliability demands that immediate repairs are made. The other avenues for
remediation are unacceptable, except for very short duration. As noted before, day-to-
day deviations are taken care of under the normal operating budget. When, however,
undue labor or materials are required to remain in compliance for the speed to be
operated, railways must seek capital funding for component replacement or
rehabilitation. Rail relays are classic cases of the above. Elimination of jointed rail and
replacement with Continuous Welded Rail (CWR) lowers significantly maintenance
costs. Rail wear occurs not only on the top of the head of the rail (tread) and at the
gauge corner (wheel flange contacts the rail), but also where the joint bar comes into
contact with the rail. As this contact area becomes worn (bar and rail), it becomes
impossible to keep the joint bolts tight. This accelerates tie deterioration, as well as
promoting secondary batter of the rail end, chipped joints, dangerous rail defects, mud
pumping and a host of other problems related to poor track.
The maintenance of good track geometry is essential to securing good ride quality.
When the parameters defined by geometry begin to deteriorate, one very quickly
moves from poor ride quality to component deterioration and outright failure.
3.6.1 Gage
Consider the parameters making up geometry. The first parameter is gage, which is the
right angle distance between rails measured 5/8" down from the top of the rail on the
gage (inside) corner (Figure 3-71).
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Standard gage is 4' 8-1/2" (56-1/2").

Railways are concerned about not only
wide gage, which comes from rail head
abrasion in curves, worn spike killed ties
which allow the rail to move outward,
worn rail base eaten away by salt in
crossings and numerous other factors, but
also by tight rail that may cause the wheel
to climb up onto the ball of the rail and
then drop in. Dependent on location,
type and wear of wheel and a host of
Figure 3-71 Measuring Gage – Photo by Larry Slater
other factors, the wheel may fall in when
the gage exceeds 58-1/2" (2" wide gage). Under the 49 CFR 213 FRA Track Safety
Standards, one is not allowed to operate trains at any speed if the gage exceeds 1-3/4"
wide. In comparison, to operate at Class 4 (80 mph passenger/60 mph freight),
trackage may not exceed more than 1" wide gage under load.
Maintenance of gage is a priority not only because of the need to not have trains falling
through between the rails, but also because it permits the flange of the train wheel to
hunt from rail to rail, thus knocking the track out of alignment . Replacement of curve
worn rail in curves or the transposition of rail (making the low rail the high and vice
versa) and replacement of deteriorated ties (the primary cause of wide gage) are the
chief weapons in combating wide gage problems.
3.6.2 Alignment
Another parameter of geometry already mentioned is alignment. Alignment is the
position of the track or rail in the
horizontal plane. It is expressed as being
tangent or curved. (See Figure 3-72)
Alignment is measured in straight track
by stretching a 62' string between two
points along the gage corner of the rail.
The offset measurement between the
string and the gage corner of the rail is
taken at the midordinate (center of the
string (31')). If the track is perfectly
straight, the offset should be zero (i.e., Figure 3-72 Curved Alignment - Photo by Bill Ross
the string touches the gage corner of the
rail along the entire 62' chord). Again, the FRA has set maximum permissible amounts
of alignment deviation (difference between 0” offset and the measured offset in
inches), which become more restrictive as speeds increase. In a curve, alignment is also
measured by the use of a 62' chord and for classes 3 – 5 track, a 31' chord as well. To
understand how alignment is measured in a curve, one needs to first examine the
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components of a curve. There are three specific elements of a curve that must be
considered:
- Full Body of the Curve
- Transition Spiral Entering and Leaving the Curve
- Superelevation in the Curve
Full Body of the Curve

In a perfectly circular curve, the radius
of the curve at any point along the curve
is the same length. (Figure 3-73) It just
so happens, that when one stretches a
62' chord (string) with either end of the
string at the gage corner of the rail (5/8
inches below the top of rail), at any
point throughout the curve, the
measured offset (between the string and
the gage corner of the rail) at the mid-
ordinate (center of the string) in inches
is also the degree of curvature of the Figure 3-73 Full Body of Curve - Photo by Larry Slater
curve at that point. (See Figure 3-74)
(See the Appendix for diagrams and literature detailing the relationship between mid-ordinate measured
and degree of curve.)
The degree of curvature should be the same at every point checked around the full
length of the full body of the curve. But curves are hard to keep in line, especially
where gage and surface related problems are present. By taking successive
measurements around the curve and then averaging these measurements, one can
determine an average existing mid-ordinate or degree of curvature. Dependent on the
class of track operated, the FRA in the Track Safety Standards defines the procedure
utilized for determining the average mid-ordinate for the curve.
The difference, then, from the measured

mid-ordinate, (degree of curvature) at a
point of concern, and the average mid-
ordinate determined for the curve as it
presently lies, is the deviation in
alignment. Again the higher the speed,
the more restrictive the allowable
deviation from desired alignment.
Alignment allowed to deteriorate initially
will cause a poor ride and very quickly
Figure 3-74 Measuring the Mid-ordinate - Photo by Larry Slater
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will lead to surface related problems.
Transition Spiral of the Curve

A train progressing at speed down tangent
track would undergo a significant lateral
acceleration if it instantaneously went from
tangent track to full degree of curvature
where the tangent track ended and the curve
began. To combat this problem, a transition
curve called a spiral is introduced at the
beginning of the curve and at the end before
the curve returns to tangent. (See Figure 3-
75) The degree of curvature of a spiral
(cubic parabola) starts at zero and ends up at Figure 3-75 Transition Spiral Curve - Photo by Larry
the full curvature over its length at roughly Slater
an even rate. (See Chapter 6 Railway Track Design for a complete discussion of the spiral curve. A
sample calculation illustrating the calculation of deflection angles and other required curve components
can be found in the Appendix.)
Curve Elevation
The other element of a curve that must be considered is the effect of centrifugal force as
the car moves around the curve. The sharper the curve (the shorter the curve radius)
and the higher the speed, the greater the centrifugal force. This force tends to cause the
wheels to move towards the outside rail as much as one may have experienced on an
amusement park ride. To counter this force, railways elevate the outside rail of the
curve, or in railway parlance add superelevation, to counter the effects of centrifugal
force. Through the full body of the curve (the circular segment of the curve), the
elevation required to offset the effects of centrifugal force is constant for a given speed.
The amount of superelevation required is determined by the speed of the fastest train
and the degree of curvature present. Excessive elevation for the speeds operated will
mash the low rail or even cause low rail turnover. Too little elevation for the speed
operated may cause the wheel to climb the high side and derail. Not all trains operate at
the same speed through a curve. Railways are permitted to operate with a maximum of
three inches of unbalance for conventional equipment and with approval of the FRA, at
higher levels of unbalance for specialty equipment per Subpart B. This enables the
balancing of elevation for both the highest and slowest speed trains operating through
the same curve without compromising the safety of the train or causing premature
deterioration of the track structure. Railways will specify the amount of unbalance
utilized up to a maximum of three inches.
One cannot go instantaneously from zero elevation in the tangent section to full
superelevation when the full body of the curve is reached either. The spiral curve is
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used to also transition in the increase in elevation until at the end of the spiral when full
elevation is reached. At the end of the full body of the curve, a spiral is used to
transition the full elevation back to zero when the tangent section is again reached. (See
Chapter 6 Railway Track Design for a complete discussion on the use of the spiral curve to transition in
full superelevation.) Thus, both lateral and vertical increase in acceleration of the car body
occurs at a constant rate without feeling an abrupt change. The weight of the train,
deviation in gage and alignment, as well as resultant surface track problems, make it
difficult to maintain these elements in the desired state. Deterioration of other track
components further exacerbates the maintenance of curves and tangent track. The
correction of alignment, surface and how these two relate to curves is called surfacing.
It is a key component in the renewal or rehabilitation of the track structure.
3.6.3 Surface
The next primary element of geometry is surface. Surface describes the vertical
relationship of the track structure and is comprised of run-off, profile, crosslevel,
reverse elevation in curves and warp or twist (difference in crosslevel).
Each category of surface affects the train's response to the track and must be
considered in performing all track construction and repair tasks. Speed-sensitive
maximum tolerances have been established for all of the elements of surface.
The top of rail elevation of newly worked

track must be blended into the elevation of
the existing track during surfacing operations
where the track is raised, when renewing the
deck of a bridge or performing work on
other track structure elements changing the
top of rail elevation. If not careful in
blending the new elevation of the track, a car Figure 3-76 Run-off Between Bridge Segments - Photo
traversing over the blended track section will by James Bertrand
get a severe bounce, which in some cases
may uncouple the train. We call this abrupt
change in elevation run-off. (See Figure 3-76) The greater the speed, the greater the
bounce, if the run-off is too abrupt. Run-off allowable limits are determined by
stretching a string along the top of the rail and by measuring the change in elevation of
either rail in 31'.
The profile of each rail is the mid-offset in inches measured from the mid-ordinate of a
62' string stretched along the top of the rail. Profile problems look like sags or humps in
the track. (Figure 3-77)
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Figure 3-77 Measuring Profile Figure 3-78 Measuring Crosslevel
Surface also includes crosslevel (Figure 3-78), which is the difference in elevation
between two rails at any given point. In tangent track, the crosslevel should be zero.
Both rails should be at the same elevation.
In curved track in the full body of the

curve, the crosslevel should be at
whatever is the designated
superelevation. In the spiral, the
crosslevel should be whatever the
incremental amount of elevation is
between zero and full elevation for that
point in the transition curve. The
difference between what the crosslevel is
and what it should be at that point is
known as the deviation in crosslevel.
Specific limits are also set on the amount Figure 3-79 Difference in Crosslevel (Warp) Within 62'
of reverse elevation permissible in curves (i.e., the outside rail in a curve is lower than
the inside rail at a given spot).
Difference in crosslevel or warp (Figure 3-79), the fourth category of surface, can cause
the front of the car to lean in one direction and the rear of the car to lean in the other
simultaneously. The resultant wracking action on the car may cause a wheel to lift.
Warp is also the cause of the famous rock-n-roll phenomena, whereby successive low
joints at critical speeds will cause certain types of cars to go into resonance (reach their
natural frequency). They will literally rock themselves off of the track from the wheel
lift produced.
Warp is defined as the change in crosslevel between any two points less than 62 feet
apart. The change between the highest and lowest crosslevel reading in any 62'
determines the speed that can be operated. Warp in a spiral curve can often be
dangerous. Because of the lateral and vertical changes the car is undergoing in the spiral,
a low spot or even reverse elevation in the spiral may require a speed reduction -
perhaps to 10 mph until the problem can be corrected. Allowable warp in a spiral for
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Class 4 is 1", but just a 2" difference in crosslevel requires one to reduce speeds down to
Class 1 track.
Surface problems are often directly related to tie condition. If a significant number of
ties are no longer capable of providing support (i.e., they're split, broken, plate cut or just
abraded away from the bottom) surface problems will result. Out-of-face tie renewal, at
that point, is the only permanent option to correct the resultant surface problems.
If the free draining characteristics of the ballast are disrupted, i.e., it becomes plugged
with mud or fines, surface will be impossible to maintain. Because the mud does not
have the bearing support of clean rock, the track structure will compress under each
passing wheel. A siphoning effect much like a toliet plunger will only bring more water
and fines up into the ballast section. Undercutting, shoulder cleaning or in some cases a
full out-of-face ballast raise (2" to 3"), are about the only options available to alleviate
this condition. If rail condition has deteriorated to the point that secondary batter or
bent ends cause the wheel to pound every time it goes over a joint - surface will be
impossible to maintain. Inadequate drainage because of fouled ballast or other related
factor may be considered an FRA non-class specific defect under certain situations.
3.7 Safety
The importance of safety on the ROW was highlighted in Chapter 2, Industry
Overview. Indeed, the first rule in virtually every railway safety rule book is “Safety is
the most important element in the discharge of duties.” The cardinal rule of
railroading is “Expect a train on any track, at any time and in any direction. Never step
in the foul without looking both ways.” These rules are key to staying out of harm’s
way any time one is out on the ROW.
Within the United States, the Federal Railroad Administration has set very strict
requirements regarding the protection required for roadway workers (individuals
inspecting, constructing, maintaining or repairing track, bridges, signal and
communication systems, roadway, roadway related facilities, electric traction systems or
anyone operating roadway equipment in the foul of the track or with the potential of
fouling the track). These regulations are known as the On-Track Safety or Roadway
Worker regulations. Each railway has developed an On-Track Safety Policy that
defines how protection will be provided to roadway workers from trains or roadway
maintenance equipment any time they are in the foul of the track. Contractors,
consultants, manufacturer equipment personnel and railway employees meeting the
criteria of a roadway worker are bound to comply with these requirements by federal
law, and there are severe corporate and personal financial penalties for failure to
observe these requirements. Per the FRA, one is in the foul any time one occupies the
track or is within four feet of the near running rail or is within the envelope where
he/she could be struck by a projection from a piece of on-track roadway maintenance
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machinery. Railways may have more stringent requirements than that posed by the
FRA.
Each railway On-Track Safety policy will mandate but is not limited to the following:
• Every roadway worker must have a daily job briefing that defines the qualified
employee-in-charge of his on-track safety and the type of on-track safety that will
be provided him on the track from which he is fouling and/or on adjacent tracks
as well. The physical and time limits of the protection must be provided if
appropriate.
• No roadway worker may foul the track unless an appropriate form of on-track
safety is provided him at all times.
• A qualified employee-in-charge, who is providing or arranging for the protection,

must be present at all times when the track is fouled by roadway worker(s).
• A designated form of warning and a designated place of safety will be identified in

the job briefing that the roadway worker must immediately move to with the
approach of a train or piece of roadway maintenance machinery on the track from
which he is fouling as well as on any adjacent tracks. (An adjacent track is defined
as any track with a track center distance of less than 25 feet from the track which
protection is being provided.)
• A roadway worker may challenge the on-track safety protection provided him if he,
in good faith, believes that the on-track safety protection provided is inadequate or
is in violation of the railway’s On-Track Safety policy or the FRA regulation,
without fear of retribution.
Roadway workers can provide protection for themselves utilizing several different
methods of protection. However, they must be a qualified employee-in-charge in
order to do so. To be qualified, one must:
• Successfully pass an annual railway operating rules exam.
• Successfully pass an annual railway On-Track Safety Exam.
• Be familiar with the physical characteristics of the railway segment where

protection will be provided.
In all but the most rare cases, railways typically do not qualify other than employees to
be employees-in-charge. This means that anyone coming onto the property in a
consultant/contractor mode must be accompanied by a qualified employee-in-charge
any time he/she is within the envelope defined as foul – FRA or railway, no matter
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how short the period. Some railways further restrict this to any time one comes onto
railway property.
Roadway workers must receive annual roadway worker training prior to fouling the
track. Some railways utilize the job briefing in order to satisfy the training requirements
for infrequent contractors/consultants. However, a number of railways require
contractors or consultants to be roadway worker trained prior to receiving permission
to come onto the property. There are a number of qualified entities that can provide
this training, including AREMA.
The On-Track Safety regulation is complex and there are a number of other very
significant requirements. The engineer must have a clear understanding of it. One can
download the regulation and explanation from WWW.FRA.DOT.GOV.
The FRA requires the use of fall protection when working on a railway bridge:
• Outside the running rails of any bridge structure not equipped with a handrail on
the side from which one is working,
• With a height greater than 12 feet or more from the working surface to the surface
below, and
• With an overall span length greater than 12 feet.
Similar requirements exist in Canada under Labour Canada law.
The FRA Blue Flag requirements govern the protection provided personnel working
on, under or between railway cars and locomotives. Equipment blue flagged cannot be
moved, coupled into, or equipment cannot be moved onto a track where the view of
the blue flag will be restricted by the equipment unless personnel placing the blue flag
have removed it and are in the clear.
The FRA has adopted other governmental regulatory requirements where specific
FRA regulations have not been adopted, including OSHA regulations. Although the
FRA cannot enforce other governmental regulations, it can notify other governmental
entities when it believes violations exist or employee/public life or safety may be
endangered.
3.8 Maintenance Activities

At this point, the interrelation between the various elements of the track structure and
how deterioration of one component very shortly affects the other components is
evident. To insure that the component life guaranteed is secured, railways have to look
at their capital rehabilitation programs from a systems approach. It is a waste of funding
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to relay rail in a track segment plagued with defective ties incapable of supporting the
wheel loads unless the tie problem first is corrected. A full out-of-face tie renewal,
bringing the track structure up to Class 4 or Class 5 tie condition, will quickly deteriorate
if the ballast section consists of mudcaps, poor alignment and surface problems.
Alleviation or attention provided one aspect of the track structure will not correct other
problems, both from the integrity of the track structure, but also from a regulatory
perspective as well.
On the other hand, a well-planned rehabilitation program, that minimizes disturbance of

the track structure, but that also includes coordination and consideration of all phases of
track maintenance, will often yield life cycles that will go well beyond the life expectancy
guaranteed.
Coupled with on-going cycle based rehabilitation programs, is the need for consistent
operating dollar-based maintenance programs. Spot replacement of ties, correction of
gage deficiencies, smoothing, elimination of joints, adjustment of CWR, turnout
maintenance, repair of battered or chipped rail ends, grinding of rail to maintain
optimum rail profile, are all essential to keeping the track structure in equilibrium until
capital component replacement occurs. The industry must never let deferred
maintenance become a way of life again. As older, more experienced workforce retire,
as new regulations add restrictions to the way maintenance activities are performed with
resultant loss of efficiencies, and as train traffic increases and work windows decrease,
railways are going to need more sophisticated and productive equipment for their
maintenance forces to counter these problems.
The reader is encouraged to turn to the Appendix for a synopsis by the Canadian
National Railway of procedural steps used in performing various maintenance activities
including:
• Ballast Unloading
• Gauging on Wood and Concrete Ties
• Mechanical Surfacing of Track
• Switch Tie, Yard and Siding Ties & Programmed Maintenance Tie Renewal
• Rail Train Rail Pickup
• CWR Rail Relay on Wood or Concrete Ties
• Mechanized Tie Renewal
• Track Abandonment
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• Track Sledding
• Installation of Panelized Turnouts
• Unloading Continuous Welded Rail
Note: These practices are provided only as a guideline and may be in significant variance with the
procedures and practices of other railways.
Maintenance has always been performed, more or less, on a cyclic basis.24 Cyclic
maintenance, in its modern connotation, must therefore mean more than mere
repetitive programming. Quality does not wait until the entire service life of a tie has
been consumed before renewing that tie. An almost worn-out tie is not giving full and
uniform support to the track. Neither does quality maintenance wait until alignment
and surface have deteriorated before performing the necessary lining and surfacing
operations. These work activities must be established on a cycle that does not permit
significant deterioration to set in. Additional cost may seem to be involved. This may
well be since one often has to pay more for a product of higher quality. The actual
over-all-cost effects may not be as adverse as one might anticipate, because it is easier
to keep up than to catch up.
Cyclic maintenance is a desirable feature of standardization of methods. Tie renewals

and surfacing are related operations. Surfacing should follow tie renewals to insure a
final quality surface after the track has been disturbed by the tie renewals. Because the
two operations frequently move at different speeds (depending on the number of tie
renewals per mile), the one operation should not be permitted to hold back the other.
3.8.1 Track Disturbance

Many of the major production and maintenance activities constitutes significant
disturbance of the track structure, especially in welded rail. Railways work hard to keep
the track structure in equilibrium. The thermal expansion of a single piece of rail 1440
feet long for a 60 degree F rail temperature rise, not uncommon on a clear, hot day,
would allow that rail to grow 7 inches if it were not restrained. But the rail ends are
restrained. They are welded together. The forces produced are significant (106,780 lbs-
F for 136# rail for a 40°F rise in temperature) as each rail tries to expand against the
other. Using Euler's buckling theory, a compressive force of sufficient magnitude
applied at either end of long narrow member (rail or rails fastened to the ties), will result
in the buckling of the member before the ultimate compressive strength is exceeded.
By increasing the moment of inertia of the member or by shortening its effective length,
the force required to achieve buckling is increased. So it is with the rail. The moment
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of inertia or resistance to buckling of the track structure is increased by adding solid fully
spiked ties, providing a full ballast section between the ties and on the shoulder, and by
applying anchors.
But thermal forces are not the only forces that are applied to the track structure. Train
braking and acceleration, locomotive nosing back and forth, truck hunting, line kinks,
centrifugal force on curves, etc., all add additional forces to promote buckling. There's a
limit to how much the track structure can resist. In most cases, the only force that can
be controlled is thermal expansion. North American railways lay the rail at an elevated
temperature (80°F - 120°F depending on the expected temperature range), and then
lock the rail in place by applying enough anchors. Theoretically, the rail is not thermally
stressed (no compressive or tensile forces imposed) anytime the rail temperature is at
the temperature the rail was laid. We call this “as laid temperature,” the neutral
temperature. Unfortunately, over time, the neutral temperature tends to drop
significantly from the inadvertent adding of rail when changing out rail or making welds,
lining curves in during cold weather and natural microscopic creeping of the rail through
the anchors.
Where does this all lead? Although excessive rail can be cut out and stretched with big
hydraulic jacks to raise the neutral temperature, this is not a realistic approach every time
maintenance functions are performed and the track is disturbed.
3.8.2 Track Disturbance Activities

Disturbance constitutes any procedure that reduces track moment of inertia or stability,
such that it cannot resist the compressive forces imposed under normal ambient
temperatures, either under or without train loadings. When the track is raised out of its
naturally consolidated bed and the bonds are broken that have developed through the
natural interlocking of the individual stones making up the ballast section, or the ballast
is removed between the ties and on the shoulders, we have disturbed the track and
promoted the possibility of track buckling or a sun-kink.
Engineering out the potential for a sun-kink ahead or under a train in CWR is achieved
through the adherence to specified procedures utilizing a combination of limiting speed
restrictions applied for a given amount of tonnage and/or number of trains over a given
time period until consolidation is achieved. The specifics to these procedures will vary
according to the type of traffic, train consist, ambient temperature, physical
characteristics of the railway and speeds operated. Each railway will have developed
CWR policies and procedures pertinent to their operation. Procedures applicable to
commuter/transit operations may not be applicable to unit train operations. However,
it is essential that individual railway procedures be followed any time track disturbance
occurs. Today, railways can quickly regain about 80% of the original track stability
through the use of a dynamic track stabilizer.
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Thus the goal when performing track work of any kind is to minimize disturbance.
But when disturbance does occur, appropriate measures must be instituted until
the track is again stable while still safely keeping train delays to the minimum
possible.
3.8.3 Rail Lubrication

Lubrication of the rail in curves, if appropriate, is an essential task in the battle to
maximize rail life. Even with properly superelevated curves, the flange of the wheel
tends to crowd the high or outer rail (desirable for a good ride). The resultant abrasion
of rail and wheel can be significant, thereby leading to wide gage and unfavorable wheel
loading stresses that aggravate the formation of dangerous rail and track defects. The
proper application of lubricants will significantly reduce the amount of rail and wheel
wear imposed and thus increase the life expectancy of both rail and wheels. The
resulting reduction in wheel hunting action from proper lubrication will slow down the
formation of alignment and gage related problems.
Lubricant is applied to the rail through the use of locomotive on-board lubricators,
wayside lubricators (Figure 3-80) and hi-rail equipped lubricant pump/nozzle systems
or by hand application. Regardless of the method of application, it is important that
the lubricant only be applied on the gage corner of the rail and not upon the tread of
the rail where it could seriously impact locomotive traction or braking. This is
particularly important in commuter rail and transit properties, which are operating a
limited number of cars per train set. Loss of friction at the rail/wheel interface can
cause sliding under the severe braking applications often required for short distance
intervals between station stops. It is also important that wayside lubricators be
properly located to ensure that the
lubricant is carried throughout the
curve.
The low rail should also be lubricated

to ensure that the truck assembly
steers itself around the curve rather
than slewing around the curve.
Failure to do this, in double-
stack/container territory, or in
Figure 3-80 Wiper Bars of a Rail Lubricator – Conrail
terminals where stiffer high-speed
engines operate, can result in lateral forces that will roll the low rail over, even in the
best of track conditions. Lubrication on transit properties is also utilized to reduce
noise levels as equipment traverses around the curve. There are a variety of petroleum,
synthetic and even soybean based greases available that are environmentally friendly,
but also maintain their viscosity over a wide range of ambient temperatures.
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Recent developments in the application of friction modifiers (not a lubricant) to the

tread of the rail optimize the coefficient of friction on the running surface of the rail.
This promotes better steering with significant reduction in propulsive energy costs,
reduced noise and longer rail service life. The use of head hardened (heat treated) rail,
in addition to lubrication, can be used to promote rail life in severe curvature.
3.8.4 Rail Grinding

Rail grinding is another maintenance
activity that promotes increased rail life.
Both the rail and the wheel have a radii
at the contact point. By modifying the
radii of the rail head, the rail/wheel
interface (contact point) can be shifted
to a situation more favorable for the
imposition of induced stresses for a
given rail section. The applied lateral
and vertical forces create a resultant Figure 3-81 Switch Grinder - Courtesy of Canadian Pacific
vector described by the L/V ratio. Rail
Shifting the contact point similarly shifts
the application point of the resultant vector. Keeping the L/V ratio below 0.6 is
important, although low rail turnover has occurred with L/V ratios as low as 0.4 with
hollow worn wheel treads. The optimum rail profile then is a function of the wheels
utilized and the car characteristics to the extent that they can be controlled.
Rail grinding is achieved through the use of specialized grinding machines or trains
equipped with adjustable grinding wheels (See Figure 3-81), that can remove small
amounts of metal at a very controlled rate in a series of passes. Depending on the
amount of material to be removed and the number of stones utilized, grinding is
typically performed at speeds ranging from 1 – 7 mph. Grinding is also used to
remove surface imperfections in the rail such as gage corner shells, spalls on the low
rail and corrugations on the rail head. Corrugations in transit properties produce the
infamous roaring rail sound. In freight and commuter territory, it can eventually lead
to detail rail fractures.
Localized grinding is also performed on manganese components such as RBM frogs

and crossing diamonds. It requires the imposition of tonnage to work harden
manganese. Until manganese is work hardened, it flows very easily. It is important to
remove this overflow (grinding) before it breaks out, which requires extensive welding
to make repairs. The longer welding can be postponed, the longer the service life of
the manganese component. Thus intermittent touch-up grinding is essential.
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3.8.5 Rail Defect Testing

Rail defects can be classified as external
or internal. Although most internal
defects give some external indication of
their presence, it may not be recognized
prior to a train finding it, with a
resultant derailment. Internal defects
are found through the use of an ultra-
sonic or ultra-sonic/electro-inductive
vehicle (Figure 3-82) designed to look at
the reflective wave imposed on the rail Figure 3-82 Ultra-sonic Electro Induction Rail Defect Testing
at several angles. Some form of
discontinuity or aberration in the rail will be visible on a CRT screen as the vehicle
traverses over the rail. The FRA has established required rail inspection frequencies
dependent on the speed operated, tonnage levels the prior year and whether or not
passenger trains are operated. The FRA 213.113 section of the Track Safety Standards
provides the minimum required remedial action for a found defect, which is dependent
on the type of defect and its cross-sectional area or length.
The Sperry Rail Service provides an excellent pictorial manual of the various types of
rail defects and the more common visible indicators of their presence. Good
knowledgeable track inspection will often find the indicators of the presence of rail
defects prior to their breakout.
3.8.6 Geometry Cars

Many of the larger railways utilize a
geometry car (self-propelled or pulled by a
train) to periodically check basic track
geometry and gage compliance for
FRA/Transport Canada or their own more
restrictive requirements. These heavy
vehicles can test at speeds up to 70 mph.
The newer vehicles use Optical Rail Figure 3-83 FRA T-2000 Geometry Car - Courtesy of
Plasser American
Scanning to measure gage and geometry
parameters in real-time mode. The resultant print-out flags non-compliant locations or
close to non-compliant locations. A visible paint mark is left on the track structure to
assist repair crews in locating the deficiency. Older cars utilized a gage feeler system
and required significantly slower testing speeds. The FRA operates its own Geometry
Car (Figure 3-83) in order to verify railway compliance with the standards on a more
wide based range than that which can be done by having an inspector making localized
inspections.
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3.8.7 Gauge Restraint Measuring System (GRMS)
A new tool in finding the presence

of wide gage under loading
conditions is the Gauge Restraint
Measuring System or GRMS
(Figure 3-84). These vehicles,
through the use of a sliding axle,
impose vertical and lateral loads
and measure the resultant lateral Figure 3-84 GRMS Vehicle - Courtesy of Plasser American
movement of the rail. Specific

requirements for the imposed load's L/V ratio are stipulated in the FRA Track Safety
Standards. Based on the amount of movement and the imposed load, a resultant gage
widening under load measurement is extrapolated for actual train imposed loadings.
The FRA permits the use of these data in determining gage compliance in lieu of the
required number of non-defective ties for a given class of track per 39-foot segment as
stipulated in 213.109. Thus, available capital replacement dollars can be utilized where
they are most effective and needed, not just to maintain compliance with the Track
Safety Standards. GRMS testing must be done at the required frequency in order to
have relief from the 213.109 requirements. Many railways are utilizing this tool to plan
capital tie replacement programs or to find weak spots in their track structure.
3.8.8 Vegetation Control

The control of unwanted vegetation is
another essential maintenance activity.
Some ROW vegetation is desirable, for
example, the root structure of selected
grasses used to prevent erosion or
sliding of fill sections, the use of trees to
serve as wind breaks for minimizing
snow drifting or sand blowing, or
shrubbery to act as a sound damper or
sight break in residential areas.
Unwanted vegetation (See Figure 3-85)
serves to block drainage, reduce sight
visibility for approaching motorists at Figure 3-85 Overgrown Vegetation - Photo by J. E. Riley
highway crossings, reduce signal or whistle post visibility for locomotive engineers,
create fire hazards around bridges and other railway structures, increase the risk of
injury to employees performing their job functions, hamper track inspection and may
ground out track circuits in pole line which possibly could give a false clear indication
to an approaching train. Unwanted vegetation may also provide a habitat for rodents
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and other unwanted vermin, spread noxious weed seeds and provide unfavorable
publicity and exposure to the railway from surrounding communities.
Vegetation is controlled through the use of either herbicide application or mechanical

cutting. There are a number of successful formulations developed by the chemical
industry for the control of vegetation. The specific weed or tree species, climatic
conditions and the neighboring environment will dictate which formulations or
combination of formulations are recommended. The Environmental Protection
Agency in the United States regulates the application of herbicides. Herbicide
application rates and type of usage are very clearly spelled out. Failure to comply can
bring severe penalties. Licensing of applicators and operators is done by the states and
is required of anyone applying herbicides to railway property.
Herbicide formulations can be broken down into two categories:
• Pre-emergent
• Post-emergent
Pre-emergent herbicides are applied before germination of the seeds or very early in
the plants juvenile stage of life. They typically possess residual characteristics that carry
on some time after their application and prevent seed germination. Timing of
application is obviously critical as is the need for moisture some time after application
to move the herbicide into the soil. Post-emergent herbicides are applied after the
plant has sprouted. They typically have no or little residual characteristics. They are
applied to the foliage and translocate to the root structure to kill the plant. Some post-
emergent herbicides are classified as contact herbicides. They cause the plant to drop
or damage the foliage on which the herbicide came into contact. This results in the
disruption of the plant's ability to utilize photosynthesis and may stunt or kill the weed
or tree.
Herbicides are applied through the use of backpack sprayers, hi-rail truck-equipped
booms or hoses, or through the use of spray trains. Some states and providences have
very strict notification regulations prior to the application of herbicides. Check before
initiating a program.
Mechanical cutting of vegetation can be broken down into localized mowing or chain
saw removal of brush and tree species, a very labor intensive and expensive endeavor,
or the use of on-track based production cutting machines. Many of these machines are
not suitable for use in urban areas because of the debris thrown and the splintered
remains of the tree that is left behind. However, in more remote locations they are an
effective means of clearing the ROW. Other on-track based equipment may not have
the production rates, but are more urban environment friendly and enable the judicious
employment of tree trimming. Chipping or removal of the cut material is almost
always a requirement in urban areas.
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3.8.9 ROW Stabilization & Drainage

Railways are faced with a number of soil
and ROW stabilization problems. These
can result from saturation of soils due to
lack of or blocked drainage, overloading
of placed or natural fill materials from
years of ballast raises and heavy train
traffic, poor initial soil selection in the
construction of the ROW or inability of
retaining walls to hold back the ballast
because of ballast raises that do not permit
an acceptable angle of repose within the Figure 3-86 Slope Failure - Photo by Bill Ross
height of the wall. Many of the commonly
applied highway stabilization methods used are also applicable to railways.
Reducing water content below saturation through the installation of lateral drains,
outlet drains and the cleaning out of ditches will often alleviate locations requiring
frequent surfacing to stay within required parameters. (See Figure 3-86) Often ballast
pockets will form deep in the subgrade, which act as a natural wick for water. These
pockets form as the ballast is pushed down into the underlying soft-saturated subgrade.
The addition of more ballast simply exacerbates the problem. These pockets must be
located and drains installed to alleviate the situation. Similar problems will often occur
when using a ballast regulator to bring ballast from outside the toe of slope back into
the ballast section. Often dirt and other fines are also dragged up creating a small
berm. This "bathtub" type curb, if located at or below the bottom of the ballast
section, will often trap water with its attendant surface related problems.
Unfavorable soils can sometimes be alleviated through the use of lime injection or
cement grouting dependent on the soil type. Other mechanical means include driving
second-hand ties vertically and spaced at intervals outside the edge of ties if the
problem is localized over a short length. The placement of rip-rap at the toe of slope
will sometimes alleviate the problem. Reducing the angle of repose by dumping and
spreading ballast is another means often used, so long as the fill section is not failing
because it is already overloaded. In the case of some varved clays and other very
unfavorable soils, the only permanent solution may be the removal of the track and the
excavation of the poor soils with replacement of a more favorable soil.
Tie-back walls and techniques such as soil nailing are now also coming into vogue.
Temporary relief from ballast sliding problems at bridge ends and culvert headwalls can
often be rectified through the use of timber ballast stops as well.
Localized ditching can be done through the use of backhoes and crawler excavators.
The major excavator manufacturers have designed and built crawler equipment that
can move from air-dump car to air-dump car, loading the cars as it progresses through
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each car. More conventional equipment includes the use of Jordan ditchers, which
have powerful cylinder, equipped wings that will blade the ditch through the toughest
of terrain. It is important that any ditch created be trapezoidal in shape to minimize
future plugging with debris. Avoid V-shaped ditches.
3.8.10 Welding
The most common track welding functions are electric arc, thermite and flash butt.
Standard arc welding processes such as SMAW, GMAW and FCAW are used to weld
manganese and carbon steel track components. However, thermite and flash butt are
used for joining continuous welded rail. The flash butt method is used in the plant to
create quarter-mile ribbon rails, which are then transported by a rail train to the
location where they will be installed. Both flash butt (portable In-Track welding)
(Figure 3-88) and thermite (sometimes known as alumino-thermic) are then used in the
field, to join the longer lengths of rail together into continuous welded rail. They are
also used in maintenance welding for replacing defective rail and for light construction.
Thermite welding (See Figure 3-87) is a process

that joins rail ends by melting them with
superheated liquid metal from a chemical reaction
between finely divided aluminum and iron oxide.
Filler metal is obtained from a combination of the
liquid metal produced by the reaction and
pre-alloyed shot in the mixture.
Flash butt welding (Figure 3-88) is a resistance

welding process that produces a weld at the
closely-fit surfaces of a butt joint by a flashing
action, followed by the application of pressure Figure 3-87 Thermite Welding a Joint -
after heating is substantially completed. Very high Courtesy of Canadian Pacific Railway
current densities at small contact points between
the rail ends cause the
flashing action, which
forcibly expels the material
from the joint as the rail
ends are moved together
slowly. A rapid upsetting of
the two work pieces
completes the weld.
Figure 3-88 On-Track Flash Butt Welder - Courtesy of Plasser American
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Electric Welding refers to the standard arc welding processes used elsewhere,
particularly shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) or "stick welding,” gas metal arc
welding (GMAW) and flux-cored arc welding (FCAW), with or without additional gas
shielding. These processes are used on frogs and crossing diamonds (both manganese
and carbon steel),for carbon steel rail ends, switch points and wheel burns,and for
joining carbon steel rails.
Oxy-Acetylene Welding is now primarily limited to the build-up of rail ends that will
later be thermit welded.
3.9 Production Gangs

Major restoration or renewal of the track structure is typically accomplished through
the use of organized production gangs dedicated solely to performing a single function.
These gangs will vary in size, make-up and equipment consists according to the
railways established procedures. They are designed to secure maximum production
within the limited track time window that is made available. ften, these gangs will have
system-wide seniority, which permits them to be utilized as geographic and climatic
conditions permit. Their acquired experience and expertise lend real efficiency in the
performance of their work. Many production gangs possess impressive safety records
in comparison to other railway work units. Albeit production work often poses
significantly more hazards.
Many of the regional, short line or commuter/transit properties will contract

production work to railway contractors, as they do not possess the required workforce
or equipment to effectively perform these tasks. Class I railways and the larger regional
and commuter railways typically perform this work themselves because of negotiated
labor agreements, although there is a growing trend to contract new track construction.
The specific production gangs to be covered in this chapter include:
• Rail Gangs
• Tie Gangs
• Undercutting Gangs
• Surfacing Gangs
• Road Crossing Renewal Gangs
• Turnout Gangs
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• New Track Construction Gangs/Cutovers
3.9.1 Production Rail Gang

The first production gang to be considered is the rail gang. Rail renewal is determined
chiefly by the condition of the existing rail. Rail with significant secondary batter,
chipped ends, bent joints, corrugations too deep to grind out or with excessive curve
wear, becomes impossible to maintain surface and speed restrictions have to be
imposed. Rail segments that have had a history of recent failures, whether discovered
ultrasonically or as outright broken rail, are placed for special priority. Older jointed
rail, within acceptable wear limits and that has been work-hardened by tonnage prior to
the inception of 100-ton cars, is rail that can often be utilized for relay purposes. By
cutting off 18" or more from each end, the bolt holes are eliminated and the rail can be
welded into lengths of up to 1440 or 1600 foot long strings. This cascading effect
generates a significant amount of the rail laid in North America, particularly on
medium tonnage and secondary lines.
Rail gangs will typically range from 30 to 60 men in size. As such, they are the most
labor-intensive work function utilized. Expansion of the rail and installation at gage are
the primary performance criteria that must be considered when laying jointed or
continuous welded rail (CWR). Jointed rail must have shims installed between rail ends
in order to permit thermal expansion. The thickness of the shim utilized is a function
of the rail's present temperature. CWR is laid at a Preferred Rail Laying Temperature
(PRLT), which will be the rail's neutral temperature after anchoring, and is designated
per geographic location by the railway. The neutral temperature favors the higher
range of expected rail temperatures, as a sun kink is typically more dangerous than a
pull-apart. If necessary, the rail is artificially heated or cooled or adjusted hydraulically
to a corresponding length in order that it is within an acceptable neutral temperature
range. The rail is then anchored per railway standard in order to lock in the neutral
temperature.
The rail laying operation begins with the distribution of the material. CWR strings are
carefully unloaded at their point of installation off of specialized roller rack cars
carrying up to 40 strings of rail (Figure 3-89). These cars are permanently connected to
each other as the strings span the cars. Tie downs are located for each string near the
middle of the train. This permits the ends of the string to be free and accommodate
going around curves and moving through turnouts. Each rail train is equipped with a
winch car and a set of adjustable threader guideways (Figure 3-90) that guide the rail to
the ground.
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Figure 3-89 Partially Loaded Rail Train Figure 3-90 Rail Train Threader Car - Photos by J. E. Riley
The end of the string is then secured once it is on the ground. The rail is either pulled
or pushed out from under the train as the train progresses down the track. As the
trailing end of the string approaches the beginning end of the remainder of the strings,
it is temporarily connected to the next string and the process begins anew. Rail can be
unloaded simultaneously on both sides of the train. Unloading of CWR or picking up
of CWR that has been relayed is a potentially dangerous operation and great care must
be exercised so that workers are not pinned by a string of rail that for any reason does
not successfully line up with its corresponding roller rack. At crossings, a trench is
either excavated through the crossing into which the rail can be inserted, or the rail is
torch cut and the crossing is jumped. Should rail be required to renew the crossing, it
may also be unloaded at the crossing ends. Jointed rail will also be unloaded by rail
cranes onto the shoulder of the track ready for installation. See the article entitled
Unloading Continuous Welded Rail in the Appendix for further information on this
topic.
Tie plates are distributed ahead as well. In some cases, the existing plates will be used
for the rail to be relayed (curve patching or relays utilizing the same rail section). Other
material, depending on railway procedures, such as tie plugs, spikes or anchors, are
distributed just ahead of the gang to discourage theft. Depending on the equipment
consist, these materials may be carried with the machines. CWR is threaded by the use
of a specialized crane ball (head) up into the center of the track so that it is in position
to be threaded into the tie plate. (See Figures 3-91 and 3-92)
Figure 3-91 UP Rail Gang - Photo by C. C. Rupel Figure 3-92 CPR Rail Gang - Photo by Bill Ross
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Although rail gangs vary significantly in their make-up and sequence of operation, in
general, they follow the activities listed in the Appendix article entitled CWR Rail Relay
on Wood or Concrete Ties.
When laying CWR, frequent rail temperature and gage measurements must be taken.
Gage measurements are performed between base to base rather than the customary
ball to ball measurements. The base to base measurements will vary according to the
rail's base width. This ensures that the rail will be at the proper gage once the first train
is operated over it and the rail has had a chance to set in the tie plate. Match marking
of the strings of rail and tie plates are performed at the string quarter points to ensure
that adequate expansion is secured when the rail is heated artificially.
As with all maintenance activities, compliance with FRA 214 Roadway Worker
provisions is mandatory. It is particularly important with a rail gang, that all activities
cease and that personnel get in the clear prior to clearing trains by the gang on an
adjacent track because of the spread out nature of a rail gang and the noise and sight
obstructions that are present.
Although virtually every rail gang operation has become mechanized, frequent machine
breakdowns necessitate that personnel are present and equipped to perform the task
manually. Rail gang productivity can range from a partial string per day on transit
properties up to 9 to 10 strings per day on large highly mechanized gangs. An
acceptable average is three strings per day with an 8-hour track window.
3.9.2 Production Tie Gang

Tie renewal is typically scheduled ahead of rail relays to meet minimum FRA standards
or to fit within cycle based programs. For medium and light tonnage lines, a tie life of
approximately 25 to 30 years is realistic except under joints or crossings. On heavy-
haul, high tonnage lines, a tie life of 15 to 20 years is more realistic. Tie gangs will range
from mini-gangs of 12 – 15 personnel to 30 to 35 men for high production units.
Production may range from 500 ties per day installed for a mini-gang to an average of
1500 ties per day for a typical tie gang. High production gangs can install upwards of
3000 ties per day with a full 8-hour window.
Of particular concern is the disposal of the removed tie. Ties cannot be hauled to a
landfill because of their creosote content. Nor can they be left to slide down the slope
where they will impede drainage. Ties left in such locations are classified as an
unregistered hazardous material storage site by the EPA and can bring severe financial
penalties to the railway if prosecuted. Formerly, ties were either sheared or sawn into
thirds as part of the extraction process. Today, most railways prefer to remove the tie
in one piece, as it is more desirable for use by landscapers. Some railways have
contracted with small power plant operations to provide fuel to generate energy.
However, in most cases, the shipping costs associated with such operations make it
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prohibitive to do so. The problem of what to do with scrap ties will only get worse as
acceptable disposal sites become fewer in number.
Production renewal of ties begins with a tie inspector marking the ties. Selection of ties
to be renewed is done by examining the joint area to ensure adequate support and then
to the location of weak ties in relation to solid ties. Weak ties include:
• Spike killed
• Plate cut
• Decayed
• Burnt
• End broke
• Center bound partial split
• Center split
• Derailment damaged
The presence of such ties does not automatically lead to replacement, particularly if
there are a number of solid bearing, non-spike killed ties around it. On the other hand,
one might skip a few of these ties and select several marginal ties in a nest of marginal
but still serviceable ties. The inspector has to make his decision on not only what is the
tie condition today; but what will it be over the ensuing years, until another tie gang is
in this segment. Finally, the FRA Track Safety Standards dictates the minimum number
of non-defective ties permissible in a 39 ft segment. This requirement can be waived if
the railway operates a GRMS (Gauge Restraint Measuring System) car at stipulated
frequencies. Through the use of a sliding axle, the car applies both a designated lateral
and vertical load and measures the resultant movement. However, good ride quality
mandates a significantly greater number of non-defective ties than that required by the
FRA.
Ties are distributed to the ROW by a number of methods including the use of self-
propelled rail cranes to peddle ties with a tie grapple bucket from loaded gondolas, to
the use of a specialized backhoe equipped with clamps and projecting travel beams that
permit the grabbing of the top sill of cars and the cantilevering of the backhoe from car
to car, thereby unloading the ties as it proceeds through the work train. As with the rail
gang, tie gang consists and procedures vary widely from railway to railway, but in
general follow the procedures noted in the Appendix article, Mechanized Tie Renewal.
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Figure 3-93 Tie Gang Inserter - Photo by J. E. Riley Figure 3-94 Mechanized Tie Gang Consist - Photo by J.
E. Riley
Tie gangs have also become highly mechanized (See Figures 3-93 and 3-94), but as with
rail gangs, the machines are subject to frequent breakdowns. Thus, every operation can
be performed manually.
3.9.3 Production Undercutting

Undercutting, shoulder cleaning, sledding, plowing or track removal with open cut
excavations is performed whenever the ballast section becomes so fouled with mud
that line and surface can no longer be maintained, or overhead clearances are so tight
that track raising is unacceptable. Undercutting production is generally limited to
availability of ballast and the amount of hard packed mud present in the track.
Typically, this will require 40 - 50 cars of ballast per mile of track assuming that 6” to 8"
of ballast is removed from the bottom of the tie. The amount of ballast re-claimed will
vary depending on the type of ballast in place and its condition. The dirt removed
from the track is either wasted off on the ROW or loaded by conveyors into air dump
cars. It is important that spoils wasted are bladed off so that a berm trapping water is
not created. A tie gang should be operated through the track segment prior to
undercutting so that downed ties will be a minimum.
Undercutting operations also vary widely in set-up. However, the key component is
the undercutter (Figure 3-95). This machine has a large chain with cutting teeth that is
pivoted under the ties at the required depth to be undercut until the chain is
perpendicular to the rail (Figure 3-96). As the chain rotates, the machine is moved
forward. A large vertical rotating wheel equipped with buckets is mounted on the side
of the machine. The buckets first create space at the end of the tie from which the
chain can operate. The chain brings the material to the rotating buckets, whereby the
ballast is carried upward and dumped onto vibrating screens. The dirt and smaller
ballast fines drop through and are deposited onto a conveyor that wastes the material
onto the ROW or into an air dump car. The larger ballast is returned to the track.
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Figure 3-95 Undercutting Roadbed - Photo by J. E. Riley Figure 3-96 Undercutter Chain & Digging Wheel - Photo by
J. E. Riley
Smaller, less productive undercutters are used for switch undercutting and even smaller
units, called gophers, waste all material and are ideal for spot undercutting through
bridges, platforms, etc.
Shoulder cleaning performs the same operation with a large digging wheel, but only in
the shoulder area. It is ideal for locations where the track is mildly fouled. Removal of
fouled materials from the shoulder creates a natural siphoning action that will draw the
fouled soil particles out of the center of the track to the shoulder, thus opening up the
drainage required. Obviously, ballast requirements are not as heavy with shoulder
cleaning, but the results are not as effective either.
In plowing, a plow is inserted under the track structure and pulled ahead by either a
crawler cat or a locomotive. The ballast material is then plowed out to the shoulders,
leaving the track structure setting at whatever the depth the plow was set out. Ballast is
dumped to restore cribs and shoulders and the track is lined and surfaced. Sledding is
similar to plowing, except that the track structure is left atop the ballast section.
(See an article entitled Track Sledding in the Appendix.)
3.9.4 Production Surfacing Gangs

Surfacing refers to the operation, whereby the alignment and surface of the track are
restored to within acceptable maintenance limits and the ballast is tamped underneath
the ties. It can be classified as "spot" which is the localized repair to isolated locations
often done through the use of jacks and ballast forks or shovels, or through the
mechanized use of tampers, which is often referred to as smoothing. Production
surfacing includes skin lifts, whereby low spots are corrected and the entire track
structure is given a skin lift of under an inch to full out-of-face surfacing, whereby the
track is raised 2" to 3" in a single pass, as would occur under undercutting operations
or at road crossing renewals.
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Today's modern production tamper,

not only can tamp the ballast under
the tie with vibrating tools that are
inserted to either side of the tie and
drop below the tie, where they
perform a squeezing operation that
compacts the ballast underneath, but
are also equipped with jacks that can
lift the rail vertically at the point of
tamping. They also can move the
rail horizontally for lining the track.
Both vertical and horizontal jacking Figure 3-97 Surfacing with MK III Production Tamper - Photo by J.
are controlled by projecting an ultra- E. Riley
violet light from a buggy set ahead
of the machine (Figure 3-97), which sends a light beam back to sensors located at the
rear of the machine. Shadow boards are mounted on the machine between the light
transmitters on the buggy and the receivers located at the back of the machine. Using
the principles of triangulation, both vertical and horizontal jacks continue to jack until
their respective shadow boards cut-off the light beam. Since the buggy is setting out at
some elevation and at some horizontal location and the shadow board is much closer
to the receiver than the buggy, the light beams will both be cut-off at some distance
proportionately smaller because of the similar triangles that are created. Hence an
averaging operation occurs as the machine moves down the track.
A pendulum mounted in the rear of the machine senses crosslevel, and further controls
the vertical jacks over each rail to correct crosslevel deviations. By manually dialing in
adjustments, the operator can feather out line swings, add superelevation or create run-
offs that feather track raises into existing elevations. Many of these machines are
equipped with autograph liners, that once the beginning of the spiral is located, the
machine is run through the curve without tamping and mid-ordinates are automatically
plotted out through the other end of the curve. Depending on the machine's
sophistication, corrective mid-ordinates are created through either the use of a
magnetic tape laid over the plotted mid-ordinates or it is performed automatically.
When the machine is returned to the starting point, the required corrections will be
made.
Today's production tampers (Figure 3-98) are equipped with automatic indexing
features that automatically move the machine to the next tie to be tamped, thereby
greatly increasing the productivity of the machine. Further improvements include
machines that permit the work head to move ahead and tamp faster than the machine
can travel forward. These super tampers can surface as much as 3 - 4 miles of track in
a day. As an option, laser equipped buggys, that do not move as the machine
progresses forward, can be set as much as one-half mile ahead of the machine. This
permits excellent averaging of alignment into fixed locations such as a bridge, where
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the track cannot be thrown, thereby reducing the danger of creating a line swing into
the bridge. Other improvements include keyboard entry of data (Figure 3-99) with
sophisticated software that presents menu options to the operator, thereby greatly
increasing his/her efficiency and the quality of work performed.
Other machines included within the surfacing gang may include a tamper not equipped
with jacks, that tamps every other tie behind the production tamper, thereby increasing
hourly production rates. One or more ballast regulators are used to transfer or recover
ballast where needed for tamping or filling the cribs and shoulders. The regulator is
equipped with a power broom that sweeps excess ballast off the top of the tie and
provides that “completed” look. The surfacing gang may include a dynamic stabilizer.
This machine imparts vibrations of a given frequency into the rail to secure
consolidation of the ballast structure. This restores lateral stability after the track
disturbance created by surfacing and minimizes the placement of necessary slow
orders.
Figure 3-98 Surfacing Gang Consist - Photo by J. E. Riley Figure 3-99 Menu Driven Operations in MK IV Production Tamper
- Photo by J. E. Riley
Production surfacing typically will entail the operations noted in the Appendix article
entitled “Mechanical Surfacing of the Track.”
It is interesting to note that in an article from the 1934 Roadmasters Maintenance of

Way Association Annual Proceedings, William Shea, General Roadmaster of the
Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific Railroad, bragged about his high speed surfacing and
lining gang that could surface a mile per day. It consisted of 300 men tamping and
raising the track, 100 men lining the track and 100 men following up two weeks later as
a touch-up gang. Today with a foreman, 4 – 5 machine operators and possibly 1
laborer, 2-1/2 or more miles can be surfaced with a far greater degree of quality in the
work performed. Indeed today, there are machines that combine all of the operations
noted above in the typical surfacing gang into one machine, which can travel out to the
work site at near train speeds.
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3.9.5 Road Crossing Renewal Gangs

In all but the smallest crossings, the
crossing track structure is often pre-
paneled out adjacent to the crossing
(Figure 3-100) or at some other
convenient location. The completed
panels are then either off-loaded by
crane or slid into place once
excavation of the crossing is
performed. Where adjacent ROW is
available, completed panels several
hundred feet in length can be installed
if sufficient equipment is available. Figure 3-100 Crossing Panels - Photo by J. E. Riley
Prior to removal of the crossing

surface material, the appropriate crossing permits must be secured from the local
authorities, highway traffic detours arranged, a work window obtained from the
railway’s Transportation Department and the appropriate detour signage and
barricades placed.
Pneumatic or hydraulic impact tools are required to remove threaded lags in timber,
rubber or concrete cast panel crossing materials. In some cases, it may be more
expeditious to torch cut off the lag screw heads and use a loader or crane to pop the
crossing surface materials out. The existing track is then cut into convenient panel
lengths, typically 39’, and lifted out by a crane, if tie condition is adequate to hold rail in
place while the panel is lifted. With the trackbed exposed, excavation can begin. It is
important that the graded surface be level and no more than 10” be removed below
bottom of tie. At all costs, avoid excavating beyond the hardpan that has formed from
years of consolidation from train traffic. The use of small tilt-blade dozers or
comparable equipment is effective in holding a level grade. Other suitable pieces of
equipment for removing and loading spoil from the immediate crossing site are also
required. The crossing panels are either slid in or placed by a crane, depending on the
length and adjacent available ROW.
Once the panel ends are connected to the existing track, ballast is dumped either
by ballast cars or via loaders. The track panels are then raised by the use of jacks
to permit machine tamping and raising of the crossing to grade. Additional ballast
is dumped and final surfacing and regulating is performed. Additional surfacing
will often be required after train operation until all settlement is complete. The
appropriate surface material is then applied.
In CWR territory, it is extremely important that reference marks be placed at either end
of the crossing outside of where the cuts for the panels will be made before cutting the
rail to remove the existing crossing. The distance between the reference marks must
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be determined. After the crossing panels are installed and prior to welding the end of
the panel to the existing track, the distance between reference marks must again be
measured. The rail must be shortened by any dimensional quantity greater than that
previously recorded. The rail is closed either hydraulically or through the use of
applied artificial heat, and after shortening the rail an additional 1” for each weld made,
the rail is welded.
3.9.6 Turnout Renewal

Turnouts are renewed in one of three ways. Either a small work crew replaces the
components in piece mill fashion or the panel is pre-built on-site off to the side, or it is
brought to the site on specially built cars designed to handle the panel sections.
Replacing the components piece mill is not cost effective and is a very time consuming
operation unless not all of the components need replacement, i.e., perhaps the timber
is sound. On the other hand, panelization minimizes train delay during installation, but
requires cranes and other special equipment to handle the panels.
In the same manner as the rehabilitation of a road crossing, the existing turnout is cut
up into panel size segments and removed from the roadbed. The roadbed is then
graded out to remove fouled ballast and to prepare a smooth bed for the laid panels.
Many railways will install geo-textile fabric under the turnout to provide for capillary
action drainage of water trapped in the subgrade. Care must be taken to ensure that
the fabric is placed deep enough that the tamper tools do not punch holes in the fabric.
If sufficient equipment and

on-site ROW is available,
the pre-built panels may be
welded together and the
completed turnout (Figure
3-101), as large as a #24,
can be slid into place within
a minimal period of time.
Other alternatives (Figure 3-
102) call for the use of
mobile panel/complete
turnout carrying rigs. These
units bring the turnout or
turnout segments to the
Figure 3-101 Moving a one-piece turnout into place
switch via rail bound
wheels. Special jacking arrangements lift the completed turnout up off the car and
walk the unit in-place via crawler treads once the car is moved out underneath.
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The most common

installation method calls for
the use of either rail bound
or mobile cranes to handle
individual turnout panel
sections loaded on special
cars (Figure 3-103), which
are set in place and
Figure 3-102 Switch Panel Laying Rig - Courtesy of Plasser American
connected to the existing
trackage.
The panels are pre-loaded so

that either the frog or point
section is the first unit to be
unloaded, depending on
whether the first panel to be laid
is the frog or point section.
From this point on, the
procedures replicate the
rebuilding of a road crossing. Figure 3-103 Panel Car - Courtesy of Plasser American
Installation of the switch stand
or switch machine occurs after the turnout is installed. In signal territory, close
coordination with the signal department is required, particularly with the placement of
insulated joints, hook-up of switch machine if so equipped, connection of switch
circuit controller and conduction of switch obstruction test, all of which must be
performed prior to placing the switch back into service.
The Canadian National Railway provides a step-by-step procedure, provided in the

Appendix entitled “Installation of Panelized Turnouts.”
3.9.7 New Track Construction/Cutovers

Several manufacturers for the construction of new track have developed specialized
equipment. One machine is pulled by a crawler cat (Figure 3-104) over the graded
subgrade. The CWR strings have been unloaded and dragged adjacent and to either
side of the location of the new track. Special cars containing the new ties to be placed
are coupled to the machine. The machine contains a conveyor system that brings the
ties forward, where they are automatically spaced. Simultaneous with this operation,
the rail is threaded from the front end of the machine onto the placed plates. A
following work station places the fastener (See Figure 3-105). In this manner, over a
mile of track can be built in one day. Other machines are capable of replacing all of the
ties and rail on existing track in one operation. These very large machines are typically
leased directly from the manufacturer. As such, they are cost effective only for large
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jobs. More typical for siding construction is the placement of pre-plated ties by hand
and the threading of rail onto the ties. Spikes are set and driven home by pneumatic
spike drivers. Pre-built panels may also be used. However, this requires the staggering
of joints after the panels are laid.
Figure 3-104 Track Laying Machine - Courtesy of Charley Chambers
Figure 3-105 TLM Clip car – Courtesy of Charley Chambers
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Railway cutovers, unlike their highway counterpart, are accomplished very quickly with
the completed connection often being made in several hours. In the case of track
shifts, the roadbed, where the new alignment is to lay and the shift is to occur, is
graded. A ballast regulator will blade out the shoulder on the side of the existing track
where the shift is to be made. A tamper equipped with rail jacks is operated through
the segment and the track is placed on top of the ballast section, or the ballast will be
cribbed by hand between the ties. Utilizing cranes, Speed Swings, dozers, rubber-tired
endloaders or crawler loaders, the track section is lined over so that it is in the new
alignment location. After placing ties and rail required to make the physical
connection, the connection is made, ballast dumped and the track surfaced and lined.
Of greater concern is the signal work to be performed in signalized territory. In cut-

overs to new connections, extensive shunt tests must be made. In interlockings,
extensive route and traffic locking tests must be made duplicating every possible
movement that could occur. Additional tests have to be made on all searchlight and
color light signals. These tests are very time consuming and must be figured in when
planning a cut-over involving an interlocking.
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References:
1. “AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering.”
2. “Railway Engineering”, W. W. Hay, John Wiley & Sons.
3. AREMA “Roadmasters & Maintenance of Way Association Proceedings 1930 –

1997” (CD-ROM).
4. "Modern Railway Track," Coenraad Esveld, MRT Productions, 2nd Edition, P.O.
Box 331, NL-5300, AH Zaltbommel, The Netherlands, Tel: +31 418 516369,
mrt@esveld.com.
5. “Talbot’s Railway Transition Spirals,” Edward H. Roth, J. P. Bell, Inc.
6. “Railroad Curves & Earthwork,” C. Frank Allen, McGraw-Hill Book Company.
7. “Route Surveying and Design,” Carl F. Meyer, International Textbook Company.
8. “Route Surveying,” Pickels & Wiley, John Wiley & Sons.
9. “Introduction to Transportation Engineering,” W. W. Hay, John Wiley & Sons.
10. “Railroad Technical Manual,” C. R. Kaelin, Atcheson Topeka & Santa Fe Railway
(BNSF).
11. “Federal Railroad Administration, CFR 213 Track Safety Standards, A-E.”
12. “Federal Railroad Administration, CFR 213 Track Safety Standards, G.”
13. “Track Design Handbook for Light Rail Transit,” TCRP Report 57,
Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Sponsored by The
Federal Transit Administration.
14. “Dictionary of Railway Track Terms,” Christopher Schulte, Simmons-Boardman

Books, Omaha, NE.
15. “The Railroad/What It Is, What It Does,” John Armstrong, Simmons-Boardman

Books, Omaha, NE.
16. “US Department of Transportation Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices

for Streets and Highways,” USDOT, Washington, DC.
17. “The Economic Theory of Railway Location,” Arthur M. Wellington, 1887, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, NY.
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Ballast and Sub-Ballast25
The following table should be used as a guide when AREMA ballast gradations are not available. For quality recommendations of
ballast refer to Chapter 1, Section 2.4 of the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering.
Ballast/Sub-Ballast Gradation Chart for Coarse Aggregate Suppliers in the United States
Sieve Size
Size of Opening Number of Openings/sq. in.
3" 2 1/2" 2" 1 1/2" 1" 3/4" 1/2" 3/8" #4 #8 #30 # 200
Use Standard Gradation # Nominal Size Square Openings Percent Passing Through Sieve Size (min.-max.)
Mainline AREMA 24 2 1/2" to 3/4" 100 90-100 25-60 0-10 0-5
Mainline AASHTO 24 2 1/2" to 3/4" 100 90-100 25-60 0-10 0-5
Mainline AREMA 25 2 1/2" to 3/8" 100 80-100 60-85 50-70 25-50 5-20 0-10 0-3
Mainline AREMA 3 2" to 1" 100 95-100 35-70 0-15 0-5
Mainline AASHTO and ASTM 3 2" to 1" 100 90-100 35-70 0-15 0-5
Mainline AREMA 4A 2" to 3/4" 100 90-100 60-90 10-35 0-10 0-3
Mainline AREMA 4 1 1/2" to 3/4" 100 90-100 20-55 0-15 0-5
Mainline AASHTO and ASTM 4 1 1/2" to 3/4" 100 90-100 20-55 0-15 0-5
Yard/Side Track AASHTO and ASTM 5 1" to 1/2" 100 90-100 20-55 0-10 0-5
Yard/Side Track AREMA 5 1" to 3/8" 100 90-100 40-75 15-35 0-15 0-5
Yard/Side Track AASHTO and ASTM 56 1" to 3/8" 100 90-100 40-75 15-35 0-15 0-5
Yard/Side Track AREMA 57 1" to #4 100 95-100 25-60 0-10 0-5
Yard/Side Track AASHTO and ASTM 57 1" to #4 100 95-100 25-60 0-10 0-5
Sub-Ballast Generic DGA/ABC 1" to #200 100 90-100 60-90 30-60 10-40 4-13
AREMA - American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

AASHTO - American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials
DGA - Dense Graded Aggregate
ABC - Aggregate Base Course
25 Developed by Michael Garcia, Illinois DOT & AREMA Committee 18
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4
Chapter

Right-of-Way&
Roadway
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Right-of-Way & Roadway
Charley Chambers P.E.
Hanson- Wilson, Inc

Bellevue, WA 98004-6905
cdchambers@hanson-inc.com
Wayne Clifton, P.Eng.
Clifton Associates
Regina, SK.
Clive MacKay, P.Eng.

Calgary, AB.
Tim Keegan, P.Eng.
Canadian National Railway
Mario Ruell, P.Eng.

Canadian National Railway
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4
C H A P T E R 4 – R I G H T - O F - W A Y & R O A D W A Y Chapter
Right-of-Way & Roadway

For this chapter, think of the railway right-of-way as the area from
fence to fence without the track and structures. The roadway is
considered to be any construction within the right-of-way except
the track, bridge structures, signals and crossings.
4.1 Introduction
T he railway right-of-way (often referred to as the roadway) includes the subgrade

upon which the ballast section and track are built, along with adjacent
improvements and features required to support and maintain the railway track.
The right-of-way is often thought of as the strip of land on which the railway and its
supporting features are built.
The right-of-way typically includes ditches running along the track and related drainage
structures required to divert water past and away from the railway. The issue of
drainage is covered in Chapter 5. It also includes any embankments and cuts on which,
or through which, the railway is built, their side slopes and the vegetation covering the
slopes. It may also include any retaining walls or other earth-supporting structures
required to hold railway embankment and cut side slopes in place. It includes fences,
signs, utilities and outlying structures.
The bulk of this chapter deals with what the railways are built upon, the soil. Just as
concrete and steel are the materials used by the structural engineer, soil is the main
building material for the railway. In the same way as there are various types of steel, or
diverse mixtures of concrete, there are many classifications of soil. Some soils are
suitable for use as ballast and sub-ballast (sand and gravel), some as subgrade materials
(sand, gravel, clay, etc.), while others are totally undesirable for any use in railway
construction (e.g., organic soils).
A major difference between soils and most other construction materials is that soil is a
natural material and is subjected to little or no processing before use. It is therefore
essential to identify the various soils and avoid using those that may give problems,
since it is seldom that soil can be processed to improve its properties. From a
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C H A P T E R 4 – R I G H T - O F - W A Y & R O A D W A Y
maintenance perspective, it also means that track constructed on certain soils, such as
silt or very fine sand, may be much more troublesome than track constructed on more
robust soils such as gravels or low plasticity clays.
The behavior of a soil is a function not only of the soil type but also of its
environment. Environment is defined as the sum of all the external influences that act
upon the soil. These include moisture, temperature, applied stresses, climate and other
factors.
The identification of materials, analysis of their environment and a prediction of their

behavior is the field of geotechnology. Geotechnology approaches engineering
problems through consideration of landforms, materials and environment to predict
the soil behavior and develop suitable solutions to problems. Geotechnology is the
application of the combination of science, engineering and experience to soils
problems such as slope stability, seepage, track bearing capacity, drainage and
settlement issues. Although based in science, geotechnology involves a great deal of
judgment and, as such, is also an art practiced not only by professional engineers, but
also by every railroader whose duties involve maintenance of the track structure. The
main tool sets are science and engineering, but above all, keen powers of observation
and abundant common sense.
It is not necessary that an engineer designing new tracks or working in the track
maintenance field be a “complete” geotechnical engineer. However, that person
should know the basics, know when to call in a geotechnical engineer, be able to
understand the essence of the geotechnical report, and then correctly use the
information supplied by the geotechnical engineer.
4.2 Right-of-Way
The railway right-of-way is the land upon which the track and its supporting features
are built. Existing railways were generally built 100 to 150 years ago. The strips of land
were generally obtained in many ways – land grants, purchase outright (full title in fee
simple), permanent easements, franchise, etc. The variety of types and methods of
obtaining right-of-way is endless. An engineer working around railway property should
be very aware of property issues. He cannot assume the railway has a continuous 200
feet wide strip of land from point A to point B to fill up with tracks.
4.2.1 Right-of-Way Width

In general, there is not a set width to railway right-of-way. It varies from railway to
railway and even from mainline to branch line on the same railway. The most
common widths are 100, 200 and 400 feet. On single track, the right-of-way is
measured perpendicular to the centerline of the track. Over the years, because of curve
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revisions, line changes and routine maintenance of the track, the centerline may not be
in the exact center of the property. On a multiple track railway, the centerline of the
right way may be to the center of two tracks or the center of one of the tracks (if a
track(s) was added years later after initial construction). The right-of-way may be wider
in areas of deep cuts or high fills.
On new lines, the right-of-way must be wide enough for the track and the
embankment below it (or above it in the case of cuts). It must also be wide enough for
access roads, other structures necessary to operate the railway and future expansion.
In areas of heavy snowfall, additional right-of-way may be required for snow plowed
from the tracks or the placement of snow fences.
4.2.2 Fences
The edge of the railway’s property (known as the right-of-way line) is sometimes
marked with monuments, but more often with a fence. It must be remembered that
where fences exist, they may or may not be on the property line. The right-of-way
fences for livestock are generally barbwire fences. Most railways have a standard for
livestock fences. There are laws in each state about the maintenance of railway
livestock fences. Some states require the railways to fence out livestock, while others
require adjacent landowners to fence their livestock in.
In urban areas, fences tend to be chain link security fences. These chain link fences are
in place to prevent trespassing, vandalism and theft. On passenger railways, fencing is
often installed through multiple track station platforms, to prevent passengers from
crossing tracks at other than designated crosswalks. Care must be taken when
installing security fences in an area where there are at-grade crossings, because a
trespasser could be trapped on the track. Special railway facilities, such as in intermodal
yards, require a higher level of security and fencing.
In areas with significant snowfall with strong prevailing winds, snow fences are
installed on the right-of-way to reduce snow accumulation on the track, ditches and
road crossings. The location of snow fences must take into account where the snow
will back up (don’t install where the drift will form over an adjacent highway). Install
snow fences at right angles to the prevailing wind, being careful not to block views at
road crossings. Sometimes the right-of-way owned by the railway is not wide enough
to place the fence. In that case, permission is required from adjacent landowners.
Blowing sand can also be treated by installing fences or wind breaks such as trees.
4.2.3 Utilities
Because of the lineal nature of railways, utilities (water, gas, electrical power,
communication, etc.) are either crossing or traveling parallel to rail lines. These utilities
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may be buried or located on poles or other structures above grade. Railways require
permission for utilities to cross or use their property.
In the case of underground utilities, railways generally require that the line be installed
in a separate casing pipe for added protection from railway loading. For overhead
lines, proper clearance over the tracks must be maintained.
In recent years, the railways have entered into agreements that permitted fiber optic
companies to install their cable parallel to the railway’s main lines on railway right-of-
way. The location of these fiber optic cables must be taken into consideration when
doing work on the railway’s right-of-way.
4.2.4 Vegetation
The control of vegetation has more than just esthetic consideration along the right-of-
way. Vegetation, which chokes tracks, ditches, and other facilities soon creates sizable
drainage and track maintenance problems, and can also result in safety hazards for
personnel in executing their duties. Hazards, which are covered by weeds, cannot be
readily seen and may become a tripping hazard. Brush covered signs and derails
cannot be observed and may contribute to an accident. Inspections cannot be
performed adequately when excessive vegetation is present.
Vegetation control is an ongoing process. It never ends. It is an annual budget item

that should have a high priority. A track, free of excess vegetation, is much easier to
maintain.
Vegetation must be controlled so that it does not:
Grow within the ballast section or obstruct ballast drainage.
Interfere with adequate visibility at grade crossings.
Obstruct visibility of location markers, switch position indicators, signs or

signals.
Obstruct drainage.
Interfere with the safe operation of trains.
Prevent proper track inspections.
Present a fire hazard to timber structures.
Interfere with railway personnel performing normal track duties.
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Brush the sides of rolling stock.
Undesirable vegetation growing within the right-of-way can be removed by herbicidal

or manual means (See Chapter 3, Basic Track – Vegetation Control for more details on
this subject). Chemical vegetation control must comply with all federal and local laws.
There is no universal herbicide, which will control all species of vegetation. A

herbicide used at one location may well be ineffective at another on the same species of
weed. The vegetation must be identified and specifically dealt with. All chemicals are
not alike. Some are applied to the plant foliage, others are applied to the soil ahead of
the emergence of the plant. Usually, combinations of different chemicals have been
found to be most effective. It is not unusual to have one chemical from one
manufacturer in use with a chemical from yet another manufacturer.
All states require the licensing of operators applying herbicides and applicators
overseeing the application of herbicides to railway right-of-way. There are strict
guidelines established by the EPA that regulate the application rates, the type of terrain
to be treated (i.e., utility right-of-way, agricultural, etc.) and plant species that a specific
herbicide may not be used to control. This information can be found in the herbicide
manufacturer’s “Label Sheet” for the product formulation.
Vegetation may be planted and grown on the slopes of cuts and fills and in other
locations within the right-of-way to prevent erosion. The growth of desirable
vegetation should be controlled to make sure it does not become one of the problems
listed above.
4.3 Roadway26
4.3.1 Soils
Definition
The definition of soils depends on the discipline or profession being studied. To the
geologist, soil is the layer of loose incoherent rock (mineral) material of whatever origin
that nearly everywhere forms the surface of the land and rests on the hard or "bed"
rocks. It comprises rock wastes of all sorts: volcanic ash, glacial drift, alluvium
windblown deposits, organic accumulations, etc. To the agriculturist or soil
conservationist, soil means the earth material, which has been so modified and acted
upon by physical, chemical and biological agents that it will support rooted plants.
26The material in this segment of the chapter was condensed from a manual prepared by CPR and CN
entitled “Geotechnology for Railroaders,” November 1997.
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The engineering definition of soil closely approximates that of the geologist. The
engineer considers soil to be the overburden of the bedrock. Soils are aggregates of
mineral particles that cover extensive portions of the earth's surface. In fact, soil is
generally differentiated from rock for engineering purposes by a simple test. If
individual particles can be readily separated from a dried sample by agitating the sample
in water, the material is considered to be a soil. The ability of water to affect soil is a
fundamental characteristic that affects soil behavior. This is the material from which
railway subgrades and other earth structures are built.
It has been noted that soil properties depend not only on the soil type, but also on the
environment in which it exists. For instance, clay may be very hard and strong when it
is dry, but very soft and weak when wet. However, if it is wet and frozen, it again is
hard and strong until thawed. The properties are therefore greatly influenced by
environment. This basic principle is most important to railroaders. The behavior of
any earth structure depends not only on the soils but also, to a great extent, on the
environment in which it exists.
From a practical standpoint, the selection of soils is not entirely within the engineer's
control. Soil conditions and the effects of water on the various types of soil, are
significant obstacles facing track maintenance personnel. Where soil conditions are
weak or unstable, the natural ground can cause excessive subsidence or sliding, which
will result in high maintenance costs and interference with train operations, as well as
potential hazards to employees and rolling equipment. Excessive moisture in the soil is
commonly the major factor causing it to lose strength and stability.
Early railway builders lacked specialized knowledge of soils and soil selection.
Furthermore, they lacked construction equipment capable of dealing with marginal
materials. As a consequence, often times a railway system will have "soft" spots or
"sinks" which must be protected with slow orders and/or require frequent applications
of ballast or other attention from maintenance forces.
For economic and practical reasons, railways are constructed using the materials at
hand. Thus, the track maintenance personnel must be aware of the engineering
properties of soils and what construction procedures can be performed to optimize the
performance of various soil types. One of the best methods for improving the
performance of a subgrade material is to provide proper compaction to the soils as
they are placed in the embankment.
Soil is a complex material. It may be of value to list some intrinsic properties of soils,
to illustrate their fundamental nature:
Soils are natural, not processed materials.
Soils are generally nonhomogenous (i.e. variable).
Soils are neither elastic nor plastic but somewhere between.
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Soil properties depend on environment.
Soils are not liquid, vapor or solid, but a three phase system containing some of
each phase.
Soils are particulate (i.e. composed of particles) by nature. Their properties are a
function of group action of the particles.
There are three general types of geotechnical problems:
Those that deal with the shear strength of the material, including landslides, bearing
capacity of subgrades and the capacity of structure foundations.
Those that deal with the compressibility of soil and the settlements that result
when a load is applied to a soil.
The whole category of issues surrounding the movement of water through soils
including seepage, piping and performance of hydraulic structures, such as culverts.
Soil Types
The word soil, as used in an engineering sense, refers to that portion of the earth's
crush, which is fragmentary, such that some individual particles may be readily
separated by agitation (in water) of a dried sample. Soil is derived from bedrock or
organic matter by natural processes of chemical decomposition and physical
disintegration and may be subsequently modified by atmospheric or biological
agencies. In terms of particle sizes, soil is comprised of boulders (greater than 12
inches [300 mm] in diameter) to clay, which is microscopic in size.
No matter what the soil type, all soil is made up of solid mineral particles and void
spaces. The size of particles varies, being large for gravel and microscopic for clay.
This proportion of voids (porosity) is inversely portional to the particle size, being large
(nearly 50%) for clay and smaller for gravel.
Major Soil Divisions

Soil is a natural material consisting of disintegrated rock and humus. Soils will have
significantly different engineering properties and drainage characteristics depending
upon their material contents and origin. Because the physical properties of soils are of
great importance, classification methods have been developed to define soil types in
relation to their physical properties. The Unified Soil Classification System defines
three principal soil types: coarse-grained soils (sands and gravels), fine-grained soils
(silts and clays) and organic soils. This is the classification system most used in North
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America and is usually done in the laboratory. The Unified Soil Classification (USC) is
based on:
Texture and composition (coarse grained vs. fine grained).
Organic vs. inorganic.
Cohesive (plastic) vs. cohesionless (non-plastic).
Principal Soil Types Descriptive Term Size Familiar Example

Coarse-Grained SoilsBoulder 12 in. or more Man's Head or Larger
Cobble 12 in. to 3 in. Grapefruit or Orange
Coarse Gravel 3 in. to 3/4 in. Walnut Or Grape
Fine Gravel 3/4 in. to 1/4 in. Pea
Coarse Sand No. 4 to No. 10 Sieves Rock Salt
(1/4 in. to 2 mm)
Medium Sand No. 10 to No. 40 Sieves Sugar, Table Salt
(2 mm to 0.4 mm)
Fine Sand No. 40 to No. 200 Powdered Sugar
Sieves
(0.4 mm to 0.075 mm)
Fine-Grained Soils Silt Microscopic and Submicroscopic
Clay Microscopic and Submicroscopic
Organic Soils Peat or Muck Decaying Vegetable Matter w/Silt and Clay
Note: Particles about 0.075 mm in diameter can just be discerned with the naked eye
from a distance of about 10 inches.
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Figure 4-1 Unified Soil Classification Chart
Coarse-grained soils may be described briefly as those soils made up largely of particles
visible to the naked eye. Further subdivisions may be made according to the particle
size as follows:
Boulders - Particles larger than 12 in. (300 mm) in diameter.
Cobbles - Particles between 3 and 12 in. (75 and 300 mm) in diameter.
Gravel - Particles smaller than 3 in. (75 mm) in diameter and larger than the No. 4
sieve (3/16 in. or 4.75 mm).
Sand - Particles smaller than the No. 4 sieve and larger than the No. 200 sieve (.075
mm particles smaller than the No. 200 sieve are not visible to the naked eye).
For adequate description of coarse-grained or cohesionless soils, reference should be

made to the density, grading and grain shape of the soil. Density should refer only to
the density in place (i.e., in the ground). The range is from dense (tight) to loose.
Grading is the term applied to the particle-size distribution of the soil. A uniform soil
has a predominance of particles of one size, whereas a well-graded material has sizes
assorted over a wide range, with no one size predominating. The terms used to
describe grain shape are "angular," "sub-angular" and "rounded." Angular particles
have sharp edges and relatively plane sides with unpolished surfaces. Sub-angular
particles are similar to angular but have rounded edges. Rounded particles have
smoothly curved sides and no edges. Angular particles have the highest strength and
are preferred for high loading areas such as ballast.
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Fine-grained soils are made up of particles not visible to the naked eye. Plasticity and
particle size cannot be judged accurately without the use of refined testing techniques.
For field identification, fine-grained soils may be classed as silt or clay by their behavior.
The descriptive terms for fine-grained or cohesive soils are obtained by reference to
consistency, plasticity, structure, color and odor.
Consistency is a measure of how hard or soft the material is. Consistency varies
mainly with water content and density and is described by the adjectives "hard,"
"stiff," "firm" and "soft."
Plasticity is a measure of the nature of the clay content of a soil and the ability to
change shape and to retain the impressed shape when the stress is removed. The
degree of plasticity of soils is the range in moisture content through which the soil
remains plastic or is capable of being molded.
Structure is a measure of the layering and cracking in a soil, and is the term applied
to the nature of the soil mass. The following terms are commonly used in
describing special soil structures: "stratified," "fissured," "lensed," and "friable" or
"blocky."
Color indicates the depth of weathering in a soil and may also be helpful in
identifying similar soils in the same region. A red soil has been exposed to the air
and has been oxidized. A dark gray or black soil has probably existed in a reducing
environment, possibly below the permanent water table.
Odor of the soil will normally indicate the presence of organic matter.
Organic soils are placed in a separate group because of their appreciable content of
organic matter, which usually changes their engineering behavior. Soils which are
mostly organic may be described as organic material, a term which includes peat,
muskeg and peat moss. Partly organic soils, which are largely mineral soil types, are
described as the predominant soil modified by the word "organic," e.g., organic silt.
Soil Texture and Composition

Soil texture refers to the grain size of a soil - whether it is gravel, sand, silt or clay.
Composition refers to the relative percentage of each soil type, e.g., % gravel, % silt
and so on. The triangular classification chart (Figure 4-2) illustrates that few soils are
comprised of all one texture, e.g., pure sand, silt or clay. In fact, the behavior of a soil
will be controlled by the finest soil type present where that soil type makes up more
than 10% of the soil mass. For instance, fine sand with more than 10% silt sizes will
behave in the same manner as silt.
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Figure 4-2 Triangular Classification Chart for Soil
4.3.2 Geotechnical Processes

This section discusses the mechanical behavior of soils with respect to stress strain
relationships, effective stress, shear strength, settlement, seepage, freezing and thawing.
The Concept of Stress and Strain

It is a fundamental property of materials that, when a load is applied, some movement
will occur. In engineering terms, the load is usually converted to stress and the
movement to a % strain. The amount of strain is proportional to the stiffness of the
material:
Stiffness = Stress/Strain
The same principles apply to soils. Loads create stresses, which cause strain. Some
soils, such as tamped ballast, are very stiff and resist loads well. Other soils, such as
soft clay or loose sand, have low stiffness and undergo substantial movement under
loads. It is very desirable to have the stiffest possible material in a track subgrade. Stiff
materials limit the deflection under load, reducing track roughness and occurrence of
track defects. The stiffness of a subgrade may be increased by:
Replacing clay soils with cohesionless (sand and gravel) soils.
Compaction or densification.
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Draining water to reduce positive pore pressures and increase soil strength.
Vegetation management to induce negative water pressures.
The stress-strain characteristics illustrate why dense or compacted sand and gravel are
preferred materials, and why soft clay or loose sand or silt is often troublesome.
Effective Stress
Soil is comprised of particles. Like any other frictional material, it is the normal stress
between direct grain to grain contacts that controls the strength of materials. Consider
soil as a package of particles with spaces (voids) between them. The strength of the
soil depends on the natural "stickiness" (cohesion) that exists between the particles,
plus the frictional resistance between them. The frictional resistance depends on the
pressure (stress) exerted on the face of a particle by another particle.
Cohesion only occurs in clays. Sand, gravel and silt exhibit no cohesion. The strength
of sand increases as the load on it increases. On the other hand, for the short term, the
strength of clay is constant and does not increase with the applied load. For this
reason, sand or gravel are preferred as subgrade materials since their strength increases
under load.
In reality, most soils are a mixture of sand, silt and clay. Therefore, the shear resistance
of most soils is achieved from a combination of cohesion and friction with the relative
importance of each component depending on soil texture.
The Effect of Porewater Pressure

When a soil is saturated, water fills the pore spaces. As a result, a hydraulic water
pressure will exist in the soil voids and exert pressure on the soil particles. The water
will initially take some of the load, so it is not all being transmitted to the soil. Thus,
the effective pressure (or effective stress) between the soil particles is equal to the total
pressure (or total stress), less the hydraulic pressure (pore water pressure). Since the
water has no shear strength, the effective contact stress between the soil particles
controls the strength of the soil.
The principle of effective stress in a soil is a very important concept since it governs
both the shear strength and settlement behavior of a soil. The concept also explains
why a buildup of water pressure in a soil, whether from seepage, from construction
work or from train loads can severely and rapidly weaken soils, particularly
cohesionless soils. It also explains why the preferred construction materials are sand,
gravel and rock that allow water pressure to drain off rapidly, compared to silt and clay,
which drain very slowly.
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The porewater pressure in a soil can be either positive or negative. In the case of soils
above the water table, the porewater pressure is usually negative and is termed as soil
suction. This negative value contributes to soil strength. This negative pressure (soil
suction) may be temporary though, and may disappear as a result of thawing,
infiltration or pore pressures generated by traffic. This phenomenon explains why
subgrades and slopes are stable in hot dry weather and during freeze up (when suction
is high), and are unstable during breakup and after heavy rains, because the soil is
saturated and suction is zero. Sand and gravel can sustain only low levels of negative
pressure and therefore develop little dry strength. By contrast, clay can develop very
large negative water pressures and have high dry strength. Silt is intermediate, but has
the greatest sensitivity to small changes in soil moisture.
Clays
Sand, gravel and silt are cohesionless materials and display no effective cohesion.
Thus, the strength of the soil is completely dependent on the applied stress and
porewater pressure.
The strength of clays is dependent both on cohesion and on the effective stress
between soil particles. The '”stickiness" in clays results from cohesive bonding that
occurs between clay particles. It results in an "effective cohesion" that contributes to
the soil strength.
When a load is applied to saturated clay, the entire load is first reflected as hydraulic
pressure in the porewater. Clay will only increase in strength if water is allowed to
drain from the pore spaces. This drainage of the pore pressure is known as
consolidation, which leads to increased effective stress and increased strength, but also
a decrease in soil volume, which causes settlement. But drainage of water takes place
very slowly, meaning that, unlike sand or gravel, there is no immediate increase in
strength of the soil when a load is applied to clay. The increase in strength, and hence
an increase in factor of safety, only comes as porewater pressures drain away. For this
reason, earthworks constructed of clay are usually at their lowest factor of safety at the
end of construction. As construction porewater pressure dissipates, the factor of safety
generally increases.
Sand and Gravel

When load is applied to sand and gravel, it is also taken firstly by the porewater.
However, drainage is almost instantaneous, and the load is rapidly transferred to the
soil, causing rapid gain in strength. This ability to drain and rapidly gain strength is why
these materials are preferred for earthwork construction.
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Silt
Silt lacks cohesion and also lacks the ability to drain quickly. As a result, the load, such
as from a train, is rapidly reflected as porewater pressure. This causes the effective
stress to decrease; hence, a saturated silty soil may actually lose strength as a load is
applied.
Soil Behavior Under Rapid Loading

Under rapid loading, such as placement of a bank-widening fill or under a train, the
strength of clay will remain constant. By contrast, the strength of a sand or gravel will
increase, while a saturated silt will loose strength.
Saturated silt is particularly prone to buildup of porewater pressure under dynamic train
loading. As axle loads pass over the soil, the porewater pressure builds and the soil
rapidly looses strength. It is this behavior that makes saturated silt subgrades very
treacherous.
Effect of Shear Strain

Shear strain in a soil can induce dramatic changes in soil strength, primarily as a result
of changes in porewater pressure. Positive or negative porewater pressures can be
generated as a soil shears, mainly depending on the initial density. The effect is very
dramatic in fine-grained cohesionless soils such as silt or fine sand, which do not
possess adequate permeability to allow porewater pressures to equalize rapidly. In
general, if a soil is dense, the particles are tightly packed. Such a soil will tend to
increase in volume as it undergoes shear strain. This will induce a negative pressure in
the soil, causing it to increase in strength. This is the reason that a dense silt or fine
sand has good trafficability.
On the other hand, a loose cohesionless soil will tend to decrease in volume upon
straining. In a saturated soil, the voids are already filled with water, and with no
drainage, a positive water pressure is set up in the soil. This causes the soil to lose
strength. In extreme cases, where the structure collapses, liquefaction may occur. Any
type of shear movement, whether from traffic, bank widening, rising water levels or an
earthquake, can cause rapid loss of strength and sudden failures of cuts or
embankments.
Stiff, dense clays usually have low permeability and take a long time for water pressure
to equilibrate. These soils tend to dilate (increase in volume) and set up negative
pressure in the porewater. It may take several decades for sufficient moisture to move
into such a soil to satisfy the negative pressure. As it does, the soil slowly softens and
weakens. Although it is a slow process, the stability of cuts, in particular, in clay soils
can slowly decrease with time.
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Settlement
Settlement occurs as water is expelled from the soil pores and the effective stress
increases. This causes a reduction in the volume of pore spaces in the soil, and hence,
a change in the total volume of the soil. This is called volume change or consolidation.
The volume change characteristics of a soil are determined in the consolidation test
conducted in the laboratory. These, combined with engineering calculations, provide
an estimate of the settlement to be expected under an increase in dead load. It should
be noted that it is usually only dead loads that cause permanent volume change. Short
term transient loads, called live loads, are usually not of sufficient duration to cause
settlement except in the most permeable soils such as sand or gravel.
Settlement is exhibited by a vertical (downward) movement of the surface or structure.

It should not be confused with shear movement, which may be caused by elastic or
plastic movement of the track structure, particularly the subgrade in response to
loading. Those movements occur because the shear strength of the soil has been
exceeded. This type of movement is not associated with any volume change of the
soil, and is quite different from consolidation settlement. Consolidation settlement
occurs in response to increasing effective stress, and may result either from application
of more total load or a reduction of porewater pressure. Thus, activities such as
dewatering or draining a subgrade could cause settlement in the same way that raising a
fill could. It must also be pointed out that settlement can occur both in natural
foundation soils and in fill material. Settlement can also occur through densification of
granular soils, such as long-term consolidation of a granular fill that may have never
been saturated.
While detailed laboratory testing is required to rigorously predict settlement, some rules
of thumb are useful in day-to-day maintenance activities. For instance, it is generally
accepted that the magnitude of increased settlement will be less than one inch (25 mm),
except on the most sensitive foundations, if the increase in effective stress is kept to
less than 10% of in situ values. This would mean, for instance, that a raise of one foot
on a 10 foot (300 mm on a 3 m) high fill should have negligible impact on settlement.
At the same time, the effects on stability must always be considered.
Some other rules of thumb are:
Settlement of a well-compacted granular fill - 1 to 3% of fill height.
Settlement of a loose rock or granular fill on first wetting - 5 to 20% of fill

height.
Settlement of a fill on a medium dense granular foundation - 2 to 4% of fill

height.
Settlement of a fill across muskeg - 30 to 60% of fill height, depending on

construction methods and peat type.
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Foundation settlement for hard, over consolidated clays - less than 0.25% of
fill height, if preconsolidation pressure is not exceeded.
Total settlement is seldom an issue except where clearances, such as above water levels,
must be maintained. Rather, it is the differential settlement that causes the greatest
concern. Differential settlement is aggravated when there is a strong contrast in the
compressibility of the subgrade and foundation soils over a short distance relative to a
structure, such as at bridge abutments or at a muskeg - rock slope interface.
Seepage
Seepage is the movement of water through the soil from a position of higher total head
to a position of lower total head. A typical example is illustrated in Figure 4-4. This
flow is described by Darcy's Law, which states that flow (v) through the soil is
proportional to the soil permeability (k) and hydraulic gradient (i).
Thus: v=ki
The soil permeability (k) is a measure of the resistance of flow through the soil. It is
usually expressed as a velocity such as meters/second. Moisture movement can be
relatively rapid in coarse grain soils and very slow in fine-grained soils.
Figure 4-3 Example of Seepage
The hydraulic gradient is a critical function in describing seepage. The hydraulic

gradient is equal to the vertical drop in the water level divided by the length of the flow
path over which the drop occurs as shown in Figure 4-3.
The hydraulic gradient is a critical concept for management of groundwater. Some

soils such as silt and fine sand are particularly susceptible to erosion as the hydraulic
gradient increases. A phenomenon known as piping occurs when the hydraulic
gradient is sufficiently high that seepage forces start to remove particles from a slope.
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As the particles are removed, the length of the flow path is shortened, further
increasing the hydraulic gradient. This piping phenomenon, once started, can proceed
at fast and uncontrollable rates. Rapid and disastrous failure can occur, particularly
where silt and fine sandy soils are present. This process has contributed to a number
of severe events on the railways. Constant vigilance is required where these soil types
are present. Any measure that removes the source of water or reduces the gradient will
be positive.
Under certain conditions, seepage gradients can cause soils to become complete
"liquid" or "quick." Quicksand is a condition where seepage forces overcome the
weight of the soil, causing it to become liquid. Under this condition, effective stress is
reduced to zero and the soil has no shear strength. Hence, it can easily and rapidly be
displaced or it will flow. Such a condition can happen under natural conditions or
under conditions of train traffic. The hydraulic gradient under which quicking occurs
is called the critical gradient. Phenomena of piping and quicking are of concern where
silt, silty sand and fine sand are present in areas of seepage discharge. Clays, particularly
those of medium to high plasticity, are not usually susceptible to piping.
4.3.3 Track Structure
Historical Background
Most of the mainline tracks in North America are now more than 100 years old and
still remain on the original roadbed. It is important to consider the impact of initial
construction and subsequent maintenance on the performance of current track
structures.
Originally, the mainline tracks were constructed on a very compressed schedule using
immediately adjacent soil sources, with the greatest emphasis placed on production
rather than track quality. Furthermore, the initial construction was meant for trains
that were much lighter and traveled much slower than today's vehicles.
The historic construction methods used 150 years ago would not meet today's
standards. For instance, it was common to lay a skeleton track (track structure laid
immediately on top of the subgrade with the tie cribs and shoulders being devoid of
ballast) directly on either the original ground surface or on a minimum amount of
uncompacted fill. Ballast, then, was placed as required to sustain traffic. In the
mountains and similar steep terrain, side hill cuts and fills were common, with a
portion of the subgrade supported on rock foundations and the remainder on loosely
placed fill.
Soft track, frost heaves, groundwater discharge, bearing capacity issues, slope failures
and sinkholes are all commonplace problems. Remediation of these problems must
address not only what is apparent in the track structure today, but also the legacy of
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construction and maintenance over the past 100 years. For instance, it is not unusual
for track that functioned very well for more than 50 years to suddenly develop severe
geotechnical problems.
In solving problems today, the experiences and effects of the last 100 to 150 years of
railway practice must be considered. Not only are the railways dealing with ever-
increasing loads and ever-increasing traffic, but also a maintenance effort focused on
rails and ties. Ballast, being less visible, receives less attention, and the subgrade, less
still except when problems develop. Nonetheless, knowing the history of a section of
track is an important component of effective track maintenance.
Components and Functions
SUBBALLAST
SUBGRADE
Figure 4-4 The Track Structure
The track structure is made up of subgrade, sub-ballast, ballast, ties and rail as
illustrated in Figure 4-4. Each of these contributes to the primary function of the track
structure, which is to conduct the applied loads from train traffic across the subgrade
safely. The magnitudes of typical stresses under a 50,000 lb axle load are shown in
Figure 4-5. These stresses are applied repeatedly, and each repetition causes a small
amount of deformation in the subgrade. In theory, the track structure should be
designed and constructed to limit rail deflections to values which do not produce
excessive rail wear or rates of rail failure. In reality, cumulative deformation of the
subgrade causes distortion of the subgrade, leading to formation of “ballast pockets"
(Figure 4-6) or outright shear failure.
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Figure 4-5 Stresses Imposed by Train Axle Load
Figure 4-6 Ballast Pockets in Subgrade
Subgrade
The purpose of the subgrade is to support the track structure with limiting deflections.
Every subgrade will undergo some deflection (strain) as loads (stress) are applied. The
total displacement experienced by the subgrade will be transmitted to other
components in the track structure. The stiffer the subgrade (i.e., the higher the
modulus of elasticity), the lower the deflection values will be. It is important that
adequate subgrade strength and stiffness be available on a year-round basis, particularly
during spring thaw and following heavy precipitation events.
The strength, stiffness and total deflection of the subgrade can be improved by:
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Carefully selecting materials that are naturally strong (sand, gravel, boulders)
with a high angle of internal friction.
Limiting access to water to avoid buildup of porewater pressure and

subsequent reduction of strength.
Improving the soil properties, using techniques such as compaction, in situ

densification, grouting and preloading.
Maintain good drainage.
Maintain stable subgrade geometry.
Sub-ballast
The purpose of sub-ballast is to form a transition zone between the ballast and
subgrade to avoid migration of soil into the ballast, and to reduce the stresses applied
to the subgrade. In theory, the gradation of the sub-ballast should form a filter zone
that prevents migration of fine particles from the subgrade into the ballast. In practice,
insufficient attention has been placed to sub-ballast gradation historically, and much of
the sub-ballast does not adequately perform that function. This notwithstanding, the
number of occurrences of subgrade contamination of ballast are relatively few.
How Track Fails

In a nutshell, track fails when differential rail deflections become excessive. This
differential deflection may be expressed in differential elevation between tracks,
punching of ties, elastic or plastic deformation of the subgrade, or degradation of
ballast.
When the bearing capacity of the subgrade is exceeded, the subgrade will deform
plastically, resulting in a small amount of permanent deformation under each wheel
load. A progressive deterioration of the track begins, as illustrated in Figures 4-7 to 4-
10. It starts with minor deflections and may progress to a fully visible surface heave,
where subgrade material is pushed above the elevation of the rail and ties. Under those
conditions, ballast drainage is impeded, resulting in further softening and degradation
of the subgrade to a point where large, saturated pockets of ballast are trapped in the
subgrade. Frost heave and further degradation commonly follow, leading eventually to
a severe loss of utility of the track structure.
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Figure 4-7 Stable Site
Figure 4-8 Onset of Instability
Figure 4-9 Growth of Heave
Figure 4-10 Surface Manifestation of Heave
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4.3.4 Instability
Instability results when the shear strength of the soil is not sufficient to support the
loads applied to it. Bearing capacity failures discussed in the previous section are one
type of shear failure that occurs when the soil cannot sustain vertical load applied to it
and vertically downward movement results. The term landslide is used to define all
types of mass movement of soil or rock, where the mass moves down slope under the
influence of gravity only. There are many types of landslides, but the distinguishing
feature is that a mass of material is moved and gravity is the driving force.
Main Features of Landslides

The diagnostic features of most landslides include a scarp that forms at the head of the
landslide. This is usually a near vertical wall of soil, usually freshly exposed by
movement. The slump blocks are unique, identifiable blocks of soil, usually bounded
by scarps that show both vertical and horizontal movement. The main body of the
slide is the mass of soil that is pushed ahead by the slump blocks, and may be marked
by numerous tension cracks. Bulging of the soil, and thrusting of the slide debris over
the natural surface usually mark the toe of the slide. The slip plane or shear zone is
usually a distinct and identifiable plane that marks the lower limit of movement and the
upper limit of undisturbed soil. It should be noted that the shear zone is not usually
planar, but rather may be circular, or a composite curvilinear surface that passes
through the weakest zones in the subsurface.
Slides that Affect the Track

Instability that affects the track can be classified according to the impact that it has on
the track. These are described in various illustrations.
Figure 4-11 illustrates a slide that encompasses a track and will disrupt the track by
cutting the alignment. Once the track moves out of line, it is no longer serviceable.
Figure 4-11 Slides Cutting Track
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Figure 4-12 illustrates the effect of a landslide upslope where the toe crosses the
track, burying it in under slide debris.
Figure 4-12 Slides Covering Track
Figure 4-13 shows the track being heaved up in response to upward movement of
the toe of a landslide.
Figure 4-13 Slides Heaving Track
Figure 4-14 illustrates an event where a landslide threatens the track, perhaps by
encroaching on the down slope shoulder.
Figure 4-14 Slides Threatening Track
Figure 4-15 illustrates how base failure in fills on soft foundations can cause the fill
to spread and settle. While this may be mistaken as settlement, it is actually a shear
movement involving the foundation soils. It is common on organic terrain and
other soft foundations.
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Figure 4-15 Base Failure
Figure 4-16 shows how locations over old landslides may be reactivated due to a
change in stresses within the landslide mass. Many of the ancient landslides are
extremely large, and the limits of the landslides may be difficult to detect.
Figure 4-16 Reactivation of Old Slide
Triggering Mechanisms
The stability of a slope is dependent upon:
The shear strength of the soils.
Porewater pressure within the soils that make up the slope (this can be roughly
measured by knowing the water table).
The geometry of the slope, particularly the slope angle and changes of slope.
Any surcharge loading such as fill or bank widening material stored on the slope or
train loads.
Landslides occur either as a result of reduction in soil strength or an increase in the

loading on the slope.
Reductions in soil strength can occur as the result of:
An increase in porewater pressure, reducing the available shear strength of the soil.
In the case of moisture sensitive soils, the amount of water needed to cause this
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change may be very small, and may result from actions such as deforestation,
irrigation or even devegetating fill slopes.
Leaching of the soil to change the physical-chemical nature of the soil and
changing its strength. Examples include leaching of marine clays with fresh water,
changing the soil chemistry and causing them to be very sensitive and easy to
liquefy, or leaching the natural lime cement out of lacustrine silts, leaving them
sensitive to collapse and with a reduced shear strength. In soils such as this, active
infiltration of water can be very damaging to stability.
The total load on the slope can be increased by the following:
Rain or runoff increasing seepage pressure.
Erosion steepening the slopes.
Earthquakes.
Upslope irrigation.
Deforestation.
Rapid drainage of water ponded near track.
Maintenance activities may also contribute to instability by:
Loading of slopes.
Undercutting the toe of slopes for access roads.
Blocking ground water flow.
Blocking surface drainage.
Disturbing “good” vegetation.
Remediation
Many types of remediation have been attempted to stabilize slopes and fills. These can
be subdivided into four major categories:
Improvement of soil properties to improve the strength of the soil at the shear
zone.
Improve the slope geometry to improve stability.
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Reduce water pressures acting in the slope.
Structural support of the slope.
Soil Improvement
The strength of the soil at the shear zone governs the stability of the slope. Thus, any
emphasis on soil improvement must concentrate on the shear zone. For that reason,
measures such as jet grouting, stone columns (stone columns and stabilization are used
to add shear resistance) or in situ densification will be ineffective unless they treat and
improve the shear zone. In general, these measures that depend on densification or
cementing will only be effective in treating coarse-grained soils and will not be effective
in treating soils where clay forms the shear zone.
At locations where the shear zone is within an economic and practical depth to
excavate and replace with stronger soils, improvement can be achieved by excavating
stabilizing trenches at the closest practical spacing. The trenches are excavated
through the shear zone, removing a portion of the shear zone and replacing it with
higher quality fill that extends into the undisturbed zone below the shear zone. When
the trenches are graded to drain, the benefit of reduced groundwater levels is also
achieved. Experience has indicated that the combination of excavating and replacing a
portion of the shear zone along with drainage improvements can result in an increased
factor of safety of between 10 and 25 percent.
Where the toe of the slide is translational and significant lengths of the shear zone can
be economically excavated, a shear key can be installed to achieve both improvement
of soil properties at the shear zone and the buttressing effect of a toe berm. Drainage
improvements will also accrue if groundwater levels are above the shear zone in that
area. Improvements of the factor of safety from 10 to 40 percent have been achieved.
Improved Slope Geometry

The principle behind improving the slope geometry is to minimize the mass of soil in
an elevated position and maximize the mass at lower elevations. This can be done by
placing berms or flattening the slope. Typical berm placement is illustrated in Figure
4-17. In general, slope flattening is only economic on slopes of low to moderate (less
than 20 feet – 6 meters) height. It is generally more economical to stabilize higher
slopes using berms, but the geometry of the landslide, particularly the shear zone, must
be established before that decision is made. In most instances, multiple berms can be
used, with the first berm being not higher than one-third of the total slope height.
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Figure 4-17 Typical Berm Geometry for Low Fills
A common cause of fill slope failure is placement of new fill on the shoulder, either
through bank widening or deposition of undercutter waste. Fill on the shoulder
promotes instability. On the other hand, fill distributed to flatten and regrade the slope
can be a benefit to stability. It should again be emphasized that undercutter waste, in
some instances, may not be suitable for placement as bank widening or slope flattening
materials because of environmental unsuitability.
Instability due to lateral squeezing because of base failure of a fill located on soft
foundations was discussed previously. The solution in most instances is to place
sufficient side berms to lengthen the shear path under the fill to a suitable point where
it achieves adequate shear resistance. Under those conditions, the lateral spreading and
subsequent settlement of the track should cease. If the foundation is very soft,
placement of the berms may cause settlement of the track.
Bearing capacity failures also cause the subgrade to spread, but in a different fashion.
The saturated ballast pockets must be drained to remove the frost heave hazard. At
the same time, the grade must be stabilized. Several methods have been successfully
used. One method incorporates side drains to drain the ballast and geomembrane to
resist lateral spreading combined with the structural support of the fill.
Construction in organic terrain poses a separate and unique set of considerations.

Construction of berms may induce further settlement on mainline trackage. However,
continued lateral spreading of subgrades will often reduce water level clearance to the
point where stabilization is required. In this instance, the height of berms is limited by
the bearing capacity of the organic deposit, and enhancement through use of
geotextiles is often required. Staged construction or construction on a frozen soil base,
is often beneficial to expedite the remedial work and limit the rate of settlement.
Reduce Seepage Pressure

The most beneficial method of reducing the detrimental effects of water on stability of
slopes is to remove any water hazard that may exist upslope in the form of ponds,
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blocked ditches, beaver dams or similar sources of recharge. If further improvement is

required, it can be achieved through the installation of subsurface drainage in the
manner demonstrated in Figures 4-18 and 4-19.
Figure 4-18 Interception of Sidehill Seepage by Subdrainage
Figure 4-19 Lowering of Ground Water in Cut
Where seepage outcrops on a lower slope or can be economically reached with a

backhoe, trench drains can provide a considerable improvement to the stability. If
drains can be extended to a sufficient depth to excavate and replace a portion of the
shear zone, additional positive benefit will be achieved. Alternatively, where seepage
outcrops on a slope and the soil is competent to allow flow without damage, buttress
drains (Figure 4-20) may be effective.
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Figure 4-20 Buttress Drains
Recent experiences with instability caused by deforestation have again emphasized the
positive benefit of vegetation in stabilizing slopes. It has long been known that
transpiration from live vegetation has an extremely positive benefit in reducing
moisture content, and therefore improving soil strength. For instance, it has been
demonstrated that alfalfa can desiccate silty clay soils to depths of greater than 20 feet
(6 meters).
Conversely, soils left bare rapidly increase in moisture, reducing soil suction and soil
strength. It is therefore of great importance to reclaim repaired slopes with suitable
vegetation at the earliest possible stage. In all instances, high priority should be given
to revegetating slopes and establishing active vegetation in the first year, so the slopes
are in as dry as possible a condition going through their first spring thaw.
Structural Support
In instances where all other remedial measures have not been successful, structural
support of slopes may be an alternative. It is usually chosen as a last resort because of
cost and the susceptibility to damage from slope movement. Simple bin wall type cribs
are effective in stabilizing coarse grained soils. Tied back retaining walls or soil
stitching has also been used in coarse grained soils. In fine-grained soils, soil pressures
are often higher and heavier structural supports such as anchored walls or tied back
tangent pile walls, have been utilized. Care must be taken to provide adequate drainage
behind the wall to avoid the structural loads caused by water pressure, but most
importantly to avoid damage by frost as ice lensing develops behind the wall.
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Inspection of Slopes
Inspection of slopes remains one of the most important methods of ensuring track
safety. A track inspection supported by additional technical information further
reduces the risk. The recommended process includes:
Map terrain to identify landforms and materials that present the greatest hazard.
Assess the surface drainage and groundwater regime to identify areas where
potentially adverse conditions exist.
Inventory and rank the hazards in areas of increased risk.
Visually inspect from the air, if possible, to assess upslope hazards, hazards in the
vicinity of the track and hazards downslope.
Conduct a ground inspection concentrating on condition of upslope ditches, visual

identification of seepage or groundwater discharge areas, critical culverts, and
sensitive landforms such as fans, talus slopes and debris shoots.
Read existing monitoring installations and compile and critique data.
From compiled inspection and monitoring reports, assess changes in hazard

conditions since last inspection.
Assess the reasons for the changes and rank the hazards according to existing
hazard reporting systems.
Monitoring Slope Movements

Slope movements can be monitored in several ways:
Visual monitoring to assess changes in the slope, particularly tension cracks,

groundwater discharge, changes in vegetation or changes in alignment of the track
fence, backslopes or other linear features.
The amount of lifting or lining that is required on a particular section of track. In

this regard, accurate records of the work performed, particularly the amounts of
lifting and line shifting that are required on particular dates, should be recorded.
Note the direction of movement and whether movement is related to rainfall as
well.
Once a tension crack opens, a simple movement monitoring device can be

constructed of two wooden lathes placed to intersect across the crack. By marking
and dating the lathe at each inspection, the amount of horizontal and vertical
movement at the tension crack can be readily determined. In general, engineering
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assistance should be sought as soon as a tension crack appears, but on an

emergency basis if the rate of movement is increasing at an accelerated rate.
Records of the elevation of outcrops of seepage are important, even if estimated by

eye. Similarly, estimates of flow from subdrainage, if present, are also very useful.
Regular monitoring of slope movement monitors, including slope movement

indicators and/or surveyed monuments, are also helpful in the decision making
process. Note: Slope indicator devices are expensive to install and monitor and are
probably justifiable for only very large-scale slope movements.
Any changes in the state of the vegetation are important since devegetation of any
sort can lead to slope movement.
In all inspections, particularly in slope monitoring, abundant notes and as many

numbers as possible can be very helpful. Copies of field notes included in engineering
files are useful for analysts trying to figure out what is happening and what appropriate
responses should be.
Areas With the Greatest Hazard

Areas that present the greatest hazard of slope movement include:
Areas with silt or fine sand with access to water, particularly water under a
significant hydraulic gradient.
Areas of sensitive clay.
Organic terrain or similar areas with soft foundation soils.
Soil or rock fills on sloping bedrock surface.
Steeply sloping culverts.
Culverts that have recently operated under head.
Any area with seepage outcropping on a downstream face or in the upstream ditch.
Areas with impeded or blocked drainage in the upslope ditch or with ponded
water upslope.
Deforested areas or areas in any way denuded of vegetation, such as by fire or

construction.
Irrigation or housing development near tracks on sloping ground.
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Highway construction upgrade from the tracks on sloping ground.
Sensitive landforms such as floodplains, talus slopes, colluviums and ancient

landslides.
All groundwater discharge areas.
When these hazards exist in combination, the combined hazard may be substantially
greater than the individual hazards alone. Locally, additional hazards may be created by
events such as recent construction on or along the track.
4.3.5 Settlement
Basic Theory
Settlement results when the soil changes volume, when load is added because pore
fluid is squeezed from the pores. The characteristics of settlement behavior include:
Very little settlement occurs during initial placement of fill, since virtually no
volume change takes place until the preconsolidation pressure is reached. Thus,
the initial settlement is mostly elastic in nature.
Beyond the preconsolidation pressure, settlement increases with the increasing

load. This is called the zone of primary consolidation, which takes place until all of
the excess porewater pressure in the soil is dissipated. This may take from several
minutes in the case of sand or gravel, to tens of years in the case of low
permeability clay. For this reason, sand and gravel are preferred, both as
foundations and as fill construction materials.
Even after all porewater pressure is dissipated, settlement may go on in some soils.
This is called secondary consolidation, and is particularly common in organic soils
such as peat or organic floodplain deposits. This is the reason that settlement is
common where these materials form either the fills or the foundation for fills.
Secondary consolidation may go on for several decades or more.
While total settlement is important, it is the differential settlement that causes tracks to
be rough and some parts of fills or structures to settle more than other parts. As a rule
of thumb, differential settlement within a fill typically is about 50 percent of the total
settlement. This is important because it is the differential settlement that causes the
need for resurfacing.
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Influence of Construction Methods

Construction methods can have a dramatic effect on the total amount of settlement
experienced. Settlement occurs both in the fill and in the foundation. Uncompacted
fills can experience settlement equal to more than 10 percent of the fill height, while
properly compacted and conditioned fills may experience no settlement. Further,
moisture conditioning of the fill plays a very important role in controlling future
settlement. For instance, any cohesionless fill compacted dry of optimum is likely to
experience severe settlement upon first wetting. Settlement in excess of 10 percent of
fill height has been recorded where fills were compacted dry and subsequently were
saturated by runoff or ponding water. A combination of heavy watering and
compaction using a vibratory roller produces the best results, reducing settlement to
manageable values.
Influence of Soil Type

Settlement can be experienced with all types of materials. Rapid settlement of
foundations will be experienced in sand and gravel, while settlement of clay
foundations may take several decades to complete. As indicated earlier, secondary
consolidation of peat or organic soil foundations can go on for many decades,
requiring ongoing maintenance.
The type of material used in the construction of fills also influences settlement
behavior. Sand and gravel are preferred, because once wet and compacted, they will
produce a stable fill with low settlement characteristics. Silt is difficult to use as
construction material, because it is extremely moisture sensitive and very difficult to
compact. Clay must always be compacted, since if placed loose, long-term, chronic
consolidation settlement can be expected. Highly organic soils should never be used
for construction of fills for railway subgrades, because of their low bearing capacity and
high resilience, and because of the characteristic long-term secondary consolidation
that can be expected. In some cases, low level organic soils may be acceptable for use
below the subgrade level.
Settlement is pure vertical movement, which may be due to expulsion of pore fluid
from the soil. There is no shear movement associated with settlement. On the other
hand, when the shear strength of foundation soils is exceeded, shear displacement
commonly takes place in both horizontal and vertical directions. While bearing
capacity failures and other forms of slope instability may produce characteristic
settlement profiles that require lifting, strictly speaking, this is not a settlement problem.
Settlement can usually be improved by improving soil characteristics by compaction or

jet grouting in the case of coarse grained soils, or compaction or replacement of clay
soils. Such treatment will normally not provide any relief if the shear strength of the
foundation soils is being exceeded.
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4.3.6 Hazard Identification

The purpose of this chapter is to improve our ability to identify hazards and take
appropriate action to mitigate those hazards. The approach to hazard management is
based upon a number of steps including:
Understanding contributing factors.
Understanding the mechanisms that create the hazards.
Identifying the hazard.
Describing the hazard.
Taking appropriate action to mitigate it.
Providing suitable documentation.
Reporting natural hazards.
Understanding the Factors

There are multiple factors that contribute to development of a geotechnical hazard on
the railways. These include:
The landform, natural materials, groundwater regime and seismicity. The greatest
hazards accrue to the less stable landforms, including floodplains, alluvial fans,
talus and muskegs. All of these landforms have natural materials including silt, fine
sand and peat, all of which can exhibit undesirable engineering characteristics.
Further, the greatest geotechnical hazards occur in areas of high groundwater table
and in areas subjected to earthquakes.
The climatic component is particularly important. The greatest hazards occur

following extreme precipitation and during the spring thaw. The impact of erosion
must be considered any time runoff occurs, particularly at a time when the ground
is already saturated.
Vegetation plays an important role, particularly management of vegetation within

the right-of-way and deforestation.
Animals such as beavers or muskrats have demonstrated their ability to adversely

impact the track.
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Humans may also have an adverse impact through influences on drainage, land
development, engineering and maintenance practices. In particular, actions of
third parties, often working on railway land, may have an adverse effect.
Understanding the Mechanisms

The geotechnical processes that are of interest include shear strength, seepage,
settlement, slope stability and bearing capacity. The principal of effective stress is
fundamental, particularly the role of water in the soil and the deleterious effects of
positive porewater pressures and the beneficial effects of negative porewater pressures.
The greatest hazards accrue when groundwater levels are high, such as following
prolonged precipitation or during spring thaw, and are the least when dry subgrade
conditions can be maintained.
All of the support for the track structure comes from the subgrade. The principal of
limiting stress, and thereby limiting permanent deformation of the subgrade, is
paramount. The ballast and subballast reduce the applied stresses. They also help in
maintaining a dry subgrade with negative porewater pressures year round, thus
providing the maximum stiffness and strength.
Identifying the Hazard

As indicated earlier, the majority of track functions adequately year after year. Only
specific landforms with an adverse combination of materials and groundwater
conditions create hazards. These account for a relatively small but significant portion
of total track mileage. For instance, fans, talus, floodplains and landslide areas are
specific hazards in mountain regions. All of these landforms may incorporate silt or
fine sand in a loose, saturated condition.
In the plains, eroded valleys with landslides, floodplains and organic terrain present the
greatest hazards. These landforms are comprised of highly plastic clay or soft
compressible sediments. In the central and eastern regions, the landforms of concern
are organic terrain and lacustrine sediments. The materials include peat, saturated silt
and sensitive clay, often overlying steeply dipping bedrock.
In all regions, river erosion is a concern, as is frost heave and spring thaw.
With these criteria in mind, the areas of concerns within any territory can be isolated,
and efforts maximized to manage the specific local hazards.
4.3.7 Summary
In summary, the approach to natural hazard management includes:
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1. Understand the contributing factors:
Terrain components:
o Landforms
o Natural materials
o Groundwater regime
o Earthquakes
Climatic influences:
o Precipitation
o Frost, thawing
o Runoff
o Erosion
Vegetation influences:
o Vegetation impacts
o Vegetation management
o Deforestation
Influence of humans on aspects such as:

o Drainage
o Development
o Maintenance
o Engineering
o Work on railway property by others
2. Understand the mechanisms:
Principal of effective stress:

o Role of pore water pressure
o The difference in behavior between cohesive and cohesionless soils
How the track structure works:

o Dependent on subgrade
o Principal of limiting stresses on subgrade
o Importance of ballast
o Importance of pore water pressure
Landslides
Bearing capacity
Drainage
Seepage
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Freezing and thawing
Settlement
3. Identify hazards:
• By inspection
• Concentrate on high risk areas
• Concentrate on high risk periods for runoff and breakup:
o Extreme precipitation events
4. Describe hazards:
• Landforms
• Materials
• Groundwater conditions
• Geometry
• Mechanisms (type of hazard)
• Effects
• Actions required
5. Take appropriate action:
• Immediate action to mitigate hazard:
o Urgent
o Priority
o Routine
• Request assistance
• Monitor
6. Provide documentation:
Notes and diaries
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Photographs
Records of observations
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5
Chapter

Drainage
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Drainage
Kevin Bollinger, P.E.
Bollinger, Lach & Associates

Oak Brook, IL
kbollinger@bollingerlach.com
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5
Chapter
C H A P T E R 5 - D R A I N A G E
Drainage
The three most important elements in good track are: #1 Drainage,
#2 Drainage and #3 Drainage – Darrell Cantrell, Engineer Track
(Retired) BNSF
D rainage is the subject of stormwater behavior as it relates to the properties of

hydrology and hydraulics. This is a subject that is constantly being reviewed
on a regular basis within the regulatory bodies of government and it is
therefore always important to review local requirements to guide the engineer through
the design process. Even though one method of analysis may be appropriate to use in
an area one feels comfortable in, it may not be appropriate in another location. A good
rule of thumb is to contact the local highway department as a starting point and
continue your investigation to local authorities. The other primary source for the
Engineer is the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering, Chapter 1, Parts 3 & 4.
The engineer needs to be aware that one has to maintain existing drainage patterns and
not increase headwaters upstream or downstream. Adjacent property owners, whether
they are farmers or city dwellers, have certain rights and are protected under common
law concerning storm water conveyance and elevation as it relates to property damage.
5.1 Hydrology
For the purposes of this Guide, Hydrology will be defined as the study of rainfall
events (inches or inches per hour) and runoff (cubic feet per second) as related to the
engineering design of conveyance features such as ditches and culverts. These
conveyance features are typically designed to a particular storm event or storm
frequency. In other words, a storm water conveyance feature is going to be associated
with a certain amount of risk with respect to failure. For instance, a 100 year storm
return period has a 1% probability of occurring in any given year, a 50 year storm has a
2% probability of occurring in any given year, and a 10 year storm has a 10% chance of
occurring in any given year. So it is up to the designer to assign a certain amount of
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risk to which he would like that feature to perform. We assign a certain amount of risk
because of cost and feasibility. The greater the conveyances of failure, the higher risk,
and therefore the storm return period. Here are a couple of examples:
Conveyance Feature Design Frequency
Culverts 50 yr
Ditches 50 yr
Storm Sewer 10 yr
Just because the designer has established the appropriate risk and designed the system
accordingly, it does not mean the feature is designed properly. Because most agencies
typically assess damage based upon the 100-year storm event, the designer should
always check or test the system against the 100-year storm to evaluate how the system
performs under those conditions. When the top of a culvert is designed to the 50-year
storm, check to evaluate what the 100-year storm event does. If, for instance, the
tracks are well above the 100-year storm elevation, then the designer has completed his
design. However if the storm overtops the tracks, the designer may reconsider
designing the size of the culvert.
The hydrology or stormwater discharge rate (Q) of a watershed is dependent on

several important factors such as the type of storm, the shape and size of the
watershed, soil types, urbanization and general slope. There are several techniques
available to the designer in determining the appropriate flow rate. Typically, the size of
the watershed or the area tributary to a drainage structure will usually dictate the type of
method to be used. Some of the more common methods or programs for
determining stormwater discharge can be summarized as follows:
5.1.1 Equations and Programs

• Rational Formula (hydrology) peak discharge
• National Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) TR 55 (hydrology) hydrograph
• United States Geological Survey (USGS) Regression Equations peak discharge
• NRCS TR 20 (hydrology and hydraulics) peak discharge and continuous

simulation
• US Army Corps of Engineers HECRAS continuous simulation (hydrology and

hydraulics)
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• Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) HYDRAIN (hydrology and hydraulics)
Typically, when watersheds become greater than one square mile, floodway and
floodplain issues are introduced. If these two elements are evident by review of the
Flood Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Flood Insurance Rate Maps, flow
rates and flood elevations can usually be obtained in table format upon request.
Peak Discharge Method for Up to 200 Acres in Area
Rational Formula (1889)
Criteria
Q=CIA where
• C=Coefficient factor (Figure 5.1)
• I=Intensity of rainfall in inches/hour based upon a time of concentration

(minutes) minimum of 10 minutes
• A=Area in acres
Peak Discharge and Hydrograph Method for Areas Between 200 Acres and
2000 Acres
NRCS Method (Technical Release 55 or Technical Release 20)
Criteria
• Curve Number (CN) dependent on soil type
• Time of Concentration
• Total Rainfall (inches)
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Rational Method Runoff Coefficient “C”

27
RUNOFF COEFFICIENTS
RUNOFF
VALUES OF C - Runoff/Rainfall COEFFICIENT C
TYPE OF DRAINAGE AREA SURFACES MIN. MAX.

ROOFS, slag to metal 0.75 0.95
PAVEMENTS
Asphalt 0.70 0.95
Concrete 0.80 0.95
Gravel, from clean and loose clayey and compact 0.25 0.70
R.R. YARDS 0.20 0.40
EARTH SURFACES
Sand, from uniform grain size, no fines to well Bare 0.15 0.50
Light vegetation 0.10 0.40
Dense vegetation 0.05 0.30
Loam, from sandy or graveliy to clayey Bare 0.20 0.60
Gravel from clean gravel sand mixtures, no silt or clay to
high clay or silt content Bare 0.25 0.65
Clay, from coarse sandy or silty to pure colloidal clays Bare 0.30 0.75
COMPOSITE AREAS
City, business areas 0.70 0.95
City, dense residential areas, vary as to soil & vegetation 0.50 0.65
Suburban residential areas, vary as to soil & vegetation 0.35 0.55
Rural Districts, vary as to soil & vegetation 0.10 0.25
Parks, Golf Courses, etc., vary as to soil & vegetation 0.10 0.35
LAWNS
Sandy soil, flat 2% 0.05 0.10
Sandy soil, average 2% to 7% 0.10 0.15
Sandy soil, steep 7% 0.15 0.20
Heavy soil, flat 2% 0.13 0.17
Heavy soil, average 2% to 7% 0.18 0.22
Heavy soil, steep 7% 0.25 0.35
Note: Values of "C" for earth surfaces are further varied by

degree of saturation, compaction, surface irregularity and
slope, by character of subsoil, and by presence of frost or
glazed snow or ice.
Figure 5-1 Runoff Coefficients - Data Book For Civil Engineer Design, Elwyne Seelye
Note: Values of “C” for earth surfaces are further varied by degree of saturation, compaction, surface
irregularity and slope, by character of subsoil and by presence of frost or glazed snow or ice.
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5.1.2 Rainfall Intensity or Precipitation

Rainfall can be described in terms of intensity or total rainfall. There are many charts,
maps and tables to choose from to obtain rainfall depending on the project location.
Information is constantly being updated, so the designer should demonstrate diligence
and investigate local design procedures. If one cannot find current precipitation data
within a certain region, the designer can still reference the material from the US
Weather Bureau. The current titles of the reports are as follows:
Precipitation Frequency
5 min – 60 min 1 hr – 24 hr
Eastern US Technical Memo 35 (1977) Technical Paper 40 (1961)
Western US Arkell & Richards (1986) NOAA Atlas 2 (1973)
Frederick & Miller (1979)
The information described in these reports illustrates rainfall in total inches, however,
the data can be converted to inches/hour for use in the Rational Formula. For
instance, if the Time of Concentration was found to be 30 min for a 100-year storm
within a watershed in the State of New Jersey, one could refer to Technical Memo 35
and determine that the total rainfall was 2.35 inches. This information could be used in
the NRCS method to determine runoff or could be converted to rainfall intensity for
use in the Rational Method by taking (2.35 inches)*(60min/hr/30min)=4.70in/hr.
In the central part of the United States, the Illinois Water Survey performed and
published studies that have established values for rainfall intensities that most agencies
in the area use today to evaluate and design drainage structures. These reference guides
are referred to as Bulletins 70 and 71. This is just one example of more current
information, and more than likely other areas of North America have the same types
of information. These values found in current rainfall publications can be used for any
type of method to be used whether it is the Rational Method, NRCS or HECRAS.
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TYPICAL NOMOGRAPH ILLUSTRATING
Figure 5-2 Rainfall Intensity vs. Duration – Illinois Department of Transportation
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5.1.3 Time of Concentration

The Time of Concentration is the time it takes a water droplet to travel across a given
watershed along the longest watercourse. This is important because it establishes a
theoretical design storm unique to that particular watershed. Historically, storms with
shorter durations are more intense than longer duration storms. So by determining the
correct time of concentration, the designer will be able to optimize a design storm and
not over or under estimate the rainfall intensity and runoff. As with some of the
discharge equations, there are any number of the time of concentration equations and
nomographs that can be used and, again, the local agencies should be referenced for
assistance. The overland flow equations or nomographs (Figure 5-3) are only good for
a couple of hundred feet, and the remaining additional hydraulic length should consist
of times derived from typical water velocities between 2 ft/sec and 10 ft/sec that are
given in the figure below (Figure 5-4).
Figure 5-3 Overland Flow Time – Data Book for Civil Engineer Design Figure 5-4 Average Velocity – NRCS TR 55
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5.1.4 Distribution
The distribution of a storm can take many forms since two storms are never alike. In
some cases, such as with the rational formula, distribution of rainfall across a drainage
area is not a factor, since the equation is based upon peak discharge. However, if
continuous simulation is necessary where the designer uses a hydrograph, then the type
of rainfall distribution definitely becomes an important element. As with the NRCS
method, the Soil Conservation Service has established different types of storms
depending upon the region of the country the project is in. When using some of the
other programs, different rainfall distribution types are also available.
5.2 Hydraulics
Hydraulics is the study of water conveyance either through a conduit (a conduit can be
a small culvert or a multi-span bridge structure) under pressure or a conduit exposed to
atmospheric pressure. When designing hydraulic features, it is important to realize that
different hydraulic equations or charts only apply to certain conditions within the
conveyance system. For instance, a ditch conveying water has several equations
associated with its characteristics, while the behavior of a tributary culvert has many
different variables related to its hydraulic attributes. The main objective the engineer
should try to achieve is a safe and economical system that poses no danger to the
railway operations or adjacent property owners during a significant storm event.
Not all systems are comprised of ditches and culverts. Sometimes a good system may
consist of an uncontrolled release off railway property where a ditch is not necessary.
This may occur at the top of a knoll at a natural ridgeline, or it may occur in a wetland
or depression area where any conveyance system would not be practical. It is up to the
engineer to determine when a system becomes justified. Remember, always think of
the possible consequences of the design and impacts the design may have on other
people, property or development downstream.
5.2.1 Open Channel Hydraulics

The designer will apply open channel hydraulic equations to either natural or artificial
conditions. When programs are used to study channels, they usually simulate varied
flow. However, steady uniform flow is the primary type of flow that in general practice
is used the most often.
For any flow at a channel section, the discharge Q can be expressed as:
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Where V is velocity and A is the cross sectional area of the channel.
In 1889 an Irish engineer by the name of Robert Manning presented the well-known
equation:
Where V is the mean velocity in fps, R is the hydraulic radius in ft (area/wetted

perimeter), S is the slope of energy line and n is the coefficient of roughness,
specifically known as Manning’s n. The formula was developed from several different
formulas and verified by numerous observations. It wasn’t until 1936 at a conference
in Washington D.C. that a recommendation for its use was made.
If one substitutes V = Q/A, Manning’s equation becomes:
The equation can be used in most cases, at any given section along a channel, to
determine normal channel depth or discharge. Figures 5-5 and 5-6 illustrate the values
of the roughness coefficient for specific types of channels.
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Figure 5-3 Roughness Coefficient - Uniform Flow – Illinois Department of Transportation
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Figure 5-4 Roughness Coefficient - Uniform Flow Cont'd. – Illinois Department of Transportation
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5.2.2 Culvert Hydraulics

Culvert hydraulics takes the form of both pressure flow and open channel flow. The
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) has studied a wide variety of culverts that
resulted in numerous nomographs associated with culvert hydraulics. A culvert’s
hydraulic characteristics react differently depending upon what water conditions are
present at the outlet end of a culvert. When designing a culvert, it is important to
determine what produces the highest headwater conditions. This is accomplished by
what the FHWA terms as inlet control and outlet control. Figure 3.2.1 is an example
of the culvert design form developed by the FHWA that reflect both control
conditions.
Inlet control represents a condition where there is no normal water depth present at
the outlet portion of the culvert. The inlet portion of the culvert will almost act as an
orifice with a free discharge condition. Figures 5-7 and 5-8 are the nomographs that
represent inlet control conditions for concrete pipe and corrugated metal pipe
respectively.
Outlet control represents a condition where there is a normal water depth present at
the outlet portion of the culvert. Sometimes the depth of water at the outlet is referred
to as tail water. Determining what the tail water elevation is can be the most difficult
part in determining the size of culvert. The designer has several options available to
choose from that can be summarized as follows:
• Refer to the FEMA Flood Insurance Rate Maps or Floodway Maps and Reports
to determine applicable downstream elevations.
• Calculate the downstream elevations using Manning’s equation based upon

existing conditions.
Once the condition of the outlet can be determined, the designer should refer to
Figures 5-9, 5-10 and 5-11 to determine the headwater condition of the culvert.
The headwater elevations for both inlet and outlet control need to be compared. The
elevation that produces the highest headwater condition is the actual allowable
elevation to be used by the designer. If the result is not favorable to the railway or
adjacent property owners, the calculation needs to be reiterated until a culvert size can
produce a result that is positive to both considerations.
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Figure 5-5 FHWA Culvert Design Form
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Figure 5-6 Entrance Loss Coefficient - Outlet Control – Illinois Department of Transportation
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Figure 5-7 Inlet Control for Concrete Pipe – Illinois Department of Transportation
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Figure 5-8 Inlet Control for Corrugated Metal Pipe – Illinois Department of Transportation
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Figure 5-9 Critical Depth - Circular Pipe – Illinois Department of Transportation
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Figure 5-10 Head for Concrete Pipe Culvert Flowing Full – Illinois Department of Transportation
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Figure 5-11 Head for Standard Corrugated Metal Pipe Culverts Flowing Full – Illinois Department of Transportation
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5.3 Recommended Procedures

5.3.1 Existing Drainage Study
Before proceeding with the design of the project, it should be realized that it is always
important to visit the actual project site and identify problems that may be
encountered. Existing culverts always seem to be a problem and should be looked at
carefully. Examples of potential problems include excessive ditch scouring and
constant ponding of water along a ditch system. Railway ditches are typically very flat
and do not drain well. However, the designer should always review the situation as if
there is a solution. If it is economically feasible to remedy the situation, then the area
should be regraded and repaired to what is recognized as common engineering
practice.
Below is a recommended approach to an existing consistent drainage study:
• Utilize a USGS Quadrangle Map or a Hydrologic Atlas (HA) for the area.
• Plot existing and proposed railway right-of-way.
• Identify floodplain and floodway boundaries.
• Identify watershed areas based upon contour interpretation.
• Identify existing bridges, culverts and problem areas.
• Identify sheet and concentrated flow.
• Identify closed drainage systems.
• Select outlet points for each watershed area.
• Select the proper hydrology criteria (i.e. rainfall, frequency, formula, etc.).
• Calculate or run the model and assign flow rates to each of the watersheds.
• Add flow rates and hydrographs, as necessary, to determine proper flow through
the watershed.
• Select the proper hydraulic method to determine storm water elevations.
• Conduct a plan-in-hand field review.
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Remember the existing drainage study is the benchmark study on which all proposed
drainage features are based.
5.3.2 Proposed Drainage System

The proposed drainage system typically addresses impacts to an existing man made or
natural drainage system from a proposed improvement. This can take the form of new
ditches and culverts or it can take the form of improving existing problem areas. Keep
in mind that any improvement to an existing drainage system will more than likely
affect surrounding drainage patterns and elevations on adjacent or downstream
properties. For example, increasing the size of an existing cross culvert introduces
more storm water flow rate to downstream property owners. The designer should
determine whether this situation is going to present a problem.
Below is a recommended approach to the design of a proposed drainage system:
• Complete and review the existing drainage study.
• Superimpose the proposed improvements on a copy of the existing drainage study

map.
• Locate new drainage features such as ditches, bridges and culverts.
• Are there floodplain and wetland impacts?
• Never relocate an existing outlet point unless it is absolutely necessary.
• Try to maintain existing watershed limits (sometimes these do change).
• Calculate the new hydrology for the watershed.
• Calculate the new hydraulics for the watershed.
• Compare the new data with the existing data at the same points.
• Initiate Permitting process.
For adjacent properties, it is ideal to obtain the same results between existing and
proposed conditions and it may take a few iterations to obtain those results.
Sometimes it is impossible for this to occur. By studying the upstream and
downstream effects, the designer may be able to apply a certain amount of change that
does not harm or cause damage to adjacent property owners. For example, a 0.1’ or a
0.5’ increase in headwater may be acceptable, or a 5% increase in flow velocity may be
acceptable if the surrounding soil conditions are tolerable. There may be more
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considerations to review. However, this is dependent upon the conditions and

regulations unique to that project location.
5.3.3 Floodplain Encroachment Evaluation

The floodplain is identified by criteria established by the Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA) for the 100-year and 500-year storm events or known
depression flood prone areas. Typically, the 100-year base flood elevation is the most
commonly regulated stormwater elevation associated with rivers, streams and
concentrated flow areas. FEMA, State Water Resource Departments, counties and
local communities (that are part of the National Flood Insurance Program) closely
monitor flood plain areas. Any change to the flood plain will generally result in
extensive studies and computer modeling to be submitted for approval.
Below is a summary of possible floodplain permitting reviews.
FEMA:
• Physical Map Change (Extensive Floodplain Revisions)
• Letter of Map Revision (Typical Floodplain Revisions)
• Conditional Letter of Map Revision (Typical Floodplain Revisions done in the

design phase)
• Elevation Criteria (Typically for building structures)
US Army Corps of Engineers:
• Excavation below normal water elevation
State Water Resource Department:
• Floodway (Area within a floodplain that demonstrates conveyance)
County (Some counties may not be involved in the review process):
• Floodplain
• Floodway
• Compensatory Storage (Excavation required to compensate for floodplain filling)
• Elevation Criteria (Typically for building structures)
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Local Community:
• Compensatory Storage
• Elevation Criteria
5.3.4 Erosion Control Evaluation

Erosion Control can be categorized into temporary construction applications and
permanent features. Today, many local governments, counties and states are taking an
active role to review soil erosion designs in the plan development phase and to
monitor erosion control features in the construction phase. The Environmental
Protection Agency and local soil conservation districts will come out to the site for an
inspection without notice.
In construction, the designer can apply many different erosion control devices that
limit the amount of soil erosion. Each type of system, with its appropriate application,
can be summarized as follows:
Erosion Control Device Area Function
Silt Fence Site perimeter Reduces offsite discharge
Hay Bales Ditches Reduces flow velocities for

sediment collection
Aggregate ditch checks Ditches Reduces flow velocities for

sediment collection
Settlement Basins Ditches Allows sediment to settle
In permanent applications, grass lined channels have different permissible velocities

depending upon soil type. Under normal circumstances, grass lined channels will
typically accommodate stormwater flow velocities on the average of 6 ft/sec in good
resistant soils. When velocities exceed the maximum permissible velocities, other
erosion control features should be reviewed, such as riprap. These concepts are
further explained in the Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 11, “ Use of Rip-Rap for
Bank Protection.” Keep in mind that vegetation (grass) or stone riprap are good
erosion control treatments and should not be confused with slope stability
applications. This is a common mistake among designers. Local soil conservation
districts can offer advice on permanent erosion control measures as well.
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6
Chapter

Railway Track
Design
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Railway Track Design
Brian Lindamood, P.E.
Hanson-Wilson, Inc.
Fort Worth, TX 76137-5422
balindamood@wilsonco.com
James C. Strong, P.E.
Parsons Transportation Group

Martinex, CA 94553-1845
strongrrdes@aol.com
James McLeod, P. Eng.
UMA Inc.
Edmonton, AB. T5S 1G3
jmcleod@umagroup.com
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6
Chapter
C H A P T E R 6 – R A I L W A Y T R A C K D E S I G N
Railway Track Design

Basic considerations and guidelines to be used in the establishment
of railway horizontal and vertical alignments.
T he route upon which a train travels and the track is constructed is defined as an
alignment. An alignment is defined in two fashions. First, the horizontal
alignment defines physically where the route or track goes (mathematically the
XY plane). The second component is a vertical alignment, which defines the elevation,
rise and fall (the Z component).
Alignment considerations weigh more heavily on railway design versus highway design
for several reasons. First, unlike most other transportation modes, the operator of a
train has no control over horizontal movements (i.e. steering). The guidance
mechanism for railway vehicles is defined almost exclusively by track location and thus
the track alignment. The operator only has direct control over longitudinal aspects of
train movement over an alignment defined by the track, such as speed and
forward/reverse direction. Secondly, the relative power available for locomotion
relative to the mass to be moved is significantly less than for other forms of
transportation, such as air or highway vehicles. (See Table 6-1) Finally, the physical
dimension of the vehicular unit (the train) is extremely long and thin, sometimes
approaching two miles in length. This compares, for example, with a barge tow, which
may encompass 2-3 full trains, but may only be 1200 feet in length.
These factors result in much more limited constraints to the designer when considering
alignments of small terminal and yard facilities as well as new routes between distant
locations.
The designer MUST take into account the type of train traffic (freight, passenger, light
rail, length, etc.), volume of traffic (number of vehicles per day, week, year, life cycle)
and speed when establishing alignments. The design criteria for a new coal route
across the prairie handling 15,000 ton coal trains a mile and a half long ten times per
day will be significantly different than the extension of a light rail (trolley) line in
downtown San Francisco.
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Carrier Horsepower Horsepower "Typical"

per per Average
Net Ton Passenger Horsepower/Net Ton
Railways-freight 3.15 – 1.00 2.64
Railways-passenger 31.5 – 5.0 5.00
Highway trucks and 11.33 – 2.13 7.00
semi-trailers
Passenger 60.0 – 6.0 15.00
automobiles
River tows 0.20 – 0.14 0.18
Bulk-cargo ships 0.35 – 0.22 0.25
Airplanes-freight 667 – 240 500
Airplanes-passenger 230 – 140 160
Pipelines 2.00 – 3.00 2.50
Conveyors 10.00 – 20.00 15.00
Aerial tramways 0.20 – 2.00 1.50
(cableways)
Table 6-1 Typical Horsepower-per-net-ton Ratio
6.1 Stationing
Points along an alignment are usually defined by miles, stationing or both. The latter is
customary with railway routes throughout North America. Within yards, terminals,
and sidings, the miles (termed ‘mileposts’ or ‘mile boards’) are dropped due to the
relative close proximity of the tracks to a common point. Stationing (also termed
‘chaining’) is merely the sequential numbering of feet from a beginning point to an
ending point. A single station is 100 feet long in US units or 1000 meters in metric
units. A point one mile from a beginning station of 0+00 would then be denoted
station 52+80 (or 52.8). In metric, that same point would be 1+600.
At the time of construction, all alignments had stationing. Most items along an
alignment can be located by stations. This is the primary system used for locations
within many engineering records. However, if an alignment has been in place for any
long period of time, such as most North American railways, it likely has been changed
or relocated since its original construction. These changes usually introduce what is
termed a station equation, which is required because the relative length of the
alignment has been changed with the alteration. Other causes for a station equation
(but certainly not all grounds) include the combination of two separate routes, lost
records, or an extended period of time between the stages of construction for the
overall alignment.
Mileposts are more commonly used by operating departments for location

identification. Though less precise, they are more easily identified and they are
referenced along the right-of-way with signs. Bridges are normally identified by
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mileposts, though they also have stationing associated with them. Likewise, it is not
uncommon for mileposts to have stationing shown in railway records.
Both the use of mileposts and stationing for the reference of existing railway features
are not without pitfalls. This is of concern to the designer when contemplating work
along an existing track. The direction of increasing stationing and increasing mileposts
may not be the same. There is no guarantee that the records maintained by a railway
are correct, or have the most current information (this is more often the case). It is not
unheard of for a railway to have re-stationed a line, or even given new mileposts.
There are lines on which this has occurred at least two or three times since
construction. Though the stationing and mileposts may have changed on the
alignment records, many old right-of-way instruments, bridge plans and other
information may still reference what was there and not what is there today.
The use of milepost information is particularly hazardous for several reasons. First, the
initial stationing over 100 years ago to establish mileposts was not always significantly
accurate. The actual length between mileposts may vary by thousands of feet, though
most are reasonably close (less than 100-200 feet). Adding further variance to the
length was the common railway practice to place the milepost marker on the nearest
telegraph pole rather than on a dedicated signpost. As the poles were moved, replaced
and changed, the sign moved with them. Signs were lost and replaced, but probably
not relocated with any great precision.
Stationing to the mileposts, along with other items which have a tendency to be
somewhat transient over the long term, including grade crossings, turnouts, rail rests,
etc., should always be subject to much scrutiny before being used as a basis for design.
The designer should always establish existing stationing from some item, which has not
moved in some time, preferable the abutment of an older structure or culvert, or best
of all, a defined right-of-way corner or marker. Though the milepost location and
terminology will not generally change as a result of re-establishing its true location, it
will provide a frame of reference for the location of new facilities.
6.2 Horizontal Alignments

Nearly any alignment can be physically defined with variances of two components:
tangents and curves. Horizontal alignments of existing and proposed railway tracks
generally are given the highest interest as their location seem to be the easiest to grasp
when reviewing the location of facilities relative to one another.
A tangent is simply a straight line between two points. Tangents are usually denoted
with bearings (N 3°23’59” E for instance). However, it must be noted that without an
accompanying starting point and length associated with that bearing (and thus
establishing the location of the second point), there is no way to definitively establish
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the tangent’s location in space. Other points along a given tangent can be defined in
this manner. Tangents, because they are the most defining parts of alignments and are
usually the components used in the establishment of such, should be considered the
highest order component. Curves as discussed below, which effectively connect these
tangents, are second order as they are fundamentally defined by the location of
tangents and can be easily changed without relative wholesale shifts in physical
alignment location.
Where an existing tangent must be established and where two points are not easily
defined or known, obtain at least three points, which are believed to be along this line.
Because a tangent can be defined by only two points, two points located along a curve
can define a tangent. It is only through working from at least three points and
comparing the bearings established relative to each other, that a true tangent can be
established. Though the difference in bearing between three points on a tangent
should be zero, the precision afforded by surveying equipment and construction
methods is generally less than that calculated from data obtained, particularly when the
person performing the calculation has no appreciation for significant digits. Most
means for performing linear regression on a set of data points for the purpose of
establishing tangents have no allowance for this situation.
Therefore, it must be understood when reviewing the data collected between points,
there is a margin within which any three points can be assumed to be tangent. This
margin is based upon the judgment of the designer and takes into consideration the
relative condition of the existing item upon which the tangent is to be defined, the level
of accuracy required, and the overall margin of error, which limits the functionality of
the facility.
An alignment comprised of more than one tangent will generally include a set of points
known as Points of Intersection, or ‘PI’s.’ The defining points of each tangent are
shared with those two tangents to which are immediately adjacent to it. As these
points define the tangents, as well as any points, which may have defined the location
of the connecting tangents, they should be considered the cardinal points of the
alignment. Though second order points, such as Points of Curve (PC’s) and points
along curves, can be defining, it is the existence of the PI, which must exist for a curve
to exist. It is the PI that will remain constant between two tangents despite what
changes are made to the curvature itself.
Curves are alignment elements allowing for easy transition between two tangents.
Horizontal curves are considered circular though they are actually arcs, which represent
only a portion of a complete circle. All curves can be defined by two aspects. The
angle of deflection (I) is defined at the Point of Intersection (PI) by the difference in
bearing between the two tangents. This aspect is fixed by the tangents. With I, the
curve may be defined by any of the other following aspects (See Figure 6-2).
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Curves are general specified

in one of two ways, by
Degree of Curve or by
Radius R. Degree of curve
can be defined in two ways.
The chord definition (Dc) is
defined as the angle
subtended per 100-foot
chord. The arc definition (D)
is defined as the angle
subtended per 100-foot arc.
(See Figure 6-3) In either
case, the severity or sharpness
of the curve is specified as Figure 6-2 Point of Intersection (PI)
the degree of curve, with
larger numbers representing tighter (smaller radius) curves. Though the differences
between the chord definition and arc definition are slight at smaller degrees of
curvature, the difference gets progressively larger as the curves get tighter (See Figure
6-4). Furthermore, chord defined curves are stationed about the chords subtended,
while arc defined curves are stationed about the actual path of the curve (or arc).
Again, the differences are slight at small degrees of curvature, but increase, as the
curves get sharper. The stationing difference is further magnified by the length of
curve.
Figure 6-3 Degree of Curve by Chord & Arc Definition
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Figure 6-4 Chord Length vs. Arc Length for Degree of Curve
North American freight railways use the chord-defined curve exclusively. This is in
contrast to highway design, some light rail systems and nearly all other alignments
historically and currently being designed with arc defined curves. Though the
individual differences between chord and arc defined curves may be considered slight
for specific curves, this difference can be magnified considerably on longer alignments
with moderate amounts of curvature.
Though a curve denoted by a degree of curve

is easily recognized and accepted by most Degree Radius Rc
engineers as establishing a certain severity of of Curve
curvature, the relationship between two curves 10 5729.65
with different degrees of curvature is not as 20 2864.93
widely comprehended. It must be 30 1910.08
understood, that the radius of a six-degree 40 1432.69
curve is not exactly half of that of a three- 50 1146.28
degree curve. Due to the sinusoidal nature of 100 573.69
150 383.07
the formulae, which produce the degrees of
curve nomenclature, the relative differences in
radii are more logarithmic. For example, the
radius for a two-degree curve is 2864.93 feet
Figure 6-5 Degree of Curve to Radius Relationship
and 2292.01 feet for a two-and-a-half-degree
curve. This compares with 478.34 feet and
459.28 feet for twelve and twelve-and-a-half-
degree curves respectively.
There have been some alignments established about the turn of the 20th century in
mountainous areas along the west coast, which used curves defined by the angle
subtended by a 50-foot chord. It is not known if or how many of these alignments and
records may still exist today. There has been some reference made to defining metric
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curves as D (degrees per 20 meter arc). However, there does not seem to be any
widespread incorporation of this practice. When working with light rail or in metric
units, current practice employs curves defined by radius.
As a vehicle traverses a curve, the vehicle transmits a centrifugal force to the rail at the
point of wheel contact. This force is a function of the severity of the curve, speed of
the vehicle and the mass (weight) of the vehicle. This force acts at the center of gravity
of the rail vehicle. This force is resisted by the track. If the vehicle is traveling fast
enough, it may derail due to rail rollover, the car rolling over or simply derailing from
the combined transverse force exceeding the limit allowed by rail-flange contact.
This centrifugal force can be

counteracted by the application of
superelevation (or banking), which
effectively raises the outside rail in the
curve by rotating the track structure
about the inside rail. (See Figure 6-6)
The point, at which this elevation of the
outer rail relative to the inner rail is such
that the weight is again equally
distributed on both rails, is considered
the equilibrium elevation. Track is
rarely superelevated to the equilibrium
elevation. The difference between the
equilibrium elevation and the actual
superelevation is termed underbalance.
Though trains rarely overturn strictly

from centrifugal force from speed
Figure 6-6 Effects of Centrifugal Force
(they usually derail first). This same
logic can be used to derive the overturning speed. Conventional wisdom dictates that
the rail vehicle is generally considered stable if the resultant of forces falls within the
middle third of the track. This equates to the middle 20 inches for standard gauge
track assuming that the wheel load upon the rail head is approximately 60-inches apart.
As this resultant force begins to fall outside the two rails, the vehicle will begin to tip
and eventually overturn. It should be noted that this overturning speed would vary
depending upon where the center of gravity of the vehicle is assumed to be.
There are several factors, which are considered in establishing the elevation for a curve.
The limit established by many railways is between five and six-inches for freight
operation and most passenger tracks. There is also a limit imposed by the Federal
Railroad Administration (FRA) in the amount of underbalance employed, which is
generally three inches for freight equipment and most passenger equipment.
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Underbalance limits
above three to four OVERBALANCE EQUILIBRIUM UNDERBALANCE
inches (to as much as five

or six inches upon FRA Center of
Gravity
Centrifugal
Force Center of
Gravity
Centrifugal
Force
Center of
Gravity
Centrifugal
Force
approval of a waiver
request) for specific
passenger equipment may Gravity
Resultant
Gravity
Resultant
be granted after testing is

Gravity Resultant
conducted. Superelevation Superelevation Superelevation
Ea + 3
Track is rarely elevated to Vmax = Amount of
equilibrium elevation 0.0007 D Underbalance
V max = Maximum allowable operating speed (mph).
because not all trains will
Ea = Average elevation of the outside rail (inches).
be moving at equilibrium
D = Degree of curvature (degrees).
speed through the curve.
Furthermore, to reduce Figure 6-7 Overbalance, Equilibrium and Underbalanced
both the maximum
allowable superelevation along with a reduction of underbalance provides a margin for
maintenance. Superelevation should be applied in 1/4-inch increments in most
situations. In some situations, increments may be reduced to 1/8 inch if it can be
determined that construction and maintenance equipment can establish and maintain
such a tolerance. Even if it is determined that no superelevation is required for a curve,
it is generally accepted practice to superelevate all curves a minimum amount (1/2 to
3/4 of an inch). Each railway will have its own standards for superelevation and
underbalance, which should be used unless directed otherwise.
The transition from level track on tangents to curves can be accomplished in two ways.
For low speed tracks with minimum superelevation, which is commonly found in yards
and industry tracks, the superelevation is run-out before and after the curve, or through
the beginning of the curve if space prevents the latter. A commonly used value for this
run-out is 31-feet per half inch of superelevation.
On main tracks, it is preferred to establish the transition from tangent level track and
curved superelevated track by the use of a spiral or easement curve. A spiral is a curve
whose degree of curve varies exponentially from infinity (tangent) to the degree of the
body curve. The spiral completes two functions, including the gradual introduction of
superelevation as well as guiding the railway vehicle from tangent track to curved track.
Without it, there would be very high lateral dynamic load acting on the first portion of
the curve and the first portion of tangent past the curve due to the sudden introduction
and removal of centrifugal forces associated with the body curve.
There are several different types of mathematical spirals available for use, including the
clothoid, the cubic parabola and the lemniscate. Of more common use on railways are
the Searles, the Talbot and the AREMA 10-Chord spirals, which are empirical
approximations of true spirals. Though all have been applied to railway applications to
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some degree over the past 200 years, it is the AREMA 10-Chord spiral, which gained
acceptance in the early part of the 20th century. The difference in results between the
AREMA 10-chord spiral and a cubic parabola upon which it was based are negligible
for ∆’s less than 15°, which is sufficient for all situations except some tight light rail
curves.
Spirals are defined by length in increments of ten-feet. There are two criteria generally
used for the establishment of spiral length. The first is the rotational acceleration of
the railway vehicle about its longitudinal axis. The second is the limiting value of twist
along the car body. The rotational acceleration criteria will generally only apply at
higher speeds. In the event that the rotational acceleration dictates a spiral, which is
too long for the location desired, the shorter car body twist value can be used. Though
AREMA has long established values for spiral lengths based upon these criteria, many
railways use other criteria.
Referencing Section 3.1.1 of the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering, the
recommended formula for the minimum length of the spiral is:
L(min) = 1.63(Eu)V
Where L(min) = desirable length of the spiral in feet

Eu = unbalanced superelevation in inches
V = maximum train speed in miles per hour
For specialty passenger equipment equipped with car-body roll mechanics with respect
to the track, AREMA recommends the following formula for length of spiral.
L(min) = 62 Ea

Ea = actual elevation in inches
In locations where obstructions make it impossible to provide a spiral of desired length

or where the cost of realignment would be prohibitive, the short spiral as defined by:
L(min) = 1.22 Eu V may be used.

Eu = unbalanced elevation in inches
V = maximum train speed in miles per hour
The Transportation Research Board (TRB) recommends an additional formula for

spiral length for light rail vehicles:
L(min) = 1.13 EaV in addition to the AREMA formulae

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Eu = unbalanced elevation in inches
V = maximum vehicle speed in miles per hour
Spiral curves can be staked out by using either the deflection angle method or by using
offsets from the tangent. The following procedures are provided from the AREMA
Manual for Railway Engineering, Sections 3.1.3 through 3.1.7.
Notations for Spiral Curve

D = degree of circular curve
d = degree of curvature of the spiral at any point
l = length from the T.S. or S.T., to any point on the spiral having coordinates x and y
s = length l in 100-foot stations
L = total length of spiral
S = length L in 100-foot stations
δ = central angle of the spiral from the T.S. or S.T. to any point on the spiral
∆ = central angle of the whole spiral
a = deflection angle from the tangent at the T.S. or S.T. to any point on the spiral
b = orientation angle from the tangent at any point on the spiral to the T.S. or S.T.
A = total spiral deflection angle
B = total orientation angle of the spiral
Xo = coordinate of designated location of tangent offset o
X, Y = coordinates of S.C. or C.S. from T.S. or S.T.
k = increase in degree of curvature per 100-foot station along the spiral
o = tangent offset distance from tangent to simple curve extended
t = tangent distance from T.S. to S.C. or C.S. to S.T.
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Figure 6-8 Spiral Components – AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering, Chapter 5
Formulae for Spiral Elements

d = ks = kl/100; D = kS = kL/100
δ = (½)ks2 = dl/200; ∆ = (½)kS2 = DL/200
a = (1/3)δ = (1/6)ks2; A = (1/3)∆ = (1/6)kS2
b = (2/3)δ; B = (2/3)∆
y = 0.582δs - 0.00001264δ3 s
x = 1-0.003048δ2s
o = 0.1454∆ S
Xo = (½)L - 0.000508∆ 2 S
X = 100S – 0.000762K2S5
Y = 0.291KS3 – 0.00000158K3S7
t = 100S/2 – 0.000127k2S5
Ts = (R + o) tan (I/2) + Xo
Es = (R + o)exsec (I/2) + o
Staking Spirals by Deflections
From (o - Xo), Ts, the T.S. and S.T. may be located from the PI.of the curve shown
above. Determining the Es is useful in adjusting the degree D of the circular curve if it
is desired to limit the throw of the center of the curve, or balance the throw of the
existing track.
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The entire spiral may then be run from the T.S. or S.T., after determining the
deflection angle "a" from the tangent to any point on the spiral.
Deflection angles with the transit at any point on the spiral other than the T.S. may be
determined from the principle that the spiral at the transit point deflects from a circular
curve having the same degree as the spiral at that point at the same rate as it does from
the tangent at the T.S. To continue the spiral from any intermediate transit point, the
transit is backsighted on the T.S. with an angle set off equal to twice the deflection
angle from the T.S. to the transit point. The transit will then read zero along the
tangent to the spiral at that point. For any succeeding spiral point, the deflection angle
for a circular curve, having the same degree as the spiral at the transit point and a
length equal to the distance from the transit to the spiral point, is then calculated. To
this, the deflection angle is added for the same length of spiral, but calculated, as it
would be from the T.S.
To locate the spiral with the transit at the S.C. or C.S., the deflection angles, to set
points on the spiral, are equal to the deflection angles for the corresponding points on
the circular curve (extended), less the deflection angles of the spiral from the circular
curve. The deflection angles of the spiral from the circular curve are the same as for
the corresponding lengths of the spiral from the T.S.
In staking by deflection, it is sometimes convenient to divide the spiral into a number

of equal chords. The first or initial deflection (a1) may be calculated for the first chord
point. The deflections for the following chord points are a1 times the chord number
squared. Examples of the method of staking spirals by the deflection method may be
found in the Appendix.
Staking Spirals by Offsets

The spiral may be staked to the midpoint by right-angle offsets from the tangent and
from there to the normal offsets from the circular curve (between the offset T.C. and
the S.C.). The offset at midpoint 1/2 o and the other offsets vary as the cubes of the
distances from the T.S. or the S.C. The method of staking a spiral by offsets is
illustrated in the Appendix.
Applying the Spiral to Compound Curves (AREMA 1965)

In applying a spiral between two circular curves of a compound curve, the length of
spiral is determined from the speed of operation and the difference in elevation of the
two circular curves. The spiral offset “o” may be found from the formula given, using
a value of D equal to the difference in the degrees of curvature of the two circular
curves. The spiral extends for one-half its length on each side of the offset point of
compound curvature. The spiral deflects from the inside of the flatter curve and from
the outside of the sharper curve at the same rate as it would from the tangent. The
spiral may be staked by deflection angles from either end. If the transit is located at the
spiral point on the flatter curve, reading zero when sighting along the tangent to the
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circular curve, the deflection angles to set points on the spiral are equal to the
deflection angles for corresponding points on the circular curve (extended), plus the
deflection angles of the spiral. If the transit is set at the spiral point on the sharper
curve, the deflection angles are equal to the deflection angles for that circular curve
(extended) minus the deflection angles for the spiral.
As an alternative, the spiral can be staked out by offsets from the two circular curves.
The offset at the middle point of the spiral equals 1/2 o, and the other offsets vary as
the cubes of the distances from the ends of the spiral. Examples of applying a spiral to
compound curves may be found in the Appendix.
6.3 Vertical Alignments

Vertical alignments are generally less complex than horizontal alignments. As such, it
would seem that they are often overlooked during the early part of many design
processes resulting in unnecessary re-design of horizontal alignments late in the design
phase or settling for less than optimal vertical designs. The grades, which must be
traversed by rail vehicles, are generally much more limiting than highway vehicles, due
to both the limited amount of friction available at the interface of the steel wheel and
the steel rail, as well as the substantially smaller power to weight ratio of rail vehicles.
Vertical alignments are comprised of the same two components as horizontal
alignments (tangents and curves), but with some differences in composition and
terminology.
Vertical tangents, commonly referred to as grades, are straight lines effectively plotted
in the Z-plane or vertically. These tangents are classified by the grade or incline. The
grade is measured in the amount of rise or fall over a distance and is expressed in terms
of percent. For example, a grade, which rises 1.5 feet in 100 feet traveled, is referred to
as 1.5%. If the grade drops 1 foot over 200 feet, the grade is termed –0.5%. Note that
the relative positive or negative is determined by the net gain or loss of elevation in the
direction of increasing station. The concepts pertaining to two points defining a line,
three points for establishing an existing tangent and two tangents meeting at a PI are
identical in concept. Only the terminology is different.
Like horizontal tangents, vertical tangents are generally connected via curves. Unlike
horizontal alignments, vertical curves are almost always parabolic in nature rather than
circular.
Vertical curves are specified in length and denoted as the total grade change divided by
the length of vertical curve. This ratio is denoted as ‘R’. This is effectively the inverse
of ‘K’, which is employed by highway designers for which the values are length of
curve per percent grade change.
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The application of vertical curves through the specification of R is highly

misunderstood. AREMA had long specified in the Manual for Railway Engineering
that acceptable values of R should be 0.05 units for sags (valleys) and 0.10 for summits
(hills) for main lines, and twice the preceding values for secondary and branch lines.
These criteria actually date back some 140 years earlier and were apparently established
around the Civil War by Wellington, a very respected engineer whose guidance on
railway route design is still held in high regard today. Modern freight railways still use
criteria based upon this guidance with the exception of yard and industry tracks where
the values are much higher.
L = Length of vertical curve in 100-ft stations

R = Rate of change of grade per station
D = Algebraic difference of rates of grade
M = Offset in elevation at B
L = D/R
When vertical curve is concave downwards M = (Elev B x 2) - (Elev A + Elev B)

4
When vertical curve is concave upwards M = (Elev A+ Elev C) - (Elev B x 2)
4
The offset for any other point on a vertical curve is proportional to the square of its
distance from A or C to B.
Offsets are - when the vertical curve is concave downwards and + when the vertical
curve is concave upwards.
The criticism of this criteria is two-fold. First, the result is generally long vertical
curves, which are disproportionate to others used in similar applications such as
highways. The second is the opinion of many who believe that the establishment of
vertical curve length should be partially based upon vehicular speed and thus vertical
acceleration, alas again similar to highway design.
Recently, AREMA adopted new criteria similar to that being employed by light rail
designers, and some other passenger rail companies have departed from the prior
AREMA guidance. The new procedure solves for the length by:
D ×V 2 × K
L=
A
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where: A = vertical acceleration in ft/sec2

D = absolute value of the difference in rates of grades expressed as a
decimal
K = 2.15 conversion factor to give L in feet
L = length of vertical curve in feet
V = Speed of the train in miles per hour
AREMA recommends a value of 0.10 and 0.60 for freight and passenger operations
respectively for both sag and summit curves. Specific railways or passenger rail
agencies may use different values for A which should be established prior to design.
The new criteria will produce shorter vertical curves for most freight situations. The
designer should be cautioned that where the older non-speed-based criteria has been
applied, there are not any general restrictions for the locations of any single vertical
curve relative to others or horizontal geometry. However, AREMA specifically
recommends against placing vertical curves designed with the new criteria within the
limits of horizontal spiral elements or within 100 feet of adjacent vertical curves.
Some passenger rail organizations incorporate a formula for the calculation of vertical
curve lengths, which is similar to the highway definition using ‘K.’ An example of this
formulation is as follows:
Crests LVC = 250 (A)
Sags LVC = 500 (A)
Where LVC = length of vertical curve in feet

A = |(G2 – G1)| = algebraic difference in gradients connected by the vertical
curve in percent
G1 = percent grade of approaching tangent
G2 = percent grade of departing tangent
Generally these values may or may not yield similar results to the new AREMA
methodology.
In applying either vertical curve criteria, the designer can generate a calculation for the
required vertical curve length to the decimals of a foot. In practice, the designer should
round the calculated value up to at least the nearest ten feet (e.g., 537.51 ft becomes
540 ft). Likewise, some railways have limits on the minimum length of vertical curves.
For example, the designer must be cognizant of 50 or 100 feet.
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6.4 Alignment Design

In a perfect world, all railway alignments would be tangent and flat, thus providing for
the most economical operations and the least amount of maintenance. Though this is
never the set of circumstances from which the designer will work, it is that ideal that
he/she must be cognizant to optimize any design.
From the macro perspective, there has been for over 150 years, the classic railway
location problem where a route between two points must be constructed. One option
is to construct a shorter route with steep grades. The second option is to build a longer
route with greater curvature along gentle sloping topography. The challenge is for the
designer to choose the better route based upon overall construction, operational and
maintenance criteria. Such an example is shown below.
Figure 6-9 Heavy Curvature on the Santa Fe - Railway Technical Manual – Courtesy of BNSF
Suffice it to say that in today’s environment, the designer must also add to the decision
model environmental concerns, politics, land use issues, economics, long-term traffic
levels and other economic criteria far beyond what has traditionally been considered.
These added considerations are well beyond what is normally the designer’s task of
alignment design, but they all affect it. The designer will have to work with these issues
occasionally, dependent upon the size and scope of the project.
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On a more discrete level, the designer must take the basic components of alignments,
tangents, grades, horizontal and vertical curves, spirals and superelevation and
construct an alignment, which is cost effective to construct, easy to maintain, efficient
and safe to operate. There have been a number of guidelines, which have been
developed over the past 175 years, which take the foregoing into account. The
application of these guidelines will suffice for approximately 75% of most design
situations. For the remaining situations, the designer must take into account how the
track is going to be used (train type, speed, frequency, length, etc.) and drawing upon
experience and judgment, must make an educated decision. The decision must be in
concurrence with that of the eventual owner or operator of the track as to how to
produce the alignment with the release of at least one of the restraining guidelines.
Though AREMA has some general guidance for alignment design, each railway usually
has its own design guidelines, which complement and expand the AREMA
recommendations. Sometimes, a less restrictive guideline from another entity can be
employed to solve the design problem. Other times, a specific project constraint can
be changed to allow for the exception. Other times, it’s more complicated, and the
designer must understand how a train is going to perform to be able to make an
educated decision. The following are brief discussions of some of the concepts which
must be considered when evaluating how the most common guidelines were
established.
A freight train is most

commonly comprised of
power and cars. The
power may be one or
several locomotives
located at the front of a
train. The cars are then
located in a line behind
the power. Occasionally,
additional power is placed
at the rear, or even in the
center of the train and
may be operated remotely
from the head-end. The
train can be effectively
visualized for this Figure 6-10 Automatic Coupler
discussion as a chain lying
on a table. We will assume for the sake of simplicity that the power is all at one end of
the chain.
Trains, and in this example the chain, will always have longitudinal forces acting along
their length as the train speeds up or down, as well as reacting to changes in grade and
curvature. It is not unusual for a train to be in compression over part of its length
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(negative longitudinal force) and in tension (positive) on another portion. These forces
are often termed ‘buff’ (negative) and ‘draft’ (positive) forces. Trains are most often
connected together with couplers (Figure 6-10). The mechanical connections of most
couplers in North America have several inches (up to six or eight in some cases) of
play between pulling and pushing. This is termed slack.
If one considers that a long train of 100 cars may be 6000' long, and that each car
might account for six inches of slack, it becomes mathematically possible for a
locomotive and the front end of a train to move fifty feet before the rear end moves at
all. As a result, the dynamic portion of the buff and draft forces can become quite
large if the operation of the train, or more importantly to the designer, the geometry of
the alignment contribute significantly to the longitudinal forces.
As the train moves or

accelerates, the chain is pulled
from one end. The force at
any point in the chain (Figure
6-11) is simply the force
being applied to the front end
of the chain minus the
frictional resistance of the
chain sliding on the table
from the head end to the Figure 6-11 Force Applied Throughout the Train - ATSF Railroad Technical
Manual - Courtesy of BNSF
point under consideration.
As the chain is pulled in a straight line, the remainder of the chain follows an identical
path. However, as the chain is pulled around a corner, the middle portion of the chain
wants to deviate from the initial path of the front-end. On a train, there are three
things preventing this from occurring. First, the centrifugal force, as the rail car moves
about the curve, tends to push the car away from the inside of the curve. When this
fails, the wheel treads are both canted inward to encourage the vehicle to maintain the
course of the track. The last resort is the action of the wheel flange striking the rail and
guiding the wheel back on course.
Attempting to push the chain causes a different situation. A gentle nudge on a short
chain will generally allow for some movement along a line. However, as more force is
applied and the chain becomes longer, the chain wants to buckle in much the same way
an overloaded, un-braced column would buckle (See Figure 6-12). The same theories
that Euler applied to column buckling theory can be conceptually applied to a train
under heavy buff forces. Again, the only resistance to the buckling force becomes the
wheel/rail interface.
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With this chain example, it becomes apparent that the greater

number of curves which must be traversed by a single train, the
more the train wants to deviate from its proposed route. It is thus
important to conclude that one long curve is better than several
smaller curves with collectively the same total defection. The
physical act of bending the train, straightening the train, bending
the train and straightening the train exerts more force (i.e. wear and
maintenance) on the track structure trying to guide the rail vehicle.
If the rail structure happens to vary from a perfectly maintained
condition and/or a car of similar maintenance condition happens
to pass over the same point, the likelihood for a derailment is
increased. It is also less comfortable for passengers.
This reduction in the individual number of curves should be

Figure 6-12 Euler's
applied to vertical curves as well. (See Figure 6-13) Draft and buff Critical Buckling
forces can vary greatly over the length of a train as a result of grades. Theory
As a train travels the length of an alignment, the forces produced by
a given length of train on a given severity of grade is constantly changing. It is far
easier for an engineer to compensate for long steady grades than to constantly have to
adjust brakes and throttle positions to keep consistent speeds over a rolling terrain.
Though compound
curves are not
uncommon with
railway alignments,
reversing curves should
be avoided at all costs.
With reverse curves,
there are two dynamic
components acting on
a single car or rail
vehicle causing a
yawing effect, which is
of concern. The first Figure 6-13 Vertical Curve Induced Buff and Draft Forces - ATSF Railroad Technical
uses the chain example. Manual - Courtesy of BNSF
Each railway car
represents one link in the chain. One end of the chain has lateral forces applied to it in
one direction from the draft or buff forces in addition to the centrifugal forces. The
other end of the car has similar forces applied, but in the opposite direction (See Figure
6-14). The net effect is a couple about the center of the car. This compares to a car on
a single curve where the forces at either end of the car are acting in the same direction
and thus counter-acting one another. This couple effect greatly increases the likelihood
of the train buckling and thus a derailment.
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Secondly, as the rail vehicle

leaves the first curve, the
guiding effect of the track is
acting to counter the
centrifugal force until such
time that the first truck exits
the curve. The rotational
momentum about the vertical
axis of the car will generally
force the restraining effect Figure 6-14 Angle of Attack Leading Wheels Entering a Curve - ATSF Railroad
from the outside rail to the Technical Manual - Courtesy of BNSF
inside rail immediately after
exiting the curve. To have a second reversing curve will cause a sudden and abrupt
force acting to change the rotation of the car the other direction. This sudden
reversing of direction causes excessive horizontal forces across the rail at the wheel/rail
interface, which can be a derailment hazard.
There is also a practical limit between the translations of coupler faces of adjoining
cars. A railway car traversing one curve will have the coupler faces at the extreme end
of the car translate to the outside of the first curve. This outside of the first curve
translates to the inside of the second curve. The adjoining car translating the second
curve will shift the coupler face to the outside of the second curve, which is opposite
the first. There is a practical limit, based upon the individual car design of each car
(which may not be the same for each car), which may result in the forcing of one of the
two cars off the track if the curvature is too sharp.
To alleviate this yawing effect, all reversing curves should be separated by a tangent
between the curves, though the exact length required will depend upon a number of
factors. The AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering provides recommendations for
yard tracks only, strongly recommending at least one car length worth of distance
between reversing curves. However, there are some provisions for much smaller
tangents, or even none between lesser curves in tight, light-use yard tracks. Railways
themselves generally have their own criteria, most insisting on at least one car length
regardless of the constraints. In the event that reversing curves cannot be avoided,
there should be no superelevation applied to the track (0” cross-level) for at least one
car length on either side of the point of reverse curvature (PRC).
Tangent length between reversing curves on lines outside of yards and terminals is
generally much longer. For freight, each railway has its own requirements, generally
being 150 to 300 feet depending upon track speed and conditions. This allows for the
subtle instabilities of a railway car exiting a curve onto a tangent to stabilize before
introducing forces to cause it to move in the opposite direction. For passenger traffic,
the generally accepted criteria is a tangent in length representing two seconds of travel
time (some agencies prefer three seconds). This criterion is generally based on
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passenger comfort, and may be extended for locations where two seconds of travel
would equate to less than a single car length.
Light rail limitations for reversing curves are similar to heavy rail, with the resulting
constraints having the same root causes. Because the trains are shorter, and the track
can be designed for specific rail vehicles, specific criteria for tangent lengths between
curves can be more generally defined.
The Transportation Research Board (TRB) Track Design Handbook for Light
Rail Transit recommends a desired tangent length between curves of 300 feet,
with an absolute minimum of 100 feet. For lead tracks and industrial spurs, a
minimum tangent distance of 50 feet should be provided between curve points.
All turnouts should be located on tangents.
Maximum allowable curvature can be defined by several factors. For mainlines, the
practical maximum train speed is generally limited by curvature. However, just because
a proposed route may be planned for train speeds of only 30 mph, does not necessarily
mean that all curves should be made as sharp as possible. Sharp curves result in more
maintenance and more operating expense. The designer must weigh the operating
conditions and physical conditions, such that both the amount of curvature and
severity do not present undue maintenance costs or operating restriction.
Other considerations must be given due thought during alignment development. The
use of large amounts of superelevation to allow for high speeds over moderate curves
where trains may be frequently stopped will also have an adverse effect. Consider a
main line with a timetable speed of 70 mph. However, there is a control point only
1,500 feet past a 1-degree, 45-minute curve. This curve placement causes two
concerns. First, there could be sight distance issues where the absolute signal is not
visible far enough in advance to be able to stop a train short of a red signal at timetable
speed. Second, assuming the railway incorporates one-inch of underbalance, the curve
would be superelevated five inches. This extreme crosslevel of the track is a significant
derailment risk if trains frequently stop at the absolute signal.
The location of grade crossings or railway crossing diamonds may also limit train
speed. A proposed grade crossing of a street with high superelevation may require
significant or unacceptable modifications to the vertical profile of the road. Crossing
diamonds frequently are restricted to trains speeds of 40 mph or less due to both safety
and maintenance considerations.
For standard gage track, the cant of the rail and the conical profile of the wheel tread
will generally guide the rail vehicle on curves up to three degrees before flange/rail
contact begins to regularly occur (thus significant curve wear of rail head begins).
Heavy haul North American freight railways frequently have curvature well in excess of
three degrees, and may be as much as ten to twelve degrees or more. In these tight
curvature situations, the physical obstacles to the alignment were apparently so costly
to remove, that the significant increase in maintenance costs and reduction in operating
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efficiency was accepted despite the application of high curvature. Generally speaking,
most North American freight railways prefer new lines constructed for moderate to
heavy use to incorporate curvature of six to seven-and-one-half degrees or less.
Curvature within yards, terminals and industry tracks is based more upon practical
limits and maintenance considerations. For freight railways, most equipment can
physically traverse curves of seventeen degrees or more, but there are frequently
restrictions upon train make-up that cannot always be accounted for and such extreme
curvatures are to be avoided.
The problem of extreme curvature can be manifested in one of three ways. There is a
practical limit to how much the railway trucks under the car body can swivel before
being restricted by physical features of car design (striker openings of the coupler
housing that keep the couplers in line to facilitate coupling). Often times, the car may
turn sharper, but critical components such as brake rigging are damaged even though
the car is not physically derailed.
The second limit has to do with the relative position of coupler faces at the extreme
ends of cars. As a car traverses a curve, the center of the car between the trucks
translates to the inside of the curve, while the extreme ends of the car and the couplers
translate to the outside of the curve. If the two cars coupled together are of the same
design, the limiting factor can be if the inside corners of the ends of the cars may meet,
or the coupler is twisted to the point of failure. A greater problem is a longer car
coupled to a shorter car (Figure 6-15). The coupler face of the longer car translates
farther off the centerline of track than the shorter one, physically pulling the shorter car
off the track. The shorter car is usually the one that derails first due to the mechanical
advantage of the longer distance from the end of the longer car to the truck center.
Figure 6-15 Long Car Coupled to a Short Car - Railroad Technical Manual - Courtesy of BNSF
Extreme curvature is also a problem resulting from the longitudinal forces in a train.
The buff and draft forces acting through the coupler faces of the individual cars on
curves will naturally result in a horizontal force component. As the curve radius
decreases, the horizontal component of this force becomes larger. As curves become
sharper and train forces become greater due to geometric, operational or train size
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factors, the likelihood of a derailment, at least partially resulting from increased

longitudinal forces, increases.
During the design process for yards, terminals or industrial tracks, the designer should
first consider the guidelines provided by the serving railway. These should be followed
closely for terminal and yard design, with design exceptions being identified early and
the variances minor.
For industrial track design, the designer must weigh all the constraints and the serving
railways track standards before exceeding any guidelines. In most cases, the serving
railway will have published guidelines limiting curvature on industrial tracks from 9°30‘
to 12°30’. Depending upon the situation, the servicing railway may or may not
approve curvature beyond these limits, but there will be an ultimate limit that they will
not serve despite the assertion that the railway equipment can physically traverse the
proposed alignment. Any exceptions will have to be approved prior to service by the
railway, so this approval should be granted prior to construction. It should be further
noted, that in those facilities which handle unit trains or other long cuts of cars, the
guidelines provided by the servicing railway are generally much more stringent.
Curvature limits for light rail traffic are much higher than for traditional heavy rail
equipment. Like heavy rail, main line curvature is generally limited by a combination of
superelevation practices and vehicular speed. However, on most light rail systems, all
the vehicles are the same or very similar. Sometimes, rail equipment is specifically
designed for the existing system’s track geometry. Because of this homogeneality of
equipment on independent systems, curvature limitations can be approached more
readily as the same limit applies to all equipment rather than a range of values found
with the vastly different equipment handled by heavy rail systems.
The generally accepted minimum radius is 500 feet for general main routes. This can be
reduced to as low as 115 feet for track embedded in pavement. Absolute minimums
are established by the equipment used and could be as low as 82 feet or less.
Because severe gradients along an alignment can affect the ultimate speed, fuel usage,
and power requirements, the gradients on new alignments are usually scrutinized more
closely than horizontal alignments. Railway gradients are generally much less severe
than roadways. Where a highway in mountainous areas may have grades of six or eight
percent, a railway grade may only be 1.5% or up to around two percent. For main line
route design, the concept of ruling grade must be defined. The ruling grade along an
alignment is the grade whose curvature severity and length combined is the defining
criteria for matching locomotive power to train tonnage. (See Chapter 2 – Industry
Overview) This grade may not be the steepest, or the longest. Shorter, steeper grades
are termed momentum grades. The severity of these grades are short enough that the
momentum of the train moving at track speed combined with the train’s maximum
power is able to ascend the grade at an acceptable speed.
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If the ruling grade becomes too severe, the railway may have what is termed a helper
district. This is a section of the alignment where additional locomotives are added to
the train (usually at the end, but occasionally at the front or in the middle) to assist the
train up (and sometimes down) the grade. These grades are usually in excess of two
percent and should be avoided due to the inefficiencies afforded the operation. In
most cases, North American freight railways will limit all new main line grades to under
one percent.
Grades for passenger equipment can generally be more severe because the equipment
is lighter relative to the power available to overcome the grade. However, the reason
that the power to weight ratio is less for passenger equipment is because the desired
speed is higher than with freight. The relationship between horsepower, which
provides speed, and tractive effort, which is needed for overcoming grades, is such that
a slight increase in gradient can result in a substantial loss in speed above 50 mph.
Steep grades on passenger routes should be limited to very short segments or
momentum grades, or in areas where train speed is already restricted due to curvature
or other constraints.
Light rail gradients are even more flexible, with main line grades of four percent
commonly ascended without loss in velocity. Short grades may be as high as seven
percent or more. However, the vehicle manufacturer and the light rail system criteria
define the maximum allowable gradient on any particular system.
Many designers have been taught to attempt to balance grading work during
construction. In practice, this has lead to railways constructed with undulating grades.
If these grades become significantly different, train handling becomes very difficult
because different portions of the train are constantly changing from a draft to buff and
back to draft condition. With extreme grade fluctuations, the train can actually break in
two from these undulations. Good design practice should allow for a single train to
never be on more than one increasing and decreasing grade at one time.
The actual operation of the track needs to be considered when establishing grades.
Control points on severe gradients are particularly problematic (Figure 6-16). A heavy
train descending a grade will often have difficulty stopping for an unexpected stop
signal. Likewise, ascending grades should be limited to 0.50% where heavy trains are to
start from a standing stop.
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Figure 6-16 Control Point on a Heavy Grade - ATSF Railroad Technical Manual - Courtesy of the BNSF
Grades in yards and industrial tracks can occasionally be steeper than those found on
main lines due to the limited speed and train length. Serving railways will provide what
they consider to be their maximum gradients for industrial and yard tracks (typically the
limits are between 1.5% and 3.0%, depending upon the carrier). Though it is
occasionally exceeded, three percent seems to be a practical maximum for most freight
terminals.
Design of railway grades must take into consideration what is happening with the
corresponding horizontal alignment. Train braking systems function through the use
of pressurized air. It is not the existence of pressurized air in the reservoir of a railway
car’s braking system, but the differential pressure created by the release of air from the
reservoir that actually produces the braking action. Without the hand brake set and
without air in the braking system, rail cars are free to roll.
This situation lends itself well to the switching and sorting of cars, such that cars can be
released (or kicked) and allowed to roll down particular tracks. At major classification
facilities, gravity or hump yards are used for the classification of cars. Freight cars are
sent over a hump and allowed to roll freely under the influence of gravity into
predetermined tracks shaped like a bowl, where they come to rest or are stopped by
cars already there. The rollability of cars allows for the classification of grades within
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yards as decelerating
less than 0.10%),
rolling (between
0.10% and 0.25%)
and accelerating
(greater than 0.25%).
See Figure 6-17.
Figure 6- 17 Yard Design Gradients
These concepts become important for not only rail yards, but also industrial tracks. In
spite of the fact that good operating practice dictates that cars left at an industry or
siding should have at least one hand brake set to prevent movement, the number of
cars which somehow wind up with the hand brake not set is of some concern. Tracks,
which are to have cars at rest for any length of time, should be relatively flat (<0.10%).
Yard tracks are also usually dished, such that the lowest point is on the yard tracks for
holding cars. Where the gradient for cars is such that cars will be sitting on a grade or
the siding is at an elevation greater than the lead track serving it, there must be some
other form of mechanical means, such as a derail, to prevent cars from inadvertently
rolling back into harms way.
Figure 6-18 Yard Recommended Gradients - Flat Yard for Single Direction Switching
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Segment A – Switching Lead or Drill Track: The gradient should be

relatively flat with 0.00% preferred.
Segment B & C – Ladder and Switch to the Clearance Point: Preferred

gradients range from -.20% to -.30%.
Segment D – Clearance Point to Clearance Point: Preferred gradient is

slightly descending from –0.10% to 0.00%.
Segment E, F, G and C – Leaving End of the Yard: Need 300 feet of 0.3%
gradient to prevent rollouts.
Grades and grade changes can have a significant effect on horizontal geometries. If the
grades over which the train is traveling are acting to complement the action of the train
by reducing longitudinal forces, then this situation may allow for more extreme
horizontal geometries. For example, consider two railway yards of similar construction
consisting of a yard lead and several tracks for the classification of cars. Against the
objections of the designer, the first yard was constructed on flat topography and was
configured such that the drilling operation took place on a long curve of 10°. At
roughly the same time, a yard of similar design was constructed ten miles away, and the
main lead was also constructed on nearly a 10° curve. However, the topography was
such that the lead and the first portion of the ladder track were constructed on a
–0.50% grade to prevent pull-aparts.
At the first yard, the constant daily drill operation of pulling cars out of the yard and
shoving cars back into the yard resulted in extreme rail wear on the 10° curve. The rail
was transposed at 10 months and replaced at 18 months with head hardened rail. The
operator hopes that a three-year life of the head-hardened rail might be realized. The
second yard, with a slightly larger amount of traffic, shows no significant rail section
loss.
The only significant difference between the two designs is the addition of a significant
gradient on the lead. The cars on the flat lead must be shoved with much greater force,
causing greater buff forces, which results in significant wear between the wheel flange
and the outside rail. At the second yard, once the cars are in motion, they stay in
motion not requiring the constant shoving and heavy draft forces. The lack of
additional lateral forces has resulted in rail wear that is considered normal.
Until the advent of the new AREMA vertical curve length recommendations, there
was no guidance, which specifically prevented the use of vertical curves in horizontal
curves or spiral. They also did not and do not have any criteria preventing the use of
reversing vertical curves. Nearly all freight railway companies are silent on this topic as
well. It can only be assumed that the silence on these issues is the result of not having
any need here-to-for. The increasing belief that the established railway vertical curve
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criteria resulted in curves which were too long may be correct, because the curves
produced are apparently gentle enough that the combination of the vertical acceleration
from the vertical curve combined with the horizontal accelerations resulting from
curves, and particularly spirals, has not yet produced a condition requiring industry
address.
One of the most dangerous conditions can occur at the bottom of a long grade or sag,
which is accompanied by a horizontal curve. As the train passes this point, the train
has the slack bunched towards the front of the train as a result of braking down the
hill. As the engineer applies power to ascend the next grade, the body of the train
shifts from bunched to a stretched condition. As this occurs along the horizontal
curve, the buff forces compound the centrifugal force, often resulting in derailment
from train buckling.
6.5 Turnouts
A railway turnout (sometimes referred to as a switch) is simply a device that splits one
track into two. Geometrically, a turnout is comprised of several key parts including a
switch, closure curve and a frog (See Chapter 3 – Basic Track). Though there have
been a number of turnout designs recently whose names describe the advanced
geometry incorporated throughout the turnout (e.g., tangential and secant geometry),
they all are comprised geometrically of these three basic components.
Regardless of design, basic

turnouts can be classified as
lateral, equilateral or curved.
The lateral turnout (Figure 6-
19) is by far the most
common and is generally
preferred for most
installations. It consists of a
divergent track being split
from a tangent piece of track.
An equilateral turnout
comprises two curves of
equal radii diverting in
opposite directions from a
Figure 6-19 Simple Lateral Turnout – Kevin Keith, Union Pacific Railroad
single tangent. In some
situations, the divergent
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angles of the two routes through the turnout may not be equal. This particular case is
termed a split-angle turnout. A turnout comprising a curve diverting from an existing
curve is known as a curved turnout.
A switch is a pair of rails (points), which pivot about the heel. When one or the other
point rails is placed against the stock rails, the train will take one route over another.
Some switch points are curved, but most are tangent. The location where the switch
point meets the stock rails is known as the point of switch. The angle at this point is
the switch angle. For straight points, this angle is fixed along the length of the points
and is defined by the heel block distance, switch point thickness and switch length.
Figure 6-20 Switch Angle by Definition
For curved points, the point of switch (PS) represents the PC of a curve. With the
exception of some advanced designs recently developed, there remains a slight angle
deflected between the stock rail and the PC or PS of the curved point.
The actual point of switch does not taper to a knifepoint without a measurable
thickness. Switch points of AREMA designs have a thickness of 1/4 inch, a machined
thickness of 1/8 inch, or are housed. The later switch design, commonly called
‘Samson points’ uses a switch point milled to 1/16-inch thick, which fits into a specially
milled stock rail. Each of these designs has a theoretical point located in advance of
the point of switch, which represents the point at which the switch point gauge line
projected would meet the gauge line of the stock rail. This theoretical point is of little
concern in most design considerations, but is occasionally referred to.
The frog is a track component that allows for the flange of a train wheel to cross over
another rail. Frogs are defined by a number, which represents the spread of the two
sides relative to length (Figure 6-21).
Though this frog number defines the turnout size, it is the frog angle, which is used by
designers in the establishment of divergent alignments. A common error for designers
is to assume that the divergent route of lateral turnouts diverts from the main
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alignment (the
straight side) at a rate
equal to the frog
number. This is
incorrect as this
number is based
upon the axial
distance with equal
divergence on either
side. This is different
than the relative
Figure 6-21 Defining Number of the Frog
divergence between
the two sides.
Like switches, theoretically the two routes through a frog can be extended to a
knifepoint. Such a thin point would have a relatively short life due to the limited
strength of the resultant thin piece of metal. Frog points are usually at least ½-inch
thick (some railways specify 5/8-inch) at the tip of the actual point. This ½-inch point,
known as the ‘actual point,’ is set back from the theoretical point a distance equal to the
length required to establish the ½-inch point from the theoretical point.
Projecting the centerline of the routes through each side of the frog to a point of
intersection is the PI of the turnout. This point, though not especially important in the
field construction of the turnout, is of primary importance to the designer as it defines
the original deflection point of the divergent route from the primary route.
The length between the point of switch and the actual point of frog is termed the
actual lead (lead length). Occasionally, the theoretical lead is designated; the difference
being the theoretical point of frog replaces the actual point. This lead, though fixed
through standards designs, can be extended or shortened to a limited degree to
accommodate convenient placement of joints, etc. (See Appendix B)
Connecting the alignment representing the divergent switch point and the divergent
movement through the frog is the closure curve. This curve generally starts at or just
past the heel blocks and ends just prior to the toe joint of the frog. The actual radius of
the closure curve can be changed outright or by adjusting the lead length.
Though turnouts are designated by their respective frog numbers (e.g., install a No. 10
right-hand turnout), there are any number of different specific designs for any specific
turnout size and weight of rail. The two primary points, which are universally the same
amount for any number of turnouts with the same frog designation, are the PF and the
PI. The remaining geometric differences are primarily related to the incorporation of
curved or straight points, point designs, frog joint locations and minor differences to
lead lengths and closure curve lengths. Yet with the exception of the PS, which is
defined by the actual lead length, these minor variations between different turnout
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designs are typically of little concern to overall alignment design as they represent fixed
properties isolated to a relatively small area at the beginning or end of a specific
alignment.
The true geometries associated within the length of a divergent path of a turnout are
complicated enough that several methods for their incorporation into alignment design
have been developed to aid the designer. The first method, occasionally known as the
‘PI method,’ requires the designer to locate the PI of the turnout, thus defining the PS.
The alignment chaining begins at the PS and follows the through portion of the
turnout to the PI, then deflects the frog angle to the divergent alignment.
The second method is the ‘equivalent curve’ and starts with the calculation of the
equivalent curve of the turnout. The equivalent curve of a turnout is simply a curve
defined with the deflection (I) equal to the frog angle and the tangent distance between
the PI and the actual point of frog. The equation is then defined as:
Requivalent = 2GN2 Where G = Gauge & N = Frog Number
This equivalent curve is then usually rounded up or down to the nearest even 15
minutes. The equivalent curve will remain constant for all turnout designs of a fixed
frog number and gauge, unless the gauge changes, then the tangent distance also
changes. Thus, for those designers working with non-standard gauge designs, the
equivalent curves for such turnouts will also change. With this equivalent curve, the
turnout is placed in the proposed alignment with the beginning/end at the PC/PT of
the equivalent curve.
Though preferred by some railways, this method results in some peculiarities, which
must be understood by both designer and constructor. First, the PC of the curve, and
thus the beginning of the alignment, will almost always start some distance (as much as
25 feet) before the actual PS. The stationing of the alignment is usually adjusted such
that the PS will fall at an even stationing (e.g., the PC to PS distance of a turnout is 9.44
feet, the stationing for the PC might be –0+09.44 to establish the PS point at 0+00).
This distance between the PS and the PC is a function of the lead length and will vary
slightly between turnout designs. Therefore, it is critical for both the designer and the
constructor to know specifically which turnout design is to be used because it
effectively makes the PI the defining point of the turnout location.
It must be noted from a pure geometric perspective, both methods represent

approximations of the true geometry of a turnout. This results in minor differences in
stationing through turnouts when both methods are compared. Eastern railways
generally dictate the use of the PI method. Many western railways have incorporated
the equivalent curve method. Some designers, through the use of computers, have
begun to incorporate the actual geometry of turnouts into their alignment designs.
Regardless of the method used, it should be noted before construction to avoid
confusion.
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The most defining point of any turnout location is the PF and the frog designation (i.e.,
the number). This defines the PI and PS location. A given population of identical
turnouts installed in track of identical design will have some variation in lead lengths
due to construction tolerances, but the frog defines the turnout and the two diverging
alignments. Though construction differences in turnout installations are rarely
noticeable to the experienced eye, even minor errors in frog locations are easily noticed.
It is important that the designer provide both the PS and PF location for construction,
particularly if the proposed turnout construction method is not known at the time of
design. The location of the PI might also be given, as it generally helps in the initial
field staking of alignments. Turnouts are installed in one of three ways. The oldest and
still most prevalent method for industrial work is to construct the turnout in place.
The PF location is of primary importance as the frog will be installed first. All other
components are generally installed by measurements off the frog.
The second method, panelization, is commonly used on main lines. Turnouts are
actually constructed at a remote location being either the original manufacturer or a
panelization plant. Turnouts are then shipped in two to four large pieces to the point
of construction and ‘cut-in’ by removing a section of track and sliding the new turnout
in from one side or off the end of a specially designed car. The third method is a
hybridization of the other two, where a turnout is constructed adjacent to the track
where it will be installed and cut-in in the same fashion as a panelized turnout. These
latter two methods are used because the required window for turnout installation,
which shuts down train operations, is significantly reduced. There can also be some
labor savings by taking advantage of natural production efficiencies associated with the
volume production of finished products. The primary point of reference in panelized
turnout construction is the PS. The PS is used over the PF, as it is easier to distinguish
and it is close to one end of an entire section of track to be replaced, rather than the
PF, which is closer to the center.
The specific turnout to be selected depends upon several factors including design
speed, usage and the practices of the servicing railway. Turnout speed is defined by
one of two factors: the points and the closure curve. The maximum speed of the
closure curve can be easily calculated using the limiting underbalance for the railway.
The limiting point speed is calculated in the same fashion, but using the switch angle as
the angle of deflection “I” and the length of the points as the tangent distance T to
calculate the radius of the curve. For curved points, a third factor to consider is the
limiting speed of the point radius based upon underbalance. The most restrictive of
these calculations generally represents the limiting speed of the turnout. The tables
below are from the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering and are based upon
AREMA designs and 3 inches of underbalance.
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Turnouts with Straight Switch Points

(AREMA)
Turnout Length of Switch Points Speed in Miles Per Hour
Number
Lateral Turnouts Equilateral Turnouts
5 11'-0" 12 16
6 11'-0" 13 19
7 16'-6" 17 23
8 16'-6" 19 27
9 16'-6" 20 28
10 16'-6" 20 28
11 22'-0" 26 37
12 22'-0" 27 38
14 22'-0" 27 38
15 30'-0" 36 51
16 30'-0" 36 52
18 30'-0" 36 52
20 30'-0" 36 52
Turnouts with Curved Switch Points

(AREMA)
Turnout Length of Switch Points Speed in Miles Per Hour
Number
Lateral Turnouts Equilateral Turnouts
5 13'-0" 12 17
6 13'-0" 15 21
7 13'-0" 18 25
8 13'-0" 20 28
9 19'-6" 22 30
10 19'-6" 25 35
11 19'-6" 28 39
12 19'-6" 29 40
14 26'-0" 34 49
15 26'-0" 38 53
16 26'-0" 40 57
18 39'-0" 44 63
20 39'-0" 50 70
There are exceptions to this. First, the limiting speed through the tangent portion of a
turnout is effectively unrestricted. There are upper speed limits for specialty turnout
components, which may include spring switches and special frogs. Self-guarded frogs
are usually limited to 15-mph regardless of straight or divergent moves. Additionally,
the railway may place speed restrictions on certain turnouts due to maintenance
considerations.
Though turnouts are generally available from No. 6 to No. 24 and more, most railways
have limited the general use of turnouts to four to six designs for ease of
standardization and part supply. Mathematically, as the numbers of turnouts increases,
the relative difference in angles from one number to the next decreases (See Figure 6-
22). Historically, turnouts under the number ten were available in ½ increments. The
use of ½-sized turnouts is not generally done any longer as these turnouts were
generally dropped from major railway standards 20 years ago. Turnout increments
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above No.16 change from 1 to 2 as the angle differences become smaller, and drop to
four to six above the No. 20.
Turnouts No. 10 and less are generally restricted for Turnout Frog Angle
Number
yard use, and few railways will allow sizes under 8 or 9
5 11° 25' 16"
except for special situations. Turnouts for industries 6 9° 31' 38"
and sidings from main tracks are generally restricted to 7 8° 10' 16"
no less than 10 to 12 (one is now requesting 14’s). 8 7° 09' 10"
This restriction is generally a maintenance concern. 9 6° 21' 35"
The wheel traveling through a frog must transfer from 10 5° 43' 29"
one rail across the flangeway provided from the second 11 5° 12' 18"
route to cross and onto the point or second rail. The 12 4° 46' 19"
14 4° 05' 27"
desired transfer results in the weight of the wheel being 15 3° 49' 06"
distributed between both rails for a short distance. As 16 3° 34' 47"
the frog angle increases, the effective distance of this 18 3° 10' 56"
load transfer is reduced resulting in higher impact loads
Figure 6-22 Relationship Between
and thus, maintenance. Frog Number and Frog Angle
Turnout sizes 14-16 are used for medium-speed divergent moves and some heavy
traffic unit train facilities. Turnout Numbers 20 and 24 are used for main line moves
and crossovers, allowing for higher speeds through the divergent leads. Some railways
are using No. 30’s and higher. These are used only in special situations.
Turnout placement must take several factors into consideration. Generally speaking,
conventional turnouts should be used if possible. They usually require less
maintenance for all situations except where the movement of traffic through both
routes is roughly equal. Turnouts should not be placed in vertical curves due to
maintenance and operational concerns. Equilateral turnouts should only be used in
yard situations and at the end of double-track territory. Turnout location within
existing horizontal curves should be staunchly avoided when possible due to
maintenance concerns. Furthermore, curved turnouts generally cannot be panelized.
Turnout speed through the divergent lead will be restricted to the limiting speed for the
turnout. The predominant movement through the turnout (e.g., the main line) should
move through the straight side with the less-travelled route representing the divergent
movement. On moderate grades, where one line splits into two or more, the up-hill
move should be the straight side of the turnout as the tractive force of the locomotives,
(produced from ascending the grade) generally creates a greater concentration of
longitudinal forces than braking (descending the grade).
The location of turnouts relative to curves should be considered. The divergent lead of
a turnout is effectively a curve (consider the equivalent curve concept). Thus, turnout
location must consider curve limitations, such as reversing movements.
For example, a facing-point left-hand turnout immediately past a right hand curve
(Figure 6-23) will result in a reversing curve movement. Though the derailment risk
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from reversing
curves could be
avoided if the
turnout was changed
from a left-hand to a
right-hand, the
maintenance concern
remains. Cars are still
in the process of
attempting to assume Figure 6-23 Facing-Point Left-Hand Turnout Immediately Past a Right Hand Curve
the straight line of
the tangent, resulting in higher maintenance.
Turnout locations relative to each other must be considered. It is possible to locate the
PS of trailing point turnout under three feet from the PS of a facing point turnout.
However, if the diverging movement of one turnout represents a reversing move
through the second, it should be avoided if there are to be train movements through
both divergent leads. This situation is also a problem in signalised territory where
turnouts must incorporate insulated joints. Turnout placement in signalised main lines
may be restricted when attempting to place turnouts in and around control points or
absolute signals.
A track, which has several turnouts one after another for a series of parallel tracks or a
yard, is referred to as a ladder. Ladder tracks should generally be straight with the
diverging parallel tracks maintaining a bearing equal to the frog angle of the turnouts
used in the ladder. Where this is not possible, curves are used, but this practice should
be avoided. The maximum ladder angle is defined by:
σ = sin-1 (S/L)
Where σ = the deflection angle between the ladder and yard tracks
S = yard track spacing
L = length of turnout from original joint to heel of frog 28
There is a short curve just beyond the heel of frog with a U = σ - F, where F equals
the frog angle. The length of the curve is determined by the degree of curve desired
for use. Be aware that the switch lengths (L), and thus the maximum ladder angles,
vary widely among the different types and weights of turnouts. Care should be taken
to design for the actual turnouts that are to be used in the field. The designer must be
aware that along a ladder track with this maximum angle arrangement, adjacent yard
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tracks must share some switch ties and some switch ties will be eliminated. Also, the
first yard track will have to diverge from the second yard track, as there is not enough
room for the first track turnout at the beginning of the ladder track.
Where the required

ladder angle is
especially steep due
to space constraints,
tandem leads are
Figure 6-24 Tandem Lead
often used. (Figure
6-24) A tandem lead is a turnout with a second turnout immediately past the first.
This easily allows for the doubling of ladder angles. However, the head blocks for the
inside turnouts should be extended under the ladder tracks with longer ties and switch
rods to avoid the dangerous practice of switchmen moving back and forth across the
ladder during switching operations.
Oftentimes, a track or a
ladder will end by curving to
make the final parallel track.
The desired practice in this
situation is to incorporate the
equivalent curve to
accomplish this. By placing
an equivalent curve at the end
of a ladder, the addition of
future tracks is easily afforded
by replacing the curve with a Figure 6-25 Placing Equivalent Curve Equal to Frog Angle at End of a Ladder
turnout at a future date. This
is also done at the end of main tracks such as the end of a double track section, where
one track ends with a single lateral turnout. (Figure 6-25)
When placing a turnout requiring additional curvature beyond the turnout, such as an
industrial lead, the curve should not start until after the last long tie of the turnout.
Track today is brought to its final alignment through use of mechanized surfacing and
lining equipment, which physically moves the track in the ballast section and tamps
them into place. This becomes difficult through turnouts, as the adjustment of one
alignment will have a direct effect on the second (the through movement is used to
establish the alignment with the divergent alignment being established through the
correct use of offsets during construction). To start a curve immediately off, the heel
of frog requires the curve to be established during turnout construction by physically
spiking the new curve into the long ties (so-called spike-lining). This is not an easy
practice to do, if at all, for panelized turnouts, and generally leaves a line swing as the
tamper attempts to reconcile the curve through the long ties, which it cannot
effectively change with the rest of the curve beyond the long ties.
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6.6 Design of Yards29

In spite of the possible alternatives to building yards, they are still required in many
instances to originate, terminate and store freight cars. In order to reduce the delays
generated, yards should be carefully located and well designed so as to be as efficient as
possible for the purposes intended.
Freight car yards vary greatly in size and purpose. One of the smallest types can be a
storage yard. These may be used for the holding of empty cars awaiting eventual use
by a shipper. They can also hold loaded cars awaiting shipping orders that are often
dependent on the season of the year or market conditions. Some industries may lease
tracks in such a yard, or even own it entirely, to avoid demurrage (detention) payments.
If individual cars must be selected (or even have their contents sampled) from a large
number of similar cars, then a road between every pair of two tracks for mechanized
inspections and inventorying can be very useful. Track centers of 24 ft. or less should
suffice for such a road.
Some small yards called local yards are often constructed in industrial and warehouse
areas, where cars are brought in and sorted for spotting to receivers. Cars are also
gathered here for shipping and/or storage. Empty cars may also be held awaiting the
needs of shippers. Tracks in such a yard are usually parallel to a main or drill track, and
may even lie on both sides of that track.
Some industries do their own in-plant switching with their own locomotives or car-
movers. In these cases, some kind of "interchange track" is built to facilitate the
exchange of cars between the railway and the industry.
The next larger yards are designated as flat switching classification yards. These may be
all in one body, where trains are received, cars are classified (sorted by destination) and
trains departed, all on parallel tracks. Flat switching yards, located in a large terminal,
may consist of three main parts, which can be constructed end-to-end or parallel:
(1) Receiving yard where arriving trains are taken in,

(2) Classification yard where individual cars are sorted by destination, and
(3) Departure yard where newly made-up trains leave for other destinations.
Such classification yards are sometimes used for geometric switching, where numerous
re-sorting of cars is accomplished. Each re-sort adds different classifications
(destinations) of cars equal to the number of classification tracks. The largest of the
yards are designated as gravity switching yards. Here, cuts (strings) of cars from trains
and switching assignments that have arrived in a receiving yard, are moved over a rise,
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called a hump. They may pass over a weigh-in-motion scale and then are allowed to
drift by gravity into one of several classification tracks in a depression called the bowl.
On the downgrade into the bowl, the speeds of the cars being classified are arrested by
retarders, which may be pneumatically, hydraulically or electrically operated. The
retarders are activated is response to the velocity of a car to keep it separated from
other descending cars and to maintain the desired speed into the bowl. Coupling with
cars already standing in the bowl should not occur at more than 3 – 4 mph. The
switches entering (and sometimes leaving) the bowl are remote and often computer
controlled to lead cars into the proper classification tracks. In order to minimize the
distances from the hump to the initial clearance point on each track, switches are often
lapped (superimposed) over each other.
Cars are trimmed from the bowl c1assification tracks, grouped by destination and
taken to the departure yard from which trains and switching assignments leave. Care
must be taken not to hump cars into a classification track while it is being trimmed on
its other end. The design of such yards is very complex and depends upon such varied
things as grades, curvature, car weights, rolling resistance, temperature and wind
speeds. Therefore, the aid of computer programs and retarder manufacturer’s input is
strongly recommended. (Prior to automation, riders, who manually applied the hand
brakes on cars to control their speeds, controlled the speed of gravity switched cars.
This arrangement is now quite rare.)
All yards should be designed to easily capture bad order cars and shuttle them to a (rip)
track where repairs can be made. Also, yards of any size may have many ancillary
facilities, such as:
• Buildings for administration
• Lockers and toilets
• Equipment and material storage
• Fueling and servicing
• Minor repair facilities for locomotives
• Turntables or wye tracks for turning equipment
• Air compressors
• Floodlighting
• Waste water and oil recovery and treatment facilities
• Various roadways
Good drainage is a must for a yard site; otherwise one can expect to have the yard out
of service during and after any storms involving significant precipitation.
The receiving, classification and departure tracks of most yards consist of several
parallel or nearly parallel tracks. If yard tracks are constructed at the minimum
allowable center-to-center distance (14 ft. in some states), then there is no margin for
future shifting of tracks under use. Obviously, impairment will be created. Also, if
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there are curves in the body of a yard, wider track centers may be required. Therefore,
it is best to add a foot or more to yard track center distances if the available room
allows it.
Yard tracks are connected at one end in the case of a stub-ended yard, or on both ends
in the case of a double-ended yard to the ladder tracks. Turnouts to each yard track
emanate from these ladder tracks and their switch stands or machines are along the
ladder track on the side away from the yard tracks. If the ladder tracks at both ends of
a double-ended yard are constructed parallel to each other, then almost all of the tracks
in that yard will be of the same length. If the ladder tracks are constructed to converge,
then the yard tracks are progressively shorter the farther they are from the track where
the yard originates.
If there are more than ten tracks in a switching yard and it is likely that more than one
switch engine per any shift will be assigned to the yard, then a double ladder on one or
both ends should be considered. The yard tracks should be divided equally between
the two ladders, but the inside ladder may also connect with the first yard track
connected to the outside ladder. With two ladder tracks at an end of a yard, each of
two locomotives can be simultaneously switching the tracks attached to each ladder.
Means must be provided to prevent locomotives from occupying the same yard track
from opposite ends when switching. This can be done with switch lists, radio or
speaker communication, signals or switch locks.
If at all possible, tail room should be provided on a track clear of any main tracks for
the back and forth shunting movements of locomotives and cars involved in switching
at a yard. Ideally these tail tracks should be at least as long as the longest track to be
switched in the yard, plus room for two locomotives (200 ft.+/-). During periods of
little or no switching activity, such tail tracks can also be utilized to receive and depart
trains.
Passenger car storage yards should be located as close as possible to passenger

terminals to avoid excessive movements of empty equipment. Sometimes, however,
that is not possible in crowded urban settings. Occasionally, passenger terminal tracks
may double as storage and light repair tracks during off peak periods.
Car cleaning and washing are often done on storage tracks and a mechanical car washer
may be part of the layout. Compressed air, water and electrical outlets are needed,
along with adequate lighting for night work. Some stored passenger cars may require
standby electrical outlets to operate lights, heating and cooling equipment.
It is useful to have some storage tracks spaced widely enough (20+ ft.) to permit light
mechanical and electrical work on cars, including brake work and changing of wheel
sets. Jacking pads should be provided along such tracks in order to raise cars off of
their trucks using portable electric or pneumatic jacks. Tracks must be locked out of
service when work is being performed on cars stored on them. As in freight yards,
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buildings will have to be provided for office, locker rooms, and material and equipment
storage.
The design and placement of yards have marked effects on the efficiency of an entire
railway plant. They are also very expensive to construct and maintain. Often, by prior
agreements entered into between railways and operating unions, only certain unions
may be allowed to operate certain yards. This can be an important consideration when
field siting and planning a yard. Very careful planning and investigations are strongly
warranted in the construction of new yards and the reconstruction or elimination of
old yards.
6.7 Clearances
In order for trains to move safely and efficiently over a track, an envelope of clear
space must be provided. The size of this envelope is determined by:
1. The sizes and types of locomotives to be operated. (Electric locomotives drawing

power from overhead wires require significantly greater overhead clearances.)
2. The sizes and types of cars to be operated. (Rail transit vehicles with sealed
windows can have greatly reduced side clearances.)
3. The dimensions of large loads to be handled (such as double-stacked containers).
Clearances, or the space which is required between the track and other fixed
obstructions including other tracks, though defined by the actual size of railway
equipment in conjunction with track geometry, are further mandated by both state
statute and railway policy. The Association of American Railroads (AAR) has
established ‘plates’ or envelopes within which all railway equipment must remain for
free interchange amongst North American Railways (Plate C). (Figure 6-26) There are
additional plates established for cars that are in excess of these dimensions, which
include Plates E & F.
Within Chapter 28 of the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering, resides the
recommended procedure for calculating the specific clearance of fixed objects for cars
of different AAR plates and other cars. These procedures should not be used for
design purposes unless the facility is designed for the frequent use of non-standard
freight or passenger equipment. The more prevalent application of the AREMA
procedures is for the checking of the routing of specialty cars for unusually large loads.
Railways generally prepare and maintain clearance charts for each section of the
railway, showing the maximum dimensions of rail equipment and loads that can pass
over that line.
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On an existing railway line that anticipates hauling oversize loads, it is absolutely

necessary to know from field measurements all of the locations where the least
clearances exist. Such a listing must be kept up-to-date to reflect recent changes and
should cover such things as overhead wire crossings and other non-railway
improvements. Sometimes, when moving extremely large loads by rail, it may be
necessary to move an impeding object to allow passage.
Each railway or agency maintains minimum clearances for the location of fixed objects
above, below and beside railway tracks. Sometimes these minimum clearances will
vary, based upon the level of service or type of track or the specific type of object to be
cleared. The acceptable clearance for some facilities, such as passenger platforms, is
generally less than others, such as buildings, due to the function of the fixed object.
States also maintain minimum clearance criteria for railway tracks. Where the state
criteria are more conservative or comprehensive than the railway’s policy, the state laws
generally supercede the railway’s rules. AREMA maintains a fairly comprehensive table
of state railway clearance limits in Chapter 28 of the Manual for Railway Engineering.
Individual railway clearance standards can be obtained directly from the railways.
In general, minimum clearance standards have been increasing with the introduction of
larger track equipment, longer trains and safer work practices. For most railways
having tracks originally constructed over 100 years ago, the cost to increase the
clearances to current practice is cost prohibitive. Generally speaking, unless an existing
clearance condition represents a specific safety risk, existing tracks with clearances,
which do not meet current standards or legal requirements, remain effectively
grandfathered. In the event that the designer is contemplating a project that would
substantially upgrade a facility or route, he or she might want to address sub-standard
clearance issues if they are not already in the initial program.
Side clearances are usually measured from the centerline of tracks. Overhead
clearances are measured above top of the (running) rail (ATR). Nothing in the track
cross-section can protrude above the top of rail elevation. Track spacing is measured
between centerlines of adjacent tracks.
On tangent track, the minimum side clearance from the centerline of track to a fixed
object is generally held constant based upon the type of track and the object to be
passed. When on curved tracks, additional side clearance must be added due to the
end swing of the car overhang beyond the center of the trucks, and the middle ordinate
between the truck centers of locomotives and cars. When curved tracks have
superelevation, additional side clearance must also be added to provide room for the
cant of the rail-mounted equipment.
Railway practice varies slightly from one company to the next as to the specific
increased clearance required for curvature and superelevation and generally considers
operating practice, underbalance and train speed. Likewise, some state statutes for
minimum clearances also address this issue. The designers should verify with the
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railway or agency before employing a specific methodology for increasing clearances

on curves.
Figure 6-26 Plate C, AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering, Chapter 8
The maximum swingout (Figure 6-27) for most railcars occurs at the mid-point
between the two trucks. It is the lateral shift of the railcar to the inside of the curve
between the two trucks. The value of the swingout is equal to the midordinate “m” of
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the curve subtended by a chord equivalent to the truck centers of the railcar and is
calculated as follows:
m = R – (2*R – (t/2)*2 )1/2
The overhang distance “s” of the railcar from the centerline of the track is the sum of
the swingout and half of the railcar width “w” as follows:
s = m + w/2
For railcars with extra long overhang beyond the trucks, the swingout at ends of cars
must also be checked.
Tilting of the railcar to the inside of a super-elevated curve introduces further clearance
requirements at the top edge of the vehicle. This additional clearance requirement “e”
due to super-elevation “E” for a vehicle height of “t” can be calculated as follows:
e=E*t/G
Where: G = the gauge distance of the track
The total additional clearance requirement is the sum of the swingout “m” and the tilt
“e” due to superelevation. These values are added to the normal clearance requirement
for tangent track.
truck centers "t"
swing out of
t/2 center line of car from
center line of track "m"
center line of track

car w/2 at center of car
width overhang at
"w" center line of car
center of car "s"
center
of car
centre line
of track
radius of track
curvature "R"
center of curve
Figure 6-27 Rail Car Swingout – Courtesy of UMA
Track centers are established to provide adequate room between parallel tracks for
movement of equipment and the safety of train crews riding on the sides of cars, taking
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into account any curvature, superelevation and swaying caused by rough track.
Standard for track centers are maintained by railways and are subject to state statutes.
When considering side clearances, two areas must commonly be addressed. First,
despite the need for only nine or ten feet from centerline to a fixed object for a train to
clear, such objects may represent a significant obstacle in the maintenance of the track.
Likewise, access may be required for other reasons, such as fire protection that may not
be directly related to the operation or maintenance of the railway.
The other primary horizontal clearance issue that is a common concern, is the
‘clearance point,’ or that point on two connecting tracks passed which the progression
of a train on one track would foul or impede a second train moving through the other
route. The specific clearance between the two centerlines again varies from one railway
to the next, but is generally between 13 and 15 feet.
In practice, it would be convenient to be able to locate the actual clearance point

coordinates on the turnout side on an auxiliary track for a given frog angle and required
clearance distance utilized. The following diagram (Figure 6-28) provides the solution
to this problem.
Figure 6-28 Calculating Coordinates for the Clearance Point - Miodrag Budisa
SK = d = X m
SM = m
p
KM = = Ym
2
p min = 10 Ft − 8In.( AREMA)
p
p
SM = m = 2 =
α α
sin 2 ⋅ sin
2 2
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p α
cos
p
SK = d = 2 2 =
α α
sin 2 ⋅ Tan
2 2
Finally, there remain a number of other fixed obstructions, which the designer must be
cognisant of during the design process, which may limit the location of turnouts.
These include the location of trackside obstructions, which may require additional
clearance for railway equipment moving through the curved side of a turnout. Most
railways prefer to keep turnouts a fixed distance from the edge of bridges due to track
dynamic concerns. In some cases, there may not be room for the placement of the
switch stand on one side or the other due to the relative location of other tracks.
Adequate overhead clearances above the rails must be provided. In the past, when
trainmen were required to walk and stand on the tops of cars, the required overhead
clearances were based on their presence. Under overhead bridges and through tunnels,
where such high clearances were not practical, trainmen were warned of approaching
limited clearances by an overhead rope fingers called a telltale. In most places, the
clearances based upon men riding on top of cars no longer apply.
Though typical freight railway equipment in operation today stands slightly less than 22
feet above the top of rail, minimum vertical clearances for fixed objects are generally
established above this threshold to provide for future track maintenance, track
alignment variations and future equipment dimension changes.
State statutory clearances usually only apply to so-called "common carrier" railways and
are not enforced on military bases or within manufacturing plants, where an industry
does its own car switching. This may result in close clearances in such facilities, which
are expensive to correct if a common carrier is to take over the operation therein.
References:
2. “Railway Engineering,” W. W. Hay, John Wiley & Sons.
3. AREMA “Roadmasters & Maintenance of Way Association Proceedings

1930 – 1997” (CD-ROM).
4. “Talbot’s Railway Transition Spirals,” Edward H. Roth, J. P. Bell, Inc.
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5. “Railroad Curves & Earthwork,” C. Frank Allen, McGraw-Hill Book

Company.
6. “Route Surveying and Design,” Carl F. Meyer, International Textbook

Company.
7. “Route Surveying,” Pickels & Wiley, John Wiley & Sons.
8. “Introduction to Transportation Engineering,” W. W. Hay, John Wiley &

Sons.
9. “Railroad Technical Manual,” C. R. Kaelin, Atcheson Topeka & Santa Fe

Railway (BNSF).
10. “Federal Railroad Administration, CFR 213 Track Safety Standards, A-E.”
11. “Federal Railroad Administration, CFR 213 Track Safety Standards, G.”
12. “Track Design Handbook for Light Rail Transit,” TCRP Report 57,
Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Sponsored by
the Federal Transit Administration.
13. “Dictionary of Railway Track Terms,” Christopher Schulte, Simmons-

Boardman Books, Omaha, NE.
14. “The Railroad/What It Is, What It Does,” John Armstrong, Simmons-

Boardman Books, Omaha, NE.
15. “US Department of Transportation Manual on Uniform Traffic Control

Devices for Streets and Highways,” USDOT, Washington, DC.
16. “The Economic Theory of Railway Location,” Arthur M. Wellington,

1887, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY.
17. "Modern Railway Track," Coenraad Esveld, MRT Productions, 2nd

Edition, P.O. Box 331, NL-5300, AH Zaltbommel, The Netherlands, Tel:
+31 418 516369, mrt@esveld.com.
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7
Chapter

Communications&
Signals
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Communications & Signals
Fred Aubertin
CANAC
Ridgeway, ON. L0S 1N0
faubertin@canac.com
Mark Acosta
Canadian Pacific Rail

Minneapolis, MN 55117
Mark_Acosta@CPR.ca
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7
Chapter
C H A P T E R 7 – C O M M U N I C A T I O N S & S I G N A L S
Communications and
Signals
Types, Theory of Operation and Design Considerations of Train
Control and Railway Communications and Signals Systems.
T his chapter contains a basic description of the types and theory of operation of
Communications and Signals Systems, their application and design
considerations. Due to the safety sensitive nature of these systems, the
examples and/or sample formulas included should not be incorporated into actual
designs. Readers of this chapter are invited to read the AREMA Communications and
Signals Manual of Recommended Practices for a comprehensive study of the various
elements of signaling, including recommended practices.
7.1 Introduction to Signals

7.1.1 Railway Operation
In the early days of railway operation, there was seldom need for more than one train
to operate on a section of track at any given time. As traffic increased, it became
necessary to operate trains in both directions over single track.
To permit faster and superior trains to pass and provide for opposing trains to meet, it
was necessary to construct sidings. It was then necessary to devise methods to affect
opposing and passing movements without disaster and with a minimum of confusion
and delay. This was achieved by introducing time schedules so that the meeting and
passing of trains could be prearranged. Thus, the "timetable" was born.
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7.1.2 Timetable Operation

The timetable was the first system utilized for the spacing of trains. In this system,
each train is given definite rights, which have to be respected by all other trains. A
schedule is issued where each train crew is notified as to the time of arrival and
departure of their train and other trains at specified points.
The chief purpose of this method of operation is to keep trains apart when running, by
a period of time. Under the timetable system, all trains are expected to reach meeting
points or passing points in ample time for inferior trains to clear for the superior trains.
The crew of a given train, when between stations, would have no way of knowing the
location of a train ahead except by flagman protection.
The timetable or schedule system of railway operation is a "time-interval system." It

incorporates many instructions governing operation of trains over the division to
which it applies and it also makes reference to the various methods and rules governing
train operation.
As the number of trains and the distance traveled became greater, it was apparent that
operation under a prearranged time schedule permitted no flexibility and that delays to
traffic would be severe. It was not long before operation by time schedule was
augmented by issuance of written train orders, which had the effect of modifying the
prearranged time schedule.
The first train order of record was issued on September 22, 1851 by Charles Minot,
Superintendent on the Erie Railroad. Superintendent Minot was aboard a westward
train, which pulled into a siding at Turner, New York, to meet an eastward train. The
eastward train was late. Mr. Minot went to the telegraph office and wired ahead to
locate the missing train and learned it was at Goshen, thirteen miles west.
The Superintendent sent a message authorizing the eastward train to be held at Goshen
and ordered his waiting westward train to proceed to Goshen for the meet.
The issuance of "train orders" offered a ready means to eliminate many of the
deficiencies of the Timetable System of train operation. This procedure gained rapid
acceptance and appropriate "operating rules" were formulated for the guidance of
employees engaged in the movement of trains.
Under the train order system, the railway is divided into sections and the direction of
train movements is under the control of a centrally located train dispatcher. The
dispatcher issues orders authorizing train movements by means of telegraph or
telephone to operators located at designated stations along the line. The operator then
delivers a copy of the train order to the proper members of the train crew. Regular
trains run under timetable authority, however, when extra trains are run or special
movements are necessary, train orders are issued.
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When train movements are controlled entirely by "Timetable" as in the early days, and
by "Timetables and Train Orders" only as in later days, train operation is enabled by
the “Time Interval” method.
The use of the train order system usually, but not necessarily, requires the use of a
signal of some sort, in the form of a semaphore, light or flag to indicate to approaching
trains that train orders are to be delivered.
The first railway signals consisted of a variety of simple wayside mechanical devices,
usually of fixed location. They were developed because of the danger that station
employees, after receiving telegraph instructions to stop a train to deliver orders, might
become engaged in other routine station duties and forget to signal the train by hand.
The Ball Signal is a matter of historical interest, one of the earliest

methods used in conjunction with timetable operation to convey
information as to location and departure of trains. Although
primitive in this day and age, considerable ingenuity was required
to design, construct and operate such a system. This type of signal
was still used in rare instances 100 years later.
The fixed signal could be set to the stop position immediately

upon receipt of instructions and thus serve to reduce the possibility
of human error. The signal, which the operator used to advise
trains that orders were to be picked up, was called a train order
signal.
The advantages of fixed signals to prevent collision or accidents at

important points such as railway junctions, crossing of other
railways or tracks at grade (diamonds) and at movable bridges,
soon became apparent. It was not long before railways recognised
the importance of developing fixed wayside signals, which
were both reliable in operation and uniform in appearance Figure 7-1 It is from this signal
to ensure enginemen properly understood the information that the well-known railway
term "highball" was derived.
conveyed by the signal.
After a number of experiments, a semaphore type signal was developed. The

semaphore signal consisted of a movable arm mounted on a mast situated beside the
track over which it governed train movements. The arm was free to pivot to three
positions. The common positions were horizontal (0 degrees), an intermediate
position (45 degrees) and a vertical position (90 degrees). Standard meanings were
given to the various positions assumed by the arm. The horizontal position meant
stop. The 45-degree position meant proceed with caution, prepare to stop. The 90-
degree vertical position meant proceed.
Lights were used with semaphore signals to provide night indications. The lights were
of various colors to correspond with the position of the semaphore arm. With the arm
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in the vertical position, a green light was simultaneously displayed. The horizontal
position caused the red light to be displayed, and when the semaphore assumed the 45'
position, the yellow light was displayed.
These early signals were manually operated, and an oil lamp and the
use of colored lenses provided night indications. As technology
progressed, electric motors were used to drive the semaphore arm
and oil lamps were replaced with electric lamps. In addition to
semaphore signals, a system of light signals was devised to provide
distinctive visual indications by day and by night. This was
accomplished by using lights of different colors or by placing the
lights so their positions could be varied, or further, by providing a
combination of color/position lights. In general, these light signals
conveyed the same indications as those displayed by the semaphore
signals.
Figure 7-2 is a close-up of a typical semaphore signal arm mounted

on a spectacle casting containing three lenses which would normally
be red, yellow and green.
The shape and design of the semaphore arm blade was also used Figure 7-2
to convey certain information according to individual railway Semaphore Signal in
the Green Position
practice.
7.1.3 Wayside Signals

There are three general classes of wayside light signals. They are referred to as color
light signals, searchlight signals and position light signals. Although the types differ in
construction and operation, they all perform the same function, namely to convey
operating information to train crews by means of colored light aspects, position of
signal and markers on the mast.
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7.1.4 Color Light Signal

A popular type of signal is the color light
signal. The color light signal has the units
arranged vertically as illustrated to the right.
Each unit has a lens and lamp. The lenses
G
are colored to give the desired aspect.
Signals may consist of one, two or three

units, however, the most common is the Y
three-unit signal arranged with the green
unit on top, yellow in the center and red on
the bottom. Each lens is equipped with a
hood, and the signal units are equipped with R
a dark background.
Figure 7-3 Three Aspect Color Light Signal
The hood shields the lens from the sun's
rays and the effects of weather. The dark
background is provided to accent the effect of the light to achieve maximum visibility.
The outer lens is clear glass and is designed to provide various angles of beam
deflection. The inner lens is red, yellow or green. Some railways include a lunar (white)
aspect.
7.1.5 Signal Terminology

The following is some of the terminology used in describing signals and signal
mechanisms
Signal Aspect: Color or color arrangement of a signal.
Signal Indication: The information conveyed by the aspect of a signal.
EB(X) and, EN(X): These are designations given to the wires that light the signal lamp.
An x indicates AC lighting and no x indicates DC lighting.
Lens: Collects light from bulb and focuses it into a beam of definite shape; may be
clear or colored.
Roundel: A part of a lens or reflector assembly used to deflect or spread or color the
projected light beam into a pattern according to its design.
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7.1.6 Searchlight Signal

The searchlight type signal differs
from the color light signal in that
the three aspects are projected
through one lens system. This is
accomplished by the use of a three-
position operating mechanism,
which is electrically controlled to
position a small roundel (color disc),
red, yellow or green in front of the
lamp. The light shines through the
color disc to produce a colored
beam, which is then magnified and
Figure 7-4 Searchlight Signal
projected by the lens system.
7.1.7 Operating Principle

A signal operating mechanism is essentially a three position DC motor type relay
having an operating or armature coil and a permanent magnet field structure. The
moving element is the armature, which rotates approximately 13.5 degrees each way
from the center position. When de-energized, the armature will assume the center
position due to a counterweight, and the red roundel will be in front of the lamp.
When current flows through the armature coil in one direction, the armature rotates
against a stop bringing the yellow roundel into the light beam. When current passes
through the armature coil in the opposite direction, the green roundel is brought into
the light beam.
The contacts are operated by the movement of the armature, and are used in external
circuits to operate repeater relays.
Note: The contacts do not control the position of the signal mechanism; rather it is
the movement of the armature that determines the position of the contacts.
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R
Y G
operating coil
1 2 4 5
L 3 F- A- A+ F+ 6 L
Figure 7-5 Searchlight Signal Mechanism
7.1.8 Automatic Block Signals

With an increase in traffic, a better method for spacing trains other than timetable
schedules or train orders had to be found. With the invention of the track circuit, it
was possible to control signals and the block system was introduced.
At any given time a train has exclusive possession of a section of track. For example,
when a train has the right to occupy the main track under the authority of a track
warrant, and a train falls behind for any reason, protection from following trains will be
provided by the block signals. This section describes the basic principles and circuits
for Automatic Block Signal (ABS) systems.
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3 Position Signal 2 Position Signal

Normal Aspect - Red Normal Aspect - Red
3 Position Signal 2 Unit Signal

Normal Aspect - Green Both 3 Position
Green/Red
3 Position Signal
Normal Aspect - Yellow
Figure 7-6 Semaphore signals are used as symbols on circuit plans.
The standard symbol used today on signal plans to illustrate the use of fixed signals was
derived from the semaphore signal. The symbol, which graphically resembles a
miniature semaphore signal, utilizes the different positions of the semaphore arm to
convey information about the signal to the person reading the plan. Some examples of
signal symbols are illustrated in Figure 7-6. The heavy line indicates the normal
position of the signal and the number of lines indicates the number of aspects the
signal may display.
7.1.9 Signal Location

The placement of signal symbols on plans indicates other information such as the
direction of train movements governed by the signal. For example, signal number 1
governs westward train movements and signal 2 governs eastward movements. Where
there are number plates on signals, notice that all odd numbered signals are seen from
one direction of travel while the even number signals face the other direction. Refer to
the timetable for track orientation.
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1
West East
2
Figure 7-7 Semaphore Symbols Used to Indicate Direction of Travel
7.1.10 Common Terms

Automatic block signal system: A series of consecutive blocks governed by block
signals, cab signals or both, actuated by a train, or engine or by certain conditions
affecting the use of a block.
Block: A length of track of defined limits, the use of which by trains and engines is
governed by block signals, cab signals, or both.
Block signal: A fixed signal at the entrance of a block to govern trains and engines
entering and using that block.
Block signal system: A method of governing the movement of trains into or within
one or more blocks by block signals or cab signals.
Aspect of a signal: The appearance of a fixed signal conveying an indication as

viewed from an approaching train.
Indication of a signal: The information conveyed by the aspect of a signal.
In advance of a signal: A term used in defining the territory beyond a signal as seen
from an approaching train.
In approach of a signal: A term used in defining the territory to which a signal

indication is conveyed.
Following move: Two or more trains following each other on the same track.
Opposing move: Two trains on the same track in a facing direction.
Conflicting move: Two trains travelling in the same direction, one occupying the side
track, and the other, the main track at the siding.
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Cab signal: A Cab Signal is a signal located in the engineman's compartment or cab,
indicating a condition affecting the movement of a train or engine and used in
conjunction with interlocking signals and in conjunction with or instead of block
signals.
7.1.11 Automatic Block Signal System

An Automatic Block Signal System (ABS is not a form of train control, it is an
additional safety feature that protects a train from a following train. Refer to that
railway’s timetable to identify the train control method. ABS would have to
accompany a form of authority such as a Train Order or a Track Warrant (US) or
Occupancy Control System (Canada), i.e., OCS/ABS.
In ABS territory, the track circuit detects the presence of a train, as well as a broken rail
or wire. The track circuit provides the automatic feature that changes a signal to red
once a train has passed a proceed signal.
In ABS territory signals are normally at green.
Y R G G
G R Y G
Figure 7-8 Single Direction Automatic Block Signals
The concept of single head automatic block signals is as follows:
• Red signal means the block in advance of it is occupied.

• Yellow signal means the block in advance of it is clear but the next block is
occupied.
• Green signal means at least two blocks in advance of it are clear.
Double track, as illustrated above, is sometimes referred to as single direction

signalling.
Single track requires signals in both directions. When the block is occupied, the
opposing end-of-siding signal is an absolute stop signal (red). Absolute Signals don’t
have a number plate or are designated by the letter “A” on the mast.
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At intermediate signals, the red aspect is considered a permissive signal, meaning stop
and proceed at restricted speed. Refer to the railway’s operating rules for the proper
interpretation of signals.
7.1.12 Centralized Traffic Control (CTC)

Centralized Traffic Control (CTC) is the most efficient system of train control we have
today. With the aid of sidings, it permits both following and opposing moves on single
track, solely by the indication of block signals. This allows for more than one train to
be in a block, in the same direction, at the same time and eliminates the need for train
orders and timetable superiority.
CTC is basically a series of controlled switches and signals at wayside (and cab)
locations, connected with automatic signalling.
A section of this chapter is dedicated to explaining CTC in greater detail.
7.2 Energy Source

7.2.1 Batteries
In order to discuss track circuits or other signal apparatus, we first need to have an
understanding of batteries and charge circuits.
Because the operation of most signal systems depends on electricity, it is imperative

that the electrical source be reliable. To ensure this dependability of service, batteries
are used. It is a common practice to utilize two power sources. Commercial power
supplies energy to the circuits under normal conditions. In addition, batteries are
provided as "stand-by" in the event of power failures. Use of commercial power to
supply the normal load greatly extends the life of the batteries.
The AREMA revised symbol for the battery uses the long line for the positive
terminal. However since most existing circuit plans utilize the older convention, we
will utilize the older symbol throughout this section.
Figure 7-9 AREMA Symbol for a Battery
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The railway industry has adopted the conventional theory (hole theory), not electron
theory (as you may have learned previously). In railway signal circuits, assume the
current flows from positive to negative.
Note: Common usage has made the application of the word "battery" acceptable
when applied to one cell or a combination of cells.
There are two general classes of batteries:
• "Primary" which are non-rechargeable.

• "Secondary" (or storage) which are rechargeable.
In most signal applications today, secondary cells are used because of the availability of
commercial power.
When a storage (secondary) cell supplies current, a chemical change takes place and it
becomes discharged. It then may be restored to its original condition by charging.
Charging is accomplished by sending a direct current from an external source through
the battery in a direction opposite to that of the discharge current.
The normal external source of current is AC. The AC power must be rectified to DC
as a battery can be charged with direct current only.
The two major components of a battery are:
Plates: Various numbers of plates are used per cell. The number, size and
composition of plates vary with the current capacity and voltage desired. Some of the
plates receive a positive charge and the others a negative charge when placed in the
battery solution. The negative plates are of a different metal than the positive.
Electrolyte: The electrolyte is the solution into which the plates are immersed. It may
be an acid, salt or alkaline solution, depending on the type of cell.
7.2.2 Battery Charging

Electrical energy supplied to field locations is normally alternating current. However,
many signal devices such as switch machines, relays, etc., operate on direct current.
DC is also necessary to maintain a charge in storage batteries. Therefore, alternating
current must be converted to direct current. This is accomplished through the use of a
rectifier.
Charging equipment consists of a transformer and a rectifier combination, referred to

as a rectifier. The transformer steps down the AC service from 110 VAC to an AC
value required to charge the batteries. Voltage output from the secondary coil of the
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transformer is adjusted with a magnetic shunt to give exact voltages. This in turn is fed
into the rectifier for conversion to direct current (DC).
DC output
AC input
1.5VDC
110VAC
1.5VAC
Step-down Rectifier
Transformer
Figure 7-10 The Basic Elements of a Charge Circuit
The rectifier mentioned above is a manual type in which the current must be manually
adjusted depending on the state of the batteries. In most of today’s new installations,
the batteries are maintenance free and a constant voltage type charger is used. With
constant voltage rectifiers, the current is automatically adjusted up or down, depending
on the condition of the batteries.
Throughout this chapter you will learn

about electronic devices that are used in Diode
many electrical and electronic applications. Conducting
The main component of the battery charger
is the diode (or rectifier). In simple terms, a
diode conducts only when the proper Anode Cathode
polarity is applied.
In a DC circuit the current is constant. If Figure 7-11 Properly Biased Diode in a DC Circuit
the diode is reversed, or if the battery is
reversed in the simple lighting circuit above, no current flows and the light is
extinguished.
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In an AC circuit, the current flows

only during the positive alternations AC input Pulsing DC output
of the AC sine wave and is considered
a pulsing DC current. Notice that in
Figure 7-12, the output of the full
Figure 7-12 Diode in an AC Circuit
wave bridge rectifier has positive
pulses only. The negative alternations
of the AC input have been cut-off.
7.2.3 Lightning Protection

Lightning results when a difference of potential exists between clouds and the earth.
The electrons from the underside of the cloud are carried to the top of the cloud by the
rising air currents and moisture. When this occurs, the atoms on the underside, in an
attempt to become balanced or whole atoms, attract electrons from the earth, the top
of the cloud or from adjacent clouds.
If the lightning strike is between the earth and the cloud, the electrons will take the
path of least resistance. The rails of the track and signal line wires provide an excellent
conductor, which makes signal equipment very susceptible to lightning damage.
Lightning arrestors are used to divert the lightning away from the signal devices and to
the earth.
AREMA defines a lightning arrestor as “A device for protecting circuits and apparatus
against lightning or other abnormal potential rises of short duration.”
As shown in circuits As shown in case layouts
A15
Figure 7-13 The Symbol for a Lightning Arrestor
In an attempt to provide the best possible protection, it has been necessary to try many
different types of lightning arrestors in signal systems. Some are in the form of
electronic panels and perform two functions. They suppress spikes in the local power
supply and protect against lighting strikes.
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7.3 Track Circuits

There are many types of track circuits in use today. The types we will cover are:
• DC Track Circuit
• Coded DC Track Circuit
• Style “C” Track Circuit (ring 10)
• Overlay Track Circuit
• AC Track Circuit used in DC Propulsion Territory
• Motion Sensing and Predicting.
7.3.1 DC Track Circuits

Dr. William Robinson invented the conventional DC track circuit in 1872. Although
simple in its concept, it remains virtually the same today except for the improved
equipment used in its construction.
The introduction of the track circuit made it possible to design the majority of block
signal systems in use today. The train provides its own protection by occupying the
track circuit, which controls the block signal. Contacts of the track relay are used in
circuits for other signal applications and provide a way of indicating the location of a
train to the control office.
AREMA defines a Track Circuit as “An electrical circuit of which the rails of the track
form a part.”
The essential parts of the track circuit are:
• Battery and charger

• Rails
• Resistors
• Bond wires
• Relay
• Insulated joints
• Lightning arrestors and equalisers.
Each track circuit, because it is an electrical circuit, requires a source of energy. Either
primary or storage batteries are used to provide the necessary energy to operate the
track circuit. Primary batteries are not rechargeable while storage or (secondary)
batteries (cells) require a floating charge.
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The rails of a track circuit provide the path for the flow of current from the battery.
Bond wires are applied to ensure a path of low and uniform resistance between
adjoining rails.
Insulated joints define track circuit limits. Track circuits vary in length as required.
AREMA definitions of terms commonly applied to track circuit operation are:
Ballast Leakage: The leakage of current from one rail to the other rail through the
ballast, ties, etc.
Ballast Resistance: The resistance offered by the ballast, ties, etc., to the flow of
leakage current from one rail of the track to the other rail.
Floating Charge: Maintaining a storage battery in operating condition by a continuous

charge at a low rate.
Rail Resistance: The total resistance offered to the current by the rail, bonds and rail
connections.
Shunt Circuit: A low resistance connection across the source of supply, between it and
the operating units.
Short Circuit: A shunt circuit abnormally applied.
Shunting Sensitivity:The maximum resistance in ohms, which will cause the relay
contacts to open when the resistance is placed across the rails at the most adverse,
shunting locations.
7.3.2 Track Circuit Operation

A battery is connected to one end of the track circuit, close to the insulated joints, with
positive energy applied to the south rail “S” and negative to the north rail “N.” The
relay is connected at the other end of the track circuit with one lead of the relay coils
going to rail “S” and the other to rail “N.” With the battery and relay connected,
current has a complete path in which to flow, as indicated by the arrows.
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N
Insulated
Rails
Joints
S
Lightning
Series Arrestor
Resistor Limiting
Resistor
Relay
Battery
Figure 7-14 Conventional DC Track Circuit Basics
The track circuit is designed as a series circuit, but because of ballast leakage, many high
resistance paths exist from rail to rail. When an alternate path for current flow exists
from one rail to the other via the ballast, the track circuit becomes a parallel circuit.
The current through each ballast resistance and the current through the relay coils adds
up to the total current drain from the battery during normal conditions.
When a train enters a track section, the wheels and axles place a shunt (short) on the
track circuit. This creates a low resistance current path from one rail to the other and
in parallel with the existing ballast resistance and relay coil. When maximum current
from the battery is reached because of current flow through the relay coils, ballast
resistance and low resistance path created by the train shunt, the relay armature drops.
Most of the current flows through the low resistance shunt path. This reduces the
current in the relay sufficiently to cause the armature to drop, thereby opening the
front contacts. In Figure 7-15, the heavy dark arrows indicate the high current path
through the shunt.
TR
R G
Figure 7-15 Contacts of a DC Track Circuit Relay Controlling a Lighting Circuit
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In Figure 7-15, the front contact of the relay is inserted in a signal control circuit to
operate a green signal and the back contact to operate the red signal. When a train is
present on that section of track, the relay de-energises and the heel contact makes with
the back contact lighting the red signal. When the last pair of wheels moves off the
track circuit, the current will again flow in the un-shunted track circuit, through the
coils of the relay, causing the front contacts to close and light the green signal.
An appreciation of the effect of ballast resistance is necessary to understand track

circuit operation. When good ties are supported in good crushed stone and the
complete section is dry, the resistance to current flow from one rail to the other rail is
very high. This condition is known as maximum ballast resistance and is ideal for good
track circuit operation.
When the ballast is wet or contains substances such as salt or minerals that conduct
electricity easily, current can flow from one rail to the other rail. This condition is
minimum ballast resistance. With minimum ballast resistance, ballast leakage current is
high. When the ballast resistance decreases significantly, the relay can be robbed of its
current and become de-energized, or fail to pick up after it has been de-energized by a
train and the train has left the track circuit. Because the ballast resistance varies
between a wet day (minimum ballast resistance) and a dry day (maximum ballast
resistance) the flow of current from the battery will vary.
When a train occupies a track circuit, it places a short circuit on the battery. In order to
limit the amount of current drawn from the battery during this time, a resistor is placed
in series with the battery output to prevent the battery from becoming exhausted. A
variable resistor is used in order to set the desired amount of discharge current during
the period the track circuit is occupied. This resistor is called the “battery-limiting
resistor.”
When the battery-limiting resistor is adjusted as specified, higher current will flow
through the relay coil on a dry day due to maximum ballast resistance. If this current is
too high the relay will be hard to shunt. To overcome this condition a variable resistor
is inserted in series with the relay coil at the relay end of the track circuit and is used to
adjust the amount of current flowing in the relay coils.
7.3.3 Train Shunting

Relay drop-away time on train shunt is dependent on the following factors:
• The relay current before the shunt is applied

• The effectiveness of the shunt
When a train occupies and shunts a track circuit, the relay will not drop immediately.
The magnetic field that built up around the cores when the relay was energized must
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first collapse. When the field begins to collapse, a counter EMF builds up in the coils,
which causes the cores to retain their magnetism for a short period of time. The
collapsing field, because of the counter EMF, controls the length of time the armature
is held up. If the relay should have a high current flowing in the coil, the magnetic field
would be high and complete collapse of the field would take longer, causing the
armature drop-away time to increase.
When a train occupies a track circuit, there is not a perfect electrical path between the
wheels of the train and the rail. In many cases, the rail is covered with dirt rolled into
the surface or with rust from lack of use. A certain amount of voltage is required to
break down this surface film. If the voltage between rails (inter-rail potential) is less
than that required to break down the film on the rails, no shunting will result. For high
shunting sensitivity the track circuit must have high inter-rail potential.
Inter-rail potential can be increased by:
• Using higher voltage batteries.

• Using a small battery feed resistance (battery limiting resistor).
• Keeping ballast in good condition.
Track circuit adjustments: For all types of track circuits, proper adjustments are
critical and every effort must be made to ensure that component settings are as close as
possible to the values specified in the railway’s installation and maintenance standards.
7.3.4 Coded DC Track Circuit

A coded DC track circuit is a circuit in which the battery current flows through
the rails in equal on/off cycles. Because the energy is equal on/off cycles, the
code does not carry intelligence. The primary function of the coded DC track
circuit is the same as the steady energy track circuit; train and broken rail
detection.
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DC Pulses
DC Pulses
Code Transmitter Track Relay (TR) TR

Follows DC Pulses
2.2 VDC
Track Repeater Relay (TPR)
Steady Energy
2 sec. slow release
Supply B12
TPR
N12
Figure 7-16 The diagram above shows the general components of a coded DC track circuit.
Steady energy is passed through a code transmitter (contacts of an oscillating relay) and
is converted to equal on/off DC pulses. Typical code rates are 30, 75, 120 and 180.
The DC pulsing voltage energizes and de-energizes a track relay at the other end of the
circuit. In a separate circuit, with its own battery source, current flows through the
oscillating contact of the TR and energizes the TPR. (See Figure 7-16) The slow
release feature of the TPR keeps the relay energized constantly until a train shunt is
applied.
The steady energized TPR is used to control other signal circuit applications, including
the automatic feature of block signaling.
Coded DC track circuits have several advantages over non-coded DC circuits. Some
of those advantages are listed below:
1) Provides greater shunting sensitivity: on standard DC track circuits. To

de-energize the track relay, the current must be lower than the rated drop-away
value of the relay; not so on coded DC track circuits.
For example: A train applies a poor shunt on the track. The amount of current
through the coils of the relay is 50ma. Using the specs listed in Figure 7-17, the
current is not low enough to drop the relay in a steady energy circuit, but is in a
coded DC track circuit.
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DC Relay with:
* pick-up current 70ma

* drop away current 37ma
On Off On Off On
100ma
70ma
37ma
Time
Figure 7- 17 Coded DC track circuit has equal on/off cycles
50ma is higher than the drop-away current in a steady energy track circuit. The
current required to drop the relay is less than 37ma.; therefore, the relay remains
energized.
In a coded track circuit, during the off cycle, the current is 0. The relay is de-
energized and stays down because 50ma is not sufficient to energize the track relay.
The relay requires at least 70ma to energize it.
2) Improved broken rail protection: For the same reasons listed above, the
track relay will not pick up after the off cycle, because a break is a high
resistance that keeps the current below the pick-up value.
3) Inter-rail potential: Coded DC track circuits have greater inter-rail potential

(higher voltage), which helps break down the rail film (rust, dust, grease, etc.)
and improves shunting.
4) Longer track circuits: Coded DC track circuits can typically be twice longer
than the conventional DC track circuits.
5) Minimize the effect of foreign DC currents: Excess foreign current will

either constantly energize or de-energize the coded track relay. Either way, the
track repeater relay will remain de-energized which complies with the fail-safe
requirement.
6) Operate in poor ballast conditions: Because it has better shunting

sensitivity, DC coded track circuits can tolerate lower ballast resistance.
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Later, we will see how microprocessor based coded DC track circuits can transmit
information in the rails, thereby, eliminating pole line or buried cable.
7.3.5 Style “C” Track Circuit

The Style “C” track circuit, often referred to as a ring 10 circuit because of the
type of rectifier used at one end of the circuit, is a DC/AC track circuit. The parts
of the circuit are:
• 12VDC battery source and charger.
• Inverter to change DC to AC.
• DC relay.
• Track and relay resistors.
• Diode (or rectifier) at the other end of the track circuit.
Inverter Track Relay
DC AC
Figure 7-18 Basic Components of a Style “C” Track Circuit
The AC output from the inverter flows through the diode on negative alternations and
through the DC track relay on positive alternations, keeping the track relay up. A train
shunt on the track would cause all the current to flow through the shunt and back to
the source, de-energizing the relay.
Advantages of the Style “C” circuit over the conventional DC track circuit are:
• Better shunting sensitivity, especially in areas with rusty rail.
• Operates well in poor ballast conditions.
• All the equipment and power requirements are in one signal housing (diode
between the rails in a water tight box).
• No line wire required to the end feed.
A similar device is the “track driver” which offers a few electronic enhancements to the
style “C” circuit and has multiple outputs to feed up to 4 track circuits.
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7.3.6 Overlay Track Circuits

The overlay track circuit is a safe and reliable method of detecting a train in either
signaled or non-signaled territory. An ideal overlay circuit is the AFO (Audio
Frequency Overlay). Another common type of overlay is the AFTAC (Audio
Frequency Train Activated Circuit). An overlay can be installed in conjunction
with DC track circuits, coded track circuits, other AC track circuits and motion
sensor circuits. Audio signals are AC (alternating current).
The basic components of the track circuit are:

• Transmitter
• Receiver
• Receiver relay
• Lightning arrestors and surge suppressors
No insulated joints are required. The distance defines the length of the track circuit
between the transmitter and receiver.
Figure 7-19 Components of a Basic Audio Frequency Overlay (AFO) Circuit
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7.3.7 Overlay Track Circuit Operation

The transmitter connected to the rails, emits an audio frequency tone that consists of a
carrier frequency and a sub-tone modulation. The transmitter signal is detected by the
receiver connected to the rails at the other end of the track circuit.
The receiver functions are to:

• Amplify the incoming signal.
• Check for proper frequency and sub-tone.
• Use the carrier frequency and sub-tone to produce the required DC voltage to
energize the relay.
A shunt or open will affect the receiver relay in the same manner as a conventional
track circuits. (relay de-energize)
Transmitters and receivers

contains filters, which will Inductor or choke
only pass the AC frequency * allows DC to pass
the transmitter and receiver * blocks AC
are designed to operate
with, and will block all
other AC and DC signals. Capacitor
or * allows AC to pass
The overlay circuit does not * blocks DC
affect existing track circuits
nor does the overlay affect
Figure 7-20 How Inductors and Capacitors Behave in a DC and AC Circuit
other overlay circuits.
Some microprocessor based track circuits are not recommended for use with AFO
circuits. Refer to the manufacturer’s manual.
Track couplers allow several types of track circuits and frequencies to reside on the
same section of track. Below are a few useful electronic devices that will help you
understand how couplers work.
7.3.8 Track Coupling Unit

When overlay equipment is installed in conjunction with DC track circuits, and
insulated joints are within the same section of track, a coupling unit must be used to
pass the AC frequency around the insulated joint. From your new knowledge, what
type of electronic device allows the passage of AC while blocking DC? You’re right, if
you said a capacitor. The track coupler would need to have capacitive characteristics.
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Wide Band
Coupler
Variable
Resistor
XMTR Choke
RCVR
"A" Battery "A"
Figure 7-21 Wide band coupler used to pass audio signal (AC) around the insulated joints (blocks DC). The Choke is
in series with the battery to keep AC out of the battery and to keep the battery from shunting the AC circuit. (allows
DC to pass)
A track battery acts like a capacitor because it has plates similar to a capacitor. A track
battery with its track leads plugged into the rail would short an audio or AC signal. It is
necessary to place an inductor (or choke) in series, between the track connection and
the battery to block the audio or AC signal from passing through the battery and
shorting out the overlay circuit.
Couplers could also be tuned to allow only certain frequencies to pass, while blocking
all other frequencies. A “wide band” coupler is designed to allow a wide range of
frequencies through the coupling unit. A “narrow band” coupler is designed to allow a
very small range of frequencies through the coupling unit. To select the appropriate
coupler, consider the types of track circuits and the frequencies used.
7.3.9 AC Track Circuits and Relays

Electrified railways, using DC (direct current) propulsion for electric locomotives,
necessitated the development of a track relay that could not be operated by propulsion
return current in the rails. (See Chapter 9, Railway Electrification)
The first AC vane relay developed was the single-element AC vane relay, but the track
circuits were short, which made it inefficient. The demand for longer track circuits
required the development of the more efficient two-element AC vane relay.
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7.3.10 Apparatus Used with AC Track Circuits

At one end of the track circuit is a track transformer that provides the AC source to the
rails. The primary winding is usually powered by 110 volts 60 HZ and the secondary is
tapped to provide anywhere from 1 to 18 volts.
The track resistance (load) is considered when determining the transformer output
voltage. For example, a longer track circuit would require a higher output voltage from
the track transformer. Refer to the manufacturer’s specs for output voltages and
wiring configuration.
Impedance
Bond
Output
Track
1 - 18 VAC
Element Local Element
Track Transformer 110 VAC
AC Vane
Track Relay
110VAC
Figure 7-22 Basic Components for an AC Track Circuit in DC Propulsion Territory
An adjustable resistor is placed between the track transformer and the track. The
resistor is used to adjust the current to the track and to provide the proper track
element to local element phase relationship (as close to 90 degrees as possible).
Non-adjustable resistors are sometimes used with the local element at the relay end to
further assist with the phase relationship between the relay and the local element
current.
Impedance bonds are connected across the rails at both ends of the track circuit.
Impedance bonds are large reactors that permit flow of the DC propulsion current
from one track circuit to the next (across the insulated joint), while not shunting the
AC to the track relay.
Both rails of a double rail AC track circuit should be equally well bonded because
defective bonding in one rail will cause an unbalanced condition of the track circuit due
to unequal amounts of return propulsion currents in the two rails.
With DC propulsion return current on the rails and double rail AC track circuits,
unbalanced propulsion currents (caused by a difference in rail resistance) may saturate
the iron core of the impedance bonds. This may lower the bond impedance to such a
point that the AC track relay may be shunted and drop out.
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7.4 Track Switches

A railway could not function without track switches. Switches provide the means to
establish a route. On single track mainline, switches allow trains to meet and pass by
the use of sidings, entry to which is governed by track switches. On double track, they
allow trains to cross over between tracks.
Because of their design, track switches demand:
• Careful installation
• Diligent maintenance
• Compliance with FRA rules and railway standards
• Obedience to the railway’s operating rules
If maintenance is lacking or rules are not lived up to, serious consequences may result.
Maintenance of hand-operated switches is the responsibility of the track forces. The

proper positioning of the switch points is the responsibility of all employees who use
switches in the course of their duties. On main tracks, switches must always be left in
the normal position and locked. Switch keys are only issued to those with authority to
use switches.
There are several types of switches in use today. We will focus on two commonly used
switches used on mainline signalled territory, the hand operated switch and the dual
control switch machine.
7.4.1 Hand Operated Switch with SCC

In signalled territory, where a proceed signal is the authority for train movements over
a hand-operated track switch, additional protection is provided. A device, which
provides a check on the position of the switch points before a signal may display a
proceed indication, is called a “Switch Circuit Controller” (SCC). The check is
accomplished by breaking the signal control circuit through contacts in the controller.
A switch circuit rod connected to the switch point positions the contacts of the SCC
mechanically. Should the point be in a position making train movements over them
unsafe (more than ¼ inch from the stock rail), the contacts will be open and the signal
will be put to “stop.”
AREMA defines a switch circuit controller as:
"A device for opening and closing electric circuits, operated by a rod connected to a
switch, derail or movable point frog."
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Switch Stand
Switch Circuit Controller
Figure 7-23 Switch Circuit Controller (SCC)
The hand-operated switch moves the switch points to the normal or reverse side.
When the switch points are positioned for a straight through move, it is said to be
normal and when the switch points are positioned for the diverging route, it is said to
be reverse. The switch circuit controller detects the position of the switch points.
Installation, adjustment and maintenance of switch circuit controllers are the

responsibility of the Signal Department.
West East
Figure 7-24 The Symbol for a Hand-Operated Switch Equipped with a Switch Circuit Controller
A few common terms used in reference to train movements at a switch are:
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Facing Movement: The movement of a train over the points of a switch which face in
the direction opposite to that in which the train is moving. A facing movement
originates from the main track and into the siding or straight through on the main.
Trailing Movement: The movement of a train over the points of a switch that face in
the direction in which the train is moving. A trailing movement could originate from
the siding out to the main line or could be a straight through movement on the main.
In Figure 7-24, a facing movement would be from east to west and for a trailing
movement the train would be traveling from west to east.
The hand throw switch may be converted to a spring switch with the addition of a
spring switch mechanism, which returns the points to their normal position after a
train has trailed through the switch.
7.4.2 Electric Switch Lock

An electric switch lock is an electro-mechanical device that provides a means of
interlocking a manually operated switch with signal circuits, so that the switch cannot
be operated unless traffic conditions permit, or unless a sealed emergency release is
operated.
FRA Part 236.314, electric lock for hand-operated switch or derail, states, “Electric
lock shall be provided for each hand-operated switch or derail within interlocking
limits, except where train movements are not exceeding 20 miles per hour. At
manually operated interlockings, it shall be controlled by the operator of the
interlocking machine and shall be unlocked only after signals governing movements
over such switch or derail display aspects indicating stop. Approach or time locking
shall be provided.”
The purpose of an electric lock is to prevent unauthorized access onto the main track
from a side track. Electric locks improve safety of train operation and reduce train
delays.
Instructions, which describe the method of operating electric locks to the train person,
are provided inside the compartment door at each lock installation.
AREMA defines an electric lock as:

“An electric lock connected with a
switch or switch movement to prevent
its operation until released.” The
Figure 7-25 Symbol for an Electric Lock
AREMA symbol for an electric lock is
shown in Figure 7-25.
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When installing an electric lock, it is important that strict attention be paid to mounting
the equipment exactly as shown on the layout plan. Figure 7-26 is just one example of
a lock installation.
An additional switch tie or head block is required along with the appropriate switch
hardware for fastening the lock rod to the switch points.
Switch stand
Electric lock Switch circuit

controller Lock Rod
Figure 7-26 Layout with Switch Circuit Controller and Electric Lock
An electric lock has a switch lock relay (WL) located within its housing, which allows
use of the hand-operated switch. When all proper signal checks are made, the WL will
become energized to allow hand throw switch operation.
Train dispatcher or control operator permission must be obtained to use an electric

lock when making a siding to main track move. After receiving permission, the
padlock may be removed and an unlock operation will begin, depending on the
conditions and the signal circuits at the location. Some railways include a sealed
emergency release feature.
A short track circuit in front of the switch points is provided to allow trains to leave the
main track as soon as possible. An audio frequency overlay track circuit is most
suitable for this type of track circuit.
7.4.3 Dual Controlled Power Switch Machine

The power switch machine is powered by an electric motor of 24 or 110VDC. A dual
controlled power switch machine can be electrically operated remotely or manually
operated at the switch.
The functions performed by a power switch machine are:

• Unlocking the switch machine.
• Operating – moving the switch points.
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• Locking the switch machine.
Figure 7-27 Symbol for a Dual Control Power Switch Machine
Power switch machines are designed to have either a right hand or left hand throw. To
identify whether a machine is right or left, view it from the motor end. If the rods are
connected on the right side, it is a right hand machine. Likewise with the left hand, if
the rods are connected to the left side.
At a new switch installation, the first thing to know is whether the turnout is left or
right hand. The type of turnout is determined by viewing the turnout from the points.
If the turnout section of the switch is on the right, a right hand machine is required, if
on the left, a left hand machine is required. Knowing this, it is now possible to select
the proper type of switch machine for the installation.
The switch machine is divided into three basic components:

1. Motor compartment.
2. Gear compartment.
3. Contact compartment (electrical).
For a right hand turnout, you will need to install a right hand switch machine. A right
hand switch machine has the switch rods on the right side of the machine as viewed
from the motor end.
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1 - Selector lever
2 - Hand throw lever
3 - Throw rod
4 - Point detector rod
5 - Lock rod
Power Operation
- Controls sent from control office

- Unlock
- Move switch points
- Lock 3
- Indications sent to 1
control office
4
2
5
Figure 7-28 Left Hand Dual Control Switch Machine
The switch machine illustrated above is securely bolted to the ties and is
connected to the switch points by three rods.
1. Throw Rod: moves the switch points from one position to the other. The
throw rod is connected to the No. 1 rod through an apparatus called the
"adjustment bracket or basket." The throw of the switch points is adjusted
at the basket.
2. Lock Rod: moved by the switch points and is used to lock the points in
either the full normal or full reverse position. The lock rod is connected
to the front rod, and locks or holds the switch points in the normal or
reverse position.
3. Point Detector Rod: moved by the switch points and detects the position
of the points. The point detector rod is always connected to the normally
closed point. The point detector rod is connected in the same manner as
the point detector rod of a switch circuit controller, through a point lug
installed on the normally closed point.
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The sequence of operation to move the switch points from normal to reverse or vice-
versa is as follows:
1. Control operator or dispatcher positions a lever applicable to the switch he

wants to throw reverse or normal. The levers are located on a control panel.
2. The positioning of the lever closes a circuit to energize a switch control relay
at the desired field location.
3. Contacts of the switch control relay close a circuit to apply DC energy to the
switch machine.
4. The machine begins to operate and:

a) A brake holding the motor stationary is released.
b) The motor is energized and begins to rotate, and through a gear train,
withdraws a locking bar within the switch machine, from a slot in a lock
rod connected to the switch points. (The lock bar, when in the lock rod
slot, holds the switch points rigidly in place at the completion of the switch
machine move.)
c) Further rotation of the motor turns gears in the machine, which apply
pressure to a throw rod connected to the switch points, moving the points
to the opposite position.
d) Upon completion of the switch point movement, the motor continues to
rotate until the lock bar is driven into a second slot in the lock rod,
securing the switch points in this position.
e) When the lock bar completes its locking function, contacts in the machine
open to de-energize the motor circuit.
f) Motor holding brake is again applied to hold the motor stationary.
5. Indication contacts in the switch machine close when the switch machine is
fully reversed and locked. These contacts complete a circuit to energize a
relay, which indicates to the operator or dispatcher, by means of a light, that
the switch has completed its move and is locked.
7.5 Highway Crossings

To reduce the danger of collision, it is essential to provide a means of warning of an
approaching train to vehicular traffic and pedestrians at a crossing.
Warning at highway grade crossings was first afforded by placing conspicuous signs at
the crossing. Use of the locomotive whistle and bell was also required to alert roadway
traffic of an approaching train.
Because of increased traffic, both by rail and road, and the opening of more roads, a
better type of warning was required. With the advent of the track circuit, automatic
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control of crossing warning devices by the train itself eventually became possible. The
first automatic protection consisted of a bell at the crossing and was soon followed by
an illuminated danger sign, which was controlled by the train when within the limits of
the approach track circuit.
The wig-wag was then developed which gave the public a better visual signal by
displaying a moving banner by day and a moving or flashing red light by night. The
wig-wag has since been replaced by a more modern type of warning with flashing light
signals or in combination with automatic gates.
Prior to the installation of new crossing warning devices, the railway company has to
submit for approval, to the authority having jurisdiction over the highway, plans
showing the location of the crossing in relation to the highway and the railway. When
approved by the road authority, the railway company files the plan with the appropriate
regulatory body for approval.
To ensure safety and uniformity of crossing warning devices in the United States, the
Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) set forth rules and regulations. Refer to FRA
Part 234, Grade Crossing Signal System Safety.
7.5.1 Crossing Operation

The circuits that control crossing warning devices are designed to activate the crossing
when a train is on the approach track and/or the island track. The island track is a
short track circuit that spans the roadway. The crossing warning device stops after the
train leaves the island track.
Crossing circuits detect the direction of a train in order to stop the warning device after
the train clears the island circuit. This is accomplished by relays dropping and picking
in a certain sequence.
Figure 7-29 shows the sequence of operations as a train approaches a crossing and
until the rear of the train leaves the island track. The example below shows a
move in one direction. The operation is the same for trains moving in either
direction.
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Crossing operating
Crossing operating
Crossing not operating
Figure 7-29 Three Track Crossing Operation
In addition to relays, timers should be included in the design to deal with “loss of
shunt” and “lockout” conditions. A loss of shunt means that the train wheels lose
their electrical contact with the rail. A lockout occurs when a train leaves the trailing
track circuit down (i.e., the relay contact does not pick up).
Solid-state crossings are quickly replacing the old relay logic crossings.
7.5.2 Crossing Gates

Where two or more main tracks cross a section of highway or where there is heavy
vehicular traffic, gate arms and gate mechanisms are commonly installed to supplement
flashing lights.
The main purpose of installing gates at a highway crossing is to discourage vehicular

traffic from occupying the crossing after one train passes, if there is another train
approaching on the second track.
There are different types of gate mechanisms, but their circuitry and operation are
similar. When servicing a crossing warning device with gate mechanisms, always refer
to the field plans and the manufacturers' handbook for the particular type of gate used
at that installation.
Components: The gate mechanism consists of four basic components. They are:
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• Motor
• Gear train
• Hold clear mechanism
• Circuit controller
Counterweights: Counterweights are used in conjunction with various lengths of gate

arms for the purpose of off-setting the weight of the gate arm itself, in order that the
motor without excessive current draw can raise the gate.
The counterweights are adjustable in two ways to provide a sufficient number of foot-
pounds of torque in both the vertical and horizontal positions.
Counterweights are to be installed as per manufacturer's instructions. Gate arms are to

be torqued in the vertical and horizontal position according to the manufacturer's
handbook, which is included with each mechanism. Settings may vary depending on
which type of gate model is used.
Gate Lighting: The light nearest the tip of the gate arm is at the prescribed distance
from the tip and burns steadily as per the railway’s standards. The other lights are
located to suit local conditions and flash alternately in unison with the lights on the gate
mast.
When positioning the lights on the gate arm, the rightmost light must be in line with
the edge of the roadway and the center light should be placed between the two outer
lights.
7.5.3 Crossing Motion Detector/Predictor

On a crossing equipped with a motion detector, the crossing warning device will
activate as soon as a train is detected. If the train stops or backs up, the crossing
warning device will stop operating. The industry has taken it one step further by
converting the motion sensor into a device that can predict the speed of an oncoming
train to activate the crossing at a pre-determined time. The automatic warning device is
hardware and software driven.
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Termination shunt
TX
RX
Figure 7-30 Bi-directional - Automatic Crossing Warning Device
There are several configurations to choose from. The above example illustrates a bi-
directional configuration.
A key function of the transmitter section is to maintain a constant AC current on the

track.
The transmitter wires (TX) send an AC signal:
• Down one rail in both directions (bi-directional)

• Through the termination shunt at the ends of the circuit
• Through the other rail, returning to the AC source
The receiver wires (RX) define the limits of the island circuit and monitor the
transmitter signal.
Track impedance, in the form of inductive reactance (resistance to AC), depends on

the length of the track circuit, which is defined by the termination shunt and the
applied frequency. For this reason, the longer approach circuits should use a low
frequency, while the shorter island tracks should use a higher frequency.
With no train on either approach, the electronic box at the crossing creates a 10-volt
DC signal (distant voltage). When a train comes onto the crossing approach, the
following occurs:
• Lead axle shunts the track.

• Lead axle becomes a moving termination shunt, which shortens the track
circuit as it approaches the crossing.
• Track impedance (resistance) decreases as the track circuit shortens.
• As the track impedance decreases, the distant voltage (10 VDC) decreases
towards 0 volts at the crossing.
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• As the train leaves the crossing, the distant voltage rises again towards 10
VDC.
The rate of voltage drop is dependent on the speed of a train. From this, you can
probably see that with a little creative programming, the box can predict the speed of a
train and activate the crossing at the appropriate time or stop the crossing operation if
the train stops or backs up.
For this configuration (bi-directional), no insulated joints are required. However, if

there are insulated joints because of the presence of a DC track circuit, bypass couplers
can be used to allow the AC signal around the joints while blocking DC.
Output terminals from the crossing predictor provide 12 volts DC to the crossing
control circuits. The crossing control circuits are either relay logic control circuits or
solid-state control circuits. Crossing control circuits operate the bell, flashing lights and
gate arms.
7.6 Centralized Traffic Control (CTC)

Centralized Traffic Control (CTC) permits both opposing and following moves of
trains on the same track by the indication of block signals. CTC allows for more than
one train to be in a block, travelling in the same direction at the same time and
eliminates the need for train orders and timetable superiority.
Control point circuitry, controlled block signals, dual control power operated switch
machines, electric locks in conjunction with switch circuit controllers and advanced
communications systems are all integral parts of a CTC system.
Signal indications authorize train movement in CTC. Once a train is allowed into a
block by the dispatcher (control signal often referred to as home signal), the train is
controlled by automatic block signals (intermediate signals).
Important Note: The sequence of operations described below is a typical model only.
For compliance to FRA requirements and regulations refer to Parts 235 and 236.
7.6.1 Operation
Many existing CTC systems are relay based. Modern installations are microprocessor
based with solid-state support circuits and advanced communication links. For this
discussion, we will consider a relay-based system. A later section of this chapter will
introduce solid-state systems.
Control and indication codes rely on step-by-step operation of relays and mechanisms
at the field location, working in synchronism with step-by-step operation of relays at
the control office.
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CTC systems are controlled by a dispatcher with code and carrier systems, which
provide communications to the field control points with two line wires and/or by
microwave signals, regardless of the number of control points.
Control Codes: To transmit a control, the dispatcher positions the necessary levers
and buttons on the control machine. Next, he pushes the appropriate start button that
causes a code to be transmitted. All field locations connected to the code line see the
control code, but only the one called is selected. At the selected location, the control
portion of the code is delivered through field application relays to cause the function
relays to operate switches, signals, etc.
Indication Codes: When a field change occurs in the position of a switch, the aspect
of a signal, or the condition of a track circuit, an indication code is set up at the field
location, which in turn automatically transmits the indication back to the control office.
When the indication code is received at the control machine, the appropriate
indications light up on the dispatcher’s panel to show the conditions existing at the
field locations.
Control Point: Control Points may consist of a single switch or a cross-over between
tracks, or various combinations of switches and crossovers with associated signals.
From the control machine, the dispatcher remotely controls the power switch
machines. A network of signals is associated with each power switch to ensure that
train movements are made safely. CTC is basically a series of controlled switches and
signals at wayside locations, connected with automatic signalling.
Control Office: Each train dispatcher is responsible for the operation of traffic on
his/her assigned territory. A dispatcher's duties require that he set up routes and
signals for traffic, arrange meets of trains and provide protection for roadway workers.
Railways have implemented computers to assist with train control systems. The
computers are equipped with mass storage devices on which train and signal activity
are archived for future reference. This information is accessed for purposes ranging
from accident investigation to train delay reports.
The dispatching computers are located in a special room. This room contains an air
conditioning system to keep the environment at a constant temperature and humidity,
and a fire protection system to safeguard against fires in and around the computer
room. As well, the system is equipped with an un-interruptible power supply (UPS) to
keep it up and running in the event of a commercial power failure. The uninterruptible
power supply is made up primarily of storage batteries and a diesel generator. The
generator is used to keep the batteries fully charged if the power failure persists.
The computer duplicates all of the interlocking checks performed by the field circuitry,
safeguarding against any potentially unsafe requests by any of the system users.
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Each dispatcher is equipped with a console, along with a CRT and line printer. The
dispatcher's console contains a traffic monitor display and a push-button display. The
push-button display is used to send the controls to the different field locations, and the
traffic monitor display indicates the status of all signalling equipment. Most push-
button functions are duplicated on the dispatcher's CRT in the event that any of the
console equipment should fail.
Signal selection is carried out using an entry/exit method. To choose the entrance, the
dispatcher selects the signal where the train is going to enter the block by pressing the
appropriate signal button. The computer then displays the possible routes where the
train can proceed, and the dispatcher chooses the exit he desires by again pressing the
appropriate signal button. This procedure has to be performed every time a train
enters a different block.
When the dispatcher chooses the "exit" for the train, the computer sends out the
controls to the field automatically.
The traffic monitor indicates the location of all the trains in the field. Along with
monitoring the movement of trains, many other indications are displayed on the panel
to let the dispatcher know about different conditions in the field, as well as the status of
conditions in the office.
The dispatcher's CRT consists of a Video Terminal Display (VTD) and a computer
keyboard especially configured for this application. The CRT can display OS reports,
blocking forms, alarm conditions, and system status.
The dispatcher's line printer is used to provide hard copies of blocking forms and
reports concerning the movement of trains.
Communications and Signals maintenance personnel have a compliment of

dispatching equipment dedicated solely to them for use in system maintenance,
monitoring and altering system operation, and testing both office and field equipment.
The maintenance console can be arranged to duplicate any section of track on any
dispatcher's console. It can display several field locations.
The maintenance CRT duplicates all of the functions found on a dispatcher's CRT. In
addition, it gives maintenance personnel access to a set of commands that allows them
to control every facet of system operation, including manipulation of all signal
equipment controlled by any of the dispatchers.
Line-printers provide maintenance personnel with hard copies of blocking forms, train
and system activity reports, a log of day-to-day operations and error reports.
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Another section of the computer system is used to keep running records of trains.
Information about trains is received from the dispatcher, operators and specific
indications received from the field locations.
Through the use of remote terminals, the operators can communicate all their
information directly to the computer via a modem and telephone line. Previously, this
information was transferred from operator to dispatcher by radio, and required that
forms be filled out and repeated every time information had to be communicated.
With the computer, all parties concerned are relieved of much of this routine paper
work. The information gathered aids the dispatcher with the preparation of train
sheets, line-ups, train orders and other forms required to perform his duties.
The computer handles information taken from various sources and formats it for
storage, retrieval and display. The computer displays OS reports, crew reports, and a
time position graph on a graphics CRT. The time position graph replaces the pen
graph used with the older machines.
7.6.2 Sequence of Operation

Control points or control locations are field locations, where the dispatcher may
request the operation of signals, power operated switch machines or electric locks for
the movement of trains. The dispatcher does not control intermediate signals. They
respond automatically to the position of the control point signals and track conditions.
All signals will go back to their red position automatically as the train passes them.
Before a dispatcher makes a request, the signal system is considered to be at rest. “At
rest” means there are no trains in the block and the dispatcher has sent no control
request. All signal circuit plans are drawn with the system at rest.
When a dispatcher requests a proceed signal at a control point, several electrical safety
checks are made in the field before the request is allowed to be executed.
To line a route, the following sequence occurs between the control office and the
control point (field):
1) Control sent.
2) Track circuits and blocks are checked.
3) The route is lined and locked.
4) The signal requested clears.
5) Signal repeater circuits are set.
6) Indications are sent to the control office.
1) Send Control: Code transmitted from the control office to the control point
(field) is called a “control” and is usually represented by the letter “c.” The
dispatcher controls only a few relays at a control point. The dispatcher-
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controlled relays remain latched in the requested position until the dispatcher
reverses their position.
The function relay’s task is to set up a relay or a network of relays to:

• Throw a power-operated switch to the normal or reverse position.
• Lock or unlock an electric lock at a hand-operated switch.
• Display a proceed or stop signal.
2) Perform a Block Check: The signal system, through the block check circuits,
verifies the following:
• The switches in the route selected are lined and locked.
• A conflicting signal is not requested.
• The signal requested returned to red after the last train move.
• The “OS” track and the track to the next signal are unoccupied.
Before a signal can clear and display either a green or yellow aspect, it must be
determined if the block is clear in advance of the signal and the aspect of the next
signal must be known. Line circuits can provide this information. Line circuits are
either pole line or underground cable and are usually called HD lines. In new
systems, the rails transmit the required information, thereby eliminating line
circuits. See the section on microprocessor based track circuits.
3) Locking: Locking circuits perform the following functions:

• Removes battery from all the power operated switches within the route
requested (route locking).
• Ensures that all opposing and conflicting signals are at stop before clearing
a signal into that block (time locking).
• Ensures that once a signal is clear, an opposing or conflicting signal cannot
be cleared (time locking or approach locking).
A pre-set time will run when the dispatcher cancels a proceed signal. No
further controls can be sent until the time has expired. Normal train operation
does not put time locking into effect.
4) Signal Control Circuits:Before a signal can clear, the signal control circuits
verify that:
• The block and route checks in step 2 are still established.
• The locking functions in step 3 have been completed.
With all previous checks for the signal still set, a current path in one direction
through the operative signal mechanism will light the signal green. Current
flowing through the operating coil in the opposite direction will drive the
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signal to its yellow aspect. Direction of current is determined by the polarity

on the HD lines. Signals are usually AC lit with DC power as backup.
5) Signal Repeater Circuits: Signal repeater circuits are used to ensure the
position of the signal mechanism (searchlight). All control point signals (home
signals) are normally at red; therefore all red repeater relays would be
energized.
In Figure 7-31, energy on terminals A- and A+ will position a colored roundel

(yellow or green) in front of the light bulb, depending on the polarity applied. No
energy on terminals A- and A+ will center the mechanism and display the red
aspect. The operating coil will position the color roundels and simultaneously rock
the operating coil arm.
When the operating coil arm rocks to the yellow position, the yellow repeater relay
energizes. A contact of the yellow repeater relay will provide the current path to
send an indication back to the control office.
When the operating coil arm rocks to the green position, the green repeater relay
energizes. A contact of the green repeater relay will provide the current path to
send an indication back to the control office.
R
Y G
operating coil
1 2 4 5
L 3 F- A- A+ F+ 6 L
Figure 7-31 Searchlight Type Signal Mechanism
6) Indication: Indications are sent from the field to the control office to indicate
the status of signals, switches and track circuits. For example, when the
dispatcher requests a proceed signal at a specific home signal and the signal
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responds with a yellow or green aspect, the proceed indication is transmitted

to the control office.
EAGP
EYGK
EAYP
Figure 7- 32 Indication for an eastward signal
EAGP – E east, “A” signal (top head), G green, P repeater

EAYP – E east, “A” signal (top head), Y yellow, P repeater
EYGK – E east, Y yellow, G green, K indication
If the aspect of the top signal head of the eastward signal is either green or yellow, a
“Proceed” indication is sent to the control office and is indicated on his/her panel.
7.6.3 Microprocessor Based Coded Track Circuits

In a previous section you learned that DC coded track circuits use a relay code
transmitter and code follower to produce an equal on/off DC pulse. The DC coded
track circuit is ideal for train and broken rail detection, but because the on/off cycles
are equal, no intelligence is conveyed. Hence the birth of the microprocessor based
coded track circuit. With the use of synchronization, DC pulse length and pulse
grouping (one pulse or two consecutive pulses), information can be transmitted
through the rails.
Some of the advantages of microprocessor based coded track circuits are:
• Eliminates the need for line wire (pole line or underground).

• Longer track circuits.
• Monitors the status of track circuits.
• Control of signals.
• Fewer (if any) relays required at signal locations to drive signal mechanisms
and lamps.
• With the use of filters, can be used in conjunction with other AC track circuits.
Different units/modules are used for specific applications. These units are designated
as follows:
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Unit Name Description

End of Siding The End of Siding or Control Point Units are used to:
(Control Point) • Initiate code transmissions to other signal locations
• Decode received pulses
• Interface with interlocking relay logic circuits or serial
link to solid-state interlocking equipment.
Intermediate Used at intermediate signal locations to:

• Decode signals from the rail
• Transmit codes to other units
• Drive lamps and various types of signals
• Perform all required light out detection
One intermediate unit handles both east and west
directions. Stick logic for following moves is built in.
Repeater Repeater units are used to regenerate and repeat codes in

both directions. Repeaters are used when the distance
between signal locations is too great for one track circuit.
Electric Lock The electric switch lock unit provides all the functions
necessary at a switch lock location and acts as a repeater,
which receives and transmits codes east and west if all
switch lock conditions are met.
Electrified The electrified unit is an AC interface used in conjunction

with other microprocessor based coded track circuit units in
electrified traction territory.
7.6.4 Theory of Coded Track Circuit Operation

No specific type of equipment is intended for this description. The following is a
model to explain the basic theory of operation for training purposes only.
Code Repetition: Microprocessor track circuits are bi-directional. A DC pulse is

transmitted through the rails to a remote location. The remote location reads the
information, then transmits its code back to where it originated. Each transmission
takes 1.4 seconds for a total of 2.8 seconds. The process is continuous until the
presence of a train interrupts it. When there is no code being received, the signal will
display a red aspect.
Codes are grouped into two categories, vital and non-vital codes. In our model, codes
1, 5 and 6 are non-vital codes and codes 2, 3, 4, 7 and 8 are vital codes. A vital code is
one that controls the aspect of a signal and is initiated from a control point. Non-vital
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codes are single pulses within a 1.4 second window while vital codes are two pulses
within a 1.4 second window.
Non Vital Codes

Code Pulse Width Description
1 115 ms Status of track circuit
5 225 ms Status of track circuit plus block check for
indications on dispatchers panel. The system sees
the first 115 ms and interprets it as a code 1 (track
status). Then, as the same pulse continues for
another 110 ms, it is also interpreted as a code 5
(block check).
6 600 ms Status of track circuit plus signal tumbles down.
When signals are lined in one direction, the
opposing signals will tumble to their most
restrictive aspect. A code 6 speeds the process up.
Code 2
1.4 sec
692ms
115ms 115ms
Figure 7-33 “Code 2” Pulse Pair, 692ms Measured from Leading Edge to Leading Edge of Each Pulse
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Vital Codes
Code Width of Aspect
Pulse Pair
2 692ms Yellow
3 488ms Yellow/Yellow
4 332ms Flashing Yellow
7 224ms Green
8 948ms System at rest – signal aspects and code 8 used for
block indication. Direction of traffic per last train
movement. Code 8 received at End of Siding
indicates clear block to next end of siding.
For indications (interpretation of aspects) in the above table, refer to the railway’s
operating rules.
West siding East siding

1 8 1 8 1 8
sig 1 sig 3 sig 5
sig 2 sig 4 sig 6

1 7 1 7 1 2
Figure 7-34 CTC System at Rest with Previous Move Being Eastward
In the layout of Figure 7-34, code 5 would also be present on each track circuit to send
track status information to the control office.
End of Siding units do not perform interlocking functions. The units decode the
pulses received and energize relays to indicate the condition of the block, track circuits
or the level of the vital codes. Interlocking functions are vital signal circuits, which are
relay based or solid-state. Vital signal circuits control the codes transmitted by the End
of Siding unit.
7.6.5 Solid State Interlocking

The Solid State Interlocking (SSI) is an application programmable controller designed
to control wayside signals, switches and track circuits at a railway interlocking. With
various input/output modules, the SSI is configured to control various signalling
applications. SSI replaces most of the relays in older-style control points.
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SSI controls and monitors wayside devices and also performs the functions of most
conventional code line systems to communicate with the central dispatch office. SSI
has the capability of encoding and decoding microprocessor based coded track circuits
and generating cab signal outputs.
SSI is chassis mounted containing several vital and non-vital circuit boards. The rack
may also contain microprocessor based coded track circuit equipment and a local
control panel.
Solid-state interlocking uses standard signalling logic converted to equations that are
checked then processed by the microprocessor and related support circuits.
Application logic: Is the site-specific logic that is customized for each location and
controls that specific interlocking. Application logic replaces traditional relay logic with
Boolean equations that emulate relay circuits.
OST EAS WAS
Figure 7-35 Example of a Relay Logic Circuit
In Figure 7-35, the L relay will be energized if the contacts of the OST, and the EAS
and the WAS are up. The word “and” is intended to be “logical and.”
The Boolean equation, equivalent to the series circuit in Figure 7-36 is:
(OST * EAS * WAS) = L
OST
EAS AND L
WAS
Figure 7-36 Logic AND Gate
The microprocessor driven application software logic has the same inputs and
outputs as the equivalent relay logic circuit.
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7.7 Defect Detectors

Defect detectors are installed on railways to prevent expensive and dangerous
derailments. In the past, people at track-side inspected rolling stock for potential
hazards and track inspectors patrolled the track for slides, floods and other signs of
danger. New technologies provide an alternative means for defect detection.
The following is an overview of some of the detectors currently in use today.
7.7.1 Hot Box Detector

The Hot Box Detector scans the trains for overheated wheel bearings before they
advance to a dangerous state. Undetected, overheated wheel bearings can become
molten and cause a wheel/axle separation and a possible derailment.
Scanners, bolted to the outside of each rail, are gated (turned) on as a train approaches
them. The scanners look upward to the journal, which houses the bearings, and read
the infrared energy emitted by the journal and reference it to two points, the body of
the car and the journal on the other end of the axle. If a journal temperature exceeds
the assigned threshold, the information is sent to the dispatching office identifying the
hot box. Some railways have implemented a talker, which is a synthesised or recorded
voice that is broadcast over the radio system, identifying the defect.
7.7.2 Hot Wheel Detector

A Hot Wheel Detector operates on the same principle as the Hot Box Detector. It
reads the infrared energy emitted by the web of the wheel.
Sticking brakes usually causes hot wheels. A hot wheel that is allowed to go unchecked
could become distempered and eventually break, causing a derailment. A flawed wheel
could cause damage to the rail and the roadbed.
One Hot Wheel Detector is mounted on one side of the track, on an angle to see all
the wheels that pass through its line of sight. A reference board is placed on the far
side of the track to establish a quasi absolute scale. A defective wheel is reported in the
same manner as the Hot Box Detector system.
7.7.3 Dragging Equipment Detector

A Dragging Equipment Detector consists of a series of metal paddles on both sides of
the rail and between the rails. The paddles are attached to a shaft so that when it is
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struck, the shaft rotates and opens a contact, which sends a signal to the electronic
equipment, alarming the office and/or the radio system.
Usually the Hot Box Detector, Hot Wheel Detector and the Dragging Equipment
Detector are installed at the same location, sharing the same bungalow that houses
all the electronic and communication systems.
Dragging Equipment Hot Box Detector

Detector Scanner
Hot Wheel Detector

Scanner
Figure 7-37 A Site with Three Defect Detectors
7.7.4 Wheel Defect Detector

Wheel Defect Detectors effectively measure the degree of impact caused by a flat spot
or other wheel defect. Reports are generated by the system and transmitted to the
control office and/or the repair shop. Severely damaged wheels will alarm the dispatch
office and the car will then be set-out before serious damage occurs to the wheel, rails,
ties or roadbed.
The system operates on the principle of measuring small changes in current flowing
through strain gauges welded to the web of the rail. As a wheel passes over the rail, it
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bends downward, distorting the strain gauge and changing its resistive value. The
heavier the load, the greater the distortion.
T
Figure 7-38 Wheel Defect Detector - Volts/Time Graph
The graph in Figure 7-38 shows a signal spike caused by a defective wheel.
Wheel Defect Detectors can be configured to perform the following functions:
• Detect wheel impacts

• Weigh wheel sets (loads) dynamically
• Measure rail stress under different load and climate conditions
• Detect skewed or hunting trucks
7.7.5 Slide Fence

Slide fences are installed in areas where falling rock, rock slides or mud slides are likely
to occur. They are most often installed at the approach to tunnels.
Slide fences can be as simple as a network of wires mounted on wooden posts or as

elaborate as an array of mercury switches. Broken wires or tripped switches de-
energize a relay, which in turn affects the signal system or lights a dedicated signal to
prevent trains from running into debris blocking the track.
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7.7.6 Flood Detectors

High water on or near the track can saturate or washout the roadbed causing a
derailment. This is particularly true where culverts are installed, allowing natural
waterways to pass through the tracks.
Two common high water detectors are the grid and float types. The grid type, when
submersed in water, lowers the parallel resistance across the coils of a relay causing it to
de-energize. The float type has a ball that rises with the water level and opens a contact
that de-energizes a relay. The relay controls the signal indication over that area.
7.7.7 Fire Detectors

Fire detectors are usually a fusible wire strung across a wooden trestle or platform. If
the trestle catches fire, the wire melts and opens the circuit to a relay. When the relay
de-energizes, the governing signals are caused to display a stop indication. A dedicated
signal may be installed in dark territory.
7.7.8 High/Wide Load Detectors

High/wide load detectors check for high, wide or shifted loads to ensure that trains on
adjacent tracks can safely pass each other and can safely pass through tunnels or where
there is a height or width restriction.
One type of high/wide load detector is a frame with a network of wires defining the
maximum allowable height and width limits. A broken wire causes a relay to de-
energize, thereby affecting the signal system. A more modern type uses laser beams to
detect the height and width.
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8
Chapter

Railway Structures
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Railway Structures
Brian Lindamood, P.E. Ronald G. Berry, P.E.
Hanson – Wilson Inc Burlington Northern Santa Fe Railway
Ft. Worth, TX 76137 Kansas City, KS 66106-1124
balindamood@wilsonco.com Ronald.berry@bnsf.com
Dallas R. Richards, P.E. James McLeod, P. Eng.
HSMM Inc. UMA Group, Inc.

Roanoke, VA 24016-4607 Edmonton, AB. T5S 1G3
drichards@hsmm.com jmcleod@umagroup.com
Steven Sumner, P.E., S.E. Joseph E. Riley, P.E.
Metra Metra
Chicago, IL 60661 Chicago, IL 60661
ssumner@metrarr.com ssumner@metrarr.com
William Riehl, III, P.E. Christian J. Brown, P.E.
Niemeyer & Associates HNTB

Jacksonville, FL 32258-2182 Kansas City, MO 64105-1310
wsriehl@attbi.com cbrown@hntb.com
Daniel Thatcher Charley Chambers, P.E.

HNTB Hanson – Wilson Inc
Indianapolis IN 46204-5178 Bellevue, WA 98004-6905
dthatcher@hntb.com cdchambers@hanson-inc.com
Patrick O. McCarthy, P.E.

H. W. Lochner, INC
Chicago, IL 60606-2806
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8
Chapter
C H A P T E R 8 – R A I L W A Y S T R U C T U R E S
Railway Structures
The art of taking something simple, complicating it, and producing
something simple.
T he following section is not intended to instruct any person through the process
of designing a railway bridge. It is intended to merely guide the engineer in the
peculiarities relating to the design of railway bridges and structures as they relate
to the design guidelines set forth by AREMA and general railway practice. It does in
fact assume a base level of knowledge pertaining to the design of structures and bridge
systems. As most of the bridge design in North America is generally related to
roadways, the majority of comparisons drawn relate to roadway bridges to provide a
sense of scope.
Most of the recommended practice relating to railway structures is contained within

Volume 2 of the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering. Chapters within this
volume are divided by the three primary materials in use for railway structures
including timber, steel and concrete (masonry being included in the latter). Other
Manual chapters relate additional information, including seismic loading and bridge
bearings. However, there remains some structural related information in other
chapters, including utility protection and metal pipe loading in Chapter 1, and structural
design of overhead catenary systems in Chapter 33.
The engineer, prior to the design of railway structures, must understand several
considerations relating to material within the AREMA Manual for Railway
Engineering. Though North American railways closely follow the subject matter
within the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering, all have specific areas or points
of design where they deviate. Such information should be gathered prior to design.
Secondly, while there are some common design elements and considerations relating to
the application of loading of railway structures across the three major design areas
(timber, concrete and steel), specific application and the magnitude of these loads does
vary from chapter to chapter.
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This chapter contains a basic description of the types of railway structures and their
design considerations. The purpose is to inform engineers of design considerations for
railway structures that are different from their non-railway counterparts. Due to
variations in design standards between the different railways, consult the controlling
railway for their governing standard before starting design.
8.1 Introduction to Railway

Structures
Railway structures encompass a wide array of construction intended to support the
track itself or house railway operations. Common examples of track carrying structures
are bridges, trestles, viaducts, culverts, scales, inspection pits, unloading pits and similar
construction. Examples of common ancillary structures are drainage structures,
retaining walls, tunnels, snow sheds, repair shops, loading docks, passenger stations and
platforms, fueling facilities, towers, catenary frames and the like.
While the design of ancillary structures for the railway environment may introduce
considerations not found in their non-railway counterparts, these considerations are
usually well defined in the governing railway’s standards. Accordingly, this chapter will
focus primarily on track carrying structures.
When designing railway

structures, the various
sources of their loads
must be considered, as
they would be with any
other similar, non-
railway structure. In
addition to the dead
load of the structure
itself, there are the usual
live loads from the
carried traffic. To these
are added the dynamic
components of the
traffic such as impact,
centrifugal, lateral and Figure 8-1 Typical Railway Bridge - Courtesy of Metra
longitudinal forces.
Then there are the environmental considerations such as wind, snow and ice, thermal,
seismic and stream flow loads. Finally, because railway structures must perform under
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heavier loads, have longer service lives, and dissimilar maintenance constraints
compared to their highway counterparts, other factors, including fatigue and
maintenance issues, tend to influence railway structure design more than roadway
structures.
Once the designer has established the first pass at the load environment for the subject
structure, the primary difference between a highway structure and a railway structure
should become obvious. In the typical railway structure, the live load dominates all of
the other design considerations. For the engineer accustomed to highway bridge
design, where the dead load of the structure itself tends to drive the design
considerations, this marks a substantial divergence from the norm. Specifically, the
unacceptability of high deflections in railway structures, maintenance concerns and
fatigue considerations render many aspects of bridge design common to the highway
industry unacceptable in the railway environment. Chief among these are welded
connections and continuous spans.
8.2 Major Bridge Components30

In general terms, the major components of track carrying structure are very similar to
their non-railway counterparts. In addition to the types of construction, the engineer
must also choose from among the available material alternatives. Generally, these are
limited to timber, concrete and steel, or a combination of the three. Exotic materials
can also be considered, but they are beyond the scope of this book. Each material has
its specific advantages. Timber is economical, but has strength and life limitations.
Structural timber of the size and grade traditionally used for railway structures is getting
more difficult to obtain at a price competitive with concrete or steel. Concrete is also
economical, but its strength to weight ratio is poor. Steel has a good strength to weight
ratio, but is expensive. The material chosen for the spans will generally determine the
designation of the bridge. For instance, steel beam spans on timber piles will be
considered a steel bridge.
The point where one form of construction with a certain type of material becomes
advantageous over another is a matter of site conditions, span length, tonnage carried
and railway preference. While initial cost of construction is a major point in the
decision process, the engineer must keep in mind such additional factors as
construction under traffic and the long-term maintainability of the final design.
30 Selected materials from “Railway Track & Structures Cyclopedia,” 1955 Edition, Simmons-Boardman
Publishing Company
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8.2.1 Substructure
The substructure consists of abutments and piers and includes the foundations
supporting them. The substructure transmits to the underlying soil the forces
comprising the dead load of the superstructure and substructure, the live load effect of
passing traffic, and the forces from wind, water, etc. The substructure will generally
consist of pile foundations, spread footings, piers and abutments and/or any
combination of the three.
Investigate Underlying Soil and Geologic Conditions

Before proceeding with the design of a railway bridge, a careful investigation of the
underlying soils should be made. Chapter 8, Part 22 of the AREMA Manual for
Railway Engineering provides extensive recommendations on subsurface geotechnical
exploration. Analysis of information obtained by borings may reveal the necessity or
advisability of driving test piles. If conditions demand the use of pile foundations, the
relative merits of treated timber, concrete and steel piles should be carefully weighed.
The stability of the substructure is obviously essential to that of the structure as a

whole. Its condition should be under observation at all times, and special inspections
should be performed during and after freshets, ice gorges, cloudbursts and other
unusual happenings, which could have the potential of seriously impacting the safety of
the structure. Immediately following such an occurrence, bridge piers and abutments
should be examined carefully for evidence of scour or other adverse condition.
Piling
Today, most railway bridge foundations begin with driven piles or caissons. Piles may
support some other footing component such as piers or tower legs or they may
continue to become part of the bent as in trestle construction. While new construction
typically favors either precast concrete or steel H-piles, timber piles still have a use in
the repair of existing structures and for temporary construction. Concrete piles are
usually used for large, heavy structures and are very durable, but are difficult to splice.
Steel H-piles are easier to drive and splice, and work well in end bearing when driven
into rock to resist settlement. Concrete-filled pipe piles have greater bearing capacity,
but are more difficult to drive and splice. Pipe piles possess large moment of inertia;
therefore, they are suitable for resisting lateral forces. Alternatively, caissons are large
diameter reinforced concrete shafts, usually steel lined and installed by drilling. They
are capable of supporting very large loads with minimum settlement.
Piling may be placed in two general classifications:
1. A bearing/friction pile, which is a timber, concrete or a steel structural element, is

driven, jetted or otherwise embedded on end into the ground to support a load.
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2. A sheet pile, which forms a continuous interlocking line of timber, concrete or

steel piles, is driven close together to form a wall designed to resist the lateral
pressure of water, earth or other materials. Timber and concrete sheet
piles are tongued-and-grooved, while steel sheet piles are usually interlocking.
Piles are further distinguished by terminology describing their purpose. For example,
batter or spur piles are driven at an angle to resist a combination of vertical and lateral
forces. Guide or anchor piles are used to provide lateral support for timbers and
walers. Fender piles are used to protect masonry structures, such as piers. Piles are
usually driven by diesel hammers, with or without the use of water jets, or by driving in
pre-bored holes, or in some cases by the use of hydrostatic pressure. Certain
types of concrete piles are cast in place.
The capacity of a pile as a structural member is based on allowable stresses

established in the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering, Specifications for
Timber Structures, Chapter 7; in Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Chapter
8; or in the Specifications for Steel Structures, Chapter 15.
Timber Piles
Timber piles, when large enough and properly braced, can safely sustain loads ranging
from 15 tons to 20 tons each. Consideration must be given to the imposition of
bending moments from imposed lateral forces, which may be necessary for a pile to
resist. The relative straightness of the pile also must be considered, since a vertical
force on a crooked pile produces eccentric loading with accompanying bending
stresses.
Embedded in moist ground or submerged in water, timber piles are relatively

immune to decay. Timber piles exposed to the air without treatment or other
special protection will decay within a few years. Treated or untreated timber
pile, however, is susceptible to certain marine organisms found in warm waters.
The wood selected for piling should be of a nature that it will not tend to disintegrate
under the impact of the driving hammer, and which will offer the maximum resistance
to decay. White oak, cypress and long-leaf yellow pine are particularly suited to this
purpose. Spruce and hemlock are also adaptable, and tamarack is extensively used with
satisfactory results in the western section of North America. The general requirements
for First-Class timber piles (suitable for railway bridge applications) are noted in
Chapter 7, Section 1.9.3 of the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering.
Each pile consists of the trunk or bole of an individual tree, and the ordinary range of
length is from 20 to 60 ft. In special cases, local conditions may make it necessary to
penetrate to exceptional depth to obtain footing on a sound-bearing stratum. The
above lengths may be exceeded, either by single piles or by splicing two or more
ordinary length piles. Piles up to 120 ft in length have been produced. Often, wooden
cleats are used for splices to secure longer lengths when needed. Piles falling into the
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classification of Second-Class may be used for cofferdams, falsework, temporary

work and light foundations. The AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering.
Chapter 7, Section 1.9, Tables 7-1-1 and 7-1-2 provide required dimensional sizing
for both timber piles used for frictional resistance and end bearing.
Timber piling above ground or water level is subject to decay, even when treated. One
or two defective piles can be spliced into the bent without re-framing the entire bent.
However, a number of criteria should be entertained before doing so, including:
• Condition of the existing piles below the ground line
• Height and length of the bridge
• Density, weight and speed of traffic
• Grade and alignment of the bridge
• Service life remaining in the structure as a unit
Splicing in a pile or post is a satisfactory means of continuing a bridge in service

until maximum service has been secured from other piles in the bridge.
Steel Piles
Steel piles may be divided in two general

classifications: rolled "H" and tubular sections;
the latter usually being filled with concrete after
driving.
Steel piling, whether on dry land or in

submerged locations, may be driven to form
bents and encased in concrete to form a pier,
thus enhancing the strength and providing
protection for the steel.
H-Beam Sections
H-beam piles (Figure 8-2) are rolled metal
sections, possessing wide flanges, and are de-
signed especially for pile loading. H-beam Figure 8-2 H-pile Pier - Railway Track & Structures
piles provide strength both in tension and Cyclopedia, 1955, Simmons-Boardman Publishing
compression with smaller cross-sectional area
than other types of piles for a given load. They are well adapted to deep penetration
because of their relatively small point area. Their volume displacement is also small.
Other advantages of H-beam piles include their relative immunity to breakage under
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the impact of the hammer and their ability to penetrate hard formations such as coarse
gravel, compacted sand, and uneven soft rock or shale.
This type of pile is very well adapted to serve as a bearing pile at locations where the
soil strata above suitable bearing material (such as rock or hard pan) is shallow and
affords little frictional resistance. Disadvantages include susceptibility to corrosion and
under stray current conditions, electrolytic action. Used in friction bearing alone, H-
beam piles will generally require a greater length of penetration than a displacement
type of pile of the same load-bearing capacity.
Tubular Steel Sections

Tubular steel pile, filled with plain or reinforced concrete, is frequently used for special
types of bridge pier construction. Other types of tubular steel pile use a cold-rolled
fluted section, which also may be tapered.
Concrete Piles
Concrete piles are relatively immune to the ordinary forces of deterioration and decay
in the atmosphere and to the attacks of marine borers in the water. They also have a
greater bearing capacity for the individual pile in comparison with timber piles. A
concrete pile can be designed to suit the actual conditions under which it is to be used.
The use of large dimension concrete piling sometimes will permit a reduction in the
dimension of the foundation to accommodate restricted space. Concrete piles are also
used satisfactorily for trestle bents and sheet piling.
Concrete piles are capable of supporting loads up to 40 or 50 tons each. Ordinary

diameters range from 10 inches to 24 inches with lengths from 20 ft to 60 ft. In some
cases, concrete piles in lengths up to 120 ft have been cast and driven successfully with
special equipment required for driving. Concrete piles are of two general types: precast
and those that are cast-in-place.
Precast Concrete Piles

Piles of this type are so named because they are cast, centrifugal cast or extruded prior
to use. They are driven in much the same manner as timber piles. Precast piles (Figure
8-3) represent a wide variety of detail in design and reinforcement. The transverse
cross-section may be square, hexagonal, octagonal, round, etc., and may vary from
complete uniformity from end to end, to a taper of as much as 1/4 in. per ft (down to
8” for a 10” diameter pile). The taper required is a function of the type of soil into
which the pile is to be driven. Piles, which are to bear on a hard stratum and to act
substantially as columns, should be of uniform cross-section; while those which are to
be embedded in soft material and to derive their support from the skin friction of the
surrounding material, should be tapered.
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Concrete piles may be driven in the same manner as timber or steel piles. A driving
head or anvil fitted with cushion blocks should be used to protect the pile head from
the direct impact of the moving part of the hammer. While concrete piles of proper
strength will withstand hard driving, the hammering should be continued only for the
period necessary to secure the penetration required to support the designed load.
Water jets, either with separate jet pipes or holes within the pile are sometimes used to
assist in driving concrete, as well as other pile types in very hard stratums.
Figure 8-3 Concrete Precast Piles - Railway Track & Structures Cyclopedia – 1955, Simmons-Boardman Publishing Co.
When it is impossible to drive a concrete pile to its full depth, it may be cut off by using
a concrete friction saw and by torching the reinforcement with an oxy-acetylene torch.
It is desirable to leave enough reinforcement above the cut-off so that a bond may be
secured with the concrete footing or with the concrete cap, which rests on the pile.
When a concrete pile is too short, removing a portion of the concrete near the top
and utilizing the exposed reinforcement to provide a bond with the extension may
splice it.
Cast-In-Place Concrete Piles

The cast-in-place concrete pile comprises a column of concrete formed by pouring the
concrete into a metal shell or tube previously driven to the required depth. The
advantages of this type of pile over the precast pile are found in the avoidance of pile
damage during handling and driving. The disadvantage of this type of pile is that they
are not suitable for use immediately upon placing, but must cure before loading. There
is also the potential for fracture due to the shifting of the soil during the driving of
additional piles in the vicinity. Dense, high-strength plain or reinforced concrete and
heavy shells must be used.
Reinforcement is generally used for cast-in-place piles subject to lateral forces. Where
this is done, the reinforcement should be fabricated and accurately placed as a unit, in
order that the pile actually conforms to the design.
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Abutments and Piers

Other common foundations
are piers and abutments.
The earliest designs of
bridge piers and abutments
included outer walls of
masonry, usually limestone
or granite, with the inner
core filled with old rubble.
Current designs are usually
of reinforced concrete Figure 8-4 Reinforced Concrete Piers - Courtesy of BNSF
(Figure 8-4). These piers
and abutments may rest
on driven piles or may be “gravity walls” supported only by spread footings.
The design and location of the abutments and piers are dependent on the
general design of the structure as a whole. Local conditions such as the
natural features at the point of crossing, the type of traffic (train consist) to
which the structure will be subjected, and legal requirements and property
rights will govern the design.
The rights of adjacent property owners, the requirements of public travel,

water-borne traffic and the jurisdiction of public regulatory bodies must
receive due consideration in advance of the completion of the design and
certainly before construction begins. If the bridge crosses a navigable stream
within the United States or a wetland is impacted, the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, the United States Coast Guard (in some cases) and numerous state
and local regulatory agencies have jurisdiction and the proper permits must
be secured. (See Chapter 11, Environmental Regulations & Permitting of the
Practical Guide to Railway Engineering) Simple economics may not always
govern the design of the structure in the long run.
Abutments
The three primary types of abutments are the "wing," the "U" and the "T."
Modifications of these types are the "breast," the "buried," the "arch," and the
"hollow" or "box" abutments. All types possess one characteristic feature, the body or
face portion, commonly called the breast, which supports the bridge seat.
The "wing" abutment is the type most widely used where the embankment is not a
high fill. It consists of a simple breast wall, flanked by wings. The wings may be
turned backwards at an angle of approximately 30 degrees or more with the face of the
breast, when required by local conditions. The upper surface of the wings is sloped to
conform to the natural slope of the surcharge that it is retaining. The counterfort and
buttress types of abutments are modifications of the "wing" abutment.
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The "U" abutment is characterized by two wings, which extend backwards from the
ends of the breast and at right angles to its face. This type is sometimes modified into
the so-called "pulpit" abutment, where the wing length is long enough only to keep the
bridge seat clean of the surcharge material behind the abutment.
The "T" abutment is similar to the breast type with the addition of a stem, which
extends backwards from the center of the rear face to the top of the embankment
slope, and is used to stabilize the breast and to bridge the slope of the embankment.
The "breast" type of abutment is a modification of the "wing" abutment in which the
wings are eliminated and square ends are provided. It is commonly used at locations
where the embankment is relatively low and water flow is negligible.
The "buried" abutment has an opening through the wall, where the surcharge spills
around the ends and through the wall opening. This construction is desirable when the
approach fill is very high because the continuous fill through the wall results in a
material reduction of pressure behind an otherwise solid wall.
The "arch" abutment may be considered a modification of the "U" abutment, where
the parallel sidewalls consist of one or more arches. This type is adapted to locations
where embankments are so high that "wing" and "U" abutments would be
uneconomical. The number and size of the arches are dependent upon the height of
the bridge and the type of superstructure.
The "hollow" or "box" abutment was a type frequently adopted in grade separation
work, at points where city streets are carried beneath railway tracks. Such a unit
consists of a concrete box provided with a solid rear wall, floor and top. The front is
usually open and is composed of two or more columns, or an arch. This type of
abutment bridges the sidewalk and supports the ends of the railway span.
Design of Abutments
Abutments must be stable against overturning in front of the footing or in the face of
the wall, and must be safe against crushing, sliding on the foundation or on any
horizontal section through the structure. Abutments may be of the gravity wall design,
where the abutment is so proportioned such that no reinforcement steel other than
temperature steel is required; or they may be of the semi-gravity style, where the unit is
so proportioned that some steel reinforcement is required along the back and along the
lower side of the toe. The resultant force on the base of a wall or abutment should be
considered to fall within the middle third of the structure if it is founded on soil and
within the middle half of the structure if founded on rock, masonry or piling. The
vertical loads to be carried are the live loads (except for impact), dead loads from the
weight of the span and weight of the abutment and part of the earth on the footing,
depending on the design of the abutment. The lateral forces parallel to the axis of the
bridge are the train-produced longitudinal forces and the surcharge pressure from the
earth due to both its weight and live load. At right angles to the axis of the bridge are
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the wind loads to be included from the superstructure. See AREMA Manual for
Railway Engineering, Chapter 8, Section 5.3 for more details regarding applied loads.
Piers
Piers constitute the intermediate supports for multiple-span bridges. They should rest
on stable, unyielding foundations with their bases well below frost line, and also below
the elevation of any possible scouring action. Most of the older piers are of the mass
type, either solid or cellular, and are built of stone masonry, concrete or reinforced
concrete. They require for their construction, the use of cofferdams or caissons con-
forming to the relative size of each pier and, in depth, to the elevation of suitable
bearing strata.
Cofferdams generally are rectangular in shape and are built to expose the earth strata
below the ground surface or the excavation within the enclosed area. They are
watertight to the extent required and need strength to resist pressures from the outside.
The cofferdam should be designed such that the combined cost of construction,
maintenance and pumping is held to a minimum. Those of relatively small size and
depth are sheeted with single or double-row sheeting, while steel sheet piling are
commonly used for larger and deeper cofferdams.
Today, use of the mass-type piers in new construction has given way to more suitable
and less costly types of pier. These include:
• Metal-shell cylinder piers and reinforced-concrete cylinder piers
• Precast reinforced-concrete piles
• Steel pipe piles (straight or tapered) filled with concrete
• Rolled H-section steel piles
Caissons are used in the construction of bridge piers at locations where other types of
piers are impracticable due to the depth of water or overburden above the elevation of
suitable bearing strata.
8.2.2 Superstructure
The superstructure is the portion of a bridge supporting and conveying the live load to
the substructure on which it rests. As a structural element, it is the portion of the
bridge spanning the opening. The superstructure consists of arches, slabs, beams,
girders, trusses or troughs, and such floor systems and bracing as may be required.
Superstructures may be divided into two general classes: steel spans and concrete spans
(which include stone masonry).
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The nature of the obstacle being crossed will drive most superstructure design
decisions with the ultimate goal to achieve the least overall lifecycle cost for the
structure. For short (height) structures, trestle construction is favored due to the
economies of pile bents. Conversely, taller structures over good footing are likely to be
viaducts with longer spans supported by towers. Where there is insufficient clearance
over navigable waterways, moveable spans may be necessary. The addition of longer
or moveable spans to clear main channels does not significantly affect the design of the
balance of the structure. However, as the structure becomes taller, the economies of
pile bents are diminished due to the need to strengthen the relatively slender
components.
The alternative to conventional trestle construction is trestle on towers, otherwise

known as viaducts. Trestle on towers can offer a significant reduction in footprint for
only a moderate increase in span requirements. It is customary for the spans to be of
alternating lengths, with the short span over the tower equal to the leg spacing at the
top of the tower. This ensures that each span remains a simple span with full bearing
at the ends of the span. Of course, trestle construction represents the typical site
conditions. More demanding site conditions may require exotic solutions. For
example, very tall, very short (length) conditions may lend themselves to arch
construction, whereas for transit operations, very long main span requirements may
lend themselves to suspension type construction and some trestles on towers may be
better constructed as a series of arches.
8.2.3 Bridge Deck

The bridge deck is that portion of a
railway bridge that supplies a means of
carrying the track rails. In comparison
to the rest of the superstructure design,
bridge deck decisions are relatively simple.
The choices are open deck and ballast
deck. On open deck bridges (Figure 8-
5), the rails are anchored directly to
timber bridge ties supported directly
on the floor system of the
superstructure. On ballasted bridge Figure 8-5 Open Deck Structure - Courtesy of Canadian
decks, the rails are anchored directly National
to timber track ties supported in the
ballast section. The ballasted bridge
decks require a floor to support the ballast section and such floors are
designated by their types, such as timber floors, structural plate floors, buckle
plate floors or concrete slab floors, all of which transfer loads directly to the
superstructure.
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Variations from the two general types of bridge deck construction consist of track rails
anchored directly to steel or concrete-slab superstructures (direct fixation) and the
several types of concrete-encased beam spans or concrete-filled steel-trough
superstructures on which the ballast section is placed. The latter types of structures
have many examples still in service today, but are not generally cost-effective for new
construction.
Some might consider the notion of bridge railings to be an odd bridge design
consideration. Railway bridges traditionally have not been designed for the conveyance
of anything other than railway traffic, which does not in and of itself, require any sort
of railing whatsoever. Recently, however, a greater focus upon railway worker safety
has resulted in railings being widely incorporated.
Open Bridge Decks

Many different considerations enter
into the choice of open or ballast
decks, and the selection usually is
governed by the requirements of
each individual structure. Open
decks are less costly and are free
draining (Figure 8-6), but their use
over streets and highways requires
additional measures such as
canopies, plates or wooden flooring Figure 8-6 Open Deck Bridge - Courtesy of Metra
to protect highway traffic from
falling objects, water or other materials during the movement of trains.
Open-deck construction establishes a permanent elevation for the rails. Normal

surfacing and lining operations, particularly in curves, eventually result in line swings
leading into the fixed bridge. The grade frequently is raised to the extent that the
bridge eventually becomes low. The bridge dumps are of a different modulus than the
rigid deck. Thus, it becomes difficult to maintain surface off of the bridge as well.
This equates to extensive maintenance costs that shortly will surpass the first cost
savings gained by installing an open deck bridge over a ballast deck bridge. In welded
rail, tight rail conditions can occur at the fixed ends of an open deck bridge, thus
requiring an increased level of surveillance in hot weather.
Requirements for Ties

For ballast deck structures, bridge ties are no different than those found in traditional
track construction. However, in track constructed with concrete ties, the track is often
times transitioned to timber ties before crossing the structure. Some railway companies
and agencies have had difficulty with fouled ballast, track alignment and deck surface
damage resulting from the use of concrete ties on bridges. Individual railway
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companies have established policies relating to the use of concrete ties on or around
bridge structures that should be reviewed prior to design.
Bridge ties are commonly 10 – 12 feet long and range from 8” by 8” in swection to 8”
by 14.” Longer ties are utilized for bridge walkways. The tie spacing is typically 4
inches between ties for open deck bridges and the usual track tie spacing for ballast
deck bridges. It must be recognized that the tie functions as a beam and it must
withstand bending and shear stresses, hold the rail to gage and transfer the rail load to
the supporting members of the floor system. Open deck bridge ties typically utilize a
softwood species of timber.
Superelevation on Decks
The superelevation of curved track on a bridge is obtained by:
• Sloping the pile or post cut-off of timber trestles.
• Tilting the superstructures of I-beam and shallow girder spans.
• Framing the floor system out of level transversely on through spans.
• Tapering the bridge ties.
• Increasing the depth of ballast under one rail on a ballasted-deck bridge.
Framing the floor system involves significant detailing and fabrication and is not often
performed. The other methods are commonly employed.
High speeds in all classes of train service greatly intensify the problems connected with
superelevation and alignment on curves. The eccentricity between the curve alignment
and that of the bridge structure produces differences in stress in similar members of a
floor system, dependent upon their location. Careful analysis must be done to insure
that none of these members are overstressed.
Bridge Tie Framing
Bridge ties sometimes are dapped where they contact the supporting steel as an aid in
maintaining good track alignment over the bridge. This necessitates adzing the tie
bottom at each flange edge, which may result in undesirable horizontal shear cracks
extending inward from the bottom of the dap. AREMA recommends that the dap not
exceed the flange width by greater than ½ inch and that the depth of the dap be not
more than ½ inch. Where dapping is practiced, the depth should be held to the very
minimum required and careful check should be made to determine that the remaining
depth of the tie is ample to carry the loads. Where cover plates do not extend the full
length of the span, wood shims or steel plates may be added to bring the tie support
surface to the same plane, or specially-framed wood shims of proper thickness may be
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fastened with metal straps to the bottoms of bridge ties to bring all ties to the required
surface. Procedures for dapping and/or shimming ties for superelevation are covered
in Chapter 7 of the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering, Section 1.14.7.
Ballasted Decks
A ballasted deck (Figure 8-7)
provides a better riding track. The
track modulus is consistent on the
dumps of the bridge as well as
across the bridge. Thus, one is
unlikely to have surface runoff
problems on the bridge dumps.
Surfacing and lining operations can
continue across the bridge
unimpeded. However, care must be
exercised to maintain a permanent
grade line in the vicinity of and over Figure 8-7 Ballast Decked Bridge. – Courtesy of Canadian National
a ballasted deck bridge to be certain
that excessive quantities of ballast are not accumulated on the bridge structure through
track raises during successive reballasting operations.
Ballasted decks (Figure 8-8), irrespective of the type of bridge floor, afford a
considerable measure of protection to the steel floor system against damage from
derailed car wheels traveling across the bridge. Over roadways, vehicles and the public
are protected from dropping ballast and material off of the cars.
Ballast
The depth of ballast contributes to

the satisfactory functioning of
ballasted decks on railway bridges.
It is generally agreed that 6 inches
to 12 inches of ballast under the
ties is adequate and that more than
12 inches is undesirable because
of the potential of overload
involved, except when provision is
made in the design for a greater
load. Many designers calculate the
dead load on the basis of 18
inches to 24 inches of ballast to
accommodate future raises. Figure 8-8 Ballast Decked Structure - Courtesy of Metra
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Bridge Floors
A bridge floor for a ballasted-deck span is designed, such that as nearly as possible, the
bridge track section replicates the track conditions on the adjoining bridge dumps. The
ballast pan must have sufficient capacity to carry the heavy dead load of the floor and
the ballast, and also to properly distribute the live and dead loads from various types of
bridge floors to the supporting superstructure. The arrangement of the members in a
floor system supporting a bridge floor is different from the arrangement of longitudinal
stringers and transverse floorbeams, which make up the floor system of many open-
deck spans.
A bridge floor for a ballasted deck may conform to one of several types including:
a) Concrete segmented girder spans incorporating the concrete ballast pan within the
segmented unit.
b) Creosoted timber planks laid transversely to the track and supported on a suitable
floor system of timber or steel.
c) Reinforced concrete slabs laid transversely to the track and supported on deck-
plate girder spans or on a specially designed floor system of through-girder and
through-truss spans.
d) Structural plates (Figure 8-9) supported by stringers (longitudinal I-beams) for

short spans and floor beams (I-beams placed transversely to the track and framed
to longitudinal members) for longer spans.
e) Structural troughs placed longitudinally for short spans and transversely for the
longer spans, with concrete filling in the down troughs and covering the entire
floor area.
f) Structural plates, which bare on a

series of transverse tees, the vertical
legs of which vary in height and also
are tapered. The result is a floor
sloped for drainage in both
directions, and the bases of which
are supported by wide flange beam
sets or structural plates, which bear
on transverse I-beams supported on
deck girders.
Trough Floors Figure 8-9 Ballast Pan on Stringers - Courtesy of Metra
The steel-trough bridge floor has been used in the past primarily for ballasted deck
structures over city streets, particularly in connection with track elevation work.
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Although more cost effective designs are available today for new construction, there
are large numbers of this type of deck structure still in existence in major urban areas.
Longitudinal troughs are used at locations where crossings intersect at approximately
right angles and where columns are permitted at the center of the street. Such troughs
are supported on cross girders framed to the columns, while the outside legs of the two
outside troughs are extended upward to form the ballast stops.
After erection, the down-troughs are filled with concrete, which also covers the
entire area to a depth of about 3 inches above the tops of the troughs at the end of
the bridge, and about 4 inches above the troughs at the center of the bridge.
Along the sides, the concrete filling is flared up against the ballast stops for
varying distances above the top of the rail. The concrete filling is sloped for
drainage in such a manner as to permit delivery of the water to drain pipes located
below the bridge seat level. Suitable reinforcement should be provided
immediately below the top of the concrete filling, particularly in the area above the
cross girders; otherwise, deflection under live loads will cause transverse cracks in
the concrete. The use of trough floors at locations, where the intersecting angle
with the street is acute, or where roadways of unusual width are required,
necessitates placing the troughs transversely to the track and framing them to
through girders or to through trusses. The design details of these floors are
essentially the same as for longitudinal troughs, the exception being the necessity
for drain holes through the floors to avoid long, flat slopes for drainage, which in
turn, requires the installation of a drainage system to dispose of the accumulated
water.
Drainage
The primary requisites for bridge floors are economy, minimum weight and water
tightness, together with strength and shallow depth. Comparisons of economy
should include cost of materials, fabrication and erection. Bridge floors not only
catch water but also retain it. As the track must be removed prior, replacement
and maintenance of the bridge decks can be difficult and expensive. Every
precaution should be taken to insure long life, which requires that all bridge floors
be protected by waterproofing. Water falling on the track percolates through the
ballast to the waterproofing where it remains, unless some suitable means for
quick runoff has been provided. Quick runoff of precipitation is dependent upon
clean ballast and a well-designed drainage system delivering water to outlets
through the floor or to drain pipes located at the back of the abutments.
Open Deck vs. Ballast Deck

In addition to the obvious weight and construction costs, each of the span alternatives
has their unique safety, environmental and maintenance concerns. In some instances,
these intangible factors can carry more weight than the resulting cost implications.
Only the governing railway can provide guidance as to the importance of these and
related issues.
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Concrete ballast decks are almost never cast in place in railway structures. They are
typically precast or prestressed sections placed on the structure after steel erection.
This means they cannot be considered part of a composite structure and offer no
structural benefit, as would a similar concrete deck in the highway counterpart.
There are also operating disadvantages to the use of open deck bridges that
may not be readily apparent. Bridge maintenance must often be performed
under contractual agreements by bridge and building department forces. Thus,
any operation involving an open bridge deck, e.g., renewal of plate cut ties,
must be performed by bridge department personnel. As the adjacent track is
also affected by anything affecting the elevation of the rails running across the
bridge deck, track department forces must also be involved. Most railways
have severely reduced their bridge gang rosters. Thus, it becomes a real
logistics problem to have both groups present at the same time. On ballast
deck structures, the ballasted trackage is considered track department work.
Thus, surfacing operations and tie change-out can proceed unhindered.
Anchorage of Bridge Ties
Bridge ties on open-deck spans are held in position by bolts through the ties in
line with the edge of supporting members (i.e., stringers). Usually two hook bolts
are used on every third, fourth or fifth tie. The rail may or may not incorporate
rail anchors. Anchoring rail on longer open deck structures can create alignment
problems resulting from the thermal expansion of the rail. Most traditional
mechanisms for fixing the bridge ties to the bridge cannot effectively transfer
longitudinal forces. The servicing railroad guidelines pertaining to the anchorage
of rail over both ballast and open deck structures should be consulted for
guidance in this area.
Guard Timbers
Bridge ties are held to a uniform spacing by longitudinal timbers, called "guard
timbers", placed outside of the track rails and fastened to the ties by bolts or lag screws.
These guard timbers may be 4” x 8” or 6” x 8” in size. The 4” guard timbers are
not dapped over the ties, while the 6” timbers generally are dapped (Check
with individual railway standards).
Inner Guard Rails
In addition to the guard timbers, two lines of inner guard rails (Figure 8-10) are often
used on each track on open and ballasted-deck bridges of such length as individual
railways require. The two types commonly used are structural angles with a backing
timber (found often on branch lines) and T-rails. On new installations, T-rails are
generally used, even to the extent of replacing the angle guards when their renewals are
necessary.
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Scrap rails of a rail section smaller than

the running rails are often used for inner
guard rail. Each rail is placed on the
inside of the running rail, often without
the use of tie plates. Guard rails should
be spiked to every tie and spliced at
every joint. They should extend beyond
the bridge ends in the direction of
approaching traffic. The ends should
terminate in a frog point or be joined
and securely fastened so that a derailed
truck will be straightened in direction
and guided into the space between the
Figure 8-10 Inside Tee Guard Rails - Courtesy of BNSF
running rail and the guard rail, thereby
minimizing the damage that otherwise
might result.
8.3 Bridge Types

8.3.1 Timber Trestles
The term, trestle, is commonly applied to a railway bridge with relatively short spans,
constructed of timber, concrete or steel.
While the advent of economical steel construction has more or less eliminated timber
from new mainline structures of any size, the lower initial cost and ease of construction
still makes timber construction attractive for many light density lines. Additionally,
because of the relative ease of repair, many significant older timber structures remain in
service today.
In all of North America, timber trestles are the preponderant type of structure still
found on branch lines, short lines and at temporary crossings. The timber used for
timber trestles should be of a firm, close texture, which will afford strong structural
members and offer maximum resistance to decay. A dense grade of Southern Pine,
Douglas Fir or White Oak is suitable for this purpose. The timber selected should be
sound, free from knots, pitch pockets and other imperfections that might impair its
strength or durability. There is seldom justification for using untreated timber.
Terminology
The trestle supports are designated as "bents." (Figure 8-11) Each bent consists of
posts (commonly four to six, but may be more or less depending on the design),
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transversely secured at the top with a member called a cap. The number of posts
utilized depends on the loading conditions, span length, soil and geology conditions
and the height of bents (which affects the structure’s lateral stability), as well as the
individual railway’s standards. When the lower ends of the supporting posts are driven
into the ground, the structure is known as a "pile trestle." In other cases, the bottom of
the bent as well as the top is secured by transverse framing and the bridge becomes a
"frame bent trestle."
Figure 8-11 Typical Timber Pile Bent
The center vertical posts used in each bent are known as "plumb posts," and take the
vertical loads. The outside inclined posts, known as "batter posts," the tops being tilted
toward the center of the bent and serving the purpose of giving increased stability, are
installed adjacent to the plumb posts. The batter of these outside posts may vary
between 1-1/2 and 3 inches per foot. Sway bracing provides additional lateral stability
by the use of planks extending diagonally across the bent, through bolted to the ends
of the cap and sill and also to the posts or piles. A similar brace, but placed with the
opposite direction in slope, is installed on the opposite side of the bent such that the
two braces cross in the middle. See Figure 8-11.
For trestles higher than 30 feet, a second bent is added to the top of the existing bent.
Successive stories are added, not exceeding 20 to 30 feet in height, until the required
elevation is reached. The bottom panel may be either pile or a frame bent; the upper
stories are framed bents, each attached to the top of the lower panel. Each story has its
own sway bracing. Shorter bents may utilize a transverse horizontal brace on each side
of the bent in lieu of the diagonal bracing where sufficient height does not exist to
install conventional sway bracing. Higher single story or multiple story bents often
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utilize horizontal bracing between bents called girts, which resist applied longitudinal
loads.
For high timber trestles, the piles are often cut off at the ground line and the sill of the
bottom story is framed on the pile tops. The transverse top members, or caps, are
pinned to the bents by means of drift bolts, ¾ inches in diameter and 24 inches or
longer in length. Attachment of the longitudinal girts and other bracing is done by
through bolting the members.
Caps
Caps are typically 12-16 inches in section (width and thickness) and extend the width of
the bent, commonly 13-16 feet for single tracks. Bent caps transfer the loads from the
stringers to the pile or frame posts. False caps of varying thickness are used to shim up
the height of the deck structure when required. Sills, the bottom transverse frame bent
member atop the pile, are caps of the same dimensions, but may be longer in length.
Stringers
The stringers are structural
members extending parallel to
the rail and spanning the
openings between the bents.
(See Figure 8-12) Depending
on individual railway
standards, they will range in
size from 7 to 10 inches wide
by 14 to 18 inches deep and
one or two spans in length
depending on their location.
The maximum span for the Figure 8-12 Timber Stringers and Cap - Courtesy of Metra
timber spans commonly in
use today is 13 to 15 feet.
On open deck bridges, the stringers are chorded into a minimum of three and generally
four or more beams with each adjacent stringer joint offset by one span length from its
adjacent neighbor stringers for three span or longer structures. Each group of stringers
is centered under the rail in order that load distribution is symmetrical.
On ballast decked bridges, spaced stringers with planking form the pan for a ballast
deck. The spacing of stringers facilitates load distribution from the deck and
inspection and stringer change-out. The longitudinal stringers should be spaced not
less than 7 to 8 inches apart, as this will permit the insertion of suitable reinforcing
timbers, if needed.
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Timber Connectors
Timber connectors are used extensively in the construction of timber trestles. They
consist of metal rings, plates or grids, which when embedded partly in the faces of
overlapping members, transmits loads from one structural member to another. Certain
types, such as the split ring and the flanged shear plate, fit into precut grooves or daps.
Other types, such as the toothed ring and the spike grid, are embedded in the timbers
by means of pressure.
The action of the connector in the joint is to increase the shear area, which actually
carries the load. In timber joints, it is in the section of the timber nearest the
contacting faces that the greatest shear stresses are developed. By embedding the
connectors in this highly stressed shear area, the efficiency of the joint is strengthened
significantly. For example, a 4-inch split ring with a 3/4-inch bolt will carry three times
the load of a 3/4-inch bolt alone.
8.3.2 Steel Bridges

Typical steel construction covers the entire range from short simple beam spans on pile
bents to large through trusses over major obstacles. In between, there is every possible
combination of span and tower design. However, regardless of the specific span type,
most steel structures are designed with simple spans. This facilitates ease of
construction and maintenance under traffic. It also allows spans to be cascaded to
different locations as needs arise. Simple spans are easier to analyze and for the most
part, use simple, economical details.
Girder Spans
For short spans, rolled or welded sections are well suited for most applications. Spans
up to seventy feet have been constructed using rolled steel beams. However, fifty feet
is generally considered a practical maximum for rolled steel sections exclusive of special
situations. Such structures are easy to fabricate and readily accept open and ballast
decks. Additionally, they can be made more compact (top of rail to lowest member) by
using multiple beams spaced with diaphragms.
For spans over fifty feet, rolled sections

generally do not offer sufficient section
modulus to control deflection. For these
longer spans, a built up section (Figure 8-
13) is more desirable as it produces a more
efficient use of the material. Such built up
sections are either welded or bolted plate
girders and can achieve spans of 150 to
180 feet. These girder spans fall into two
Figure 8-13 Built-up Girders with Diaphragms -
Courtesy of Metra
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categories: Deck Plate Girders (DPG) and Through Plate Girders (TPG).
Deck plate girders (Figure 8-14)

are typically the preferred design
for locations where vertical
clearance under the bridge is not
critical, i.e., over streams or non-
navigable rivers or on high fills.
The top flange of the deck plate
girder can be utilized to support
the deck, thus no flooring system
is required. (See Figure 8-15) Figure 8-14 Deck Plate Girder - Courtesy of Metra
The elimination of the floor

framing system and the need for
girder bracing with knee braces
required of through plate girders,
makes the deck plate girder the
more efficient and cost effective
design. Deck plate girders are well
suited for either open or ballast
decks. However, the engineer
must consider the presence of
cover plates on the top flange for
long spans and make the
appropriate allowances in the deck
structure. This may require Figure 8-15 Schematic of a Deck Plate Girder - Courtesy of Canadian
specific dapping of the wood ties National
in open decks or different ballast
pans in concrete ballast decks. The governing railway must be consulted for their
standard details in this matter. Deck plate girders also require a greater total envelope
beneath the track structure, thus limiting clearances below.
As indicated above, through plate

girders are less efficient than deck
plate girders of equal length. This
is because the top cannot be
directly supported and there is the
added weight of the floor system
(Figure 8-16). Knee braces are
incorporated at each floor beam
to girder connection to provide
top of girder support. The floor
system may consist of transverse
Figure 8-16 Schematic of Through Plate Girder - Courtesy of
Canadian National
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floor beams alone, as in the case of some ballast deck designs (Figure 8-17), or it may
consist of floor beams and stringers in both ballast and open deck designs. The
stringer and floor beam flooring system (Figure 8-18) drives the need for a deeper
girder because of the greater depth required of the stringers to carry the imposed loads
on the entire panel between floor beams rather than the distributed load spread out to
each close-centered floor beam. Combined, these two factors make for a heavier span
than a deck plate girder span of equal length. However, given the opportunity to
decrease the depth of construction from the top of rail to lowest member, through
plate girder spans are frequently employed in tight clearance situations such as over
roadways.
The engineer must pay particular attention to side clearances since the track is
effectively inside the structure. Special precautions must be taken when renewing
bridge ties on through plate girder bridges utilizing an open deck in CWR – particularly
in hot weather or in curves during cool weather. The girders typically do not provide
sufficient clearance to remove/install the ties without jacking one rail up in each panel.
Often the rail must be cut.
Figure 8-18 Transverse Floorbeams on TPG - Figure 8-17 Stringer and Floorbeam Combination on TPG -
Courtesy of Metra Courtesy of Metra
The pony through plate girder is a compromise between the through plate girder and
the deck plate girder. In the pony girder, the floor beam connections to the
longitudinal girders are made about half way up the girder. This minimizes the need
for the knee brace system to support the girder, but it also reduces the vertical
clearance under the structure as well, although not to the extent of the deck plate
girder.
Truss Spans
Steel trusses (Figure 8-19) offer a practical solution for spans over 150 - 180 feet.
Trusses are usually of open web design, consisting of top and bottom chord members
connected by diagonal and vertical members called hangers. These members may be
either of bolted or riveted construction. As with plate girders, trusses are either deck
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trusses or through trusses. A bridge truss has two major structural advantages.31 The
primary member forces are axial loads and the open web system permits the use of a
greater overall depth than for an equivalent solid web girder. Both of these factors lead
to economy in material and a reduced dead load. The increased depth also leads to
reduced deflections, i.e., a more rigid structure. The advantages are achieved at the
expense of increased fabrication, inspection and maintenance costs.
A truss is simply a framework for

carrying a load. Like the top and
bottom flanges of a girder span, the top
chord members of a truss are in
compression and the bottom chords are
in tension. Formerly, trusses were pin
connected, which freed the structure of
imposed moments. Today connections
are bolted, relieving the associated
problem of pin wear at the expense of
proportioning members for the Figure 8-19 Through Riveted Truss - Courtesy of BNSF
moments created by a fixed connection.
However, there are still significant numbers of pin-connected trusses in service. A
brief description of the development stages of the truss leading up to today’s Warren
truss is given in the following paragraphs. See Figure 8-20.
Figure 8-20 Truss Force Loading Diagrams - Railway Track & Structures Cyclopedia - 1955
The Howe truss is the earliest type of simple truss, and was patented in the United
States by William Howe in 1840. In this design, the diagonal web members are in
compression; the vertical web members are in tension.
31 “Design of Bridge Superstructures,” Colin O’Conner, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1971.
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The Pratt truss is a modification of the Howe truss. In the Pratt truss, the vertical web
members are in compression, and the diagonal members are in tension. The panel
connections were pinned connected.
The Whipple truss in turn modified the Pratt truss. It uses a double system of web
members, each diagonal extending over two panels. This permitted longer span
lengths than achievable with the Pratt truss.
The Pennsylvania truss was another refinement of the Pratt truss. It uses sub-divided
panels and curved top chords for through trusses and curved bottom chords for deck
trusses. This type of truss is used for long spans, where simple Pratt or Warren trusses
cannot obtain economical construction. The connections at the panel points were
made by pins, but today are bolted.
In the original Warren truss, all of the web

members were inclined, being alternately
subject to compression and tension. This
type was rarely used for pin-connected
bridges. The loading and unloading of the
panel (continual reversal of axial force in the
web members) created pin wear. However,
this truss, modified by the introduction of
vertical members for the support of the
panel load and with riveted or bolted Figure 8-21 Truss Schematic - Courtesy of Canadian National
connections at the panel points, is now the
truss of choice for short spans. It is also widely used for longer spans by subdividing
the panels.
In Figure 8-20, the dotted lines and in

Figure 8-21, the light diagonal lines are
called counters. With only the dead load
of the structure, the adjacent diagonals act
only as tension members. However, when
a live load is introduced on the adjacent
span, the formerly tensile load becomes
compressive and the member may
undergo critical buckling. Counters offset
the applied reversal in loading. Designers
today avoid the use of counters, thus
Figure 8-22 Deck Riveted Truss - Courtesy of BNSF
limiting most truss designs to the Warren
truss. Most through trusses include overhead bracing. Thus, interior vertical
clearances must be considered in addition to side clearances.
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Similar to plate girders, deck trusses (Figure 8-22) are typically more efficient than
through trusses for all the same reasons specified earlier in the discussion regarding
deck plate girders versus through plate girders.
Steel Trestles
Steel trestles (Figure 8-23) are similar
in construction to a timber trestle,
except that the various members are
constructed of steel. They may be
composed of bents supported by
suitable foundations, e.g., H-pile with
caps welded in place.
Figure 8- 23 H-pile Bent - Courtesy of Metra
Viaducts
A viaduct (Figure 8-24) is any series of
spans, whether arches or steel girders,
that is supported on high steel towers.
Typically, railway viaducts are of steel

construction and are distinguished by
unusual height and significant length.
The spans are often alternating long
and short girders, usually deck plate
girders. The short or tower spans are
commonly 30 ft to 50 ft in length,
Figure 8-24 Railway Viaduct - Courtesy of CPR
while the long, or intermediate, spans
are 40 ft to 100 ft long. Keeping the
short span over the tower top ensures
that the spans will remain as simple
spans. Sometimes a bent, instead of a
tower, is used adjacent to the abut-
ments. This bent supports the
adjoining ends of two long spans, the
second one terminating on the first
tower.
The length of the spans is dependent

upon the height and length of the
Figure 8-25 Viaduct (truss comprised of arches) - Courtesy of CN-
WC
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structure, as well as on the loads to be carried. Consideration is given to the proper

balance between the costs of the substructure and the superstructure. Generally, the
longest spans are in the highest structures. At locations where the railway line is over a
valley forming the bed of a sizable river (Figure 8-25), or where other physical
characteristics make it necessary, a long deck truss span or a series of arch truss spans
are often utilized.
8.3.3 Concrete Bridges

Four general types of concrete/masonry bridges are commonly used for railway
purposes: arches (Figure 8-26), rigid-frame bridges, slab bridges, and concrete girders.
Although many large and costly stone arches are still in service, reinforced concrete is
used exclusively for the erection of modern masonry bridges.
Arches
Stone masonry arches and boxes came into
use early in the life of railways in North
America. They were constructed in single
and multiple spans, and a large number are
still in service on important main lines after
more than a century of continuous service.
Structures of this character are built of stone
masonry or of concrete. Figure 8-26 Concrete Arch - AREMA Roadmasters &
Maintenance of Way Association Proceedings 1930 - 1997
(CD-ROM)
Rigid-Frame Bridge
This type of structure is one in which vertical loads produce horizontal reactions, i.e., a
structure in which the horizontal member is structurally integral with the upright
supports. Bridges of this type are built either in single or multiple spans with the
bearings for the upright supports either fixed or hinged, although hinged bearings are
generally preferred. The construction material is typically concrete or steel, which may
be formed for either curved or a flat soffit.
Such structures when built of concrete are slab bridges in which the horizontal
member is solid; or ribbed bridges in which the horizontal member consists of ribs or
girders supporting a slab floor. When built of steel, they consist of frames supporting a
concrete slab floor. The frames are spaced to facilitate attachment of bracing between
them. The outside frames should be encased in concrete integral with the slab floor.
Like arches, rigid-frame structures do not tolerate foundation settlement. Rigid-frame

structures permit the use of quite long spans with relatively shallow construction depth.
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For this reason, they were frequently used in connection with grade-separation
projects. They lend themselves very readily to pleasing designs and are sometimes
found more economical than simple spans under certain conditions.
Slab Bridges
These structures are simple spans resting on abutments and piers. In some instances
where construction depth is limited, the track rails are attached directly to the slabs by
suitable bearing plates and fastenings (direct fixation). The length of span is limited by
the construction depth available and the construction cost as compared to other types
of construction. Slab bridges were very common at one time with a number still
remaining in service today. There are much more economical ways of spanning small
openings available to the designer today.
Slab bridges may be divided into three classes: Reinforced concrete, I-beam encased,
and concrete and T-rail structures. The load bearing capacity of the span in reinforced
concrete structures is a function of the compressive strength of the concrete and the
tensile and shear strength of the steel reinforcement. The I-beam encased span and the
concrete and T-rail span derive their load carrying capability from the I-beams and the
T-rails. The concrete encasement acts merely as filler and a protective covering.
The I-beams used in the construction of slab bridges range in depth from 12 inches to
36 inches, according to the length of the opening with 24 inches being common.
The concrete and T-rail slab was used for very short spans only, i.e., 6 ft to 10 ft clear
spans, such as for cattle runs and box culverts. The rails are placed near the bottom of
the slab with wire mesh directly below the base of the rails and in the ballast stops.
The concrete used for slab construction should be dense and the upper surface should
be crowned or sloped and waterproofed. On long or multiple spans, deck drainage
should be provided with adequate outlets for the drains, so that the water will be
carried off quickly in order to prevent seepage and consequent deterioration of the
slab.
Concrete Trestles
Trestles of this type usually consist
of concrete pile bents spaced from
14 to 20 feet apart. The height
should not be greater than the span.
The bents may also consist of
narrow concrete piers or concrete
columns footed on concrete
pedestals. A ballast deck is almost
Figure 8-27 Concrete Trestle with Slab/Pan - Courtesy BNSF
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invariably used on a concrete trestle.
Concrete trestles are more expensive in first cost than those of timber. However,
concrete trestles may possess significant advantages over other types of trestle
construction. The replacement of a timber trestle with one of concrete (Figure 8-27)
may be accomplished with minimum delay to railway traffic. The concrete pile bents
are driven and caps cast. After curing, the timber deck is removed and the concrete
slab placed between trains. In some cases, precast caps may be utilized over the top of
H-pile or even timber pile.
Caps are often prestressed units or cast-in-place with a high early strength concrete.
The cap or transverse strut at the top of the piles or columns forming the bent must be
designed as a reinforced concrete beam to transfer the load from the slab uniformly to
the supporting piles or posts. The floor slab or span may be poured in place after the
bents have been constructed, but the use of precast panels with the ballast pan integral
is common.
Concrete Girders
These are sometimes adopted for the construction of bridges designed to span
openings between approximately 25 ft and 60 ft in length. Through, half-through and
deck types are used, although the latter is generally preferable.
Common beam sections are slabs,
tees and voided single and double
cell boxes (Figure 8-28). These
shapes are well suited for spans up
to approximately fifty feet. In most
cases, box sections are the preferred
section, since they provide a solid
deck suitable for ballasted track
with no additional construction.
Common AASHTO and DOT I-

sections have also gained
acceptance in new construction. In Figure 8-28 Precast Box Girder - Courtesy of BNSF
these bridges, the beam sections are
used in conjunction with a cast in place, composite deck. This type construction can
provide ballast deck spans up to 100 feet. However, given the time required to form
and cure the cast in place concrete, this type of construction is only suited for new
railway line, off-line or shoe-fly construction.
Precast, post-tensioned segmental concrete construction has also gained acceptance in

new construction. This type of bridge allows construction of very long spans.
However, given the time required to set and anchor each segment, this type of
construction is also only suited for new, off-line or shoe fly construction.
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Given the advances in precast concrete technology and acceptance, cast-in-place,

reinforced concrete is seldom used in span construction. Rather, its primary use has
been relegated to below grade structures such as foundations, piers, abutments and
headwalls. The time required to form and cure cast-in-place concrete renders it
inappropriate for construction under traffic.
8.3.4 Moveable Spans

In locations where a fixed bridge cannot provide sufficient clearance over a specific
obstacle such as a navigable waterway, a moveable span may be required. The
common forms of moveable spans are Bascule, Lift and Swing. Variations of these
structures are also found in shop environments where turntables and transfer tables are
use to reposition cars and locomotives between various tracks.
Determination of whether a movable bridge to be utilized is dependent largely on the

horizontal and vertical clearance requirements posed. Actual design requires additional
considerations, since the structure is a precision machine that must maintain perfect
alignment every time it is lowered to maintain track, signal and possibly electrical
continuity.
Specific design elements that must be entertained beyond the structural characteristics
of the bridge include:
Lift machinery must be integrated within the structure.
Bridge becomes a fixed span when closed and ready for traffic.
Operating machinery should be of simple design, easily installed and maintained.
Clearance between superstructure/pier elements critical in design and details.
Specific loading conditions (structural and wind loading) are based on type of
movement.
Selecting the type of movable bridge to be used is dependent on the width of the
channel and the type of navigation using the channel. Appropriate foundations must
be selected. Channel clearance will often dictate the location and/or configuration of
piers (particularly center piers). Lastly, the duration and required frequency of bridge
openings and closings must be considered. The potential impact to rail and other
vehicles must be evaluated.
Bascule Bridges
Bascule bridges are single leaf spans of either plate girder or truss construction. They
open vertically by pivoting at one end of the span to provide the navigable opening.
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They are suitable for small to medium span lengths and consist of one of three basic
types:
Trunnion
Rolling Lift (Scherzer)
Heel Trunnion (Strauss)
Double leaf bascule bridges, although

common in highway environments, are
not used for railway design due to the
lack of center support.
In the trunnion bascule bridge (Figure

8-29), the leaf rotates about a horizontal
axis with the trunnion supporting the
entire structure when raised.
Figure 8-29 Trunion Bascule Bridge - Courtesy of Christian
Brown, HTNB
In the rolling lift bascule bridge, the span rolls back and forth on curved tracks (See
Figure 8-30) to open and close. The curved tracks, which are segmental girders with a
tread plate, are attached to the tail end of the structure. Lugs or teeth (See Figure 8-31)
are attached to the bottom of the curved track and they engage a matched track plate
(girder) to prevent slippage. The entire weight of the bridge is supported by the curved
track when the structure is opening. At the top pivot end of the structure is a
counterweight, which offsets the weight of the span. A powered pinion gear (See
Figure 8-32) engages a fixed horizontal rack gear attached to a frame on the adjoining
span. As the pinion gear moves forward or backward on the rack, the curved track
enables the horizontal motion of the rack to translate into vertical motion of the
structure. Obviously, the opening angle secured is a function of the horizontal roll
distance available for the curved track to move.
Figure 8-30 Counterweight and Curved Track - Figure 8-31 Curved Track Girder with Track Plate -
Courtesy of Christian Brown, HTNB Courtesy of Christian Brown, HTNB
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Figure 8-32 Pinion and Rack Gear - Courtesy of Christian Brown, HTNB
The third type of bascule bridge is the

Heel-Trunnion Bascule Bridge (Figure 8-
33). The bascule span rotates about the
main trunnion. The counterweight is
attached to a rotating framework. The
operating strut is composed of a rack gear.
The outer end of the operating strut is
pinned to the top chord of the bascule
truss and the counterweight link. The
opposite end of the counterweight link is
also pinned. The inner end of the
Figure 8-33 Heel Trunnion Bascule Bridge - Courtesy of
operating strut is not fixed. The Christian Brown, HTNB
counterweight frame rotates about the
counterweight trunnion. A fixed pinion gear moves the operating strut towards the
pivoting end of the bridge. Because of the pinned connections, the counterweight
frame rotates downward, thus raising the bascule span. The counterweight offsets the
weight of the bascule span.
Swing Span Bridges

Swing spans are moveable spans (Figure
8-34) balanced on a center pivot pier and
are rotated 90° horizontally to provide a
navigable opening. Typically, these spans
are truss constructed to accommodate
negative bending over the center pier
while in the open position.
Swing Spans posses unlimited vertical Figure 8- 34 Swing span structure – Courtesy of Christian
Brown, HTNB
clearance, but the center pier reduces
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channel clearance. This type of structure is suitable for short to medium span lengths
on each side of the pivot pier, with the spans usually symmetric in length.
There are two types of swing span structures

in common use. The center bearing swing
span supports the weight of the structure by a
center thrust bearing (Figure 8-35). The center
of gravity of the structure is immediately over
the bearing to ensure that the bridge is
balanced when in the open position. Balance
wheels stabilize the structure as it opens and
closes.
Figure 8-35 Center Bearing for a Swing Span -

Courtesy of Christian Brown, HTNB
The other type of swing span is termed a rim

bearing swing span (Figure 8-36). The span
rides on tapered rollers, which carry the weight
while opening and closing, as well as providing
stability during movement.
Vertical Lift Bridges Figure 8-36 Rim Bearing for Swing Span - Courtesy
of Christian Brown, HTNB
Vertical Lift Bridges are comprised of a rigid
horizontal span supported between two towers. Cables raise vertical lift spans
vertically. The span remains in a horizontal position when raised or lowered. Unlike
the previous examples, the navigable opening provided by the vertical lift span remains
limited by the height of the lift towers. These spans may be a rolled beam, plate girder
or of truss construction.
The weight of the span is offset by two counterweights located at the top of each
tower. The lift machinery is mounted above the deck. The towers can be of either
braced or unbraced construction. Access to the tower is required to grease sheaves and
service lifting machinery. A control house is provided for the bridge operator’s use,
also typically above the deck level where good sight visibility in all directions is present.
A system of span guides and bridge locks ensures that the bridge is properly aligned
when the span is lowered to operate trains. Any misalignment will not permit the
bridge locks to engage and a proceed signal will not be displayed. Vertical lift bridges
are suitable for medium to long spans where height clearance is required. Vertical lift
bridges are categorized by the location of the drive machinery.
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In the tower drive vertical lift (Figure 8-

37), the drive machinery is located on top
of each tower. Counterweight ropes
attach to the span and to the
counterweight. The machinery turns the
sheave, thus raising the span and lowering
the counterweight.
Figure 8-37 Tower Driven Vertical Lift - Courtesy of BNSF
In the span drive vertical lift (Figure 8-38),

the drive machinery is located on the
movable span. Again, the counterweight
ropes attach to the span and to the
counterweight, but the lifting force is
provided by operating ropes (cables) and
drums, one at each corner. A drive shaft
from the motor, located in the control
house, extends out to the drum located at
Figure 8-38 Span Driven Vertical Lift - Courtesy of
each end of the span. Christian Brown, HNTB
Although the weight of the span lifted is massive, the load imposed on the operating
cables is relatively small, due to the offsetting weight of the counterweight.
In each case, a movable bridge requires balancing the structure. Although gravity plays
only a small part in opening and closing bascule and vertical lift bridges, it plays no part
at all in swing bridges. The critical balancing component is the counterweight.
Typically, the counterweights are of concrete or steel-encased concrete construction.
The AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering, Chapter 15, (15.6.5.4) requires ballast
pockets for the addition or removal of offsetting blocks to maintain future balancing of
the structure. Balance pockets are provided for not less than 3.5% underrun in weight
of the span and not less than 5.0% overrun of the span weight. Balance blocks must
represent at least 1% of the span weight and 0.5% of the weight of the counterweight
for future adjustment. The configuration of the counterweight is important too,
especially for bascule bridges. The lowered counterweight must maintain clearance
between other structural members of the bridge.
For vertical lift bridges, the designer performing calculations dealing with balance must
consider on the counterweight side of the tower:
Ropes and sockets
Counterweight frame
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Concrete
Balance locks
On the span side of the tower, consider:
Load to lift
Ropes and sockets
For bascule bridges, the designer must determine the center of gravity of the
counterweight as well as the center of gravity of the span about the pivot point.
Other design considerations include electrical control equipment, including, but not
limited to:
Power Systems
o Control Systems
o Relay-Based Systems
o Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) Based Systems
o Automated Controls
o Manual Controls
o Maintenance/Reliability
Drive Systems
o AC and DC Controllers
o Braking Systems
Maintenance plays an important issue in the design and operation of movable bridges.
Maintenance issues include:
Rail Joints (Figure 8-39)
Wire Ropes
Lubrication (Figure 8-40)
Seating and centering
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Gears
Turntables are typically truss or plate girder type structures that can rotate 360° within a
pit to turn locomotives. These spans are usually supported on a center pivot pier as
well as a circular track at the end of the span. Conversely, a transfer table carries
locomotives or cars in a lateral direction. These spans are usually supported on a track
at each end of the span.
Figure 8-39 Bridge Seat locks - Courtesy of Christian Figure 8-40 Drive Gears must be Lubricated - Courtesy of
Brown, HNTB Christian Brown, HNTB
8.4 Other Structures

8.4.1 Drainage Structures
Culvert structures for railways do not differ in
type or function from their highway
counterparts. However, they tend to be
significantly sturdier due to the higher live
loads, which must be supported. Each
railroad has different preferences relating to
the types of materials installed. Many prefer
metal pipes to concrete, as they tend to be less
susceptible to failure due to settlement.
Newer materials such as plastic have not
generally gained wide acceptance for use under
track. Box culverts (Figure 8-41) are almost
exclusively concrete. The preference of cast-
in-place versus pre-cast differs between
railways. Headwalls are not commonly used Figure 8-41 Precast Concrete Culvert - Courtesy of
unless space constraints require them. Canadian Pacific Railway.
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Box culverts may be one cell, two cell or three cell, depending on the size of drainage
stream.
French drains are constructed adjacent to and parallel to foundation structures to drain
away ground water. They are typically corrugated metal pipe with perforations along
the bottom invert to allow drainage of the surrounding soil.
Other types of French drains consist of granular backfill materials surrounded by

porous fabric ("filter fabric”).
Chapter 15, Part 16, of the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering, provides
detailed information for the design of concrete box culverts.
8.4.2 Retaining Walls
Gravity Retaining Walls

A retaining wall is designed to resist the lateral pressure exerted by material in its rear.
This material may be anembankment for supporting track loads or natural earth along
the edge of a cut and separated from the wall by a wedge of filled-in material.
Normally, retaining walls usually do not carry vertical loads. However, bridge
abutment walls are types of retaining walls that are required to carry bridge
superstructure vertical loads in addition to large net overturning moments.
Ordinarily, gravity retaining walls are built of reinforced concrete, mass concrete
and formerly of stone masonry. Overturning forces are resisted by the "gravity"
weight alone of the masonry or concrete.
Failure of a retaining wall can occur by sliding along a horizontal plane, by overturning
or rotating and by crushing of the masonry. The design of the wall, and especially the
footing, should include such special features as indicated by the character of the
supporting earth at each
location.
Crib Walls
Crib walls, also known as bin
walls (Figure 8-42), are
composed of interlocking
prefabricated members
arranged to form a series of
cells or "bins," that are then
filled with compacted backfill.
Crib walls are frequently used
Figure 8-42 Crib Wall - Courtesy of Charley Chambers
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as an alternative to stone or concrete retaining walls. Crib walls are made of timber,
precast concrete or steel, and are designed following "gravity wall" theory. Note:
Although a carefully constructed foundation forms the base of a solid retaining wall,
crib walls are ordinarily supported directly on the particular material encountered at
each location. Consequently, the use of crib walls should be confined to locations
where the supporting material is reasonably firm and stable and is free of impounded
water. Tensile forces within each cell resist overturning forces. The cells are anchored
by "deadmen" in the back of the fill. Many old railway crib walls were often
constructed using old railroad ties.
Since the width of a crib wall increases as the height of the wall increases, space
limitations may impose restrictions upon crib wall use.
Three different types of ready-made cribbing are available: Creosoted timber, steel, and
reinforced concrete. Cribbing of these types are used for:
Widening roadway where the right of way is limited.
Wings on "breast" abutments for bridges.
Extensions of existing wingwalls, abutments, etc.
Revetment and retaining walls for bank protection along streams.
Stabilization of embankments.
Loading platforms.
Foundations for signals and switch stands.
Protecting waterfront property against wave action.
Track elevation work.
Retaining walls where adjoining tracks are established at different grades.
Creosoted timber cribbing is made up of two different types of units: a header, which is
placed at right angles to the face of the wall, extending into the embankment and
interlocking with the second or stretcher unit, which is laid parallel to the face of the
wall. Each header and stretcher is dapped and bored prior to treatment. Drift bolts
are driven during erection to give additional stability to the interlocking timbers.
Metal cribbing consists of box-like headers and stretchers. Each stretcher usually has
lugs at both ends, which fit into corresponding slots in the header units. Every header
is locked at opposite ends to the stretchers directly underneath by bolts.
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Precast reinforced concrete units

(sometimes called ecology blocks)
(Figure 8-43) are available for the
building of retaining walls
comprising rectangular cells, which
when filled, becomes a gravity-type
retaining wall. The stretchers usually
are of a plain square section while
the headers are of rectangular
section with T-shaped heads for
tying the stretchers together. Both
open and closed-face designs are Figure 8-43 Pre-cast Ecology Gravity Retaining Wall - Courtesy of
used. Canadian Pacific Railway
Sheet Piling
Sheet piling consists of a series of slabs of wood, metal or concrete, driven in
close contact and forming a sheet or partition. As excavation proceeds on one
side of the wall, horizontal sections known as walers are welded or fixed to the
piling to provide additional support. Sheet pile walls are fairly expensive and
require extensive information on buried utilities prior to driving. Wooden
sheet piling includes a variety of proprietary designs intended to provide a
tongue-and-groove effect at the mating surfaces. A variety known as
Wakefield is formed of three planks fastened together to create a tongue and
groove. Steel sheet pile retaining walls consist of individual sheet piles driven
into the ground that are interlocked to each other to form a vertical steel wall.
Submerged timber piling has long life at points where it is left as a part of the
permanent construction and may sometimes be salvaged, if desired. However,
the relatively thin planks are readily split or broomed by contact with stones or
other hard materials encountered in passage through the soil.
Metallic piles have great penetrating power under the impact of the hammer
and are less susceptible to damage in driving than timber piles. These piles
may be left as a permanent part of the under water construction, or they can be
withdrawn and re-used.
Concrete sheet piling, when properly and thoroughly cured before use, and
under normal conditions, is permanent in water and air, and is particularly
applicable where the sheet piling is to remain as a part of the permanent
structure. Due to the relatively brittle nature of the material, the salvaging of
such piling is difficult. For temporary use, timber or metallic sheet piling is
preferable.
Sheet piling may be driven to form either single or double partitions. For
double partitions, the space between is filled with earth to keep out the water
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and provide stability for the unit. Steel sheet piling is frequently left in place as
a part of the completed structure.
Soldier pile and lagging retaining walls are cheaper than sheet pile walls and are more
appropriate in areas where buried utilities are expected. The soldier piles are usually
steel rolled sections driven vertically into the ground at 5-foot to 10-foot center-to-
center distances. As excavation proceeds, concrete or timber lagging is placed
horizontally between the soldier piles. Horizontal steel walers are added as bracing is
needed.
Mechanically Stabilized Earth

Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE)
(Figure 8-44) is a simple retaining wall
system that was developed
approximately 40 years ago in France.
MSE retaining walls represent a
relatively new method of resolving earth
retainage problems. Instead of
regarding soil as a mass to be contained
by force, the earth itself is reinforced to
become an integral part of the structure.
MSE walls rely on increasing the Figure 8-44 MSE Wall - Courtesy of Sam Dragonetti, UMA
strength and stability of earth
embankments by placing corrosion resistant reinforcing straps, welded wire mesh, or
geotechnical fabric within the earth embankment as it is constructed. The walls then
behave as gravity structures in an integral unit and provide structural flexibility. Native
soils at the site or from excavation are usually acceptable for backfill. The resulting
structure is strong, yet resilient.
MSE walls generally include a fascia panel (typically

precast concrete, but can also be welded wire mesh,
cast-in-place concrete, or other materials). Precast
panels or cast-in-place fascia allow for a wide variety
of architectural treatments and finishes. An MSE
constructed with a face of welded wire (Figure 8-45)
can be covered with air-blown mortar, seeded with
grass or plants, or filled with rock. Sometimes MSE
walls are constructed without a “face” using wrapped
around fabric. The outer edge to the “wrap” is not
compacted to allow for growth of grass or plants,
making the wall into a “green” wall (Figure 8-46).
Figure 8-45 Welded Wire MSE Wall -

Courtesy of Charley Chambers
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The MSE wall is easily

adaptable to curves, angles
or steps, and the face may
be cut to allow for the
installation of culverts or to
accommodate site-specific
requirements. MSE walls
perform extremely well in a
multitude of conditions. It
performs particularly well
in seismic zones, due to the
built-in flexibility of the
system, which allows for
some movement without
distressing the structure Figure 8-46 MSE Green Wall - Courtesy of Charley Chambers
or causing cracks. It can
also tolerate a certain amount of settlement, making it a desirable solution even in
relatively poor subsoil conditions.
The primary reason for the use of MSE walls is its inherent low cost. Installation is fast
and efficient, using a simple, repetitive construction procedure. After placing the initial
course of panels, the first lift of backfill is spread and compacted. The reinforcement
(steel straps, welded wire or geotechnical fabric) is laid on the compacted lift and
connected to the panels (if used). Next, a lift of backfill is spread and compacted over
the reinforcing material. This procedure repeats until the design height is reached.
Regardless of height or length, the structure is stable during construction. Equipment
may operate on any layer of backfill.
MSE walls are well suited for restricted sites or close property lines since construction
is performed behind the wall face without any forms or scaffolding. MSE structures
should be considered for projects that have problems that may include costly right-of-
way acquisition, lack of suitable borrow sources, topographic restraints or difficult
subsurface conditions.
Although the use of MSE technology has been proven and accepted in standard
practice in highway applications, the use of MSE walls in the railway industry is limited
and should be approved by the impacted railway before design starts.
Drainage of Retaining Walls

Water under the foundation and behind the wall is the most frequent cause of failure
of a retaining wall. Walls in cuts generally are more vulnerable than those along fills.
Effective weep-holes through the footings and the body of the wall ordinarily will
prevent the impounding of water behind the wall. However, additional measures may
be necessary, such as the installation of drainage pipes to collect and deliver the water
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to the weep-holes or other suitably located outlets, and also sub-drainage adjacent to
the footings, to lower the water level in the cut.
8.4.3 Tunnels
Although expansive and difficult to construct,
tunnels (Figure 8-47) offer an effective
solution to extend rail lines through mountains
or other obstructions, providing a more direct
route while maintaining operational track
gradients. Tunnels have also been constructed
to carry rail lines underground, beneath cities,
rivers and canals. The engineering associated
with tunnel design and construction is not
specific to railway engineering. However,
there are aspects of tunnel design that railway
engineers need to pay particular attention to
including: Figure 8-47 Rock Tunnel on Canadian National -
Courtesy of Canadian National
Overhead Clearance – To accommodate double stack and other over height

equipment, superelevation through curves, future grade raises, etc.
Side Clearance – Particularly through curved tunnel sections to accommodate

maximum railcar swingout (See next section for detailed calculation).
Ventilation and Pressure Equalization – A train travelling into a tunnel

compresses the air in the tunnel, increasing the resistance due to an increase in
internal air pressure. Pressure relief through proper ventilation is required to
release this pressure build up.
Drainage – To prevent ballast saturation, icing, differential pressure head

against the tunnel wall.
Ballast – Free draining material to allow for adequate drainage to the side
ditches. In tunnels, consideration should also be given to alternate track
support structures, as the ballast may tend to break down faster due to the lack
of flexibility in the sub-grade. Consider direct rail fixation or alternate
methods.
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Tunnel Construction Methods

Prior to any tunnel design, a geological and geotechnical investigation must be
performed. Even with today’s technology, it is still difficult to identify all areas of loose
gravel and saturated sand. Once the ground has been investigated, an excavation and
support procedure must be chosen that can handle any unpredictable ground
conditions without unnecessary interruptions or risk.
There are two major classifications of tunnels: Rock cut tunnels and soft ground
tunnels. Both types of tunnels have had significant improvements in their construction
over the last century, including faster construction rate, increased usable cross-sectional
area per excavated volume, reduced support volume and improved construction safety.
Some major lessons that have been learned from tunneling in poor ground are:
Effective use of shields ahead of excavation.
Excavate in small headings and place supports immediately to prevent loose

material from sloughing into the excavation.
Provide good foundations for temporary supports or Tunnel Boring Machine

(TBM) footings.
Specialized construction methods are needed if the earth and water pressures are
not symmetrical.
Use a close arch as support if the lateral pressure is high.
Provide adequate space for simultaneous excavation and support activities.
Successful application of “Segmented Linings” is possible because of improved

mechanization.
Development of the Tunnel Shield and Tunnel Boring Machines (TBM) began in 1825
when the first tunnel shield was used in the 18-year construction of the Thames
Tunnel. The shield consisted of 12 sections that could be advanced independently by
pushing against the brick liner. The first circular shield, propelled by screw jacks, came
out fifty years later in 1870.
In 1897, the Price Rotary Digger Shield was developed. The Price Rotary Digger
Shield was the first soil excavation machine. The first successful mechanized Tunnel
Boring Machine, for rock drilling, took another sixty years to be developed. It was
used in 1954 for the Oahe Dam project in South Dakota.
In 1910, the first immersed railway tunnel was built under the Detroit River. Since
then there has been an increasing use of immersed tunnels for crossing water bodies.
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The New Austrian Tunnelling Method (NATM) was developed between 1957 and
1965. NATM is a tunneling philosophy based on scientifically established principles
and proven ideas and is not a construction (excavation and supporting) method.
The following excerpts are taken from Professor E.T. Brown’s article in the November
1981 issue of “Tunnels and Tunnelling”:
The inherent strength of the soil or rock surrounding the tunnel should be conserved
and mobilized to the maximum extent possible.
Controlled deformation of the ground is required to develop its full strength safely.
However, excessive deformation, which will result in loss of strength or in
unacceptably high surface settlements, should be avoided.
These conditions may be achieved in a variety of ways, but generally a primary support
system consisting of systematic rockbolting or anchoring and a thin semi-flexible
shotcrete lining are used. Whatever support system is used, it is essential that it is
placed and remains in intimate contact with the ground and deforms with it.
The timing of the placement of the support and of closing the initial shotcrete ring
is of vital importance in controlling deformations and will vary from case to case.
The primary support will partly or completely represent the total support required.
The dimensioning of the secondary support is based on an assessment of the
results of systematic measurements of stresses in the primary support elements
and deformations of the tunnel surface and the ground surrounding the tunnel.
The length of tunnel left unsupported at any time during construction should be
as short as possible. Where possible, the tunnel should be driven full face in
minimum time with minimum disturbance of the ground by blasting.
All parties involved in the design and execution of the project (design and
supervisory engineers and the contractor’s engineers and foremen) must
understand and accept the NATM approach and adopt a co-operative attitude to
decision making and the resolution of problems.
While in general, the above is a good guideline to follow in the construction of tunnels,
special consideration should be given to the following difficult rock conditions:
Rock of little resistance
Rock of high plasticity and of intensive jointing
Rocks subject to high stresses, particularly lateral stresses
Rock in tunnels with very low or very high cover
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Rock mass destroyed by mining activities or dynamic geological processes.
For further information, please refer to the following articles from “Tunnels and
Tunnelling”:
Leopold Muller (October 1978)
Johann Golser (March 1979)
E.T. Brown (November, 1981)
8.4.4 Sheds
Slide or rock sheds (Figure 8-48) are
typically used in mountainous terrain
areas where the track has been
constructed along the side slope of a
mountain or rock outcropping. The
function of this type of shed is to
deflect falling rock or debris from
above the track, which might
otherwise come in contact with the
track or operating equipment.
The sheds are generally constructed Figure 8-48 Avalanche Shed on Canadian Pacific Railway - Courtesy
from large timbers or cast in place of Canadian Pacific Railway
concrete and incorporate a sloped roof over the track with sufficient clearance to allow
trains and equipment to pass through the shed unimpeded. The roof of the shed is
sloped, falling from a higher elevation on the uphill side to a lower elevation downhill,
providing a barrier to deflect falling rock or debris over and away from the track,
allowing it to accumulate or continue down the slope of the mountain.
Sheds of this type are often constructed at the portal or entrance to mountain
tunnels.
Snow sheds follow a similar principle to deflect debris away from the track, in this case,
specifically to deflect or prevent the accumulation of drifting snow that might
otherwise make the track impassable.
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8.5 Structural Design

Considerations
8.5.1 Introduction
With the exception of larger bridges, most highway structures designed for a 50 to 75-
year service life often begin to reach their practical service life at about 30 years of age.
Though this is commonly a result of increases in traffic or higher safety standards, the
ability to perform major repairs or upgrades of highway structures by temporary
removal of the bridge from service is generally not a significant concern. Railway
bridges, on the contrary, are designed to have a significantly longer life, and indeed, a
considerable number of railway structures in service today are in the neighborhood of
100 years old.
Detour routes resulting from failure or significant repair/maintenance efforts are

expensive and may not be viable. Though the design criteria within AREMA reflect
this consideration, the operating impact and expense must be called to mind when
considering the replacement of an existing structure. Often times a designer will have a
proposed design solution rebuffed by a railway for this reason. Though the solution
offered may be widely accepted in highway design, the permanence required by the
railway environment may not have been yet proven to the railway.
Railway structures require a much greater consideration of longitudinal loading than a

typical highway bridge. This is the result of two environmental variables. Vehicle and
individual wheel loads of railway vehicles are many times greater than roadway vehicles.
Likewise, unlike roadways, the vehicle running surface (the rail) is continuous between
the bridge structure and the adjacent roadbed. The track structure by its very nature is
moderately flexible, distributing loads in all directions over a length of track. The
introduction of a fixed object (e.g. end of bridge) concentrates this loading to specific
points of distribution.
When comparing railway bridges to roadway, pedestrian, and other sorts of bridges, the
live loading relative to the dead load is much greater and more consistent. This
consistent loading and unloading over a greater stress range results in fatigue
considerations more prevalent in railway bridge design than other types.
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8.5.2 Bridge Loading32, 33

In the design of any structure, the designer must consider several different load types,
including, but not limited to, dead load, live load, wind, weather (snow, ice, etc.),
earthquake or any combination there of. Like other governing codes and design
organizations including ACI, AISC and AASHTO, AREMA sets forth guidelines for
both allowable stress for steel (Chapter 15) and timber (Chapter 7) and load factor
design guidelines for concrete (Chapter 8) to be used in the design of structures subject
to railway loading. Many of these guidelines are consistent in character, if not identical
to other codes. However, there are many distinctions, which are the result of the
different service demands of railway structures as well as railway practice or preference
developed over the past 150 years.
The designer must be cognizant of the fact that each chapter is effectively independent
of the others, and not all handle similar design considerations in the same fashion.
Where a single structure may incorporate several different types of materials (e.g. a
composite structure with steel stringers and a concrete deck), both Chapters 8 and 15
must be referenced throughout the design process. Some other chapters of the
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering may reference one of the structural chapters
when addressing structural issues.
The reader is also cautioned that the Manual for Railway Engineering is always under
revision. The following material is current as of the date this text was published and is
provided herein only for general informational understanding. Referencing the latest
issue of the Manual for Railway Engineering is essential before undertaking any design
activity.
Dead Load
The dead load consists of the estimated weight of the structural members, plus that of
the tracks, ballast and any other railway appendages (signal, electrical, etc.) supported by
the structure. The weight of track material (running rails, guard rails, tie plates, spikes
and rail clips) is taken as 200 pounds per lineal track foot. Ballast is assumed to be 120
lbs per cubic foot. Treated timber is assumed to be 60 lbs per cubic foot.
Waterproofing weight is the actual weight. The designer should allow for additional
ballast depth for future grade or surfacing raises (generally 8” – 12”). On ballasted
deck bridges, the roadbed section is assumed to be full of ballast to the top of tie with
no reduction made for the volume that the tie would include.
32 AREMA Manual For Railway Engineering, Volume 2, Chapters 7, 8 and 15
33 AREMA Bridge Loading Seminar 2000, Participant Guide
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Live Loads
The one component singularly unique to railway structures is the vehicle loading to
which it will be subject. Vehicle loading in railway design can be comprised of several
parts, including the static load of the vehicle and the dynamic effect of the moving
vehicle. The standard loading scheme incorporated by North American Railways and
AREMA is the Cooper E-Series loading.
A prominent bridge engineer, Theodore Cooper, first proposed the Cooper E-Series
load in the late 1800’s. Prior to this time, the live loads used in bridge design were
subject to the judgment of the engineer and tended to vary to the extent that it was
difficult to relate the relative strength of one structure to the next. This was a time
when many prominent structures were being proposed and constructed on a
contractual basis by many railways. It was difficult to objectively compare the
proposals of different competing engineers for specific projects.
Although Cooper first published the basis of his proposal with the American Society of
Civil Engineers 15 years prior to the establishment of the American Railway
Engineering Association, the debate over the superiority of Cooper’s loading scheme
versus other proposals remained unsettled past the turn of the 20th century. It would
seem that the adoption of his loadings in the first edition of the AREA Manual for
Railway Engineering in 1905 seemed to settle the debate. Though widely applied prior
to and subsequent of this event, it would be nearly 20 years before all major North
American railways incorporated E-series loadings in railway structure design.
Cooper E-series loading consists of two 4-driving axle steam locomotive and tenders
followed by a uniform load. See Figure 8-49.
Figure 8-49 Coopers E-80 Loading
The E-series loading is scaleable with the number representing the driving axle load in
kips. An E-80 loading is eight times heavier than an E-10 load.
Despite the fact that Cooper E-series loadings are not representative of today’s
equipment, they are commonly applied when designing or evaluating railway structures.
The continued application of these loadings is in part due to the legacy of the
structures, which remain (i.e., were constructed long before the advent of modern
railway equipment). Likewise, the specifics of the E-series loading are not entirely
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unlike many of the loadings produced by modern equipment despite the fact that the
vehicles are very different.
In load rating situations, loads are converted to E-series ratings for comparison. For
example, a modern-day coal train on any specific bridge may equate to an E-58 load on
a specific bridge, while a passenger train may equate to an E-41. That same bridge may
have a service rating of E-62 and an ultimate rating of E-71. This practice has lead to a
wide amount of confusion over the serviceability of existing bridges, which may have
been constructed nearly 100 years ago (when the prevailing standard was E-50).
The first key to understanding is that the rating of the coal and passenger train of E-58
and E-41, respectively, is specific only to the bridge in the example. Because the actual
loading was converted, the same trains will likely rate as something different on another
bridge. An intermodal train will rate as something completely different than the other
two trains considered.
Secondly, the bridge ratings provided represent the limiting structural member. During
the rating process, each structural member is evaluated for strength and fatigue, where
required, and assigned an E-series rating. This rating represents the bridge loading
which would produce the maximum allowable load on the member under
consideration. At the end of the process, each component is compared with the
component rating the lowest representing the load rating of the bridge. A summarized
example of bridge rating results for an open deck plate girder bridge is shown in
Figure 8-50.
Component Rating
Bearing Stiffener E-71
Bottom Flange Bending (includes fatigue) E-62
Top Flange, Compression E-71
Top Flange Rivet Shear E-127
Web Shear E-145
Web Splice E-65

Figure 8-50 Bridge Rating Results for an Open Deck Plate Girder Bridge
There are two rating specifications for the bridge in question. The first given is the
service rating. This is the maximum loading to which the bridge can be subject without
limiting the life of the structure. In other words, the theoretical life of the structure
handling this load would be infinite. This rating takes into account fatigue on specific
bridge members, and is generally less than the ultimate loading and may or may not be
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the same limiting component as the ultimate rating. The ultimate rating is normally
used for occasional traffic or in special conditions where the structure replacement may
occur in the near future.
It is unlikely that the bridge was actually designed as an E-62 structure. A number of
things have occurred since Cooper Loadings were first recommended and used for
design. AREMA rating guidelines specifically require that structures under
consideration be rated with the current design guidance. As design methods and
material behavior have been developed and better understood over the past 100 years
since the bridge was erected, design practice may have changed in such a fashion that
the original structure was over-designed. Likewise, the structure in the example was
erected during a time when the load produced by a locomotive was considerably more
significant than the loading produced by the cars that it was moving. Particular
components of the live loading, such as the impact factor, are generally more severe for
steam locomotives than diesel-electric power utilized today. This difference generally
results in older bridges rating higher under today’s traffic environment than they did
when first constructed. The AREMA bridge rating guidelines allow for an impact load
reduction based upon speed, but no such allowance is made for the design of new
structures.
AREMA design guidelines specify 80-90 miles per hour as a practical limit for the
recommended design practices. Limited experience with how actual loading and
deflection conditions at speeds above 90 mph relate to the current recommendations
are left to the engineer’s judgement. Fortunately, freight train speeds approaching 80
mph are limited to a few select corridors, thus allowing for some additional strength
allowance for bridges located on other routes.
Recent editions of the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering (post-1968)

recommend E-80 loadings be used for the design of steel, concrete and most other
structures. Yet, the designer must verify the specific loading to be applied from the
railway. The railway may require a design loading other than the E-80 AREMA
guidance. Furthermore, there is no specific direction given for the E-series loading of
timber structures other than ‘the live load shall consist of that Cooper loading which
will produce a loading equivalent to that caused by the heaviest engine or train load
expected to be moved over the structure during its expected life.’ One key element of
any railway structural plan set is that the specific loading assumptions be included on
the plan for record purposes.
Alternate Live Loading – 4 Axle

Though the Cooper E-series loading is generally incorporated throughout the AREMA
Manual for Railway Engineering, the specific application will differ depending upon the
chapter. Chapter 15, Steel Structures, only, incorporates an alternate loading, which is
more representative of the heavy axle loading of modern intermodal equipment and
unit trains (both in magnitude of loads and frequency of occurrence), particularly on
short spans.
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Heavy double stack cars with axle loads of 78,750 lb per axle and 125-ton capacity 4-
axle cars (315,000 lb gross weight) are operated on an ever-increasing basis. These cars
produce nearly the equivalent of E-80 on shorter spans. The alternate 4-axle load,
introduced in 1995, addresses the fatigue problems associated with short span steel
members. Heavy unit trains, similar to the ones mentioned above, increase the rate of
fatigue life consumption in short members by inducing very high stress levels and
increasing the number of stress cycles experienced by the member.
The alternate load has four axle loads of 100,000 lb (25% greater than E-80), and axle
spacing similar to those found in typical 4-axle coupled cars. (See Figure 8-51) The
alternate live load induces higher moments and shears than an E-80 load on shorter
spans. The resulting higher design stresses lead to bigger sections, which are expected
to offer more fatigue life under regular operating conditions. For shorter span lengths,
the alternate load produces approximately a 25% higher bending moment than the
Cooper's E-80 loading. This will control the design of short spans, stringers and
floorbeams. For spans greater than 54 ft (approximately), Cooper's E-80 loading
governs.
Figure 8-51 AREMA Alternate Live Loading – 4 Axle
This alternate loading is frequently and incorrectly applied to other structures, including
concrete and timber. This makes the design of composite structures complicated, as
not only are the material properties between structural components different, but
suddenly the loads are different as well.
The loading of structures with multiple tracks also varies slightly between chapters. In
general, reduction in live loading is allowed for members receiving live load
simultaneously from three or more tracks to model the reduced probability of
occurrence. For open deck structures, the live load is assumed to be distributed equally
to beams equally-spaced under the rails and no longitudinal distribution of the live load
is assumed. For ballasted deck structures, the lateral and longitudinal live load
distribution are a function of the distance from bottom of tie to top of supporting
structure and the length of the tie, with longitudinal distribution not exceeding the axle
spacing.
Impact
Impact is an occurrence of dynamic increment and impulsive loads. Train
characteristics (speed, structural stiffness of cars and trucks, wheel conditions, make-up
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of train consist, etc.), track geometry (line, surface (crosslevel)), tie, rail and ballast
condition and structure (component) displacement under load contribute to the impact
produced on a structure by moving locomotives and cars. The impact produced can
be severe, as much as 200% of the axle load for out of round or flat spot wheels.
Although each of the latter components of impact can be quantified on a one time
individual basis, the designer does not have control over their imposition. AREMA
has developed empirical relationships based on experimental observations to evaluate
design impact values (percentage of live load) for various bridge types. The impact
produced is represented as a vertical load applied at the top of the rail at the same
location as the Cooper axle loadings, expressed as a percentage of the live load. The
impact on a ballasted deck structure can sometimes be reduced compared to that for
an open deck structure because of the absorbing effect of the ballasted track.
Steel Structures
For steel bridge design, the percentage of live load attributed to impact is a function of
the spacing of the structure supporting elements (girder or stringer spacing) relative to
the spacing of the rails (rocking effect) and the distance between supports for the
member being designed (span length). Chapter 15, Section 1.3.5 provides the specifics
to the calculation for the recommended percentage of live load that is to be attributed
to impact. Recognize that the resultant impact percentage will vary for different
components of the same bridge.
The AREMA formulae account for the higher impact produced by steam-powered
locomotives with their attenuate hammer blows than that produced by diesel and
electric equipment. Chapter 15 also provides impact load values for multiple track
structures. For spans less than 175 feet in length, each track of a two-track structure
will assume the full impact design value. The impact design value may be reduced for a
second track for spans greater than 175 feet in length. For more than three tracks, the
full value of impact on any two tracks is used for all span lengths. (See Chapter 15,
Section 1.3.5c.)
As of the published date of this text, for purposes of bridge rating only, AREMA
provides a reduction in impact design values for speeds less than 60 mph. (See Chapter
15, Section 1.3.5 and Section 9.1.3.5.) Impact is also considered when performing
fatigue analysis and design. When checking fatigue stresses, impact forces may be
reduced for members over 30 feet in length. Check with the latest manual revision to
ensure that this information is current.
Concrete Structures
Although the conditions that produce impact are the same for both a steel structure
and a concrete structure, the methodology for estimating design impact values varies.
AREMA utilizes the live load and dead load to develop a modified ratio for reinforced
concrete bridges and the span length of concrete members for evaluating the impact
percentage of prestressed members. Reductions in impact may be allowed for
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members receiving live load from more than one track in the same manner as that
done for steel structures. Chapter 8 specifies the derivation of the impact percentage
of the live load for reinforced cast-in-place concrete, which differs slightly with the
derivation of the impact percentage to be used for prestressed concrete.
As of the published text date, for concrete structures, AREMA recommends a

reduction in impact percentages for rating purposes only, based on speed. For speeds
less than 40 mph, the impact value may be reduced in a linear fashion from full effect
at 40 mph to one-half the full effect at 10 mph. Again, reduction in impact based on
speed reductions is not applicable to design. Check with the latest manual revision to
ensure that this information is current.
Timber Structures
The dynamic increment of load due to impact related conditions is not well established
for timber structures. The effect of impact is estimated to be less than the increased
strength of timber for the short cumulative duration of loading that railway bridges
experience, and is taken into consideration in the derivation of allowable working
stresses for design. Thus, Chapter 7 (Timber Structures) does not include an impact
factor in structural design due to the material properties of timber.
Culverts and Retaining Wall Structures

Impact is applied on a sliding scale in Chapter 1 of the AREMA Manual for Railway
Engineering when considering culverts and other structures, which have fill or
embankment physically separating the structure being loaded and the track structure.
Centrifugal Load
Centrifugal force is the force a train moving along a curve exerts on a constraining
object (track and supporting structure) and acts outwardly away from the center of
rotation. In the process, both a horizontal force and an overturning moment are
produced.
Both must be considered in design or evaluation of a structure. The horizontal force

tends to bend the structure laterally. For steel structures (deck girders, for example), it
loads laterals and cross frames. For concrete structures (box girders, for example), the
structure is typically stiff enough in the transverse direction that the horizontal force is
not significant. For all types, the bearings and substructure must be able to resist the
centrifugal horizontal force.
The overturning moment tends to increase the live load force in members on the
outside of the curve and reduce the force on inside members. However, interior
members are not designed with less capacity than exterior members.
Substructures must be designed to resist the centrifugal overturning moment. This will
increase forces toward the outside of the curve in foundation elements.
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The centrifugal force is applied at the location of the axles along the structure, 6' above
the top of rail, at a point perpendicular to the center of a line connecting the rail tops.
It is expressed as a percentage of the live load. The effect of track superelevation
compensates somewhat for centrifugal force. (See Chapter 6, Railway Track Design)
Note: Impact is not added to centrifugal force.
Rather than applying the centrifugal force at each axle location, most railways simply
multiply the calculated live load force by the centrifugal force percentage, factor in the
effect of the force location above the top of the rail, and use the resulting value in their
calculations.
Effects of Centrifugal Force

• Timber Pile Trestle Bridge
o Increases forces in outside stringers and piling
o Increases forces in pile (sway) bracing
• Precast Concrete Trestle Bridge
o Increases force in outside box girder and piling
o Increases force in pile bracing
o Horizontal bending effect on superstructure typically not significant due to

lateral stiffness of the structure
• Rolled or Welded Beam Bridge
o Increases force in outside beams
o Induces lateral bending in beam top flanges
• Deck Plate Girder Bridge
o Increases force in outside girder
o Increases force in bracing system
• Through Plate Girder Bridge
o Increases forces in outside girder, stringer and outer section of floorbeams
o Increases forces in stringer and girder bracing
• Through Truss Bridge
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o Increases force in outside stringer and truss
o Increases force in bracing system
Lateral Loads
Lateral loads are applied to the structure as a result of routine train passage, excluding
centrifugal force. This is largely due to the nosing (the tendency of the train to bear
laterally against the rails as it travels down the track) and hunting action of the train as it
traverses the bridge. Lateral force manifests itself as horizontal forces on specified
bridge members including lateral bracing members, flanges of longitudinal girders or
stringers without a bracing system, and to the chords of truss spans. The magnitude
and application point of these loads vary among Chapters 7, 8 and 15. As of the
published date of this text, for timber, a load of 20 kips is applied horizontally at the
top of rail. For steel, a load of one quarter of the heaviest axle of the specified live load
is applied at the base of rail. In both cases, the lateral load is a moving concentrated
load that can be applied at any point along the span in either horizontal direction.
Check with the latest manual revision to ensure that this information is current. Lateral
loads from equipment are not included in the design of concrete bridges. However, if
concrete girders are supported on steel or timber substructures, lateral loads should be
applied to the design of those members.
Experience has shown that very high lateral forces may be applied to structures due to
lurching of certain types of cars. Wheel hunting is another phenomenon, which
applies lateral force to the track and structure. Damaged rolling stock (slewed trucks,
binding center plate, etc.) can also create large lateral forces. Although there is not
extensive research background supporting the lateral forces developed in the AREMA
Manual for Railway Engineering, they have historically worked well when combined
with wind loads to produce adequate lateral resistance in structures.
Effects of Lateral Forces from Equipment
• Timber Trestle Bridge
o Not applied to stringers
o Apply to bents (resulting vertical forces can be neglected)
o Effects not applicable
o Lateral bending of flanges
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o Axial forces in girder spacing
o Axial stresses in stringer bracing or lateral bending of stringers without bracing
o Axial stresses in flange bracing
o Axial stresses in truss chords
o Axial stresses in cross-frames of truss
o Axial stresses in stringer bracing or lateral bending of stringers without bracing
Longitudinal Loading
Longitudinal force is induced on the structure along its length from train movement
(braking and accelerating) on the bridge. Longitudinal force manifests itself as a
horizontal force parallel to the rail and distributed into the supporting structure.
Generally, the design load is the maximum of either the braking or accelerating force of
the train. Each of these is figured independently of the other. The chapters differ in
their consideration of the acceleration (traction) aspect of the force. In each chapter,
the braking and traction forces are compared, and the larger value used in design.
As of the published date of this text, Chapter 7 of the AREMA Manual for Railway
Engineering, takes the longitudinal force due to braking to be 15% of the live load,
without impact, while Chapters 8 and 15 specify the longitudinal load due to braking to
be 45 + 1.2 (L), where L is the span length in feet and the load is specified in kips. For
the acceleration (traction) aspect of the force, Chapter 7 uses 25% of the weight on the
drive axles for traction, while Chapters 8 and 15 use 25 (L)1/2, where again L is the
length of span in feet and the load is designated in kips. Check with the latest revision
of the manual to ensure that this information is current.
With the advent of the high-adhesion AC locomotives, there is much concern in the
industry that the AREMA-based design load percentage for longitudinal loading for
timber structures, as recommended, may be significantly understated. Check with the
specific railway for their current policy on longitudinal force application.
Chapters 7 (Timber Structures), 8 (Concrete Structures) and 15 (Steel Structures) differ

in the point of application of the longitudinal force. Chapter 7 applies it 6 feet above
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the top of rail. Chapters 8 and 15 apply the braking force at 8 feet above the top of
rail, and the traction force 3 feet above the top of rail.
All three chapters recognize that some of the longitudinal force is carried through the
rails off the structure. (The extent of this transfer depends on factors such as rail
continuity, rail anchorage and the connection of the bridge deck to the span.) Where a
large portion of the longitudinal force is carried to the abutments or embankment,
Chapter 7 allows neglecting longitudinal force in the design of piles, posts and bracing
of bents. Chapters 8 and 15 allow taking the applied longitudinal force as half of what
was initially calculated on short, less than 200 feet long, ballasted deck bridges with
short spans less than 50 feet in length, if the continuity of members or frictional
resistance will direct some of the longitudinal force to the abutments.
Chapters 8 and 15 also state that the longitudinal load is to be applied to one track only,
and can be distributed to bridge components based on their relative stiffness and the
types of bearings. For multiple track structures, it may be prudent to include
longitudinal force on more than one track, depending on the bridge location and train
operation at the site.
Longitudinal force is particularly significant in long structures, such as viaducts, trestles

or major bridges. Large bridges may have internal traction or braking trusses to carry
longitudinal forces to the bearings. Viaducts frequently have braced tower bents at
intervals to resist longitudinal force.
Effects of Longitudinal Force
• Timber Trestle Bridge
o If much or all of force is not carried directly to embankments, will apply

longitudinal force to the bents.
o Applies longitudinal force to the substructure.
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o Introduces force in truss bottom chords and laterals.
Wind Loading
Wind loading is the force produced on the structure due to wind action on both the
bridge and the train. Wind loading produces a horizontal force and an overturning
moment. Both must be considered in the design or evaluation of a structure. Chapters
7, 8 and 15 treat wind on the structure slightly differently. Though all chapters treat it
as a moving load perpendicular to the track, the magnitude varies between timber, steel
and concrete.
For example, the 30-lbs/ft2 wind force on a loaded structure and 50-lbs/ft2 force on an
unloaded structure used in Chapter 15 reflects assumptions on train operations. It is
assumed that the maximum wind velocity, under which train operations would be
attempted, would produce a force of 30-lbs/ft2. Hurricane winds, under which train
operations would not be attempted, would produce a wind force of 50-lbs/ft2.
Virtually every bridge component can be affected by wind. However, wind is typically
most significant in the design of:
1. Lateral bracing and cross-frames
2. Lateral bending in flanges
3. Vertical bending in girders and trusses due to overturning
4. Tower piles or columns
Effects of Wind Loading on Bridge (Loaded or Unloaded)
• Timber Trestle Pile Bridge
o Increased force in leeward piling
o Increased moment in leeward stringers (overturning effect)
o Increased force in pile bracing
o Increased force in leeward piling
o Increased moment in leeward girders (overturning effect)
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o Increased force in pile bracing
o Lateral bending can be neglected in superstructure due to high lateral stiffness
o Lateral bending in flanges
o Increased bending moment in leeward beams (overturning effect)
o Lateral load transmitted to substructure
o Increased forces in bracing
o Increased bending moment in leeward girder (overturning effect)
o Increased forces in bracing
o Increased bending moment in leeward girder (overturning effect)
o Increased force in leeward truss (overturning effect)
o Increased force in truss bracing and chords (lateral bending)
Stream Flow, Ice and Buoyancy

Stream flow, ice and buoyancy loads are applied to the structure because of its location
in a body of water. These loads provide horizontal and/or vertical forces as well as
overturning moments.
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These topics are only specifically addressed in Chapter 8 because they apply almost
entirely to bridge substructures, which typically consist of concrete. Buoyancy, stream
flow, scour and ice pressure are to be applied to any portion of the structure that is
exposed therewith. This typically includes piers and other elements of the substructure.
While the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering does not address design forces for
stream flow and ice pressure, the AASHTO LRFD and other bridge design
specifications do include procedures for calculating them.
Two other factors concerning waterways must be considered. The first is vessel
collision (or, more correctly) allison with piers. Pier protection is covered in Part 23,
Spans over Navigable Streams, of Chapter 8. These requirements should be addressed
before designing a bridge across a navigable waterway.
The second factor to be addressed is scour. Scour is a leading cause of bridge failure.
The AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specification contains scour analysis and
protection guidelines. Hydraulic studies to determine required bridge openings should
be performed when designing new structures or when watersheds upstream of a bridge
change.
Seismic Loads
Seismic loads are induced by horizontal and vertical forces in the structure, resulting
from earthquake ground motion. Seismic design for railways is covered in Chapter 9
of the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering. In general, the provisions are similar
to AASHTO.
The philosophical background of Chapter 9 recognizes that railway bridges have

historically performed well in seismic events. This is due to the following factors:
1. The track structure serves as an effective restraint (and dampening agent) against
bridge movement.
2. Railway bridges are typically simple in their design and construction.
3. Trains operate in a controlled environment, which makes types of damage

permissible for railway bridges that might not be acceptable for structures in
general use by the public.
The third item above is related to the post-seismic event operation guidelines given in
Section 1.2 of Chapter 9. This section gives limits on train operations following an
earthquake. The limits vary according to earthquake magnitude and distance from the
epicenter. For example, following an earthquake of magnitude 6.0 or above, all trains
within a 100-mile radius of the epicenter must stop until the track and bridges in the
area have been inspected and cleared for use. (Note that specific railway policies may
vary from this.)
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Three levels of ground motion are defined:
• Level 1 - Motion that has a reasonable probability of being exceeded during the life
of the bridge.
• Level 2 - Motion that has a low probability of being exceeded during the life of the
bridge.
• Level 3 - Motion for a rare, intense earthquake.
Three performance limit states are given for seismic design of railway bridges. The
serviceability limit state requires that the structure remain elastic during Level 1 ground
motion. Only moderate damage and no permanent deformations are acceptable.
The ultimate limit state requires that the structure suffer only readily detectable and
repairable damage during Level 2 ground motion.
The survivability limit state requires that the bridge not collapse during Level 3 ground
motion. Extensive damage may be allowed. For some structures, the railway may elect
to allow for irreparable damage, and plan to replace the bridges following a Level 3
event.
An in-depth discussion of seismic analysis and design is beyond the scope of this book.
Guidelines are given in Chapter 9. Base acceleration coefficient maps for various
return periods are included in the chapter. It should be noted that Section 1.4.2.d. (4)
states that no seismic analysis is necessary for locations where a base acceleration of
0.1g or less is expected with a 475-year return period. For most locations in North
America, therefore, a seismic analysis would not be needed. (Canadian and Mexican
requirements may differ from this. Check with the affected railway for specific
guidelines.)
Important structures should be designed for higher seismic loads than non-important
structures. Even if no specific seismic analysis and design is required for a structure, it
is good practice to detail structures for seismic resistance if they are in potentially active
areas. The provisions of adequate bearing area and designing for ductility are
examples of inexpensive seismic detailing. Typically, seismic loading is not considered
in combination with live load, although engineering judgment should be used in cases
where trains may be parked on a bridge (e.g., a bridge in a yard).
Chapter 9 also includes seismic provisions for items other than bridges. These other
items include buildings, culverts, tunnels, cuts, fills and signal equipment. The chapter
is frequently updated to reflect current research into seismic performance of railway
structures. The designer should be aware of the limits of their expertise in this area.
Consult with engineers experienced in seismic design of railway bridges as necessary.
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Combined Loads
Several types of loads may be applied to a structure simultaneously. These loads are
combined in a prescribed manner to produce design loads for the bridge. For
example, a bridge may experience dead load, live load, impact, centrifugal force, wind
and stream flow simultaneously. The AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
chapters on structure design recognize that it is unlikely that the maximum values of all
loads will be applied concurrently to a structure. Load combination methods are given
to develop maximum credible design forces on the structure.
Like the individual load calculations, the combined load effects recommended by each
chapter vary from one another. It is important to use the appropriate load
combination method for each material and component in the bridge design.
Combination methods from different sections and chapters should not be mixed.
Likewise, the combinations are treated slightly different within each chapter between
allowable stress and load factor design. As a general rule, the section determined by a
load combination should never be smaller than the section required for dead load, live
load, impact and centrifugal force.
8.5.3 Other Structure Design Criteria
Fatigue
Cracking or fracture due to repetitive loading is the result of fatigue. The repetitive
loading that causes fatigue fracture produces stresses in the material below its yield
stress. Due to the magnitude of live loads, fatigue is generally more dominant for
railway bridges than highway structures.
An example of fatigue failure that is easy to replicate may be performed with a paper
clip. Using a small paper clip, bend it between your thumbs and count how many
bends it takes until the paper clip breaks. If you were to repeat this exercise for
numerous paper clips, recorded the results, and then found an average number of
bends, you could establish a ‘fatigue limit’ for your particular brand of paper clips. The
stress you induce in the paper clip for each bend is far less than the stress required to
break the paper clip in a single bend or pull, but the repetitive loading produced small
cracks in the paper clip, eventually causing it to fracture.
The small-scale scenario demonstrated above can also be used to predict the fatigue
limit for steel bridge members. Research has provided allowable stress ranges for
various fabrication details. In Chapter 15 (Section 1.3.13) of the AREMA Manual for
Railway Engineering, various joint and connection details are enumerated (1-23) then
assigned a stress range category (A-F). This allows the engineer to design and detail the
structure, avoiding fatigue prone details in areas of high stress range. The stress range
refers to the difference between the maximum and minimum stress. In the case of
simple spans, which are most common in railway construction, this difference is the
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stress due to Live Load and Impact (LL + I). In some cases, a reduction in impact is
permitted when calculating stress range. This is referred to as the Mean Impact Load
and is based on the span length.
The three major factors affecting the fatigue strength of connections are:
The number of cycles, N, causing tension loading.
The magnitude of the stress range.
The type and location of the construction detail.
Fatigue loads will frequently require the designer to use bolted connections in locations,
such as intermediate stiffeners, that would usually be welded on highway bridges. It is
also important to note that the allowable stress range for Fracture Critical Members is
different than Non-Fracture Critical Members. When designing steel structures, it is
the responsibility of the engineer to select the proper materials and provide adequate
details that meet the requirements of AREMA design specifications as well as the
requirements of the governing railway.
Fracture Critical Members (FCM)

The AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering defines and describes Fracture Critical
Members (FCM’s) in Chapter 15 (Section 1.14). AREMA defines a fracture critical
member (FCM) as:
“Those tension members or tension components of members whose failure would
be expected to result in collapse of the bridge or inability of the bridge to perform
its design function.”
Strict interpretation of this definition would suggest that nearly any tension member
would be classified as fracture critical, as it is specifically required for the bridge to
remain serviceable. This is somewhat impractical in that if a particular bridge member
were not required for the bridge to remain serviceable, then speculation would
question its overall usefulness. As applied to North American railways, the definition
has been curtailed such that it applies to those members whose failures would result in
a catastrophic bridge failure.
AREMA and AASHTO both consider FCM’s as non-redundant, meaning an alternate

load path does not exist. FCM’s are held to more stringent design criteria, as well as
welding and testing procedures, therefore it is imperative to identify all FCM’s on the
bridge drawings. These requirements are also known as a Fracture Control Plan, the
details of which are outlined in Section 12 of AWS D1.5. It should be noted that some
railways, which perform their own steel fabrication, may not be qualified or equipped
to perform welding or testing for FCM’s.
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It is the responsibility of the engineer to first identify Fracture Critical Members, then
to perform design in accordance with the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering.
There are certain limits for FCM’s that do not exist for other members, the most
notable being the allowable fatigue stress range requirements established in Table 15-1-
15.
Some common Fracture Critical Members are listed below:
• The web and bottom flange of girders in a two-girder, simple span structure.
• Certain tension members of trusses, such as bottom chord and some diagonals.
The hanger components of pin and hanger assemblies.
Structure Serviceability
Deflection
Excessive deflection in a railway structure can provide severe serviceability problems

that may impinge on the owner’s ability to safely use the structure even though
allowable stresses are not exceeded. Deflection in the structure will exacerbate line and
surface problems, thereby increasing the impact forces exerted on the structure.
Because of the various adverse effects of high deflection levels, especially from the
serviceability standpoint, it is in the designers' interest to control the levels of deflection
in a structure. This is particularly important with today’s high strength steels, which
permit the use of smaller and lighter members, based on allowable stresses.
Any structure resists applied loads by deflecting under load application to appropriate
levels. The extent of deflection of various structural components depends on the
applied loads and the stiffness of the various structural components. The stiffness of
the member in turn is dependent on its type (axial, flexural, etc.), length, cross-section
and elastic modulus of the material. Traditionally, the design of structures has been
governed more by strength concerns than by deflection concerns. However, with the
increasing use of long span structures and higher strength materials, deflection levels
might control the design.
Generally, a designer can control deflection levels in a structure either by varying the
configuration of the structure or the cross-sections of members. Controlling
deflections by varying the section properties is usually a more practical approach.
Various codes and recommended practices have generally limited deflection levels in a
structure by:
Specifying limiting span-to-depth ratios for structural members,
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Specifying maximum deflection levels as a ratio of the span length, or
An appropriate combination of the above two criteria.
For Steel Structures, Chapter 15, Section 1.2.5 states, “The deflection of the structure
shall be computed for the live loading plus impact loading condition producing the
maximum bending moment at mid-span for simple spans. In this computation, gross
moment of inertia shall be used for flexural members, and gross area of members for
trusses; except that for members with perforated cover plates, the effective area shall
be used. The effective area shall be the gross area reduced by the area determined by
dividing the volume of a perforation by the distance center to center of perforations.”
Further, “The structure shall be so designed that the computed deflection shall not
exceed 1/640 of the span length center-to-center of bearings for simple spans.”
Chapter 15, Section 1.2.10 specifies criteria requiring camber in trusses and plate
girders. For trusses, the camber required is equal to the deflection produced by the
dead load plus a live load of 3,000 lbs/lf of track. For plate girders longer than 90 feet
in length, the required camber is equal to the deflection produced by the dead load
alone. Shorter plate girders and rolled beams do not require camber.
In concrete structures, AREMA limits deflections by specifying minimum thickness of

members as a function of the span length as found in Chapter 8, Section 2.40.2, Table
8-2-8. Lesser thickness is permitted if the deflection calculations indicate no adverse
effects. The deflections calculated are based on the entire superstructure section or any
element placed monolithically with the superstructure before falsework or shoring
removal.
Deflections of concrete portions of composite members shall take into account

shoring during erection, differential shrinkage of the elements and the magnitude and
duration of load prior to the beginning of effective composite action. Computation
of live load deflection may be based on the assumption that the superstructure
flexural members act together and have equal deflection. The live load shall be
considered uniformly distributed to all longitudinal flexural members.
Computation for deflections occurring immediately on application of load as

well as for long-time deflections must be performed and are covered in
Chapter 8, Section 2.23.7.
Deflection of ties and stringers is the primary concern in timber structures.

Stipulating depth and width ratio controls stringer deflection. Per Chapter 7,
Section 2.4.3b, stringer depth should not be less than 1/12 of the span and the
width not less than 1/3 of the depth. Deflection equations for load
distribution for ties, stringers and pile bents are provided in Figures 7-2-3 and
7-2-4 of Chapter 7.
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Corrosion
New spans are usually not painted considering the initial and maintenance costs.
Several weathering grades of steel, including A588 or A709, Grade 50W and A852 or
A709, Grade 70W, have atmospheric corrosion resistance in most environments better
than that of carbon steels, with or without copper addition, and can often be used
unpainted. Do not use weathering steels in environments not suited to weathering
steels, or in projects in highly visible locations paid for and maintained by agencies
other than the railway company.
Welding
The fatigue concerns related to railway loading, coupled with the overall expected
structure life, have resulted in some limits in the use of welded connections, requiring
bolted connections in their stead. This aspect of bridge design and construction is
subject to great variation between individual railways, pertaining to the type and
specific applications of welds. The designer is strongly encouraged to discuss the
railway’s preferences towards the application of all welded connections prior to the
commencement of the design.
Table 15-1-9 and Figure 15-1-4 of Chapter 15 specify construction details for various
groove and fillet weld connections, as well as examples of potential weld produced
fatigue conditions.
Bearings and Volumetric Changes
Chapter 19, Bridge Bearings is currently under development in the AREMA Manual
for Railway Engineering. Here the writers have outlined and defined the basic
components of bearings for non-movable bridge spans. The fundamental concepts of
bridge bearings are simple but their design is somewhat more complicated. The basic
principle is to transmit all loads from the superstructure to the substructure while still
permitting rotation and translation of the attached superstructure element. In the
simplest form, bearings may be merely plates or pads placed beneath the ends of a
beam/girder with little or no positive attachments. On the other end of the spectrum
are multi-rotational (pot) bearings or seismic isolation bearings. These types of
bearings should only be detailed under special conditions that warrant their use.
Selecting the type of bearing can often times be difficult. The bearing type selection is
based primarily on the magnitude of loads and the required movement range. Many
times this selection will be empirical based on the superstructure type, span length, and
above all, owner preference. Schematic diagrams of some bearing types can be found
in Chapter 19 of the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Volume changes in structures can be caused by thermal expansion or contraction or by
properties of the structural materials, such as creep or shrinkage. Restrained volume
changes can produce significant forces in the structure. Volume changes in
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themselves, if unrestrained, have relatively little effect on the forces on the structure.
The challenge to the designer is to provide a means to relieve volume changes or to
provide for the forces developed by restrained changes.
Chapter 7 does not specifically state thermal expansion movement requirements. Due
to the nature of the material and type of timber structures in use, it is unlikely that
thermal stresses will be significant in timber design. Chapter 15 requires an allowance
(+/-) of length change due to temperature per every 100' of span length.
Chapter 8 provides a table for design temperature rise and fall values base on concrete
temperature. Provisions also need to be made for concrete shrinkage and creep.
Specific guidelines are given in Chapter 8, Parts 2 and 17 for these properties. It is
important to remember that creep and shrinkage are highly variable phenomena, and
allowance should be made for higher than expected values.
Chapter 8 also requires designing for longitudinal force due to friction or shear
resistance at expansion bearings. This is in recognition of the fact that most expansion
bearings have some internal resistance to movement. This resistance applies force to
the structure as the bridge expands and contracts. The AREMA Manual for Railway
Engineering contains procedures for calculating the shear force transmitted through
bearing pads. For steel bearings, a rule of thumb is to apply 25% of the dead load
reaction as the maximum force that can be transmitted through an expansion bearing
before it moves. Loads transmitted through fixed or expansion bearings should be
included in substructure design. Bearings must also be able to resist wind and other
lateral forces applied to the structure.
A specific railway may have different requirements for thermal movement. Expansion
bearings are the main design feature typically used to accommodate volume changes.
Common bearing types included:
• Sliding steel plates
• Rocker bearings
• Roller bearings (cylindrical and segmental)
• Elastomeric bearing pads
Provision should be made for span length change due to live load. For spans longer
than 300 feet, provision must be made for expansion and contraction of the bridge
floor system. It should be noted that movement of bridge bearings affect the
tolerances of the track supported by the bridge. This calls for careful selection of
bearings for track with tight tolerances (such as high speed rail). Maintenance
requirements are also important when selecting bearings, since unintended fixity due to
freezing of bearings can cause significant structural damage.
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Composite Design
The design and use of composite steel and concrete spans for railway bridges is
addressed in Section 5.1 of Chapter 15 of the AREMA Manual for Railway
Engineering. This type of superstructure comprises a steel beam or girder and a
concrete deck slab. The connection between the two materials is designed and
constructed to transfer adequate shear force, such that the two materials behave as a
single, integral unit under load.
The theory of composite design, governing the recommendations in the AREMA

Manual for Railway Engineering, is very similar to that found in the working stress
method in AASHTO and allowable stress methods in various building codes. Some of
the important issues include:
Selection of the effective flange width of the concrete as a function of slab

thickness, steel beam spacing or span length;
Proportioning of the cross-section by the moment-of-inertia method;
Application of the dead load forces to the non-composite or composite section,

depending on construction sequencing and methods;
Considering the effect of creep due to long term dead loads acting on the
composite section.
Shear connectors may be either steel channels or headed studs welded to the top flange
of the steel and embedded in the concrete deck. Reference is made to the AREMA
Manual for Railway Engineering or engineering textbooks for specifics on the
preceding items.
Additional consideration is warranted for railway bridges in other aspects of design,

however. One issue to address in composite design is the magnitude of live load to be
resisted. Although not specifically addressed in the AREMA Manual for Railway
Engineering, railway companies generally require that the steel beams or girders be
proportioned to carry without contribution from the concrete deck slab, a Cooper’s
live load of only a slightly reduced magnitude than that of the entire structure. For
example, a bridge with a composite design load of E-80 is often required to have the
steel section alone provide support for an E-60 or higher, and maybe as much as E-80
as well, depending upon the railroad and the type of structure considered. This ensures
that if the concrete deck is damaged during a derailment, the steel section will be
sufficient to carry rail traffic, even if the concrete must be torn out and an open deck
installed.
If the steel alone is sized for the design load, the cost savings through efficient use of
materials is somewhat less for railway structures than it is for highway and building
structures that make full use of the composite section to resist live load and impact.
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The limitation on deflection due to live load plus impact also can usually be waived
when considering the steel only for railway bridge design. The full composite section
should be designed as being sufficiently stiff to meet the deflection limitations.
Even if the steel section is adequate to carry the final design loading without
contribution from the concrete slab, composite action still must be investigated. The
neutral axis of the composite section will be higher on the cross-section than that for
the non-composite section. This will increase the stress range in the material below the
neutral axis, and fatigue details should be checked for this increased range.
While composite steel and concrete spans provide a stiff design with the benefits of a
ballasted-deck bridge, they are unlikely to be used to replace existing structures on
existing alignments. Compared to precast concrete deck panels, the additional time
required to form, place and cure the cast-in-place concrete deck of a composite span
requires off-line construction to minimize impact to rail operations. Parallel
construction of a composite span with a lateral roll-in during a train free window is one
way to work around this problem. Additionally, since the deck concrete is not under
compression from prestressing or post-tensioning, the use of a waterproofing system
to protect the deck may be warranted.
Where structure depth is limited by vertical clearances below the structure, a steel plate
may be used instead of a concrete deck. The steel plate may or may not be included in
the beam design, depending on the connection to the beam.
Bridge Design Assumptions and Constructibility Issues

When planning railway structures, it is imperative to be mindful of the factors that
frequently control design and construction. Many in the railway industry would agree,
that the driving factor of design and construction is track time. Operations are key,
and with greater traffic demands on an ever-aging infrastructure, track time is at a
premium. It is important for railways to balance time for operations,
maintenance/repair and new construction. The designer is challenged with producing
plans and specifications that will yield the best structure in the shortest amount of time.
Many times the design efficiency is sacrificed for a shorter construction period. Let’s
briefly examine one simple scenario: the superstructure replacement of a short, single-
span bridge. In it’s nearly 100-year life span, the steel superstructure had been raised
while being converted from a ballasted deck to an open deck. This conversion
included the use of what is known as a grillage. A grillage (also known as cribbing) is a
temporary steel support, usually in the form of short sections of steel H-piles, welded
together side-by-side to form a shallow (1-2 foot) bearing seat.
The steel is subsequently encased in concrete. This technique is most common to

rehabilitation projects. When replacing this superstructure, the most efficient design
might include cutting the backwall, removing the grillage (thus lowering the beam seat)
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and/or using a shallow, multi-girder, ballasted concrete deck system. This design
would take weeks of construction, if not months to complete. However, the most
efficient design (from a track time perspective) might include the use of deep girders,
oversized bearings, and a timber deck. Using this type of superstructure, the span may
be replaced in a matter of hours, thus minimizing interruptions to train movements.
As simple as it may seem, the scenario demonstrated above exemplifies the decision
process of engineers in the railway industry. Techniques that may be considered
antiquated or over-conservative to engineers in the highway industry are common to
railway structure design. For instance, simple spans and bolted construction (i.e.
stiffener bolted to the web plate) are still widely used for railway bridges, whereas
continuous spans with welded stiffeners are standard practice in highway bridge design.
The use of bolted construction reduces fatigue requirements, and simple spans allow
for the replacement of each individual span, thus minimizing traffic interruptions.
When constructing railway bridges, it has become common practice to erect spans in a
nearly complete form in order to expedite span change-out. Steel spans and precast
concrete box beams as well as other superstructure types may be shipped to a
construction site fully assembled, sometimes including the track. These spans are lifted
into their permanent location and traffic is restored quickly.
Such practices may have added construction costs in the form of shipping larger
sections or the need for larger cranes required to lift heavier segments. The engineer is
charged with the task of producing a design that is both an economical use of materials
and labor as well as reducing interference with train operations. Often the outcome of
a design is counter-intuitive to the standard practice of producing highly efficient
structural systems that use a minimum amount of material. This break from the
common practice, in the long-term, proves more beneficial to railway companies due
to the savings yielded from a design that lasts many years, requires minimal
maintenance and provides a construction period that keeps trains moving.
Recommended Construction Considerations

• Safety
• Labor Issues
o Flagging
o Work Trains
o Railway Collective Bargaining Agreements in Force
o Contractor/Labor Agreements
• Operational Impacts
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• Complying with the design requirements
o Sequence of Work
o Schedule
o Coordination of Work
• Impact on:
o Adjoining Land Owners
o Other Contractors
o Railway Departments
• Availability of Material (Delivery)
• Regulatory Permits
• Local Ordinances
• Disposal & Salvage
• Site Security
o Construction Access
• Staging Area
• Environmental Controls
o Seasonal Issues
o Weather
o Best Management Practices
o Storm Water Retention
o Construction Entrances
o Erosion Control
o Silt Fences
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o Check Dams
o Reseeding & Planting
o Reclamation & Clean-up
• Political Considerations
• Quality Control
o Inspection
o Material Testing
8.5.4 Retaining Wall Loads

Railways frequently incorporate retaining walls within the right-of-way. There are
countless systems available to the designer when considering a retaining wall solution.
Some systems, which include some mechanically-stabilized-earth (MSE) systems and
some interlocking block systems are not favored by railroads due to concerns over the
long-term (upwards of 100 years) serviceability of the structure, or over concerns
relating to the vibratory loads on structures within close proximity to the track.
Of primary concern is the relative location of the wall to the live-loading envelope of
the track structure. The location of all or part of the wall within this envelope can
significantly increase the size and strength of the wall with only a slight change in the
relative distance of the wall to the track.
Part 5 of Chapter 8 in the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering addresses

Retaining Walls and Abutments. It should be noted that these provisions apply to
permanent construction. Other parts of Chapter 8 address specific types of retaining
structures, such as crib walls (Part 6), and flexible sheet pile bulkheads (Part 20).
For abutments and structures approximately perpendicular to the track center, the
track load is distributed uniformly on the ballast over the width of the tie. The
distribution width spreads on a 1 horizontal to 2 vertical slope with increasing depth to
a maximum of 14'.
For track loading approximately parallel to a wall, the load is distributed uniformly over
the width of the tie. The AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering requires
calculations of stability of the retaining structure. No specific check of stability against
overturning is required if the resultant force on the base falls within the middle third
for structures founded on soil, and the middle half for structures founded on rock,
masonry or piles. A safety factor of 1.5 is required for sliding.
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Frequently, temporary retaining structures (such as shoring) are required for

construction adjacent to railway tracks. It is important that the guidelines of the
specific railway for construction near their tracks be followed.
References:
2. “AREMA Bridge Loading Seminar - Participants Manual.”
3. “AREMA Bridge Repair Seminar - Participants Manual.”
4. “AREMA Geotechnology for Railroaders Seminar - Participants Manual.”
5. “Railroad Technical Manual,” C. R. Kaelin, ATSF Railway, Josten’s American

Yearbook Publishing Company, Topeka, KS, 1982.
6. “Railway Track & Structures Cyclopedia,” 1955 Edition, Simmons-Boardman

Publishing Company, New York, NY.
7. “Track Design Handbook for Light Rail Transit,” Transportation Research Board
– National Research Council, TCRP Report 57, National Academy Press.
8. “Design of Bridge Superstructures,” Colin O’Conner, John Wiley & Sons, 1971.
9. “Handbook of Steel Drainage & Highway Construction Products,” American Iron

and Steel Institute, New York, NY.
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9
Chapter

RailwayElectrification
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Railway Electrification
Andrew J. Gillespie P.E.
LTK Engineering Services

Denver, CO
agillespie@ltk.com
H. Ian Hayes P.E.

Denver, CO
hhayes@ltk.com
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9
Chapter
C H A P T E R 9 – R A I L W A Y E L E C T R I F I C A T I O N
RAILWAY ELECTRIFICATION
9.1 Introduction
D espite the competition

of airplanes, buses,
trucks and cars, trains
still play a major transportation
role in society, filling specific
markets such as high-speed and
non-high-speed intercity
passenger service, heavy haul of
minerals and freight, urban light
rail systems and commuter rail.
This chapter presents an Figure 9-1 Overhead High Speed Catenary - Courtesy of LTK, Inc.
introduction to electrification of
rail systems. It is intended to provide a historical perspective and an overview of
typical design principles, construction practice, and maintenance considerations. Those
interested in learning more are invited to review AREMA’s Manual for Railway
Engineering, Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization, and Chapter 17, High Speed
Rail Systems, which contain sections devoted to electrification power supplies, traction
power systems studies and guidelines for the design of overhead contact systems.
9.2 Development of Motive Power

for Railways
The earliest recorded tramway served a mine in Germany, beginning in about 1550.
The tramway was developed because the rolling resistance of wheels on rails was much
less
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than on the roads of the time. This allowed heavier loads to be pulled for the same
power. Horses did the work, and it was not until the steam engine was developed, first
as a stationary engine and then in the early 1800's as a locomotive, that the horse began
to be replaced. Surprisingly, this transition took another 100 years, with the last horse-
tramways being phased out by retrofitting electric traction equipment into tramcars and
streetcars in the early 1900's.
In both North America and Europe, the period from 1800 to 1900 was truly a
developmental age for railways. From its beginning in the 1800’s, steam traction
expanded without serious competition. Locomotives became larger, faster and more
powerful for the next 125 years, culminating with massive machines weighing over 500
tons and capable of speeds of 120 mph. However, the problem with all steam engines,
irrespective of the fuel that was used (wood, coal and later oil), is the smoke, coupled
with high maintenance costs, the frequent fueling and the need for large quantities of
water. These problems led to the eventual demise of the steam locomotive.
In the late 19th century, some early steam power was replaced by electric traction
equipment that had finally become commercially viable through the early efforts of
Werner von Siemens, Thomas Edison and others. First using batteries, but later using
stationary electric generators, electric streetcars demonstrated the practicality of electric
traction. Based on these demonstrations, mainline railways, which up until that time
were 100% reliant on steam traction, began taking an interest in electric traction. In the
period 1895 to 1900, several sections of mainline track were electrified at various
voltages from 550 volts DC to 660 volts DC. The slow development of electric
traction resulted partly from the lack of available utility power. This situation began to
be rectified when the demand for electric lighting drove a need for a public electricity
supply, necessitating the development of sizeable electricity generation plants.
Compared to steam power, electric propulsion offered higher performance and

avoided smoke problems. Railways readily accepted electric propulsion on steep
grades and long tunnel territories, where significant advantage was obtained. With
respect to railway passenger operations, eastern railway trunk lines established extensive
electric commuter rail systems, some with long-distance intercity services as well.
Certain western trunk lines operated intercity passenger services over electrified
territory, built primarily to conquer grades and long, difficult-to-ventilate tunnels. In
the Midwest, a demonstration electric traction line was built to shuttle visitors to the
Colombian World Exposition in Chicago in 1893. This was followed by the operation
of numerous electric trolley lines within Chicago by the turn of the century. It was not
until 1926, that the first Illinois Central commuter trains (predecessor of Metra
Electric) began electric operation.
Throughout North America, passenger rail systems began to adopt traction

electrification systems in the late 19th century. The first successful and sustained use of
electric traction in transit revenue service occurred with Frank Julian Sprague’s streetcar
line in Richmond, VA in 1888. The first application of electricity to mainline railway
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operations was the Baltimore & Ohio’s electrification of Baltimore’s Howard Street
Tunnel in the 1890’s. The technology greatly improved with time and was rapidly
accepted by both railway and transit operators through the early part of the 20th
century. By 1920, there were thousands of electrified track miles on both railway and
transit systems.
Starting in about 1905 there was another surge in railway electrification, using AC
power with voltages up to 11,000 volts and with conversion of some DC lines to AC.
A steady stream of electrification followed for about 25 years, by which time 38
systems existed in North America, aggregating about 7000 electrified route miles.
Although creditable, this was a relatively insignificant amount of the total United States
track mileage. Clearly the steam engine was still in supremacy. However, a new type of
locomotive using a diesel engine, that had been in development for nearly 50 years,
started to come into service.
Patented in the mid-1880s, the “straight” diesel engine faced a major problem that
prevented its early adoption by railways. The problem was the lack of a reliable
mechanical transmission able to handle the horsepower required for practical mainline
operations. The first diesel locomotive was a direct drive 1,000-hp built in Germany in
1913, but it only ran experimentally for a few months before being withdrawn. Also in
1913, a 75-hp diesel-electric railcar was a built in Sweden. It ran until 1939. Other
experimental diesel-electric locomotives with different horsepower ratings followed,
but it was not until 1925 when a 1200-hp ‘mainline’ diesel-electric locomotive began
regular service on the German State Railways. Some of the first mainline diesel
locomotives to enter service in the United States were the Chicago, Burlington and
Quincy Railroad’s Pioneer Zephyr and the Union Pacific Railroad’s M10000 in 1934.
Subsequent developments with diesel power in the 1960s and 1970s included
locomotives that used Voith hydraulic mechanical transmissions, and diesel railcars that
used gas turbines paired with Voith hydraulic transmissions. Both of these
developments eventually reached an acceptable level of reliability, but have not been
able to supplant the electric traction motor powered from an overhead line (with or
without a transformer) or from an on-board diesel-electric generator.
The diesel-electric locomotive has advantages over both steam and ‘straight’ electric
locomotives, namely lower maintenance than steam and lower capital and
maintenance-of-way costs than compared to the overhead or third rail electric
distribution systems needed by electrics. However, the diesel-electric locomotive has,
to this day, not been able to match the acceleration, high-speed, or zero-emissions
capabilities of the straight electric locomotive. But for the type of service needed, the
diesel-electric locomotive remains the preeminent player on North American railways.
This is not the case in Europe and Japan.
Many railways that adopted DC traction power stayed with it until it wore out or was
upgraded to 1500 VDC or 3000 VDC, while others changed to AC at 11,000 volts or
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more. These high-voltage systems all had or have overhead contact systems.
Electrification of the main lines grew steadily into the 1920s, but when reliable diesel-
electric locomotives became commercially available, the pace of electrification slowed
down. In many places in the United States, the electric locomotives and the associated
substations and overhead wiring were removed. Diesel-electric locomotives have their
limitations when it comes to very high-speed trains, with a typical upper speed limit of
100 – 110 mph. While this may be adequate for the needs of freight service, even
higher speeds are being sought for passenger service.
The traction horsepower of a diesel-electric locomotive is typically only 82% of the

rated horsepower of the diesel engine, and there is little overload capacity. ‘Straight'
electric locomotives, by virtue of the high power levels available at the wire, have
conquered all contenders in the race for high-speed locomotives on conventional rail
trackage.
Although electric traction and diesel-electric traction are now the preferred traction
options, there are several choices of traction system within each option. The outcome
of the foregoing developments has produced a variety of alternative sources of motive
power for any particular need, be they for a railway or a transit line.
9.2.1 Pioneers of Electric Traction Development

In 1835, Thomas Davenport, a Vermont blacksmith, built the world's first, albeit short,
electric railway. His experiments consisted of several train models powered by
batteries, which utilized a third rail conductor and a track return circuit. In 1842, the
first electric locomotive was built by Robert Davidson and operated on the Edinburgh
& Glasgow Railway. It was battery powered, had four-wheel drive, weighed 7 tons and
could haul 6 tons at a speed of 4 mph.
During the 1860's, the electric dynamo or AC generator was developed, although
electric traction motors powered by electricity would not be demonstrated until 1879,
when Werner von Siemens built the first practical electric railway for the Berlin Trades
Exhibition. The Berlin electrified line was a 600-yard long, 150V center third rail
narrow-gauge line, with a 3 horsepower (hp) locomotive. It could accommodate about
30 passengers on three cars moving at 4 mph. In 1881, the first public electric railway
in the world was opened in Lichterfelde near Berlin. The route was 1.5 miles long and
the cars ran on a 100 V supply, carrying 26 passengers at 30 mph. In 1883, the Volks
Electric Railway, a short length of track on Brighton Beach, operated as the first
electric line in England. It used a Siemens dynamo powered by a 2-hp Crossley gas
engine.
The next significant step forward in the development of electric traction was a 3-foot
gauge railway in Northern Ireland. This 6-mile line had an outside third rail to supply
the electricity, which was generated by waterpower. Electricity soon came to be seen as
a way to propel light vehicles on what, up to then, was horse-tramways. It also led to
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the electrification of some lines that had been designed for cable haulage using
stationary steam engines. These electric tramways were seen as a significantly better
choice than having steam engines in streets. The violent emissions of steam and noise
frightened the public, but more seriously, spooked horses. American tramways soon
caught the electrification bug and by 1888, 50 lines had been electrified. All the lines
used DC electric power, many using Edison's electric motors and generators.
Some of the first electric

locomotives to enter railway
service were built by the firm of
Siemens Bros. In 1890, they were
used on the underground electric
railway in London, England with
electricity supplied by a specially
built power station. Each
locomotive weighed 13½ tons,
had two 50-hp electric motors,
and operated on a third rail at 600
VDC. By 1907, 52 locomotives Figure 9-2 Early Catenary - Courtesy of Ian Hayes, LTK, Inc.
had been supplied and they
operated until the line was absorbed into the London Underground Railway in 1924.
When they were replaced, it was not due to failure or breakdown, but to changes in
operating conditions necessitating faster speeds and heavier loads than originally
planned. In the United States, the first electric train service began on the 7-mile
Nantasket branch of the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railway in 1895.
As more powerful electric motors were developed, major railways in the United States
began taking an interest in electric traction. Based on the proven technology of the
tramways, railways entered into mainline electrification. Typically, power was supplied
at 550 to 675 VDC, usually from railway-owned generation plants, since electric utilities
had not yet been developed. However, with changing times, electricity was in demand
and a hydroelectric power plant was constructed at Niagara Falls, to be followed in
quick succession by electric generating plants in other places.
Based on work by Nickeli Tesla, who showed the practicality and demonstrated the
advantages of AC electric power generation and the development work carried out by
George Westinghouse, AC traction power was introduced. The practicality of mainline
electrification, which required more powerful locomotives and higher speeds, now
became evident. Much higher voltages could be used, thereby resulting in lower
electrical current demands. These lower currents allowed reduction in the required size
and number of electrical conductors, thus reducing the overall cost of the
electrification infrastructure.
Ultimately, some United States railways, after conducting feasibility studies using both
DC and AC scenarios, opted for the AC alternative even though the equipment had
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not been entirely proven. The New Haven Railroad was one such railway.
Commercial service commenced in 1907, but not without many serious technical
problems in every area of the power supply and the locomotives. The resulting poor
service was recognized with apologies to the public, while claiming that the steam
service that had been replaced had not been any better.
In 1904, the world's first single-phase 15,000 V, 15 Hz AC locomotive went into

service in Switzerland. Weighing 44 tons, its 400-hp AC motor was only capable of a
maximum speed of 47 mph and ran until 1958. Since the early 1950s, many of the
earlier 15, 16 or 25 Hz power supplies have been replaced by 50 or 60 Hz systems.
These are the ‘commercial’ or 'industrial' frequencies at which utilities generate their
power, depending on the country. The most famous system to retain it's original
configuration of 12.5 kV 25 Hz is the former Pennsylvania Railroad portion of the
Northeast corridor from New York to Washington DC, now operated by Amtrak.
Transit operators rapidly changed from horse, cable and steam propulsion to electric
traction. By 1920, virtually every large city and many small cities boasted electrically
powered transit lines in the form of streetcar, interurban, subway and elevated railway
operations.
The balance of the 20th century was not kind to the electrified mileage in North
America. The Great Depression killed most of the planned railway electrification
extensions, with the exception of the Pennsylvania Railroad’s electrification from
Philadelphia to Washington, and the Reading Company’s commuter electrification in
the Philadelphia area, both undertaken in the 1930's. These were the last major United
States passenger electrification projects until the 1990s, when Amtrak finally bridged
the gap between New Haven and Boston in 1999.
The French Railways started pushing the limits

of high-speed rail further by developing trains
that were eventually capable of operating at
speeds up to 200 mph, and based on testing of
an upgraded TGV unit, speeds of up to of 320
mph. In Japan, the bullet train speed was
recorded at 277 mph with trains operating
commercially at 168 mph. Amtrak’s high-
speed trainsets (shown right), operating on the
Northeast Corridor, are eight-car, 12,500 hp Figure 9-3 Amtrak ACELA in NEC - Courtesy of
LTK, Inc.
units capable of speeds up to 150 mph. These
trainsets also tilt, allowing trains to travel through curves at higher than normal
operating speeds without affecting passenger comfort.
Since the 1970's, many countries, most notably France, Germany, Italy, Spain and
Japan (and more recently Britain, South Korea, China and Taiwan), have started to
implement passenger train operations at speeds in excess of 160 mph, using new track
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alignments. In these trains, the locomotives are integrated into the design of
permanently coupled trainsets of six to fourteen cars with driving cabs at each end.
Propulsion systems may be distributed throughout the train (so that the train is a mix
of motor and trailer cars) or located in dedicated power cars at each end of the trainset.
These types of trainsets are invariably ‘straight’ electrics, which operate under high-
voltage overhead contact wire systems. The alternative diesel-electric technology has
been successfully developed for train speeds up to 140 mph outside the United States
where unit loads are not as great.
9.3 Rail Operation Classification

The advent of the diesel-electric locomotive sounded the death knell for North
American electrified railways, built solely to replace steam locomotive issues addressing
steep grades and tunnel ventilation. Most of these installations were taken out of
service in the 1950’s. The former Milwaukee Road electrified territory lasted until the
1970’s, while Conrail abandoned use of the ex-PRR electrified territory for freight
purposes in the early 1980's. As a result, with the exception of a few specialized
industrial lines, all surviving electrified railways owe their continued existence to
passenger operations.
Rail operations in North America serve a wide variety of transportation modes, from
freight to long distance intercity travel, to daily commuter trips, to local urban transit
services. These operations encompass a diversity of vehicle types, operating speeds,
right-of-way requirements and service frequencies. For purposes of this chapter, the
various types of rail operations will be divided into the following categories:
• Mainline and independent Short Lines

• Freight – general and single product mineral heavy-haul (unit trains)
• High-Speed Rail (“HSR”)
• Heavy Haul – privately owned (captive fleets)
• Urban
• Metro
• Commuter Rail
• Rapid Transit (“RT” or “heavy-rail” transit)
• Light Rail Transit (“LRT”)
• Street Car
The general characteristics of electrification of each of these rail modes are described
below:
Mainline railway operations (high speed rail, intercity and commuter rail) tend towards
higher speeds and longer routes, utilizing equipment that is generally compatible with
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freight equipment. Diesel-electric propulsion is the most typical power for passenger
rail services. There are some notable exceptions:
Freight railways are almost all diesel-electric, with the exception of some mineral unit
trains, and heavy-haul dedicated short lines electrified at 25 kV, 60 Hz and 50 kV, 60
Hz.
High-Speed and most Intercity services on the Northeast Corridor (NEC) are
electrified with 12.5 kV, 25 Hz; 12.5 kV, 60 Hz; 25 kV, 60 Hz traction power systems,
using a catenary-type overhead contact system (OCS). At the time of this writing, the
Northeast Corridor (NEC) is the only North American rail line with high-speed
operations.
Heavy Haul railways are lines are typically less than 1000 miles in length and operated
by multiple electric or diesel-electric locomotives with up to 200 cars. Loads can range
up to 20,000 tons for iron ore or coal trains. Fifteen hundred VDC, 25 kV AC and 50
kV AC systems are used and examples exist in the United States, South Africa,
Australia and New Zealand.
Most Commuter Rail operations in the Northeast are electrified. Examples include:
Metro-North: 650 VDC under-running third rail (ex-New York Central) and 12
kV, 60 Hz (New Haven Line);
Long Island Rail Road: 600 VDC over-running third rail;
New Jersey Transit: 12 kV, 25 Hz OCS and 25 kV, 60 Hz OCS (ex-Lackawanna

3000 VDC lines);
SEPTA: 12 kV, 25 Hz OCS; and
MARC: 12 kV, 25 Hz.
Electrified commuter services in the Chicago area include:

South Shore/NICTD (former CSS&SB): 1500 VDC, OCS and
Metra Electric (ex-Illinois Central): 1500 VDC, OCS.
Transit systems (heavy and light-rail) typically have speeds of 50 to 80 mph and shorter
routes, but generally higher service frequencies. For that reason, transit operations
utilize smaller and lighter vehicles. The vast majority of transit operations are
electrified. All Rapid Transit and all but a few LRT systems utilize self-propelled
EMUs. North American electric transit systems are almost exclusively DC systems.
Power may be distributed to trains by an overhead contact system (OCS) or by third
rail (over-running or under-running):
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Systems built prior to 1980 are typically 600 VDC.
Systems built after 1980 typically utilize a 750 VDC standard.
San Francisco’s Bay Area’s BART system represents a unique case, using a 1000
VDC system.
Seattle Sound Transit plans to use a 1500 VDC LRT system with OCS (proposed
at this writing).
Vintage trolley operations are typically electrified at 600 VDC.
9.4 Mainline Railways and

Independent Short Lines
Existing mainline railways may be characterized as being for freight or for high-speed,
and all rely upon electric or diesel-electric locomotives. Each type has its advantages,
however electric locomotives require an additional large investment in fixed equipment,
comprising an electrical infrastructure that includes substations and a traction power
distribution system.
Independent heavy haul railways are frequently privately owned and operated for the
sole purpose of moving bulk commodities, such as coal or iron ore from a mine to a
power station, plant or a harbor, using unit heavy haul trains. Several of these are
electrified operations including: Sisher Saldenha in South Africa, Coccle Hampton lines
in Australia, and Black Mesa and Deseret Western lines in the United States.
Electrification of a railway can usually be justified if there is:
A call for very high speed (over 120 mph)34
A need to reduce reliance on fossil fuels
A high volume of traffic
A significant length of tunnels
A high level of traffic sustained throughout the day, the week, the year.
Need to reduce trip times

34 The application of a very high-speed system on an existing railway may be accomplished by reducing track
curvatures, introducing “tilt” trains, or a combination of both.
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For freight railways, electrification may be justified if there is a need to:
Increase capacity without adding tracks35
Shorten delivery times by increasing running speeds
Reduce maintenance costs by phasing out obsolete units, or
Electrical power is available
9.4.1 Mainline Electrification Studies

Before analyzing the pros and cons of an electrified system versus a wholly diesel-
electric operation, it is necessary to compare the performance characteristics of each
type of locomotive from an operations view point, while playing down relative cost.
Relative cost will inevitably appear in the cost analysis anyway. The major difference
between electric and diesel-electric motive power is that each diesel locomotive carries
its power source while the power for all electric locomotives is supplied to them at the
point of need.
Comparing electric locomotives to diesel-electric locomotives, it is found that electric

locomotives:
Have higher speed capabilities.
Have lower fuel costs because the electricity generated for traction effort has a
higher thermal efficiency when secured from large power plants as compared to
comparatively small on-board diesel power plants.
Are able to utilize alternate energy sources such as coal, nuclear and hydroelectric
power.
Have no local emissions to pollute air and have fewer fire and life-safety issues in
underground stations or tunnels.
Do not require fueling plants, eliminating an environmental hazard of possible fuel

leakage and spillage.
35 A decision to electrify may involve selective tracks, typically mainlines and passing sidings. Branch lines,
yards and sidings along the route can remain diesel operated, typically using switchers or a special applications
locomotive, such as a 'dual-mode' locomotive or an 'electro-diesel.' The 'dual-mode' locomotive that can
handle branch lines is a mainline diesel-electric locomotive fitted with a pantograph and electrical equipment.
The 'electro-diesel' is a mainline electric locomotive fitted with a small diesel generator set, which can provide
slow speed operations off-wire in yards and sidings.
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Can employ regenerative braking whereby traction motors become generators,

putting power back into the contact system for another train in the circuit to utilize
(potentially reducing the overall system power consumption by as much as 10% or
more).
For equal rated horsepower, the straight electric locomotive has superior wheel-rail
adhesion through better management of available traction, making them better at
handling track grades, and allowing the use of steeper gradients with consequent
savings in track and in civil structures.
The straight electric locomotive has a short-term horsepower rating up to double

the nominal horsepower rating, which is ideal for accelerating trains and ascending
grades.
Are not limited in horsepower by the size of the on-board diesel engine. (Electric
locomotives can exceed their nominal power ratings for short periods of time,
thus, improving their acceleration and run times.)
Can increase line capacity without increasing infrastructure, by running a given

route much more quickly than a diesel train due to their speed and superior
acceleration and braking rates.
Provide better track utilization by maximizing the number of trains that can fit in a
given area at any one time.
Does not present the fire hazard of onboard fuel tanks that may prevent diesel-
electrics from operating in tunnels and underground stations, due to local fire
codes.
May have lower locomotive maintenance costs than diesel-electric locomotives

over the expected service life.
On the other hand, diesel-electric locomotives have certain advantages over

electric locomotives:
Has a lower initial capital cost since they don’t require a power distribution system.
Does not require an extremely elaborate and expensive power distribution system
infrastructure, spread over the full length of the rail network, exposed to the
elements and requiring continuous surveillance and on-site maintenance.
Can operate independent of a power distribution system over long distances.
Will operate during any level of failure of the electrical supply network.
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Does not create possible electrical safety hazards to the public due to the presence
of the bare conductors of the contact system.
When the cost of diesel fuel was 9 cents a gallon and the supply seemed unlimited,
United States railways were not interested in alternative methods of propulsion.
Railway electrification interest peaks during times of uncertainty in the energy industry.
When fuel rose to 34 cents per gallon and the oil embargos occurred, much effort was
expended studying alternatives to hydrocarbon fuels. Studies showed that "an
estimated 34% savings in energy could be achieved by using electric power.
Electrification of just 10% of the (then) present rail trackage (in the densest traffic
corridors) could result in a 40% reduction in railway diesel fuel consumption.”
Studies made in the 1970’s also showed that approximately 6 years after electrifying a
route, the operating cost would break even when compared to the operating cost of
diesel service. At 30 years, the annual operating cost of an electrified system would be
one-third that of diesel service. In other words, over the effective life of a railway, the
cost to operate a diesel-electric system far exceeds that of an electric system. These
increased costs mainly come from the price of fuel and maintenance. Diesel
locomotives average 3 to 10 gallons or more of fuel per mile and three times the
amount of maintenance of straight electric locomotives.
The most significant aspect arising from these studies is that in order to realize the
long-term savings, a huge capital investment is needed. Even when engineering
economic studies show that an electrified system would be beneficial, raising enough
money to perform the capital upgrade is a daunting challenge. Private railways would
most likely require government assistance or financing from the utilities.
9.4.2 Mainline Infrastructure Compatibility

The electrification of a section of existing mainline cannot be undertaken without
considering the requirements that the electric locomotives, substations, overhead or
third rail power distribution systems and traction return system will place on the
existing rail infrastructure.
The more significant issues are noted below:
Tracks may need to be upgraded, including new track work or re-alignment. Sites
must be found and real estate acquired for substations. In rights-of-way with
restrictive width, the location of the system-wide ductbank requires coordination
with track drainage, the foundations for OCS poles and emergency walkways. In all
cases, maintenance access must be provided.
If DC traction is used, the effects of electrolytic corrosion due to leakage (stray)

currents must be mitigated.
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Additional clearance may need to be provided in tunnels and at bridges. Existing

civil structures may have insufficient clearance to accommodate the proposed
electrification system. It may be necessary to lower tracks through overhead
crossing bridges. New bridges resulting from grade-crossing elimination will need
to be built with adequate electrical clearance. Future widening of existing
overhead bridges must be considered.
Tunnels may be suitable for electrification, or may require costly remedial work,
enlargement or “daylighting.”
Integration of the electrification support structures with existing station canopies

must be considered. Station canopies that project over platform edges may need
modification.
Where OCS poles cannot be

installed for lack of clearance,
attachments, such as wall
brackets, will need to be added
to civil structures. Pictured at
the right is an example of an
OCS cantilever attachment to
an overhead structure.
Signals and communication

systems will need to be replaced
or upgraded. Because electric Figure 9-4 OCS Cantilever Attachment - Courtesy of LTK, Inc.
traction systems use the same
running rails for traction return current, it is necessary for the two electrical
systems to be electrically isolated. The signal circuits need to be “immunized”
from the traction power circuits.
Grounding and bonding of exposed metals is necessary to protect the public from
electrical hazards, as well as insuring that there is no interference with the signals
and communications systems.
A central location will be needed to supervise the power system. SCADA, pilot
wires or a relaying system must send information to a central point to insure
power is being supplied to the system when necessary.
Maintenance
More details on these and other aspects impacting the railway route are given later.
The advent of electrification increases the level of overall maintenance on the right-of-
way. The traction power distribution system, comprising substations, feeder cables,
OCS or third rails, lineside disconnect switches, impedance bonds and rail bonds
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requires out-of-service time to perform maintenance inspections, maintenance

adjustments and renewal of componetry. In addition, working around electrified lines
is more difficult because clearance from the traction power system has to be
maintained or the area will require de-energizing with the loss of track occupancy time.
Existing maintenance facilities will need to

be upgraded, extended and/or adapted to
the needs of electric locomotives. New
office facilities, workshops and stores for
staff to maintain the substations and OCS
will be required. This is in addition to the
existing needs for maintenance of track
and wayside equipment such as signals
and communications. Track possession
time will need to be coordinated with train
operations schedules. Highway-rail
vehicles (for line adjustments and for OCS Figure 9-5 Tower Car Crew Performing Wire Maintenance
- Courtesy of Q&R Australia
conductor stringing) and service vehicles
must be procured and will need to be stored. Electrical test equipment, stagger gauges
and pantograph clearance gauges, grounding equipment and special tools will be
needed.
Staff Safety
Traction power distribution systems bring additional
overhead, at-grade and underground electrical hazards, and
require extensive safeguards against damage and personnel
contact. To protect staff, safety barriers may be needed
around adjacent equipment, under low bridges and around
signal heads that are close to the contact system. Third rails
will require wooden or plastic protection boards, especially
in complicated track areas and where railway staff regularly
access. Pictured right is a glow stick that is used to test Figure 9-6 Using a Hot stick -
conductors to determine if they are energized. Because of Courtesy of Q&R Australia
the proximity of bare overhead or third rail conductors,
safety-oriented work-permitting procedures must be introduced for all maintenance
personnel.
9.4.3 Impacts of Mainline Railway Electrification

on Communities
When an existing mainline railway electrifies, it will typically adopt a 25kV AC
overhead contact system. The local communities may perceive that the electrified
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system will bring few advantages with it, except perhaps an absence of diesel fumes.
Not only will local townspeople not have any use for it, but also it will likely create few
jobs and will unfortunately bring with it several distinct disadvantages to the
communities through which it passes. These include:
Highly visible OCS poles and wiring
More intensive train service, meaning more noisy periods
Higher train speeds creating more vibration
Possible electromagnetic interference (EMI) with overhead cables and

telecommunications lines
Electrical interference affecting TV screens
Electromagnetic field issues
Safety issues
All of these issues are addressable and must be addressed in the Environmental Impact
Study that precedes public approval of the electrification project.
9.5 Urban Railways

Urban railways comprise light rail, commuter rail and rapid transit for passengers only.
Urban railways are very different from mainline freight and high-speed railways.
Apart from a few streetcar systems that have survived from the earliest days, such as in
San Francisco, Boston and Toronto, urban railways have been reintroduced into many
cities. Since 1970, San Francisco Bay Area, Baltimore, Miami, Washington DC, Atlanta
and Los Angeles have developed rapid transit systems, and more than 10 cities have
started to develop light rail systems. Apart from BART in San Francisco, all these new
systems use standard track gauge of 4-ft 8½ inches as do mainline railways. Rapid
Transit is typified as being fully segregated, largely in tunnel in the Downtown and on
its own restricted right of way or on aerial structures elsewhere. Stations are designed
to avoid the need for passengers to cross tracks at grade. Traction power uses a third
rail and the tracks must be fully fenced against intrusion by the public. Linear motor-
powered traction systems have been built in Vancouver, BC, Toronto, ON and
Detroit, MI.
Commuter rail, if recently introduced, typically provides morning ‘in’ and evening ‘out’
service for commuters and probably operates only limited service during the ‘non-rush’
hours. Unless the lines are already electrified, these commuter services are usually
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diesel powered. An exception is the Peninsular Corridor, between San Francisco, San
Jose and Gilroy, which is planned to be electrified. Electric locomotives could easily
serve commuter lines south of Boston, presently served by diesel locomotives, because
the mainline south to Providence, RI is already electrified as part of the New Haven to
Boston high-speed electrification program.
Light Rail (LRT) is exemplified throughout the United States as having short trains
running frequently up to 21 hours a day, 365 days of the year. The trains utilize the
downtown city streets, often co-existing with motor vehicles. Typically, the public can
access the entire trackage, as fencing is seldom provided. Light rail service can only be
integrated with mainline rail service by means of time separation of operations. Some
sections of track are shared, as in San Diego (after the LRT service closes each night,
the tracks can be used by diesel locomotives to move freight). Such lines must be
designed for mainline railway clearances and loadings.
9.5.1 Impacts of an Urban Electrified Light Rail or

Commuter Rail System on the Community
The impact on the community of light rail and commuter rail electrification is quite
different to that of freight railway electrification.
In the first place, the implementation of a light rail system is typically with voter
approval. Light rail:
Encourages commuters to leave their car outside of the city center.
Reduces travel times for car owners and bus and LRT passengers.
Reduces overall vehicle emissions.
Typically leads to an increase in property values within walking distance of

stations.
However, there are some negative issues. Light rail:
Requires large parking facilities.
Occupies downtown streets, thereby reducing automobile traffic flow in the city
center.
Overhead contact system (OCS) wiring is considered visually intrusive.
Creates electrical safety issues.
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OCS safety screens on bridges may be visually intrusive.
Size of the LRV belies their speed, creating hazards for people and road vehicles.
9.6 Existing Electrification

Systems
A variety of different designs of traction power systems exist and many have been in
place for years. However, they can all be grouped into one of two categories, AC or
DC. The most common are 11/12.5kV AC or 25kV AC overhead contact systems,
1500 VDC overhead contact systems, 600-750 VDC overhead systems and 600-750
VDC third rail systems.
In the early days of mainline electrification, the only type of traction motors available
were DC drive motors derived from early tramway motors on streetcars. This resulted
in DC being selected for mainline electrification projects. At the turn of the century,
the Swiss and Italians experimented with using three-phase 600 VAC propulsion by
using two overhead conductors and the running rail. This early three-phase system
was very complex to build. In addition, there was no flexibility for operations as the
traction motors were essentially constant speed, only allowing one or two operating
speeds.
By the 1950’s traction power technology had improved to allow the direct distribution
of electric power at commercial frequencies, either 50 or 60 Hz. By 1960, studies
determined that 25 kV systems would, for most railways, produce the most cost
effective design by reducing the number of supply stations needed to connect to the
commercial supply grid as compared to 1500 volt or 3000 volt systems. In addition,
conductor sizing could be reduced, which in turn reduces required conductor tension
and allows use of lighter supporting structures. In the early 1970's, the US pioneered
50kV systems for railways in regions where there were few, if any, transmission lines.
Four such lines were built in North America: The Black Mesa & Lake Powel Railway
near Flagstaff Arizona; the Deseret Western railway from Vernal, Utah to Rangeley,
Colorado; the high speed test track in Pueblo, Colorado; and the Tumbler Ridge
Branch Line in British Columbia (electric operations on this last line recently ceased
due to business conditions).
Existing electric railways can be typically identified as one of six operating scenarios.
The six scenarios are:
• Inter-City, TGV, Shinkansen, ICE, Amtrak Acela Express are examples of Inter-
City operations. These systems use 11/12.5 kV or 25kV AC, with or without
autotransformers. Twenty-five kV AC is well proven and is the most economic
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electrification system under normal conditions. Older 3000 VDC systems are still
prevalent in Russia, South America and other areas around the world that chose not to
change their systems.
• Heavy Haul, including Sishen-Saldhana; Black Mesa and Lake Powell; and Tumbler
Ridge (British Columbia). These railways use 50kV AC, because of the limited
availability of connection points to public utilities, because they generate their own
power at one end of the line, or for other economies. Substation spacing is typically 40
miles apart on 50 kV systems. However, substations on the Sishen–Saldahna iron-ore
line are over 80 miles apart, in order to reduce the number of long spur distribution
lines from the main power network. Voltage in the catenaries can drop as far down as
25kV and the electric locomotives still operate satisfactorily. The Sishen–Saldahna
iron-ore line is a case where unique needs have driven the creation of a special type of
traction power system.
• Commuter Rail, typified by older suburban lines that do not use streets to penetrate
into the city they serve, such as around New York, Chicago, Baltimore; London,
Birmingham and Newcastle in England and around Sydney and Brisbane, Australia.
These lines operate in segregated right-of-way with no authorized public access. Some
are third rail systems; some are 25kV AC. The lines that formed the old Southern
Railway System in England (which today cover at least 1000 miles of route, including
about 150 miles of four-track route, the rest being primarily two-track) form one of the
world’s largest 660 volt third rail distribution systems. New York, which banned steam
locomotives in the early 1900s, quickly developed third-rail subway service that
operates at 625 volts. Sydney and Melbourne in Australia have extensive 1500 volt DC
systems. Suburban lines to the north of London were originally converted from steam
using the 1500 volt overhead DC system; but in 1956, British Railways selected 25kV
as standard and all lines were converted from 1500 volts DC to 25kV AC. The
London Underground System, although using sub-surface tracks and deep ‘Tube”
tunnels radiates well out of the city to the north, having taken over some of the old
steam tracks of earlier railways. It uses two “third-rails,” one located in the customary
position outside of the running rails and the other midway between the running rails.
Extensions to existing third rail systems might also be third rail for uniformity, but dual
voltage AC/DC systems operate very successfully in London. All commuter rail
systems are “ heavy rail.”
• Metrorail, (actually METRO) is the name given to heavy rail systems built since
1970 and include WMATA in Washington DC, MARTA in Atlanta; BART in the San
Francisco Bay Area; and the Los Angeles Red Line. Metrorail systems may have
extensive lengths of tunnels and/or elevated sections where an overhead contact
system would be considered unaesthetic or impractical. Consequently, all use DC third
rail systems with voltages of 750 volts, except BART, which uses 1000 volts.
• Light Rail, including systems in MTDB, San Diego; RT Sacramento; VTA, San Jose;
Tri-Met, Portland; RTD, Denver; Metro, Buffalo; MTA, Baltimore; RTA, Cleveland;
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PAT, Pittsburgh; MUNI, San Francisco, DART, Dallas; UTA, Salt Lake City; Metro,
Houston; Hiawatha, Minneapolis; Sound Transit Seattle; and Calgary. All of these
agencies use DC overhead contact systems, and much is installed in city streets.
Downtown, a single contact wire may be installed for aesthetic reasons, but
underground parallel feeder cables must supplement it, which makes for a relatively
expensive installation. Low-profile catenary systems with low visual impact can be
considered as a more economical alternative in some cases.
MTDB, RTA and MUNI use 600 volts; Metro Buffalo and PAT, use 650 volts; and
the rest, except Seattle (1500volts), use 750 volts.
• Street Car, typified by TTC, Toronto, which still uses trolley poles on their 240
streetcars and operates at 580 volts, even though nearly every other agency which
operated with trolley poles has converted to pantographs. Earlier users of trolley poles
included San Francisco, Boston, Newark, NJ and the Chicago South Shore Line and
every former tramway/streetcar system has since been shut down. This system is now
considered out-of-date, both from an operator’s standpoint and in terms of aesthetics.
Operationally, any time that the trolley pole dewires, the driver must stop to reattach
the pole to the trolley wire. To do this, the operator must exit the vehicle into possibly
street traffic, which is dangerous, more so at night. Second, the trolley wire must be
held close to the optimum operational path of the trolley pole, which means
registration guy-wires every four feet along the trolley wire at street intersections and
on some sharp curves.
• ALRT, An alternative suburban electrified rail system is known as ALRT. This

acronym for ‘Advanced Light Rapid Transit’ System uses linear motor technology.
Toronto has a 4-mile elevated double track system. Vancouver, British Columbia has
over 20 miles of route, and Detroit uses this technology on a downtown circulator
people-mover system. These standard gauge systems operate on 600 volts DC, which
is collected from two side rails and fed into linear induction motors through variable-
voltage variable-frequency converters.
9.7 New Electrification Systems

Today, new electrification systems need to serve a wide variety of rail applications. The
requirements of light rail, commuter rail, rapid transit, heavy rail, intercity, high-speed
passenger service, mixed and heavy-haul freight are quite different. These different
requirements result in a variety of potential electric traction system solutions.
In urban settings using city streets and malls, safety and insulation requirements (due to
the close proximity to buildings, and integration with motor vehicle and pedestrian
traffic) requires that light rail systems use overhead contact systems at voltages of 1500
volts DC or less. On the other hand, rapid transit and commuter rail systems, by virtue
of precluding public access to the tracks, are able to use a third-rail power distribution
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system of 600 volts or more if the conductor rail is 'protected' and access to the right–
of–way is restricted. In these two examples, safety considerations limit the voltages.
Use of lower voltage DC systems is not as efficient as high voltage AC systems. The
high direct currents required at these voltages require heavy conductors, require closely
spaced substations, suffer relatively high line resistance losses, and require mitigation of
stray currents. However, in the case of light rail, there is no safe alternative.
For rapid transit and commuter rail, the use of third rail lowers construction cost of
tunnels by reducing the tunnel bore diameter, as compared to the diameter required for
pantograph operations. At one point, 600 volts DC was the preferred traction voltage
because this allowed the carborne electrical gear to be simpler. However, with modern
equipment this is no longer an issue.
Generally, the economic selection in terms of the cost of traction power for new
mainline electrification and other systems using segregated and restricted right-of-way,
will lead one to use one of the high voltage AC systems such as the 12 kV, 25kV or
25kV/25kV auto-transformer, or a 50kV system. However, every scenario will require
a detailed examination to determine the feasibility of electrifying and the type of
traction power system that will best serve site-specific requirements.
There are four main parts to a traction power system:
• Sources of primary power

• Substations to transform the power into a form suitable for train operations.
• A power distribution system and
• Current collectors (on the locomotives or power-cars) to draw on the power
9.7.1 Sources of Primary Power

Railways usually receive electrical power from utility companies. Power enters a
traction power system at supply substations. Rarely, railways may opt to generate their
own power by any method economically available. Often, there will actually be several
sources of primary power for each substation. Thus, each substation will be fed from
two or more separate supplies in order to provide an alternative feed in the event of
failure of one of the primary supply(s).
On an AC system, commercial three-phase power comes into the supply stations with
one, two or three main transformers. In order to balance loads evenly between the
phases, substations with two or three transformers will be fed from different phases.
For example, the A-B phase will feed the first transformer, while the second is fed
from the B-C phase. The two transformers will supply two different power sections.
This phase balancing provides one level of redundancy, so that if one transformer is
taken off-line, the remaining power section could be fed by means of circuit breakers
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and disconnect switches. Systems that use frequencies other than that supplied by the
utility will require frequency converters to convert to the operating frequency.
On DC systems, incoming power is both stepped down and converted from AC to

DC by the use of rectifier transformers. DC systems, like their AC counterparts, also
have built-in redundancy by designing the traction electrification system to be able to
supply enough power with one or more substations off line. In addition, steps are
often taken to ensure that neighboring substations are fed off of different power
sources, whether it is different power grids, different phases or different breakers
coming from the same utility substation.
9.7.2 Substations
On almost every DC traction power

system, AC power is supplied to
substations equipped with
rectifier/transformers to convert the
power to DC at the required
distribution voltage. Rarely, DC power
may be supplied directly from the utility.
AC systems usually receive power at
commercial frequency and will
transform it to the traction voltage. Figure 9-7 Motor Generator Set - Courtesy of LTK, Inc.
Those systems that use a frequency
other than commercial frequency will convert the power using either motor generator
sets or frequency converters, which may be located separately from the substation. In
addition to supplying power for train propulsion, signal and ‘house’ power may also be
supplied from the substations.
Supply substations with

autotransformer systems have
two busbars, a ‘line’ or OCS
busbar, similar to a busbar on a
single-phase system, and an
autotransformer feeder busbar.
There may be four or more
autotransformer substations
located between supply
substations and are connected
by the autotransformer parallel
feeder cables and the OCS. Figure 9-8 Supply Substation - Courtesy of LTK, Inc.
Each autotransformer
substation has a unique autotransformer for each traction power section required.
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Because components of the traction power system constitute a large capital investment,
different types of protection are incorporated into the design. The cost of the
substation as compared to the cost of protection is a small fraction of the capital cost.
To insure that components last for their intended service life, system sectioning,
primary breakers, secondary breakers, relays, PLC controls, SCADA systems and other
protecting type devices are used.
A great deal of consideration is given to providing redundancy or contingency

operation when designing a traction electrification system. Contingency operation
plans are made at many levels. For example, the design of a typical traction distribution
system allows for normal train operations even when one or more substations is off-
line.
This means that the substations must be spaced and have reserve capacity to handle
the normal load if any one or more is off-line. Further information on traction power
system dependability is given later in this chapter.
A transmission system is sometimes used with AC systems. The use of a transmission

system permits power to be moved around a system at more efficient higher voltages.
In addition, if a property is large enough, a transmission system will allow multiple
power sources to be utilized, providing redundancy and competitive pricing from utility
companies. Multiple supplies, whether from the same utility or not, may require
isolation since it is unlikely that the phases will be synchronized. Similar to phase
balancing, the different sections must be separated by a phase gap. A transmissions
system will require a fault detection system and load balancing. Having a trackside
transmission system as a means to improve contingency operations is bought for the
cost of the additional conductors and supports, although use is usually made of the
OCS poles. In addition, communities may oppose such systems as they may be
considered as visibly obtrusive.
9.7.3 Power Distribution Systems
Traction power distribution systems comprise three sub systems:
Feeder cables (from the substation to the bare conductors).
Negative return cables, connecting to the rails or the return conductor back to the
substation.
A contact system comprising bare conductors (overhead or third rail) located

along the track, from which the trains draw power through some form of sliding
contact. Parallel feeder cables or auto-transformer feeder cables may electrically
support the contact system.
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Vehicles collection equipment to pick up the electric current.
Feeder Cable Sub Systems
Traction power is fed to the distribution system;

whether it is an OCS or third rail, via traction power
feeder cables, which, if underground, will be
insulated cables, but if aerial may be bare conductors.
Underground cables will normally be installed in
ducts or in surface mounted troughs and will be
routed to the OCS or third rail as specified by the
traction power sectionalizing plans. Each cable may
have a disconnect switch to facilitate isolation of the
substation.
Parallel, or along track feeders, are conductors that

are parallel to the contact system and provide
additional power. On single wire systems and third Figure 9-9 Feeder Cables - Courtesy of
LTK, Inc.
rail systems, the parallel feeder is “tapped” every 300
to 500 feet with a connection to the contact system.
Negative Feeder Cable Sub Systems

All railway electrification systems
utilize rails for the return current.
Normally the running rails are used
for the negative return, but the
London Underground employs a
second conductor rail located
between the running rails, thus
avoiding stray currents, which could
cause serious electrolytic damage.
Figure 9-10 Negative Return Via the Running Rail - Courtesy of

LTK, Inc.
Contact System Sub

Systems
Contact sub systems include:

Third rail systems
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Overhead contact systems
When selecting the appropriate type of contact

system for a new urban electrification, safety and
reliability will be the first issue, aesthetics second,
followed lastly by economics. For instance, safety
precludes using a third rail system wherever the
public has direct access to tracks, such as in streets,
although a third rail is far less visually intrusive than
an overhead system.
Contact systems, by their nature, are required to
cover almost every inch of electrified track. This
results in a network of very many miles of conductor
wire or conductor rail. A feature of all contact
systems, except for very small installations, is the
provision of sectionalizing to enable segments of the
traction power distribution system to be de-
energized for maintenance or in an emergency. This
is accomplished by the provision of disconnect and Figure 9-11 Third Rail Contact System -
sectioning switches, enabling sections of the system Courtesy of LTK, Inc.
to be isolated from each other, or alternatively, “tied”

together for contingency operations.
Third Rail Systems
As the name suggests, a third rail provides the positive supply in a DC powered
traction system from a traction rail that parallels the track. The third rail typically rests
on insulators on the field side of either side of the track. One or both running rails are
used for the negative return, however a fourth rail, also on insulators, may be used.
Overhead Contact Systems
Overhead contact systems comprise a support system (poles, wall and soffit
attachments, cantilevers, cross-spans, etc.), conductors (which may be arranged in one
of a variety of configurations) and anchorages to tension the conductors.
The conductor will be a continuous, energized, un-insulated contact surface suspended

above the railway tracks from which electric locomotives can draw power by means of
current collectors. This conductor is typically about 20 feet above the track but can
range from 12 to 24 feet above top of rail.
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9.7.4 Current Collectors

The current collectors that draw power from the third rail or from the OCS contact
wire are normally:
For third rail:
Contact ‘shoe’
For OCS:
Trolley pole or
Pantograph
Contact Shoe
The contact shoe of a third rail
system can be of several different
types. The overrunning system is
most common as it allows for
simple attachment of the conductor
rail to the ties. A contact shoe
slides over the top of the conductor
rail, hence its name. The under
running contact shoe, pictured
right, runs along the bottom of a
Figure 9-12 Third Rail Contact Shoe - Courtesy of LTK, Inc.
conductor rail that is suspended
over the end of the tie. A third type is the side running contact shoe. Here, the contact
shoe extends out horizontally from the vehicle and slides along the conductor rail that
is again supported off the end of the tie.
Trolley Poles
Trolley poles, whose length is typically
14 to 16 feet, are fitted with a trolley
shoe (also called ‘harps’ or wheels) at
the upper end, which are grooved to
form a channel for the contact
(trolley) wire to slide within. A
constant upward force keeps the
trolley shoe or wheel in contact with
the wire as the wire elevation changes.
Figure 9-13 Trolley Pole - Courtesy of LTK, Inc.
Although very commonly used in the
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past, trolley poles suffer certain disadvantages over pantographs. A primary

disadvantage is frequent dewirement, which requires the vehicle operator to exit the
vehicle and replace the shoe on the wire while exposed to both traffic and weather.
Second, with the increased power consumption of light rail vehicles due to improved
performance and air-conditioning, the carbon insert is often electrically overstressed
and may need frequent replacement. Third, trolley harps require many special pieces of
hardware to be installed in the trolley wires for turnouts, wire crossings and on tight
curves. Fourth, the alignment of the trolley wire relative to the track is much more
critical than a conventional single wire simple pantograph system. The trolley requires
more overhead equipment and more maintenance of that equipment. Fifth, depending
upon complexity of the track layout (especially at street intersection in city centers), the
quantity of special work in the overhead trolley system may itself be visually intrusive.
Pantographs
As can be seen in the picture to the right,

pantographs have a wide rubbing strip on
the pantograph head and collect power
through their carbon strips at any point.
Most pantographs for modern light rail
systems are about 6ft.-6in. over the horns
with a 4 foot-4 inch rubbing strip. These
dimensions typically permit 240-foot spans
on tangent track, which is considered ideal.
Narrower pantographs will require more
supports for the overhead contact system, Figure 9-14 Pantograph System - Courtesy of Q&R
Australia
which means a more costly installation, and
more support cantilevers and cross-spans to maintain. There are real short and long-
term benefits to using wide pantograph heads.
9.7.5 Characteristics of Third Rail System
Typically, the third rail is

mounted on an insulator at the
ends of the ties on either side of
the track and physically parallel to
the running rails. The third rail is
supported on the ties and is
relatively rigid when compared to
a contact wire. Obviously, the
third rail does not sag and
therefore does not need to be
Figure 9-15 Turnouts in Third Rail System - Courtesy of LTK, Inc.
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tensioned.
At track turnouts and diamonds, the third-rail is interrupted since it cannot pass over
the running rails. The conductor rail is also interrupted at highway grade crossings,
which for the most part, have been eliminated from modern metro systems. If the gap
between the sections of rail exceeds the span between the contact shoes on the power
car, the power car loses power.
The DC third rail system is accompanied by the limitations of voltage, the need for
close substation spacing, complicated feeding arrangements at turnouts, icing of the
third rail, the public safety hazard and the difficult issue of mitigating the effects of
stray return currents, which leak into the ground and could cause electrolytic damage to
underground utilities and civil structures. If not safeguarded, electrolysis causes
corrosion and possible failure of metallic water mains, cable sheaths, gas pipes, steel
ducts, steel bridges and various other metal paths, including reinforced concrete
through which currents flows on its way back to the substations. The problem can be
mitigated by insulating the running rails from ground by placing them on an insulating
plastic pad in open line or surrounding them with a rubber ‘boot’ if they are embedded
in the street. Electrolysis can also be mitigated by the use of negative feeders or by
reducing sub-station spacing. To minimize this particular problem, the London
Underground uses two conductor rails throughout its system, so that there is no
current in the running rails.
Conductor Rail Supports

Third rail systems require special ties or tie extension brackets to support the third rail.
In addition, the alignment and elevation of the third rail must be kept in proper spatial
relationship to the running rail. Insulators must be maintained in good condition to
avoid excess current leakage.
There are three types of third rail systems: overrunning, under running and side
running. Overrunning systems use a post type insulator to support the conductor rail
so that the contact shoe can slide along the top. An under running system suspends
the conductor rail so that the conductor shoe can slide along underneath. Lastly, a side
running system supports the conductor rail so that a shoe can slide along the side of
the rail.
9.7.6 Characteristics of an Overhead Contact

System
There are two basic types of overhead contact systems in use today:
• Single wire system
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o Pantographs
o Trolley wire only (for trolley poles)
• Catenary system (for pantographs)
Figure 9-16 Different Styles of OCS - Courtesy of LTK, Inc.
Single Wire System

The ‘single contact wire’ system for pantographs and the ‘trolley wire only’ system for
trolley poles are two quite distinct styles of the single wire system.
These two configurations (‘style’) of overhead contact system are initially dependent on
whether pantographs or trolley poles are to be used. Note that both types of power
collection can be accommodated with some increase in complexity of the overhead
line.
The differences in the styles are reflected in the design approach as shown below:
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Single Contact Wire Trolley Wire Only
Current Collection Device Pantograph Trolley Pole
Horizontal wire alignment on Wire staggered to wear Wire kept relatively straight
Tangent current collector evenly to minimize wear to pan
shoe
Horizontal alignment on Wire placed to the outside Wire placed to the inside
curves of curves, allowed to of curve, trolley pole
sweep over entire head pulled towards centers of
curves
Converging and diverging Crossing wires at Special devices called

tracks intersections that are kept trolley switches or frogs are
at the same elevation allow used to make intersections.
the pantograph to pass Mechanical trolley switches
from one wire to the other. use a switch point to
The pantograph is kept determine which wire the
from de-wiring because trolley pole follows.
one or both wires keep the Manual trolley switches rely
pantograph below the on the dynamics of the
contact surface at all times. vehicle to pull the trolley
Placement of wire crossing pole from one side or the
is important but has a other. Placement of trolley
greater degree of flexibility switches is very critical,
when compared to manual improper placement will
trolley frogs. lead to dewirement.
Contact surface Pantograph is intended to Trolley shoes contact both

contact only the bottom of the bottom and sides of
the contact wire under the trolley wire. Clips, nuts
normal operating and bolts and other
conditions. All supporting supporting hardware must
hardware must be kept be kept out of the area.
above the contact surface. Different types of
hardware are used for
trolley systems because of
this.
Single Contact Wire Systems for Pantograph Operations
If a single contact wire provides adequate power for revenue service, it is an

economical choice for an overhead contact system. However, it is invariably found to
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be deficient in power for mainline application, but is still economic for application in
storage yards and shops.
For mainline operations, single contact

wire is commonly selected for application
in city centers because of its low visual
impact, in which case underground
parallel feeder cables must electrically
reinforce it. This is expensive, since it
multiplies the cost by a factor close to ten.
However, since the length of route to be
given this treatment is typically fairly short,
the overall impact on OCS costs will, by Figure 9-17 Single Contact Wire - Courtesy of LTK, Inc.
its nature, be acceptable.
Single contact wire systems have a span length similar to that used in the spacing of
downtown streetlights and opportunity therefore exists for joint-use poles, thereby
reducing pole ‘clutter.’
With pantograph operation, it is possible to use an auto-tensioned single contact wire

system, concealing the balance weights within tubular poles. However, these ‘anchor’
poles will be of larger diameter than normal, which increases their visibility. Portland,
Oregon has auto-tensioned single contact wire downtown.
Trolley Wire Only Systems for Trolley Pole Operations
‘Trolley Wire Only’ systems with trolley poles are few and far between these days since
cities such as San Francisco and Boston have, out of necessity, changed over from
trolley pole operations to pantograph operations.
A few cities still operate trolley poles in combination with historic cars in tourist areas.
San Francisco continues to run historic trolleys from all over the world, but these
rolling museums are only run on the
surface on Market Street where they
use the positive wire of the existing
trolleybus overhead.
The largest surviving trolley pole

operation in North America is in
Toronto, where 240 streetcars operate
over 100 miles of wire, including over
100 complex street intersections.
Trolley wire systems are typically fixed

terminated systems. Since most
trolley systems are used in downtown Figure 9-18 Trolley Wire Contact System - Courtesy of LTK,
Inc.
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urban areas, the structures are often relegated to sidewalks. To help the structures fit
into the urban environment, the structures will often serve double duty by acting as
light poles, traffic signal poles, etc. On straight or slightly curved track, either
cantilevers or cross-spans support the trolley wire such that it is placed over the center
of the track. When the track requires tight curves, the trolley wire is held in place with
cross-spans, pull-offs and back bones. Although trolley poles pivot at the base, the
trolley harp does not pivot so that the trolley wire must be placed towards the center of
the curve on sharp curves to allow the trolley shoe to track efficiently. The trolley shoe
must be drawn tangentially along the trolley wire, thereby not rubbing against the
‘cheeks’ of the groove. Only by using rigid harps can the trolley shoe diverge onto the
correct trolley wire at turnouts, as the pole operates passively being positioned only by
the direction of the streetcar on its tracks.
Catenary Systems
Two-wire systems are referred to as
simple catenary and utilize a contact
wire and above it, a messenger wire.
The messenger wire serves two
purposes (1) to support the contact wire
vertically between structures by use of
hangers and (2) to provide more
electrical conductivity.
Variations of simple catenary exist, such

as low profile simple catenary, which
can be considered as a three-quarter- Figure 9-19 Two Cross-span Wires with Full Simple Catenary -
scale version of the most economic Courtesy of LTK, Inc.
simple catenary style. The low profile
simple catenary has reduced visual impact by virtue of requiring only one cross-span
wire for support between poles compared to the necessary two cross-span wires with
full simple catenary as pictured (Figure 9-19). Structure spacing is, however, reduced,
thus increasing the pole count by about 30%.
Nevertheless, it is still only about half the cost of a single contact wire system with
parallel underground feeders, which would be electrically equivalent. Twin contact
wires are also commonplace on light rail systems in Europe. Other systems using
three conductors called compound catenary are operating, but are more costly and are
generally not considered necessary for new installations. Compound catenary utilizes
three or more conductors, with a main messenger being the top conductor, the contact
wire serving as the bottom conductor, and an auxiliary messenger located between the
two. Other styles, which have been installed in the past, include stitched catenary,
triangular catenary and ‘hanging beam’ catenary, and all continue in use today.
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Inclined catenary exists to the present day in the Northeastern United States and
requires the use of the messenger, and on severe curves, an auxiliary messenger to align
the contact wire around curves. This is accomplished by inclining the OCS so that the
messenger wire is moved to the outside of the curve while the contact remains close to
the track centerline. Sloping hangers support the contact wire at a carefully calculated
angle to provide the lateral restraint. Inclined catenary has fixed terminations, which
means that the contact wire moves up and down relative to the track surface as
temperatures change. Thus greater clearances are required under structures and over
grade crossings. Because of the special techniques needed to align inclined catenaries,
the trend today is to replace them with chordal (simple) catenary, where the messenger
is located directly above the contact wire.
Catenary systems are designed to allow the contact

wire to operate satisfactorily over the full extent of
the carbon-rubbing strip of the pantograph.
Careful calculations are performed to determine the
extent that the wire can be staggered at the OCS
registrations (supports) and to ensure that the
pantograph does not dewire in a combination of
adverse operating conditions, including strong
winds, maximum vehicle sway and poor quality
track. These calculations are then used to
determine how much the contact wire can be
allowed to be placed off the centerline of the track
and still allow safe operations. On tangent tracks,
the wire is intentionally staggered from one side of
Figure 9-20 Contact Wire Placement in a
the track centerline to the other at successive poles Curve - Courtesy of LTK, Inc.
to prevent grooves from forming in the middle of
the pantograph carbons.
All overhead contact systems exhibit the characteristic of increased sag between
supports and loss of tension when conductor temperatures rise due to solar gain
and/or current heating. Although small variations to sag and tension do not adversely
affect current collection, also called ‘commutation,’ large variations, say over 6 inches,
can be unacceptable. In order to control conductor sag between supports, two options
are available:
Limit span length (length between poles)
Tension compensation (described later)
Both options apply to Single Contact Wire (SCW) systems and to multiple conductor
catenary systems to be described later.
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Fixed Terminated Conductors (FT)

A typical operating temperature range for an OCS in the United States is from -10°F to
130°F. Conductor tensions are selected such that at the coldest temperature, a safety
factor of 2 against breakage is available. For the contact wire, this factor of safety is
preserved with the wire in the worn (typically worn 30%) condition. With no form of
tension compensation, the contact wire tension in the hot condition may be so slack
that the pantograph head or shoe on the trolley pole could elevate high enough to
strike parts of the conductor support and registration system. To prevent this from
happening, conductor spans are typically limited. For single contact wire (SCW)
systems, the maximum span is typically 125 feet.
Tension Compensated
Conductors
Tension compensation, also termed constant-
tensioning, endeavors to maintain the tension
in the conductors at a very-nearly constant
value over the full range of possible conductor
temperatures. This is usually achieved by
installing balance weights at one end of each
half-mile length of the conductor(s). Two such
‘half’ tension-sections may be installed back-to-
back, to form a mile-long tension-section of
catenary. To maintain a continuous contact
surface for the pantograph, consecutive
tension-sections are overlapped by paralleling Figure 9-21 Balance Weight Tensioning Device -
the wires in the last running spans at the end Courtesy of LTK, Inc.
of the tension-sections.
Technically there is no restriction to how long an auto-tensioned span could be based

on commutation requirements. However, a limit will be set by determining the
maximum span-length that is secure against dewirement from conductors being
deflected by wind. Typical spans for constant tension equipment are as follows:
For single contact wire, SCW, maximum span is typically 125 feet, but auto-tensioned
spans of 160 feet have been used very successfully.
For catenaries, maximum span is 240 feet for a pantograph width up to 6ft.-6in,
although longer spans have been used with wider pantographs, (8ft.-6in) or tighter
track construction and maintenance tolerances.
Other tensioning devices such as hydraulic and pneumatic tensioners have been used,
but with limited success. Spring tensioners are often used on short wire runs of less
than 500 feet, such as at crossovers.
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Although the maximum span length on tangent tracks may be 240 feet, the maximum
span lengths on curves will require considerable shortening due to the chording of the
curve by the contact wire. Span length analysis is performed to determine the
span/curve radius relationship.
9.7.7 OCS Style Selection
There is an almost limitless variety of configurations of OCS, but they can be broadly
classified under four general styles:
1. Simple Catenary – Auto Tensioned (AT).
2. Simple Catenary – Fixed Tensioned (FT).
3. Low Profile Catenary – Fixed Tensioned (FT) (normally)
4. Single Contact Wire with Parallel Feeder, normally FT, but AT system exists in
Portland.
Style selection of OCS for mainline application is based on the following

considerations:
Location and environment
Equivalent copper cross-sectional area
Economics
Speed and line characteristics
Location and Environment

Location can be typified by:
o Urban
o Suburban
o Rural
o Remote or open line
Environment can be typified by:

o Desert
o Coastal
o Polar
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o Tropical
Copper Cross-sectional Area

All four styles of catenary can be designed to be equivalent electrically and can be used
for mainline service. Equivalent copper cross-sectional area can be achieved by the
proper selection of messenger and contact wire sizes.
The required cross-sectional area will be determined by traction power analysis, which
factors in the various parameters that represent the proposed electrification operation
including:
• Track alignment
• Track profile
• Train weights
• Line speeds
• Train frequency
• Locomotive performance characteristics
• Substation locations
• Assumed substation ratings
• Climatic conditions
For light electrical duty, such as in yards and sidings, a single contact wire without
parallel feeder will be adequate and economic.
In maintenance shops, conductor rail supported from roof trusses has application in
special circumstances and has the advantage over a single contact wire in that it is
installed untensioned, thereby avoiding horizontal tensile loads on the shop walls or
door frames.
Economics
Catenary economics is a function of the following factors:
Aesthetics
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Pole types
Pole quantities
Maintainability
Selected design parameters controlling the type and quantities of poles and
foundations.
Aesthetics
If one includes the cost of the overhead system, paired with the cost of the substation,
duct backs and feeders, an auto-tensioned simple catenary is the most economic OCS
style. However, some find auto-tensioned OCS less appealing aesthetically than a
single contact wire style. The balance weights are often considered to be too unsightly
to be used downtown and in city centers. Consequently single contact wire styles are
often proposed on city streets, even though either of the other two options, Simple
Catenary – Fixed-Tensioned, or Low profile – Fixed-Tensioned, would be more
economic.
A concern with the single contact wire system when used downtown is that it requires
an underground parallel feeder cable, which though invisible to the public, represents a
large expense in underground ductbank, manholes, hand holes and insulated feeder
cables. Single contact wire systems also have twice the number of poles compared to
simple catenary and requires feeder-riser cables and jumpers. More poles means more
support brackets, which together with the feeder connections makes for more clutter.
In addition, there is more physical plant to maintain, especially because of the
underground feeder cables.
Single contact wire with underground parallel feeder cables is, these days, not the
preferred choice from an economic perspective. It is costly in the first place, and the
underground feeder cables could turn out to be
costly to repair and disruptive to road and rail
operations if they fail. For these reasons, low-profile
catenary is often used as an aesthetically friendly and
reasonably economic style for use in city streets.
Low profile catenaries are used in San Diego and
Tacoma, and are now recommended for use on
many upcoming projects.
Pole Types
Poles for railway electrification are typically made of
steel, which must be galvanized, painted or both, to
prevent corrosion. In addition, a corrosion control
Figure 9-22 Timber Catenary Pole -
Courtesy of LTK, Inc.
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Figure 9-23 Welded Steel Pole on Steel Pile Figure 9-24 Street Light Catenary Pole - Courtesy of LTK,
Foundation - Courtesy of LTK, Inc. Inc.
system is required to protect the steel from premature corrosion as well. Generally, the
most economic section for mainline use is the wide-flange beam, since the
predominant OCS loading is in one direction, across-track. A down-guy is required
when wide flange-beams are used for dead-ending the conductors. Wood poles, like
those pictured above right, can be used with success. But the expected life span of a
wood pole is generally no longer than 20 years, even though some have been reported
to last as much as 50 years. Some transit gencies use tapered tubular poles for aesthetic
reasons (see below right), especially where the poles need to be in sidewalks. Some
transit agencies conceal OCS feeder cables and/or balance weights inside tubular poles,
again for aesthetics, but from a maintenance point of view. The difficulty in access for
repair and adjustment is a drawback. For transit applications, poles are normally
supplied with anchor-bolt type base plates. However, for mainline applications, direct
embedment of poles into concrete foundations shows economy at the cost of reduced
adjustability and flexibility for replacement.
Pole Quantities
Pole count is the indicator of an efficient and economic OCS layout. The lower the
count of poles per unit length, the better for five reasons:
Lower cost
Fewer poles, cantilevers and headspans to inspect and maintain
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Faster installation
Less visual intrusion
Less risk of being damaged or demolished
The lowest pole count is obtained by maximizing the spacing of OCS poles within the
constraints of the design criteria. Contributing factors to consider in maximizing the
length of OCS spans are:
• Increased width of the pantograph head required in order to address issues

associated with wind blow-off
• Chording of curves by the OCS
• Track quality, especially cross-level
Variations in track cross level must be accounted for when calculating the sweep of the
contact wire across the pantograph head.
The location of poles is also a primary factor in pole count. Double-track transit lines
often have 14-foot track centers and a single pole placed between the two tracks is
ideal. However, center poles limit the redundancy of the OCS. If a center pole is
damaged due to an accident, both tracks of OCS will be affected. While OCS support
poles located to the field side or outside of each track require twice as many poles, a
level of redundancy is achieved by maintaining the independence of each track’s OCS
system.
Cost Factors of OCS Styles

Style selection must clearly be based on both aesthetics and economics. The least
costly OCS style for two-track mainline is a constant tensioned simple catenary with
poles between tracks. Using this style as a basis, typical cost factors for other
configurations might be expected to be as follows:
Simple catenary with center poles – AT………………………. 1.0

Simple catenary with center poles – FT………………………. 1.1
Simple catenary with outside poles – AT……………………... 1.6
Simple catenary with outside poles – FT……………………... 1.8
Low profile simple catenary (only with outside poles) – FT…. 2.5
Single contact wire, - FT with underground feeder cables…… up to 10.0
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All theses styles use the same types of OCS components; only the configurations of
the support and termination assemblies, including cantilevers, cross-spans and head
spans, counter weight terminations and fixed-end terminations are different.
OCS Design Basics

Once the OCS style or styles have been selected (based on analysis of the power
demand of the trains), conductor tensions will be selected for the most economic
design of the complete installed system. The design of the OCS structures are
typically a function of two things, the loads being supported by the structures and
the clearances necessary to allow safe passage, which is based on the dynamic
envelope of the vehicle and the electrical clearance envelope.
The process of determining the loading conditions starts by examining the National
Electric Safety Code (NESC). The NESC outlines loading conditions ranging from
temperature ranges to wind loading. In addition, criteria are established for
conductor strength requirements and factors of safety. The NESC also specifies
minimum wire heights, minimum insulation levels and required clearances for
various voltages that must be maintained between the OCS and structures and
utilities. State and local agencies may supplement or supercede the NESC with more
stringent requirements, which therefore need to be examined.
An OCS requires its own structure to support the conductors over the track. These
supporting structures include:
• Portals
• Headspans
• Bracket poles
• Cantilever poles
• Cross-spans and pull-offs.
In addition, the OCS can be supported from the underside of bridges, tunnel soffits
or the underside of building roof trusses. In urban areas, cross-spans can be
connected to buildings using eye-bolts, thereby eliminating poles. OCS poles can be
jointly shared with streetlights, traffic signals and signs.
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9.8 Electrification Interfaces with

Other Rail Elements
When an established railway is to be electrified, there can be significant engineering and
operational impacts on the existing infrastructure. The more significant impacts
involve:
Right-of-Way
Track Structure
Civil Structures
Signaling and Communications
9.8.1 Right-of-Way
Track Layout/Realignment
It is desirable that track alignment and modifications to track crossovers and turnouts
be completed before route electrification occurs. Additionally, track renewals and track
lowering measures, as described below, should have been finished. Future track
improvements may need to be accelerated to avoid the need for later changes. Old
redundant track should be removed before initiating electrification so that cranes are
not impeded by the presence of high voltage catenary wires, conductor rails or cables.
Substations
Typically, 25kV substations require a site area of about an acre in size, with road access
suitable for trucks delivering the largest piece of substation equipment. DC substations
are smaller, ranging in size from 2000 to 5000 square feet, but are generally more
numerous than AC substations.
Supporting Structures for the Contact System
On existing main line routes, particularly those with more than two tracks, there will
probably not be enough room between tracks to install OCS pole foundations.
Therefore, the poles will be allocated to the outside of the line. The right-of-way needs
to be examined to insure that structures and any supporting back guys fall within the
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ROW without impeding drainage. Since third rail is attached to the end of the ties,
ROW limits are not as critical for third rail systems as for overhead systems.
Systemwide Ductbanks
Ductbanks are required for power distribution cables and should be designed to
accommodate new signal or communication cables, should existing aerial signal and
communication cables need replacement. The location of parallel track and cross-track
ductbanks will need to be coordinated with drainage pipes, foundations for signals and
OCS poles, and emergency walkways.
9.8.2 Track Structure

On rail lines, the area extending from
track centerline in which no wayside items
can be placed is known as the structure
clearance envelope. On non-electrified
lines, this envelope is based on the
dynamic envelope of the vehicle along
with passing clearances. For electrified
lines, this envelope has to be increased to
allow for the electrical clearance envelope.
This increased envelope insures that no
wayside structures come close enough to
any “live” part of the vehicle to create an
electrical hazard. One way to provide the
requisite vertical clearance at overhead
bridges is to lower the tracks. However, if
significant lowering is required, the track
subbase may need to be excavated first,
which may be a prohibitive operating pre- Figure 9-23 Clearance Envelope - Courtesy of LTK, Inc.
condition.
Because the running rails will be carrying the high currents of the traction return
system, it is necessary that all bolted rail joints be paralleled with traction bonding
cables to carry the 1000 amps or more of traction current. Defective bonds can give
rise to severe arcing between the rails and cause enough damage to curtail normal train
operations.
The possible effects of electrolytic corrosion due to leakage (stray) currents from the
track rails, especially with DC power must be addressed. With AC systems, the effects
of leakage currents is considered to be minimal, but still needs to be checked. Leakage
currents can cause and/or accelerate corrosion in underground piping, steel
reinforcement in concrete structures and may damage underground utilities.
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Special precautions may also need to be taken to keep the track ballast free from dirt
and fines, which could reduce its natural insulation value. Therefore, steps must be
taken to keep the track rails insulated from ground to prevent leakage currents. Wood
ties placed on good clean ballast will effectively isolate the rails from earth. These
conditions must be maintained. Special rubber ‘boots’ may be provided where the rails
would otherwise be in direct contact with asphalt or similar road materials, such as at
grade crossings.
9.8.3 Civil Structures
Typically, electrical clearances may need to be provided in tunnels and at bridges. New
bridges (such as those resulting from grade-crossing elimination) will need to be built
with adequate electrical clearance. Station canopies that project over platform edges
may need modification. Provisions may need to be made to attach components to
walls. OCS pole anchor bolts will need to be incorporated into any new flyovers.
Tunnels to be Electrified
If complete tunnel replacement or day-lighting is too costly, the existing ballasted track
may be lowered or completely replaced by direct-fixation track. Sometimes sections of
tunnel soffit may require to be ‘chased’ to provide adequate clearance for pantographs.
To reduce the space required for the OCS, cutouts or ‘pockets’ in the soffit to house
the OCS supports may be easier to provide than a more costly program of general
clearance reconstruction. Third rail systems do not require the same degree of
additional space as does an overhead system. Because of this, the diameter of a tunnel
bore can be somewhat reduced. This reduction in tunneling requirements is one of the
significant reasons why third rail is used in many of the underground “metro” systems
around the world.
Bridges Over Electrified Track

The electrification designer should consider the possibility that an overhead bridge may
be widened in the future. Provisional designs should be prepared for OCS designs to
take into account future widening.
Where practical, tracks can be lowered, but this may require that the track sub-base be
lowered too. Such track lowering can be involved and a difficult process that should
be approached with care.
Bridges Under Electrified Track

The increased speeds associated with electric trains, may require that bridges be
replaced to accommodate the new track ballast or direct fixation track. Longer bridges
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and viaducts may need to be strengthened. OCS pole anchorages may need to be
provided.
Station Canopies
Existing stations that have
overhanging roofs or canopies may
need to be “cut back” to allow
clearance for pantographs. Pictured
on the right is an example of a station
that has been designed for the use of
an overhead system.
Figure 9-24 Station Canopy - Courtesy of LTK, Inc.
OCS Attachments
Where OCS poles cannot be
installed because of lack of
clearance, attachments such as wall
brackets will need to be made to
civil structures. Pictured at right is
an example of an OCS cantilever
attachment to an overhead
structure. Where existing overhead
bridges and the walls of “boat
sections” are available, the design of
OCS wall brackets will need to be
coordinated with the structural Figure 9-25 OCS Cantilever Attachment to an Overhead
Structure - Courtesy of LTK, Inc.
designers, including the provision of
wire loading values.
9.8.4 Signals and Communications

As described in Chapter 7 - Communications and Signals, the running rails are used to
detect the presence of trains. The signal system can precisely locate each train because
the track route is first divided up by track sections, separating inbound from outbound,
sidings from branches, and then dividing each track up into block sections. Each
block section represents a track length between a few hundred feet and 1- 2 miles. The
presence of a train is detected through electrical track circuits of the train control
system, which are mimicked on a display board in the train control center(s).
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In order for the traction power return circuits in the rails to be maintained without
interfering with the operation of the signaling system, the two systems need to be
immunized from each other. With early DC electric traction, signals circuits were
converted to AC. When AC traction power was introduced, signal circuits were
converted to a frequency immune to the traction frequency.
However, the use of insulated track

joints in the signal system meant that
the rails could not be used for the return
of the traction current to the substation.
Thus, the return path for the traction
current was limited to through the
ground and anything in the ground
(such as pipes and cable sheathes),
which is potentially dangerous and
totally inefficient. The technical
solution to this predicament was the
Figure 9-26 Impedance Bond - Courtesy of LTK, Inc.
development and use of impedance
bonds that are located trackside and
connect to the track rails across the insulated joint. An impedance bond is an electrical
device that allows the traction current to pass through while effectively keeping the
signal system’s track circuits separated. Various kinds of impedance bonds exist,
depending upon whether the traction power is AC or DC, the traction voltage, and the
operation frequency of the track circuits. See Table 9-1 below.
Some systems were developed that allowed one rail to be used for traction current
return while the other rail was used for the signal system. This solution has a serious
disadvantage in that broken rails could not be detected reliably.
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Table 9-1 Electrification and Signal Interface

DC Traction AC Traction
DC Track Circuits Cannot be used Cannot be used
AC Track Circuits Requires impedance Requires impedance
bonds bonds as well as
frequency variations
Coded Track/Cab Requires impedance Requires impedance
signals bonds bonds as well as
frequency variations
9.9 Interfaces with Project-Wide Staff

The traction power system is only one component of a proposed new electrified
mainline railway or light rail system. Detailed design work will only start once a project
is authorized and funded. Planning, project definition, investment analyses and
environmental studies involving the staff of the transit agency, Federal, State and local
agencies must be accomplished.
Traction power distribution systems, including contact rails and overhead contact
systems, are only part of the engineering that goes into an electrified railway. A
number of other railway engineering disciplines (agency technical staff and architects)
will require inclusion in the development of the traction power system design and
installation.
The following list contains interfaces that are typical of light rail systems that share
streets with motor traffic and penetrate neighborhoods. Mainline railways operate on
segregated rights-of-way, which obviously avoid many of the interface issues of light
rail.
Staff interfaces include:
City engineers, planners, agencies and architects
Agency operations and maintenance staff
Civil consultants
Station designers
Design team for the maintenance facility
Track alignment specialists and track designers
Signals and communications staff
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Corrosion control staff
Highway engineers
Street lighting consultants
Geotechnical engineers
Consultants handling underground utilities
Vehicle designers
Common issues for discussion with Agency staff and others, include the following:
City engineers, planners, agencies and architects
Fire safety requirements downtown and in tunnels, including emergency de-

energization and safe condition detection
Tapered tubular poles on sidewalks
Historic trolley
Aesthetic selection of OCS styles
Ornamental poles
Paint colors
Agency operations and maintenance staff:
Tapered tubular poles on station platforms
Sectionalizing requirements
Maintenance tools and equipment
Maintenance vehicles
Civil and structural consultants:
Overgrade bridges, undergrade bridges, tunnels, “boat sections,” retaining walls
Movable bridges
Headroom for OCS
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OCS loadings on structures
Station designers/architects:
Platforms and canopies
Safety screening of canopy from OCS
Grounding and bounding
Design team for the maintenance facility:
Yard lighting
Shop OCS
Storage
Track alignment specialists:
Track layout, including turnouts, crossovers and curves
Track clearances
Space for OCS poles between tracks
Maintenance yard layout
Track designers:
Special trackwork
Traction rail bonding
Communication and signal staff:
Aerial cables on OCS poles
SCADA and CCTV
Impedance bonds
Bonding and grounding
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Corrosion control consultants:
Atmospheric pollution
Electrolytic corrosion
Preventive measures
Electric power utilities:
Primary power supplies, capacity and location
Redundant feeds
Harmonics
Highway engineers:
Traffic signals, height/reach of bracket arms, joint use
Maintenance clearance from OCS for signal maintainers
Street lighting consultants:
Joint-use of poles
Geotechnical engineers:
Soil conditions
Consultants handling underground utilities:

Quality of records
Utility location
Vehicle designers:
Pantograph criteria
Vehicle envelope
Electrical interface with vehicle electric equipment
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Safety specialists:
Safe working zones for maintenance
Safe working zones under bridges and in tunnels
Double insulation
Screening of OCS at over bridges
Screening along walls of boat-sections
Warning signs
Screening of ladders for signal posts adjacent to OCS
Bibliography
1. Journal of the International Institute of Rail Electrification Engineers, Volume 2 Issue
1, August 2001.
2. Guinness Book of Rail Facts and Feats, John Marshall, 1975.
3. “When the Steam Railroads Electrified,” W.D. Middleton, Kalmabach Press (1974).
4. “Electrifying the Caltrain/PCS Railroad,” Caltrain, 1992.
5. “Rail 1950,” Jack Simmonds, Metheun, 1975.
6. Design of the 50 kV Overhead Contact System for the British Columbia Railway Tumbler
Ridge Branch Line, L.C. Tait and B. Anderson, IEEE, 1984.
7. “The Electric Railway,” Fred H. Whipple, 1889.
8. “Railways: Mechanical Engineering,” J.B. Snell, 1971.
9. “The Illustrated Directory of Trains of the World,” Brian Hollingsworth, 2000.
10. “American Locomotives in Historic Photographs 1858 – 1949,” Ron Ziel, 1993.
11. “The Story of the Train,” National Railway Museum, UK, 1999.
12. “Croydons Transport Through the Ages,” UK, John Gent, 2001.
13. “Electricity,” Steve Parker, 1992.
14. “Electricity in Transport,” English Electrical, 1951.
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15. “Ultimate Train,” Peter Herring, 2000.

16. “Pictorial History of America’s Railroads,” Mike Del Vecchio, 1998.
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10
Chapter

Passenger, Transit&
HighSpeedRail
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AREMA COMMITTEE 24 – EDUCATION & TRAINING
Passenger, Transit & High Speed Rail
Thomas P. Devenny, P.E.

Ambler, PA 19002-0700
tdevenny@ltk.com
Michael J. Trosino, P.E.
Amtrak
Philadelphia, PA 19104
trosinm@amtrak.com
Drew Galloway, P.E.
Amtrak
Philadelphia, PA 19104
gallowd@amtrak.com
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10
Chapter
C H A P T E R 1 0 – P A S S E N G E R , T R A N S I T
& H I G H S P E E D R A I L
Passenger, Transit & High

Speed Rail
INTRODUCTION TO PASSENGER RAILWAY

INFRASTRUCTURE
“Form ……follows function”

Louis Henri Sullivan, Architect, “Lippincott’s Magazine,” March 1896
10.1 Introduction
T he above quotation, while originally written to describe the practice of

architecture, nonetheless provides useful insight into the practice of passenger
railway engineering. In particular, the concept concisely describes how
fundamental differences in design can arise between a railway built for passenger
service and one built for freight, as their functions (and hence their forms) may be
radically different. However, while a passenger line and a freight-only line may look
very different, the same engineering principles apply to each -- sound railway
engineering is still sound railway engineering. The applications of these basic
engineering principles will vary, however, to reflect the different functions each type of
infrastructure must support.
This chapter presents an introduction to passenger rail infrastructure requirements. It

does not dwell on basic railway engineering concepts. Instead, it expands upon the
materials presented elsewhere in this Practical Guide as necessary to provide an overview
of typical design principles, construction practices and maintenance considerations
applied to passenger rail lines. The emphasis here is on the typical. The authors’
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C H A P T E R 1 0 – P A S S E N G E R , T R A N S I T & H I G H S P E E D R A I L
acknowledge that North American passenger experience is rich with exceptions to the
“typical,” and while a few exceptions have been noted herein, no attempt has been
made to include them all. Instead, the intent is to provide a basic understanding of
typical North American practice.
Those interested in learning more are invited to review Chapter 12 (Rail Transit) and
Chapter 17 (High Speed Rail Systems) of AREMA’s Manual for Railway Engineering. The
reader is also referred to the Track Design Handbook for Light Rail Transit, published by
the Transportation Research Board.
10.2 Passenger Rail Modes

Passenger rail operations in North America serve a wide variety of functions, from
long distance intercity travel to daily commuter trips to local urban transit services.
These operations encompass a diversity of vehicle types, operating speeds, right-of-way
requirements and service frequencies. The characteristics of each type of operation are
so different from one another that it is useful to think of each as a separate rail-based
transport mode. For purposes of this chapter, the various types of passenger rail
operations will be divided into six categories:
• High-Speed Rail (“HSR”)
• Intercity
• Commuter Rail
• Rapid Transit (“RT”)
• Light Rail Transit (“LRT”)
• Streetcar and Vintage Trolley (“Streetcar”)
These terms will be utilized throughout the chapter in describing the various rail modes
and their infrastructure characteristics. People mover operations (such as found in
airport terminals) are not addressed here, as these typically use proprietary vehicle and
systems technologies, and are often based on rubber tire/concrete paving guideway
systems.
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10.3 Distinctions between Railway

Operations and Transit Operations
The types of operations noted above can be separated into two major subgroups.
High Speed Rail, Intercity and Commuter Rail may be considered “railway” operations
while Rapid Transit, LRT and Streetcar may be considered “transit” operations.
Characteristics, which distinguish between railway operations and transit operations,
are discussed in general terms below.
Passenger railway operations are conducted over portions of the North American
freight rail network, or on dedicated passenger lines that are contiguous to this network
and which share compatible technical standards. (In the United States, Part 213.1 of
the FRA regulations defines this as the “general system of railway transportation.”)
These systems generally utilize AREMA (or AREMA-compatible) technical standards
for trackwork and AAR (or AAR-compatible) technical standards for vehicles. As
such, these systems represent passenger adaptations of North American freight railway
practice, and inter-operability with the freight network is maintained. Intercity and
Commuter services are generally compatible with freight infrastructure practice, while
HSR will employ more stringent standards for dedicated high-speed territories while
retaining compatibility with freight infrastructure for conventional speed operations.
Transit operations are conducted on trackage that is dedicated to passenger service, not
open to freight operations, and not part of the “general system of transportation.”
Technical standards are not based on interoperability with the North American rail
network, but rather the stand-alone requirements of each operator. Trackwork and
vehicle standards may be AREMA- and AAR-based, but more typically reflect transit
practice with use of sharper track curvature and specialized track appliances, and
lightweight vehicles with narrower wheels and smaller flanges. For the “traditional”
systems (those built in the late 19th and early 20th centuries), track and wheel practice
may still reflect the standards in effect at the time of construction. “New start” LRT
systems (those built after approximately 1975) may utilize European transit track and
wheel practices.
There is one hybrid type of operation that should be noted – LRT and freight services
operating on shared trackage. In these systems, LRT and freight operations are
typically “time separated,” with LRT running during the day and freight running at
night. Each service has exclusive use of the system during its designated operating
period. In these systems, LRVs utilize wheel standards compatible with standard
railway trackwork. Examples of such operations include San Diego and Baltimore.
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10.4 Passenger Rail Service and

Vehicle Characteristics by Mode
Key service characteristics of each mode in the North American context are described
below, along with the vehicle type(s) typically employed. Note that descriptions
provided are “typicals” and that exceptions may be found when the characteristics of
individual operating properties are studied in detail:
Max.
Passenger Rail Service Speed Vehicle
Modes Service Description Frequency (MPH) Type(s)
Railway
Operations
High-Speed Rail Expedited intercity service in 100 – 500- 2–4/Hr. 125 - Integral trainset
mile corridors 150
Intercity Conventional speed service over route Low: Tri- 60 –125 Locomotive-hauled
lengths between 100 and 1500 miles long weekly consist; push-pull
High: 3–4/Hr.
Commuter Rail Conventional speed service between 3–6/Peak Hr. 50–90 Electric Multiple Unit
suburban areas and central cities (EMU); Diesel
Multiple Unit
(DMU); push-pull
Transit Operations
Rapid Transit High-capacity service within urban and 6–30/ 30–70 EMU
high-density suburban areas Peak Hr.
Light Rail Medium-capacity service within urban 4–12/ 30–50 EMU typically; DMU
Transit areas and between suburbs and central Peak Hr. rarely
cities
Streetcar and Urban circulator and tourist services Low: 15–30 Typically electric
Vintage Trolley along short (1–5 mile) routes Occasional (occasionally diesel),
High: may or may not have
12/Peak/Hr. MU capability
The information above illustrates basic functional differences between the rail modes.
Railway operations tend towards higher speeds and longer routes, but with lower
service frequencies as compared with transit systems. Transit systems typically have
lower speeds and shorter routes, but generally higher service frequencies.
Railway operations utilize equipment, which is either completely or largely compatible

with freight equipment. In some cases, locomotives used in Intercity and Commuter
Rail services are based on freight locomotive technology and have correspondingly
high vehicle weights and axle loads. Railway operations in the United States are subject
to regulation of the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) as they are part of the
“general system of railway transportation.”
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Note that while the above table uses 125 mph as the threshold for High-Speed Rail,
certain United States “high-speed” regulations come into effect when the 90 mph
threshold is passed. In addition, a number of the emerging high-speed corridors in the
United States contemplate initial maximum speeds, which are lower than 125 mph. As
a result, the definition of what constitutes “high-speed rail” in the United States is
somewhat elastic and must be placed in the context of specific regulatory requirements
and the speed goals defined for each emerging corridor. This chapter’s use of 125
mph as the High Speed Rail speed threshold is directed towards discussion of
engineering issues and in no way implies that other definitions of “high-speed rail” are
less valid.
In North America, diesel-electric propulsion is the most typical power for passenger
rail services. There are some exceptions:
High-Speed and most Intercity services on the Northeast Corridor (NEC) are
electrified.
Most Commuter Rail operations in the Northeast are electrified as well, plus there
is some electrified commuter service in the Chicago area.
Some operations in New York’s Empire Corridor have used turbine-powered

trainsets.
In contrast, transit operations utilize smaller, lighter, non-AAR, non-FRA compatible

vehicles. In addition, the vast majority of transit operations are electrified. All Rapid
Transit and all but a few LRT systems utilize self-propelled EMUs. Streetcar and
vintage trolley operations are typically electrified. A recent trend involves the use of
diesel-electric LRTs on a few systems. In addition, some vintage trolley operations
have used diesel technology to power authentic and reproduction streetcars. In the
United States, transit operations are typically not subject to regulatory oversight by the
FRA.
10.5 Passenger Rail Infrastructure

Characteristics by Mode
The functional roles of the various modes heavily influence the types of infrastructure
required. Railway operations require high standards of route alignment and heavy-duty
trackage built in accordance with AREMA recommended practices. Urban transit
operations can utilize lighter standards for track and structures, and value the flexibility
to run in street trackage and accommodate sharp curves and steep grades. Key
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infrastructure parameters are presented below; for US operations, the applicability of

FRA regulations is noted as well:
Passenger Min. Design Signal and ATC Under

Rail Route Description Main axle FRA
Modes Track load Regs?
Curve
(Typical)
Railway
Operations
High-Speed Private rights-of- 1 Degree 25 T Yes Yes
Rail way, largely grade- (Power
separated, Car)
but shared with 19 T
other users (Coach)
Intercity Private rights-of- 10-12 35 T Optional (Mandatory Yes
way, often shared Degrees (Loco) above 80 mph)
with freight 20 T
and other users (Coach)
Commuter Private rights-of- 10-12 35 T Optional (Mandatory Yes
Rail way, often shared Degrees (Loco) above 80 mph)
with freight 20 T
and other users (Coach)
Transit
Operations
Rapid Private rights-of- 90 - 300 ft. 8-15 T Typical minimum: No*
Transit way Radius Wayside signals w/trip
stop. High end systems
will incorporate
Automatic Train
Operation (ATO).
Light Rail Mix of right-of-way 82 ft. 9-12 T Varies from full signal No
Transit types (private, side- (25 m) coverage to line-of-sight
of-road, street Radius
median, in-street)
Streetcar Mix of right-of-way 35 – 50 ft. 5-11 T Typically line-of-sight No
and types (some private, Radius
Vintage mostly
Trolley median and in-
street)
(*With the exception of Port Authority Trans-Hudson (PATH) operations between New Jersey and New York)
The following sections will discuss how these infrastructure requirements translate to
passenger-oriented engineering practice.
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10.6 Passenger Railway

Infrastructure Characteristics
10.6.1 High-Speed Rail (HSR)
Route Alignment Considerations

As evidenced by European HSR experience, a line designed for high-speed operation
(defined here as speeds of 125 mph and above) from the outset may exhibit two key
differences with respect to conventional practice in route alignment:
Grades are steeper
Curves are broader
This is the opposite of conventional railway design practice, which emphasizes control
of maximum grades and is willing to accept relatively high levels of horizontal
curvature. The laws of physics drive this departure from conventional practice.
While there is considerable diversity in the technical characteristics of HSR rolling

stock worldwide, these trains share a common characteristic in having high
horsepower-to-ton ratios (on the order of 20 HP/ton, compared to 2-3 HP/ton
typical of North American freight trains). These high ratios are necessary to allow the
trains to accelerate to and maintain their high speeds. The high ratios also reflect the
large amounts of kinetic energy, which must be input to drive the train mass at high
speed.
A line designed solely for high-speed trains can employ this kinetic energy to
advantage, however, by using steeper grades than conventional lines. This high energy
level allows the train to deal with short, steep grades as “momentum grades,” where
the train trades speed for elevation as the grade is climbed. The loss of train energy
presented by an upgrade (i.e., forcing the train to a higher elevation and thus a higher
potential energy) is often a minor fraction of the kinetic energy of the moving train.
Train momentum is such that short steep grades (4-5%) can readily be handled with a
relatively minor (20%) reduction in train speed. For territories with undulating grades,
the loss of kinetic energy and speed on a given upgrade can be partially recovered on
the corresponding downgrade. While these factors are obviously dependent upon the
speeds operated (kinetic energy increases as the square of velocity) and physical
characteristics of the route, they represent a key characteristic affecting design of high-
speed lines. Used judiciously, the grade-climbing capabilities of HSR equipment can be
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used to reduce cut, fill and tunnel requirements and produce a more economic
alignment design.
While HSR trains are relatively insensitive to grades, they are quite sensitive to the
lateral accelerations produced by operation through horizontal curves. Lateral forces
experienced by passengers in curves increase dramatically as curving speeds increase by
a factor of the square of the velocity. To counteract these forces, track design practice
for new-build HSR lines tends to:
Use curves with as large a radius as possible. Often, there are two design criteria
for minimum curve radius – a basic minimum for “normal” design conditions,
and a sub-minimum for “exceptional” cases (such as urban areas or difficult
terrain) where tighter curves, lower speeds and higher levels of lateral acceleration
may be acceptable.
Incorporate high levels of superelevation or cant (the European term) to offset as

much lateral acceleration as possible.
Use long spirals to control the build-up of lateral acceleration during curve entry
and exit.
In addition, some HSR rolling stock incorporates car body tilt systems to further offset
the lateral accelerations experienced by passengers. These systems allow the amount of
actual cant deficiency to be increased while limiting the lateral acceleration felt by
passengers (see also the discussion present later in this chapter in Section 10.10.
At the time of writing, the Northeast Corridor (NEC) is the only North American rail
line with high-speed operations of 125 mph and above. While the NEC was not
designed as an HSR route and still largely reflects the historic alignments of its
predecessor railway companies, targeted improvements have been made in recent years
to adapt the alignment for higher speeds.
Regulatory Compliance
In the United States regulatory environment, infrastructure requirements are generally
established based on operating speed. The number, extent and stringency of the
regulations typically increase as speed increases. Table 10-1 (found at the end of this
chapter) provides a summary of the applicable requirements, in graphical form, plotted
against speed and track class. As can readily be seen, the degree of regulatory coverage
increases greatly as speeds increase.
FRA requires that rolling stock and trackage operated at speeds above 90 mph comply
with Part 213 Subpart G requirements. These regulations set forth performance
standards for the vehicle and track as a system. Briefly stated, the regulations require
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that vehicles to be operated in excess of 90 mph, be tested and qualified for each
proposed revenue service route. They also set forth requirements for track geometry
and track inspections. These regulations apply to all United States HSR operations.
FRA 49 CFR Part 238 sets forth structural and safety requirements for rail vehicles.
Tier II requirements apply to high-speed rolling stock (i.e., equipment operated at
speeds above 125 mph).
10.6.2 Intercity Rail and Commuter Rail
General
Intercity Rail and Commuter Rail are considered together here as they have similar
infrastructure requirements. They generally utilize the same technology, operate at
similar speeds, and have similar interfaces with track and right-of-way. These
passenger modes also have many characteristics in common with freight equipment
and often share trackage with freight operations. In many instances, the freight
operator is the track owner, with passenger services operating as a tenant on the freight
railway property.
In some regards, Intercity Rail and Commuter Rail infrastructure will differ. For
example, stations on commuter routes are typically spaced much closer together than
on intercity routes.

Intercity and Commuter Rail are compatible with typical North American route
alignments designed primarily for freight usage. Grades and curvatures typically found
pose no great impediment to operation of passenger equipment. Generally, passenger
equipment is capable of higher speed operation over a given set of alignment and track
conditions than freight equipment. This situation is recognized in the speeds allowed
under the FRA track safety regulations (e.g., FRA Class 3 allows a maximum of 40
mph for freight but 60 mph for passenger).
Track Standards
Typical North American track design, construction and maintenance standards are
generally suitable for Intercity and Commuter passenger applications. These systems
can readily utilize off-the-shelf, standard North American track technology, which in
turn is largely based on freight practice. They can provide satisfactory service on lines
maintained to freight railway standards, although lines with significant levels of
passenger traffic tend to adhere to higher standards to improve speeds, service
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reliability and ride quality. Higher speeds are of particular interest to Intercity Rail
operations due to the long distances traversed.
One area of difference between freight and passenger practice is the amount of
superelevation provided in curves. Passenger operators generally prefer high values of
superelevation (typically six inches, maximum seven inches) to foster high curve speeds
and reduce travel times. Freight railways generally utilize lower superelevation values
(typically three inches or less, maximum four inches) to promote stability of freight cars
with high centers-of-gravity. Additionally, the slower speeds operated by freight trains
often do not require large amounts of superelevation.
Lines on which passenger service is the sole or predominant user (and which enjoy
high levels of public funding) are often built to a somewhat higher standard than
typical freight trackage. These higher standards may include use of elastic fasteners on
wood ties, significant use of concrete ties, installation of new rather than relay rail, and
other features that increase initial capital investment but reduce future maintenance
costs. This practice is driven in part by public funding mechanisms, where it is often
easier to obtain funds for capital programs than for ongoing operating and
maintenance programs. It is also indicative of the need to provide high degrees of
operating reliability and to minimize outages for track maintenance.
The summary of United States regulatory requirements presented in Table 10-1
(Located at the end of the chapter) is also applicable to Intercity and Commuter Rail
operations. For these services, there are two key speed regimens to be considered in
determining which FRA regulations are applicable: 90 mph and 125 mph.
FRA requires that rolling stock and trackage operated at speeds above 90 mph comply
with Part 213 Subpart G requirements. These regulations set forth performance
standards for the vehicle and track as a system. Briefly stated, the regulations require
that vehicles to be operated in excess of 90 mph be tested and qualified for each
proposed revenue service route. These regulations apply to all United States passenger
rail operations.
Operations at 90 mph and lower speeds are governed by Part 213 Subparts A-F.
These are solely track safety standards and do not address rolling stock characteristics
as does Subpart G.
FRA 49 CFR Part 238 sets forth structural and safety requirements for rail vehicles.
Tier I requirements apply to all rolling stock operated at a maximum speed of 125 mph
or less. Tier II requirements apply to high-speed rolling stock (above 125 mph).
The net effect of these regulations is as follows:
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Operations at maximum speeds of 90 mph and less are required to conform with
49 CFR Part 213 Subparts A-F (track safety standards) and Tier I vehicle
standards.
Operations at maximum speeds above 90 mph, but not exceeding 125 mph, are
required and have vehicles and trackage which are qualified under 49 CFR Part
213 Subpart G track safety standards and vehicles which conform to Tier I vehicle
requirements.
10.7 Transit Infrastructure

Characteristics
10.7.1 Rapid Transit

Rapid transit operations typically require dedicated alignments devoted exclusively to
transit use and devoid of grade crossings. These alignments can include a wide variety
of rights-of-way: at-grade, elevated and tunnel.
Actual alignment conditions vary widely among systems. Route geometries largely
reflect local historical precedents. Curves may be sharp or broad and grades may be
steep or gentle. Thus, Chicago’s elevated lines require extremely short cars to negotiate
the sharp curves found in the Loop, and PATH utilizes similar-sized cars to
accommodate curves in the trans-Hudson tubes. At the other extreme, BART utilizes
large cars on well-engineered alignments designed to high standards.
Rapid transit systems are usually grade separated, fenced or otherwise isolated to
prevent intrusion by other vehicles or pedestrians. This practice is followed to provide
a measure of safety, given the widespread use of third rail for power collection and the
generally frequent train operations.
Rapid transit systems utilize high station platforms to achieve same-level boarding
between station platforms and vehicle floors. This practice improves passenger
movement and consequently allows short station dwell times.
Track Standards
At the time of their development in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, United States
rapid transit operations generally considered themselves more like railways than street
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railways, and selected their technical standards accordingly. When these early rapid
transit systems started, their cars and locomotives were much the same as those used in
the railway commuter services of the period, and the operating speeds were also
similar. They also did not have to utilize wheel and track standards compatible with
street trackage. As a result, rapid transit systems generally adopted railway standards
for wheels and track. While rapid transit operations have not needed to follow the
increase in speeds and axle loads that have subsequently occurred in railway operations,
they have continued their use of railway wheel and track standards, as they are adequate
for purpose and well proven.
Most North American rapid transit systems use standard track gauge, although there
are three exceptions. Philadelphia and Toronto have systems that utilize the same
broad track gauges used on their streetcar networks, while the Bay Area Rapid Transit
(BART) selected a 5 foot-6 inch track gauge with the intention of providing greater
vehicle stability under high crosswind conditions.
Track forms vary widely dependent upon right-of-way type and contemporary practice
at the time of construction. At-grade trackage is typically tie and ballast. Older
elevated trackage may be wood tie/open deck or ballast deck construction, while
newer structures may be direct fixation on concrete deck. Tunnel track varies most
widely, with examples of ballasted, concrete-embedded tie and slab track construction
to be found.
Conventional T-rail is used almost exclusively. Rail weights used varied widely over
time, with widespread use of rail weights in the 90-100 pound range even after freight
railways had adopted larger rail sizes as standard. Present-day construction typically
uses 115 RE material due to the limited availability of smaller rail sizes.
For sharp curves, guard rails (check rails) are installed to assist truck turning and
minimize rail wear. These come in a variety of designs and are applied in accordance
with criteria set by each operating authority. Single check rails are applied to the gauge
side of the inside rail, and bear against the back side of the inside wheel. In cases of
extreme curvature, some properties apply check rails to the gauge sides of both the
inner and outer rails.
Ties are typically wood or concrete, with some recent trial use of plastic ties. Wood
represents the traditional material, while concrete has seen increasing use in recent
years on new-build and rehabilitated lines.
Standards for specialwork (switches, turnouts, crossings, etc.) show wide variation
among properties. Some properties utilize standards similar, if not identical, to freight
practice, while others utilize standards particularly adapted to a rapid transit
environment of sharp curves. These adaptations can include use of check rails through
all or a portion of the specialwork. “Housetops” (raised guarding surfaces placed
above the top-of-rail plane at switchpoint locations) may be used to provide
continuous check guard protection throughout the length of the turnout.
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Turnout sizes are generally smaller than found in railway applications. By example,
No. 6 and similar small turnouts may be rare on the railway network but are relatively
common on transit properties.
Turnout arrangements are often different than found in railway practice. A typical
example is that of a “universal” interlocking in double-track territory. Railway practice
typically uses two independent crossovers arranged back-to-back. Transit practice
often interlaces two crossovers into a “scissors” arrangement, so that each crossover
route includes a diamond crossing of its neighbor crossover. The scissors
arrangement, although more expensive, is often used to provide the desired operating
flexibility in areas where space is at a premium.
Rapid transit operators are not currently regulated by the FRA (with the exception of
PATH). Presently, each rapid transit operator is subject to whatever state and local
regulations apply to its operating territory. At the time of writing (2002), APTA is
preparing industry-wide standards for voluntary adoption by transit operators. These
standards will be similar to FRA regulations in coverage and content.
10.7.2 Light Rail Transit (LRT)

LRT is the most flexible of the rail modes. LRT alignments can encompass a wide
variety of rights-of-way and geometric characteristics. LRT rights-of-way can vary
from well-graded, dedicated alignments suitable for speeds of 50-70 mph, to 30 mph
side-of-road alignments, to slow speed, tightly-curved street trackage threading through
the heart of an urban core. LRT routes typically combine a variety of right-of-way
types along their length. Maximum grades must be consistent with vehicle grade-
climbing abilities, but are on the order of a maximum of 4% - 6%. In contrast to
Rapid Transit, LRT does not require grade separation – it readily adapts to the
presence of grade crossings and can run on city streets in mixed traffic with automotive
vehicles. As a result, LRT systems generally exhibit higher percentages of surface
trackage and less tunnel and elevated mileage than rapid transit systems.
Track Standards
Because they are independent of the general system of railway transportation and the
consequent demand for uniformity, light rail systems are free to use track and wheel
standards, which can deviate substantially from railway (AAR and AREMA) practice.
Standards used by the various systems can vary widely, and in many cases are unique to
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a particular system. Older systems may utilize practices based on now-obsolete

standards (such as those of the American Electric Railway Association), while newer
systems may follow AAR/AREMA standards or European practice. Compared to
freight practice, these standards generally utilize smaller wheels, narrower treads and
smaller flanges to allow use of narrow flangeway girder rail, which is less intrusive
when used in street trackage. In many cases, these standards have been modified to
some degree to reflect local experience and conditions.
Systems intended for hybrid operation with freight traffic, however, must largely
conform to AAR and AREMA practice to insure compatibility with freight equipment.
Regardless of the standards employed, compatibility between rail and wheel standards
is paramount to achieve proper functioning of the wheel/rail interface.
Track forms can vary widely and encompass the track types discussed above for rapid
transit applications. Because of their reliance on surface routes, LRT trackage typically
employs tie-and-ballast construction for private right-of-way areas and various forms
of street railway construction for areas with mixed LRT/automotive traffic.
T-rail is largely used in conventional tie-and-ballast construction, with 115 RE a typical

modern standard. Street railway construction may utilize either T-rail or girder rail
(grooved rail with an integral check face) and involve a variety of construction details
with respect to fastening methods. Some street trackage has also utilized 115 RE T-rail
in conjunction with a rolled guard section (“strap guard”) which is bolted to the
running rail to provide a check face.
For sharp curvature, check rails may be used in open (i.e., non-paved) track
construction in the same manner employed for rapid transit trackage. In curved street
trackage, wheel shape, wheel back-to-back dimensions and track gauge are coordinated
to allow the girder rail check face (or the strap guard) to function as an effective check
rail.
Ties are typically wood or concrete, with concrete seeing increased use in recent years.
Specialwork standards in open track vary and reflect the practices of individual
properties. Turnout sizes are smaller than railway applications and sharp curves are not
unusual. Street railway turnouts typically utilize girder rail in conjunction with tongue-
and-mate or double-point switches designed to provide continuous check rail
coverage.
In some cases, flange-bearing specialwork may be used. As the name implies, flange
bearing specialwork supports the wheel on the flange tip as the wheel tread operates
through discontinuities in the surface of the running rail. This practice also typically
utilizes a “square bottom” wheel flange to provide more surface area at the point of
contact.
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A detailed discussion of track design issues associated with LRT applications may be
found in the Track Design Handbook for Light Rail Transit published by the
Transportation Research Board.
The FRA does not currently regulate LRT operators. Presently, each LRT operator is
subject to whatever state and local regulations apply to its operating territory. The
freight portions of hybrid operations (where LRT and freight traffic share the same
trackage under time separation rules) are subject to FRA regulation.
At the time of writing (2002), APTA is preparing industry-wide standards for voluntary
adoption by transit operators. These standards will be similar to FRA regulations in
coverage and content.
10.7.3 Streetcar and Vintage Trolley

The streetcar and vintage trolley modes exhibit much the same flexibility evidenced by
LRT systems. In North America, these systems are typically employed as street-level
circulator systems or tourist attractions. Some operations share use of LRT trackage
for some portion of their route.
Track Standards
Track standards are generally typical of LRT practice, although actual track
construction may be somewhat lighter and in some cases involved significant use of
relay materials. Lighter construction is possible in view of the lighter weight of the
rolling stock (compared to LRVs), particularly if a less frequent operating schedule
(generating fewer wheel passes) is used.
The FRA does not currently regulate streetcar and vintage trolley operators. Presently,
each streetcar and vintage trolley LRT operator is subject to whatever state and local
regulations apply to its operating territory.
At the time of writing (2002), APTA is preparing industry-wide standards for voluntary
adoption by transit operators. These standards will be similar to FRA regulations in
coverage and content.
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10.8 Passenger Railway

Maintenance Considerations
Maintenance Philosophy
Maintenance of a passenger railway requires a somewhat different philosophy than
freight-only line. For passenger operation, the customer’s sensitivity to delay is
measured in minutes, not hours or days. The commuter expects his/her “regular”
train to run reliably and on-time, day after day. Thus, the maintenance philosophy
needs to minimize the effect of infrastructure failures and unplanned work on revenue
operations. In addition, planned maintenance activities must be closely coordinated
with operations to minimize delays.
Maintenance decisions should also recognize the speed differential that exists between
passenger and freight services. Based on passenger equipment characteristics, FRA
regulations allow higher passenger train speeds than for freight trains for the same class
of track. As a result, the maintenance philosophy should provide better control for
track geometry and other speed-related aspects of track maintenance than would
otherwise be necessary for freight-only territory.
Maintenance Practices
While the maintenance practices and machinery employed are similar to freight
practice, their application can differ in significant ways. Examples are provided below:
Maintenance Tolerances: Maintenance tolerances should be well defined, with

clear targets set for maintenance intervention. Line and surface work should be
performed against design values (i.e., referenced to field benchmarks) and not
averaged values (e.g., throws calculated by a tamper).
Speed Restrictions: Track should be brought back to timetable speed as quickly as

possible after completion of maintenance work. Use of dynamic track stabilizers
is beneficial in reducing the magnitude and duration of speed restrictions placed
after track has been worked.
Maintenance Windows: Train frequencies and schedules drive maintenance

windows. Maintenance planning must accommodate the realities of the operating
schedule, which can mean short windows, which occur at unsocial hours. For the
NEC, this has resulted in the widespread use of nighttime M/W windows for
planned work and the provision of permanently-installed, high-intensity lighting at
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interlockings to facilitate night work. In some cases, it has been necessary to alter
train schedules to provide needed maintenance windows.
Inspection Practices: When train frequencies are high, the ability to conduct track
inspections from highway-rail vehicles may be compromised due to the lack of
track time. Under these circumstances, walking inspection is required. Under 49
CFR 213 Subpart G, territories operated at Class 7 speeds require periodic
inspection by a track geometry car. In general, use of track geometry cars provides
a higher level of scrutiny than can be achieved through visual inspection alone, and
their use on passenger lines is desirable.
Design for Maintainability: Efforts undertaken during the design of new

construction and rehabilitation work can yield maintenance benefits downstream.
Desirable features for maintainability include placement of specialwork on
tangents, inclusion of space for personnel and equipment to clear, and provision
of access roadways.
Passenger Information: Impacts to revenue service caused by maintenance

activities need to be communicated to passengers. Notice is needed for cases
where trains are rescheduled, tracks, platforms or elevators are out-of-service,
trains are running on the opposite track, and similar circumstances which require a
change in passenger behavior. Needs of handicapped passengers need to be
considered if ADA-related facilities are affected by the work.
Passenger Safety: Passenger safety issues need to be recognized during planning

and addressed as maintenance work is performed. Examples of this type of
concern include removal and replacement of inter-track fencing, proper storage of
materials near station and parking areas, and hazards associated with working in
proximity to passengers.
10.9 Transit Maintenance

Considerations
Maintenance Philosophy
Compared with railway passenger operations, transit operations experience a different
maintenance environment. Equipment is lighter and axle loads are lower, plus annual
MGT on many systems is light to moderate, suggesting that transit maintenance should
be less challenging. This suggestion can be misleading for several reasons:
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Transit properties face difficulties with short maintenance windows. Even 30-
minute off-peak headways (long by transit standards) leave little time for
machinery set-up and significant M/W production.
While tonnages can be light, the number of wheel passes is often high and creates
problems with rail wear, rail corrugation and noise.
Tunnels, elevated structures and congested cityscapes can create difficult

maintenance access problems.
On busy routes (such as found on the New York City subways), short headways
and long, crowded trains create maintenance window problems and annual MGT
levels every bit as pronounced as those found on mainline railways.
Many transit operators are, in railway terms, small properties with relatively low track
mileages. This circumstance makes provision of large, in-house production-oriented
track forces difficult to justify in some cases, leading to a greater dependence on
outside contractors and less in-house work than found in railway practice.
Maintenance Practices
Practices and machinery employed in maintenance of transit trackage can be very
different from railway and even passenger railway practice. Examples are discussed
below:
Specialized M/W Equipment: Conventional rail-mounted M/W equipment is

often not suited for the transit environment for reasons of clearances, wheel
standards and (sometimes) track gauge. Instead, smaller, specialized versions of
standard equipment are needed. Special provisions (e.g., exhaust scrubbers, debris
collection bins) may be needed to adapt this equipment for use in tunnels and
other confined areas.
Night/weekend Work Windows: Given the short headways typically found

throughout the day, work requiring significant track time is often regulated to
night and weekend windows when ridership is lower and bus substitution is
feasible.
Rail Corrugation: Corrugations are typically found on light axle load/curved transit
trackage. The phenomenon is largely driven by the number of wheel passages.
Grinding attention may be needed to eliminate and control rail corrugations. This
work may be driven by noise considerations as much as by wheel/rail interface
concerns.
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Curve Maintenance: The sharp curves found on transit properties can create the
need for significant maintenance work. This work can involve gauging, fastener
tightening and rail replacement. It is typically done with small equipment adapted
to working in close confines.
Special Track Appliances: As noted previously, transit properties make use of

unique turnout designs, extensive check rail installations and other track features,
which require maintenance. As these appliances typically require close control of
dimensions (such as guard faces and back-to-back distances), significant attention
is needed to keep them in adjustment.
Maintenance Access: Physical access to conduct maintenance can be difficult,

particularly for elevated structures and tunnels. Work processes and machinery
must be adapted to deal with the available access and working space.
On some properties, alignment imperfections in small bore tunnels caused by

construction tolerances translate to deliberate imperfections in track geometry
necessary to keep track centered within the tunnel.
10.10 Special Topics Associated

with Passenger Railway
Operations
10.10.1 Passenger Railway Line Capacity

Unlike highways, which measure unlinked trips over individual route segments, rail
line capacity fundamentally must be considered as a network evaluation. The type of
train service, where it begins, and where it is destined are equally important
components, along with the infrastructure itself. Whether it is through or local
operations, routine maintenance or seasonal impacts, operators must consider events
that have the potential for creating cascading effects on a given route’s performance,
even though they may happen many miles away.
Capacity analysis begins with an evaluation of the physical route. The length of the
line, terrain it operates through (curvature, gradient, etc.), number of tracks and type of
train control exercised over the line all set the stage for determining some of the most
basic components of line capacity. Train performance characteristics in terms of
maximum speeds, acceleration (HP/ton) and deceleration rates are critical to
determining throughput rates for unopposed trains. Equally as critical is the mix of
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train types, as there will be pronounced differences in end-point transit times when
comparing passenger, intermodal, manifest and unit freight train types. Distance
between terminals, capacities of the terminals, local switching enroute, performance
variability and day-of-week variability are key factors to be considered.
Where passenger trains operate over a freight route, the difference in running times
becomes even sharper. Besides the criteria typically considered for freight service, the
number of station stops, dwell times at each station, and distances between stations
must be considered. Passenger trains typically are permitted to operate at higher
maximum speeds and through curves at higher speeds by employing greater levels of
cant deficiency when compared to freight trains. The effect of both is to further
reduce transit times. Terminal operations must also be factored into a line capacity
analysis, as trains typically follow a different route or multiple routes at slower overall
speeds compared to operations on the main line.
If every train operated in the same direction, at precisely the same speed and assuming
a relatively sophisticated method of controlling train movements, line capacity over a
single track would be very high. If this same group of trains were split evenly so one
half operated in the opposite direction and uniform length passing sidings were evenly
distributed, line capacity would drop proportionate to siding distance and to reflect the
time required to reset routes through interlockings and for trains to accelerate and
decelerate for siding entry and exit. Overall capacity would remain relatively high,
however.
Neither of the above situations occurs often in real life. Geography, community
development, and the markets served can, and do, greatly affect the design and
configuration of a rail line. Much more typical would be sidings of varying lengths,
with unequal distances between them. Ruling grades frequently bring average speeds
of freight trains down to very slow speeds or require adding helper locomotives to
negotiate grades. Dispatchers must carefully plan meets between opposing trains of
varying types around the physical infrastructure capable of accommodating them.
Intermodal and passenger trains will “overtake” slower trains along the route and
dispatchers must stage passes between trains running in the same direction in order to
allow the faster trains to proceed without delay. Locals and work trains occupy main
line tracks for extended periods of time while performing their duties. The net effect
of all of these operations is to reduce rail line capacity.
Rail line capacity is not easily determined. In addition to differences in the types and
numbers of trains, their speeds and their overall reliability, capacity is constrained by
the number of tracks, interlockings and their spacing, types of train control and signal
systems in place, FRA track class, moveable bridges, permanent slow orders, grade
crossings, etc. Each of these elements may contribute to, or reduce, the handling
capability of a route.
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Undertaking an operations simulation of the line is one accepted method to determine

line capacity. This is generally performed through the development of representative
operating plans, for both existing and future scenarios, and testing them against the
available fixed plant. Iterative variations of plans can lead to identification of optimal
operating plans that maximize use of the line. Most simulations are now performed
through use of computer software programs, the more sophisticated of which
accurately emulate actual operating conditions. These programs also provide a
powerful set of decision-making tools to help determine infrastructure improvements.
They may be used to identify chokepoints on a line that constrain growth, to adjust
fixed plant investment in response to traffic changes, or to assist in programming
maintenance activities. Computer simulation technology continues to advance,
reducing set up and evaluation procedures, and making its use progressively more
valuable in a quickly changing environment.
North American railways already operate among the most efficient rail systems in the
world (in terms of ton-miles per route-mile). This status has been achieved by a variety
of means to balance fixed-plant investment against operating requirements. As
projected rail traffic levels continue to grow, greater use of the existing infrastructure
will place ever-higher emphasis on maximizing its use. Understanding and being able
to utilize each line’s capacity will be key to success.
10.10.2 The Impact of Superelevation (Or Cant

Deficiency and Why It’s Important)
Chapter 3 introduced the concept of unbalance or underbalance in operation through
horizontal curves. In passenger rail terminology, this same concept is generally
referred to as “cant deficiency.” The term is drawn from British and European
practice where superelevation is referred to as “cant” and the term “cant deficiency”
describes the circumstance where a vehicle operates through a curve with insufficient
cant to achieve equilibrium.
Superelevation (banking or track cant) is a necessary ingredient for safe and

comfortable curve negotiation. Superelevation is used to counteract the effects of
centripetal acceleration (centrifugal force) on the vehicle and the occupants. The
amount the outer rail is elevated is determined by the sharpness of the curve and the
speed the vehicles operate through it.
Some definitions are in order:
Balance Speed: The speed at which the combination of curvature and

superelevation exactly balance the centripetal acceleration and the resultant force
vector is normal to the track plane.
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Cant Deficiency: Also known as Underbalance. This is the amount of

superelevation, or cant that is missing from the track and would be needed to
produce a balance condition for the speed operated. Underbalance is generated by
operating through a curve at speeds faster than the balance speed.
Overbalance: This is the amount of excess superelevation, or cant that is in the

track in order to produce a balance condition for the speed operated.
Overbalance is generated by operating through a curve at speeds slower than
balance speed. It is also generated by stopping in a superelevated curve.
Why are these important? Passenger comfort for one, maintenance and deterioration
of the track structure for the other. In track that is used by both passenger trains
operating at speeds of approximately 70 mph or greater and heavy axle freight trains,
there is a compromise that must be reached concerning the elevation of curves.
Higher superelevation is desired by the passenger operator for higher speeds through
the curves. Lower superelevation is desired by the freight operator to protect against
overturning of slow or stopped freight cars with high centers of gravity. There is also
the effect of the excessive burden placed on the low rail by the heavy wheel loads of
freight cars operating in the overbalance condition. This burden manifests itself by
causing accelerated deterioration of the low rail surface geometry, head wear, or
crushed head of the low rail, or increased superelevation. All of these have a snowball
effect on the maintenance requirements of the curve.
Freight equipment can operate effectively at elevations up to 6 inches, although

operators typically want elevations less than 4 inches. Passenger equipment can
accommodate superelevations up to 8 or 9 inches, although a maximum of 6 or 7
inches is desired in passenger service as a comfort limit for a passenger’s ability to walk
or stand on a train stopped in curve. Cant deficiency is used to increase the effective
superelevation by taking advantage of the passenger equipment’s ability to negotiate a
curve at speeds much greater than balance speed.
Therefore, design consideration can be made to accommodate freight operation by

designing a curve with elevations between 4 inches and 6 inches. Then, increasing the
cant deficiency can create additional speed for the passenger train. Each inch of cant
deficiency is equivalent to an additional inch of superelevation. For example, operating
at 3 inches of cant deficiency on a 6 inch elevated curve is the equivalent of operating
on 9 inches of superelevation.
Car body tilt systems have been used to gain even more speed in curves. Passenger
cars can typically accommodate much higher cant deficiency safely than that which is
comfortable for the passengers. To take advantage of this characteristic, the car body
can be tilted to create a near balance condition in the interior of the car while externally
it is developing quite a lot of centripetal acceleration. For example, for a tilting car
operating at 9-inch cant deficiency on a 6-inch superelevated curve (i.e., the equivalent
of 15 inches of superelevation), if the car tilts at 8 degrees, the net cant deficiency
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experienced by passengers in the car interior is approximately 2 inches. This a

powerful method to increase speed on an existing line where major changes in
alignment or curvature are not feasible.
10.11 Conclusion
This chapter has provided a brief introduction to the world of passenger railway
infrastructure. It is a world that demands high reliability and has little tolerance for
delay. The practices described in this chapter reflect why passenger infrastructure is
built and maintained the way it is. Railway passenger lines can exhibit significant
differences when compared to freight lines; transit lines differ significantly from
passenger lines, which are part of the “general system of railway transportation.” Each
has a form that befits its function.
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C H A P T E R 1 0 – P A S S E N G E R , T R A N S I T & H I G H S P E E D
Table 10-1
Continental* United States
Track TRACK CLASS and MAXIMUM AUTHORIZED SPEEDS

(*Special Conditions for Northeast Corridor Not Shown)
Class
9
Order of Particular
Passenger Applicability Required Above
Trains 150 mph
8
Maximum Speed (80mph)
for General Service Freight Trains TIER II Vehicle Safety Standards.
7 Higher Speeds Authorized per Instrumented Track Inspection Car
49 U.S.C. 213.9 (g)
Required
6
Advanced
Freight Technology Full Grade Separations and Barrier Plan.
5 Trains
Crossing
GRMS on Instrumented Car Required.
Protection
4 Advanced Design
Open Deck Bridges Ballast Deck Bridges Required (ride quality)
Instrumented Testing Required For New Vehicle Certifications.

3 Federal Certification of Maintenance Personnel Required
2 Supplemental Advanced Civil Speed Enforcement System.

Signal System
Freight Only
Signal Signal System Track Geometry Measurement System.

System Required
Required (Cab Signal or Gauge Restraint Measurement System (GRMS).
1 Excepted
Train Control)
(Portable GRMS allowed Class 7 only).
Track
No "Occupied"
Psgr. Svc.
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
Maximum Authorized Speed (MPH)

Amtrak Transportation Speed and Tk Class Chart.vsd
Planning Department ?o ? 002
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11
Chapter

Environmental
Regulations and
Permitting
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Environmental Regulations and Permitting
Paul Bollinger
Bollinger, Lach & Associates

Oak Brook, IL
kbollinger@bollingerlach.com
Melvin Burda
Burlington Northern Santa Fe Railroad

Fort Worth, TX
Melvin.burda@bnsf.com
Paul Li, P. Eng.
UMA Engineering Ltd.

Edmonton, AB.
pli@umagroup.com
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11
Chapter
C H A P T E R 1 1 – E N V I R O N M E N T A L
R E G U L A T I O N S A N D P E R M I T T I N G
Environmental
Regulations & Permitting
Most land development and improvement activities are regulated by
an environmental regulation or law. Environmental regulations are
fairly new, when compared to how long the railway industry has
been around. Environmental laws are constantly changing and
almost always getting stricter. In fact some regulations may have
already changed by the time the reader reads this from when it was
written. (Cautionary Note: The following is a general description
and is not to be taken as all-encompassing.)
11.1 Introduction
I nformation in this chapter is general in nature and should only be used as a guide.
A professional environmental consultant should be contacted or used to prepare
an environmental assessment. Most information in this chapter is United States-
based, however, information on environmental regulations of Canada and Mexico has
also been included. In addition, most regulatory discussions are on wetlands, however,
additional information on issues, such as Phase I, hazardous waste, air quality, etc., is
included.
11.2 Environmental Regulations of

the United States
On January 1, 1970, the President of the United States signed the
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) into law. This
legislation established a national policy of encouraging productive and
enjoyable harmony between our environment and us. As a result, other executive
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C H A P T E R 1 1 – E N V I R O N M E N T A L R E G U L A T I O N S
A N D P E R M I T T I N G
orders have followed, for example, the Clean Water Act, Pollution Control Standards
Act, etc.36
11.2.1 Wetlands Regulations

Jurisdictional wetlands are part of a classification recognized by government agencies
known as “waters of the United States.” The term “waters of the United States” is:
• All waters which are currently used, or were used in the past, or may be susceptible
to use in interstate or foreign commerce, including all waters which are subject to
the ebb and flow of the tide;
• All interstate waters including interstate wetlands;
• All other waters such as intrastate lakes, rivers, streams (including intermittent
streams), mudflats, sandflats, wetlands, sloughs, prairie potholes, wet meadows,
playa lakes or natural ponds; the use, degradation or destruction of which could
affect interstate or foreign commerce including any such waters:
i. Which are or could be used by interstate or foreign travelers for recreational or

other purposes; or
ii. From which fish or shellfish are or could be taken and sold in interstate or
foreign commerce; or
iii. Which are used or could be used for industrial purpose by industries in
interstate commerce;
• All impoundments of waters otherwise defined as waters of the United States

under the definition;
• Tributaries of waters;
• The territorial seas;
• Wetlands adjacent to waters (as discussed later in this chapter). The term
“adjacent” means bordering, contiguous or neighboring.
The traditional definition of a wetland is the transitional land between the terrestrial
and aquatic environment where the water table is usually at or near the surface, or the
land is covered by shallow water. Wetlands must have the following attributes:
1) At least periodically, the land supports predominantly hydrophytic vegetation;
36 Jain, R.K., L.V. Urban, G.S. Stacey and H.E. Balbach, 2002, Environmental Assessment, McGraw-Hill, Inc.
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2) The substrate is predominantly undrained hydric soil; and
3) The substrate is nonsoil and is saturated with water or covered by shallow water at
some time of the growing season each year.37
Since European settlement began in the United States, millions of acres of wetlands
were drained, dredged or filled so that by the mid-1980’s, almost 53% of the lower 48
states’ wetlands had been eliminated. At that time, an estimated 104 million acres of
wetlands remained, which amounts to approximately 5% of the country’s land
surface.38
Traditionally, wetlands have been viewed as wild places, teeming with mosquitoes,
venomous snakes and disease, while in reality they provide a number of valuable
benefits. Some of these include:
1) Flood storage and conveyance,

2) Groundwater recharge,
3) Erosion reduction and sediment control,
4) Pollution control,
5) Wildlife habitat,
6) Recreation and education.
This listing only highlights a few of the many functions wetlands provide. The Illinois
Department of Natural Resources (IDNR) Wetlands Program considers the full range
of wetland functions and values when administering its wetland protection
responsibilities.39
The United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) has been involved in regulating
activities in navigable waterways through the granting of permits since the passage of
the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899. This program was meant to prevent obstructions
to navigation. By the early 20th century, the USACE had regulatory authority over the
dumping of trash and sewage. Passage of the Clean Water Act in 1972 greatly
broadened the USACE’s role by giving them authority over dredging and filling in the
“waters of the United States,” including many wetlands.40
37 Chinn, R., 1998, Wetland Delineation and Management Training Manual and References, Richard Chinn
Environmental Training, Inc., Pompano Beach, FL.
38 Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetland losses in the United States 1780s to 1980s, United States Department of the
Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC.

39 Illinois Department of Natural Resources, 2000, A Field Guide to the Wetlands of Illinois, Second Edition,
Illinois Department of Natural Resources.

40 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Undated, Services for the Public-US Army Corps of Engineers,
http://www.usace.army.mil/public.html.
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U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Regulatory Boundaries

The USACE Headquarters is located in Washington, DC. The following is a map of
USACE divisions and districts. The divisions are further broken down by regional
districts, as illustrated below.
(From USACE web site: http://www.usace.army.mil/divdistmap.html)
Sample of regulatory boundaries.
(From USACE web site: http://www.nad.usace.army.mil/regulatory.html) Please

contact your local regulatory agency by visiting their web site at:
http://www.usace.army.mil/where.html.
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Wetlands protection in the United

States began with the 1972 Federal
Water Pollution Control Act, now
commonly referred to as the Clean
Water Act (CWA). Section 404 of the
CWA establishes the major federal
program regulating activities in
wetlands, and the 1977 Amendments
significantly expand on the design of
the Section 404 program, including
exemption categories, the option of
delegation of the 404 programs to Photo taken by Bollinger, Lach & Associates, Inc.
states, and enforcement powers. The
definition of a wetland is provided below.
11.2.2 Wetland Definition

According to the 1987 Corps of Engineers Manual “the USACE and the EPA jointly
define wetlands as: those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or ground
water at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that under normal
circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in
saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs and
similar areas.” 41
There are three criteria that must be met for an area to be defined as wetland, they are:
hydrophytic vegetation, hydric soil and wetland hydrology. The following wetland
characteristics come from the Environmental Laboratory (1987):
1. Hydrophytic vegetation: Hydrophytic vegetation is defined as the sum total of

macrophytic plant life that occurs in areas where the frequency and duration of
inundation or soil saturation produce permanently or periodically saturated soils of
sufficient duration to exert a controlling influence on the plant species present.
Emphasis is placed on the assemblage of plant species that exert a controlling

influence on the character of the plant community, rather than an indicator species.
Thus, the presence of scattered individuals of an upland plant species in a
community dominated by hydrophytic species is not a sufficient basis for
concluding that the area is an upland plant community. Likewise, the presence of a
few individuals of hydrophytic species in a community dominated by upland
species is not a sufficient basis for concluding that the area has hydrophytic
vegetation.
41 Environmental Laboratory, 1987, Corps of Engineers Wetland Delineation Manual, Technical Report Y-87-
1, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
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Caution must be used in determining whether an area is “vegetated” for the

purpose of Section 404 jurisdiction; users must consider the density of vegetation
at the site being evaluated. While it is not possible to develop a numerical method
to determine how many plants or how much biomass is needed to establish an area
as being vegetated or unvegetated, it is intended that the predominant condition of
the site be used to make that characterization. This concept applies to areas
grading from wetland to upland, and from wetland to other waters. This limitation
would not necessarily apply to areas, which have been disturbed by man or recent
natural events.
The “50/20 rule” is the recommended method for selecting dominant species
from a plant community when quantitative data are available. The rule states that
for each stratum in the plant community, dominant species are the most abundant
plant species (when ranked in descending order of abundance and cumulatively
totaled) that immediately exceed 50% of the total dominance measure for the
stratum (tree, shrub, grass, forb and vine), plus any additional species that
individually comprise 20% or more of the total dominance measure for the
stratum. The dominant species is then combined across strata.
Many factors (ex. light, temperature, soil texture and permeability, man-induced
disturbance, etc.) influence the character of hydrophytic vegetation. However,
hydrologic factors exert an overriding influence on species that can occur in
wetlands. Non-hydrophytic plants lacking morphological (form and structure of
an organism), physiological (functional processes in an organism), and/or
reproductive adaptations cannot grow, effectively compete, reproduce, and/or
persist in areas that are subject to prolonged inundation or saturated soil
conditions.
The estimated probability that a species is likely to occur in a wetland and/or

upland environment is called Plant Indicator Status. Categories were developed
and defined by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service National Wetland
Inventory and Reed (1988).42
Plant indicator status categories are as follows:

i. Obligate wetland plants (OBL) – Plants that occur almost always (estimated
probability > 99%) in wetlands under natural conditions, but which may also
occur rarely (estimated probability < 1%) in non-wetlands.
ii. Facultative wetland plants (FACW) – Plants that occur usually (estimated
probability > 67% to 99%) in wetlands, but also occur (estimated probability
1% to 33%) in non-wetlands.
42Reed, Jr., Porter B., 1988, National List of Plant Species That Occur in Wetlands: National Summary, U.S.
Fish & Wildlife Service, Biol. Rep. 88(24).
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iii. Facultative plants (FAC) – Plants with a similar likelihood (estimated

probability 33% to 67% percent) of occurring in both wetlands and non-
wetlands.
iv. Facultative upland plants (FACU) – Plants that occur sometimes (estimated
probability 1% to < 33%) in wetlands, but occur more often (estimated
probability >67% to 99%) in non-wetlands.
v. Obligate upland plants (UPL) – Plants that occur rarely (estimated probability
<1%) in wetlands, but occur almost always (estimated probability > 99%) in
non-wetlands under natural conditions.
The wetland indicator categories should not be equated with, or to, degrees of
wetness. For example, many obligate wetland species occur in permanently or
semi-permanently flooded wetlands, but a number also occur and some are
restricted to wetlands that are only temporarily or seasonally flooded (USFWS
1996).
2. Hydric soil: A hydric soil is saturated, flooded, or ponded long enough during the
growing season to develop anaerobic (occurring in the absence of free oxygen)
conditions that favor the growth and regeneration of hydrophytic vegetation.
Hydric soils are: all histosols, soils in aquic suborders, aquic subgroups, albolls
suborder, salorthids great group or pell great groups of vertisols, soils that are
ponded for long or very long duration during the growing season and soils that are
frequently flooded for long duration or very long duration during the growing
season.
Hydric soil indicators are characteristics found in the field.

• In non-sandy soils hydric soil indicators include:
o Organic soils,
o Histic epipedons,
o Sulfidic material,
o Aquic or peraquic moisture regime,
o Reducing soil conditions,
o Soil color (Gleyed soils, which are grey in color, soils with bright mottles
and/or low matrix chroma),
o Soils appearing on hydric soils list and iron and manganese concretions.
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• Hydric soil indicators in sandy soils include:
o High organic matter content in the surface horizon,
o Streaking of subsurface horizons by organic matter,
o Organic pans.
For defining technical soil terms please refer to “Field Indicators of Hydric Soils of
the United States.”43
Caution: In recently deposited sandy material (for example sandbars), it may be

impossible to find any of these indicators.
Please note, the Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) has developed
regional lists of “Field Indicators of Hydric Soils in the United States.”
3. Wetland Hydrology: The term “wetland hydrology” encompasses all hydrologic

characteristics of areas that are periodically inundated or have soils saturated to the
surface at some time during the growing season. Areas with evident characteristics
of wetland hydrology are those where the presence of water has an overriding
influence on characteristics of vegetation and soils due to anaerobic and reducing
conditions, respectively. Such characteristics are usually present in areas that are
inundated or have soils that are saturated to the surface for sufficient duration to
develop hydric soils, and support vegetation typically adapted for life in periodically
anaerobic soil conditions. Hydrology is often the least exact of the parameters, and
indicators of wetland hydrology are sometimes difficult to find in the field.
However, it is essential to establish that a wetland area is periodically inundated or
has saturated soils during the growing season.
An area has wetland hydrology if it is inundated or saturated to the surface

continuously for at least 5% of the growing season in most years (50% probability
of recurrence).
Hydrology indicators may include, but are not necessarily limited to: drainage
patterns, drift lines, sediment deposition, watermarks, stream gage data and flood
predictions, historic records, visual observations of saturated soils, and visual
observation of inundation. Any of these indicators may be evidence of wetland
hydrology characteristics.
43Hurt, G.W., P.M. Whited and R.F. Pringle, 1998, Field Indicators of Hydric Soils in the United States,
Version 4.0, United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Wetland
Science Institute and Soil Survey Division, in cooperation with the National Committee for Hydric Soils.
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11.2.3 Wetland Regulations

Section 404, jointly administered by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) and
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), regulates the discharge of
dredged or fill material into “waters of the U.S.,” which include wetlands. Discharge of
dredged or fill material requires a permit from the USACE based on regulatory
guidelines developed in conjunction with USEPA. Failure to obtain a permit or
comply with the terms of a permit can result in civil and/or criminal penalties.
There are three types of permits for activities in wetland areas: Nationwide, General
and Individual. All three are reviewed by the USACE, as well as other government
agencies.
1. Nationwide permits set the national wetland standards. There are 43 authorized
activities specified, which give general and specific conditions.
2. General permits are issued when the local Corps district requires specific
regulations not covered by a nationwide permit. This includes regional permits.
3. Individual permits are required for large projects that cause significant wetland
impact potential. They are open to public comment and usually require mitigation.
The review process for an individual permit is usually extensive and takes longer
than nationwide or regional permits.
Nationwide Permits
General permits that apply nationwide (or throughout the country) are termed as
“Nationwide Permits (NWP). ”
The following are some sample descriptions of Nationwide Permits that may be
associated with railway activities. They include NWP 7 (Outfall Structures and
Maintenance Projects), NWP 12 (Utility Line Activities), NWP 14 (Linear
Transportation Projects), NWP 39 (Residential, Commercial and Institutional
Developments) and NWP 41 (Reshaping Existing Drainage Ditches).44
Nationwide Permit No. 7, Outfall Structures and Maintenance Projects: NWP No. 7 is
required for the construction of outfall structures and associated intake structures
where the effluent from the outfall is in compliance with the National Pollutant
Discharge Elimination System Program (Section 402 of the CWA). This NWP is
required for activities related to maintenance excavation, including:
• Dredging, to remove accumulated sediments blocking or restricting outfall and

intake structures,
44U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Undated, Nationwide Permit Summary, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
Albuquerque District.
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• Accumulated sediments from small impoundments associated with outfall and

intake structures, and
• Accumulated sediments from canals associated with outfall and intake structures.
Nationwide Permit No.12, Utility Line Activities: NWP No. 12 is required for
activities required for the construction, maintenance and repair of utility lines, including
outfall and intake structures. Construction, maintenance or repair of utility lines is
permittable only if there is no change in pre-construction contours. A “utility line” is
defined as any pipe or pipeline for the transportation of any gaseous, liquid, liquescent,
or slurry substance, for any purpose. In wetlands, the top 6” to 12” of the trench
should be backfilled with topsoil from the trench.
Nationwide Permit No. 14, Linear Transportation Projects: NWP No. 14 is required
for activities required for the construction, expansion, modification or improvement of
linear transportation crossings (e.g., railways, roadways, etc.) in waters of the United
States, including wetlands if the activity meets the following criteria:
a. This NWP is subject to the following acreage threshold where a

preconstruction notification is required:
1) For linear transportation projects in non-tidal waters, provided the

discharge does not cause the loss of greater than ½-acre of waters of the
United States; or
2) For linear transportation projects in tidal waters, provided the discharge

does not cause the loss of greater than 1/3-acre of waters of the United
States.
b. The permittee must notify the District Engineer if any of the following criteria
are met:
1) The discharge causes the loss of greater than 1/10-acre of waters of the
United States; or
2) There is a discharge in a special aquatic site, including wetlands.
c. The notification must include a compensatory mitigation proposal to offset

permanent losses of waters of the United States to ensure that those losses
result only in minimal adverse effects to the aquatic environment and a
statement describing how temporary losses will be minimized to the maximum
extent practicable;
d. For discharges in special aquatic sites, including wetlands, and stream riffle and
pool complexes, the notification must include a delineation of the affected
special aquatic sites;
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e. The width of the fill is limited to the minimum necessary for the crossing;
f. This permit does

not authorize
stream
channelization, and
the authorized
activities must not
cause more than
minimal changes to
the hydraulic flow
characteristics of
the stream, increase
flooding, or cause
more than minimal
degradation of
water quality of any
stream (see General Photo taken by Bollinger, Lach & Associates, Inc.
Conditions 9 and
21);
g. This permit cannot be used to authorize non-linear features commonly

associated with transportation projects, such as vehicle maintenance or storage
buildings, parking lots, train stations or air craft hanger; and
h. The crossing is a single and complete project for crossing waters of the United
States. Where a road segment (i.e., the shortest segment of a road with
independent utility that is part of a larger project) has multiple crossings of
streams (several single and complete projects), the Corps will consider whether
it should use its discretionary authority to require an Individual Permit as a
single and complete project.
Nationwide Permit No.39, Residential, Commercial and Institutional Developments:

NWP No. 39 is required for discharges of dredged or fill material into non-tidal waters
of the United States, for the construction or expansion of residential, commercial, and
institutional building foundations and building pads and attendant features that are
necessary for the use and maintenance of the structures. Attendant features may
include, but are not limited to roads, parking lots, garages, yards, utility lines,
stormwater management facilities and recreation facilities. Examples of commercial
developments include industrial facilities and business parks. Institutional
developments include government office buildings and public works buildings. The
activities listed above are allowable under the permit, provided the activities meet all of
the following criteria:
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a. The discharge does not cause the loss greater than ½-acre of non-tidal waters
of the United States, excluding non-tidal wetlands adjacent to tidal waters.
b. The discharge does not cause the loss of greater than 300 linear feet of a
stream bed.
c. The discharge causes the loss of greater than 300 linear feet of intermittent
stream bed.
d. For discharges in special aquatic sites, the notification must include a

delineation of affected special aquatic sites including wetlands.
e. The discharge is part of a single and complete project.
f. The permittee must avoid and minimize discharges into waters of the United
States at the project site to the maximum extent possible.
g. Any combined total permanent loss of waters of the United States exceeding
1/10-acre requires that the permittee notify the District Engineer.
h. If there are any open waters or streams within the project area, the permittee
will establish and maintain, to the extent practicable, wetlands or upland
vegetated buffers next to those open waters or streams. Deed restrictions,
conservation easements, protective covenants, or other means of land
conservation and preservation are required to protect and maintain the
vegetated buffers established on the project site.
Nationwide Permit No.41, Reshaping Existing Drainage Ditches: NWP No. 41 is

required for discharges of dredged or fill material into non-tidal waters of the United
States, to modify the cross-sectional configuration of currently serviceable drainage
ditches constructed in waters of the United States. The reshaping of the ditch cannot
increase drainage capacity beyond the original design capacity. Nor can it expand the
area drained by the ditch as originally designed. Compensatory mitigation is not
required because the work is designed to improve water quality (for example, by
regarding the drainage ditch with gentler slopes, which can reduce erosion, increase
growth of vegetation, increase uptake of nutrients and other substances by vegetation,
etc.).
The following table illustrates some Nationwide Permits (NWPs) with their Pre-
construction Notification (PCN) threshold. Pre-construction Notifications are
discussed in detail later in this chapter.
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Title/Description Example PCN Threshold
7 Outfall Structures and Maintenance: Construction, removal All activities.

or repair of intake and
- Added removal of accumulated sediments from outfall structures.
intakes, outfalls, and canals.
12 Utility Activities: Construction of a 1/10 acre

storm sewer pipe (substations); 500
- Added substation. extending through a linear feet of above-
wetland. grade access road;
- Added foundations for overhead utility line towers, impervious roads.
poles, and anchors.
- Added permanent access roads for utility line

maintenance.
14 Linear Transportation Crossings: Construction of 1/10 acre; discharges

railway tracks into special aquatic
- Added larger crossings for public projects only. extending through a sites.
wetland or a bridge
- No change for private roads and public crossings in over a “waters of the
tidal waters and non-tidal wetlands adjacent to tidal U.S.”
waters.
39 Residential, Commercial and Institutional Developments: Construction of 1/10 acre; all below
buildings in wetlands. Ordinary High Water
- Building pads, building foundations and attendant Mark.
features.
41 Reshaping Existing Drainage Ditches: Cutting the sideslopes Side cast into waters of
of a drainage ditch and the U.S.;
- Modify cross-section of currently serviceable dumping the excavated
drainage ditches. material into the ditch. Reshape greater than
500 linear feet.
- Cannot increase drainage or flows or relocate ditch.
A pre-construction notification (PCN) is the notice provided to Federal and state

agencies which requests comments concerning a proposed activity. A USACE
notification or PCN should include (but not limited to) the following:45
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 2001, Chicago District Regional Permit Program, U.S. Army Corps of
45
Engineers, Chicago District.
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1) A cover letter, which provides a clear project purpose and need statement, a
brief description of the proposed activity, the nationwide or regional permit(s)
to be used for the activity, the area (in acres) of waters of the United States to
be impacted, and a statement that the terms and conditions of the NWP or
Regional Permit Program will be followed;
2) A completed joint application form signed by the applicant or agent. If the
agent signs, notification shall include a signed, written statement from the
applicant designating the agent as its representative;
3) Conduct a delineation prepared in accordance with the current USACE
methodology (1987 Corps Manual), as generally conducted during the growing
season, of the waters of the United States, including wetlands, for the project
area, and for areas adjacent to the project site;
4) Map showing the location of the project area;
5) Preliminary engineering drawings showing all aspects of the proposed activity
and the location of water of the United States to be impacted and not
impacted. The plans shall include grading contours; and proposed and existing
structures such as railway crossings, building footprints, construction access
areas, utilities, stormwater management facilities, etc;
6) A preliminary soil erosion and sediment control plan;
7) Evidence that the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) was
contacted regarding the presence of any Federally listed (or proposed listing)
endangered or threatened species or critical habitat in the area that may be
affected by the proposed activity;
8) List of names and addresses of surrounding property owners.
Compensatory mitigation is sometimes required to offset permanent fills to waters of

the United States. A minimum one for one ratio is required for all wetland impacts
requiring a PCN. The mitigation could be the creation of a constructed on-site
wetland or the purchase of wetland mitigation credits in an approved wetland bank.
Partial credit may be granted with the use of Better Management Practices (BMPs).
General Permits
General permits are issued when the local Corps district requires specific regulations
not covered by a nationwide permit, such as regional permits. Regional permits are for
activities with minimal individual and cumulative impacts on the aquatic environment.
For example, in the Chicagoland area, activities fall under one of two categories:
I) Category I – Activities with limited impacts requiring minimal review.

II) Category II – Activities with minimal impacts requiring a more rigorous
review.
Regional Permit No. 1 is for residential, commercial and institutional developments.

Regional Permit Number 1, Category I, impacts < 0.25 acre of wetland and Regional
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Permit Number 1, Category II, impacts 0.25 to 2 acres of waters of the United States
or impacts high-quality aquatic resources. Individual Permits may be required for
impacts over 2 acres. Mitigation is required for impacts over 0.25 acres at a minimum
of 1.5:1 replacement.
In addition, some local regulations may apply. For example, in DuPage County,
Illinois, the County regulates all activities in wetlands, and mitigation is required for all
impacts. The County’s jurisdiction supercedes the USACE’s jurisdiction. While a
USACE permit is still required, if the County’s permit is approved, the USACE’s
permit will be approved.
USACE Non-Jurisdiction Over Isolated Wetlands

On January 9, 2001, the U.S. Supreme Court issued its opinion in the Solid Waste
Agency of Northern Cook County (SWANCC) v. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
(USACE). The Court ruled 5-4 against the USACE and EPA and in favor of
SWANCC, overturning the USACE’s requirement for a Clean Water Act Section 404
permit for the construction of a landfill involving the fill of isolated wetlands at a
former gravel mining site.46 As a result, the primary effect of the decision is that the
Migratory Bird Rule, under which the USACE asserted jurisdiction over isolated
wetland areas, non-navigable and completely intrastate waters based solely on the
presence or potential presence of migratory birds, is no longer valid. Therefore,
isolated wetlands are no longer jurisdictional to the USACE. All tributaries to Waters
of the United States (such as interstate waters, tidal waters, etc.) as well as wetlands
contiguous to and adjacent to those tributaries are still regulated. To be contiguous or
tributary, there must be a continuous surface water connection between the two
aquatic areas. This surface water connection can be either surface flowing water at
regular intervals of time, or a continuum of wetlands between the two areas.
Groundwater, surface overflow of extreme precipitation events, or tiling do not
constitute surface water connections. A culvert under a road fill connecting two
aquatic areas would constitute a surface water connection, provided the culvert is not
excessively long. Excessively long piping between two aquatic areas would not
constitute a surface water connection. The term “excessively long” is defined on a
case-by-case basis by the USACE reviewer. In addition, any natural stream that is
placed in a culvert for extended lengths, with waters on each end, would continue to be
considered a tributary.
States are moving fast to regulate isolated wetlands (non-jurisdictional to the USACE).
For example, recently Lake County, Illinois has adopted an ordinance, which regulates
all wetland areas that are not regulated by the USACE. If a wetland is identified on the
site and is considered isolated, a permit by the USACE is not required, however, a Lake
County Watershed Development Permit is required.
46Miller, Z.C. and C. Kamper, 2001, Memorandum, Regarding Supreme Court Decision in SWANCC,
http//www.dgslaw.com/articles/347951.html.
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11.2.4 Best Management Practices

Best Management Practices (BMPs) are policies, practices, procedures or structures
implemented to mitigate the direct and indirect degradation of surface water quality
from an activity. BMP’s are required for all permits, to the extent possible. BMPs
include non-structural elements, such as the preservation of existing natural areas
(floodplains, streams, wetlands, prairies, woodlands and native soils) and drainageways,
and structural elements. Structural elements include vegetated swales, filter strips and
infiltration trenches, which are designed to remove pollutants, reduce runoff rates and
velocity, and protect aquatic resources. Another BMP is to limit the amount of
impervious surface area through practices such as reducing road widths and clustering
developments designed around open space.
In addition, a project should use the following structural BMPs, if appropriate, both
individual lots and the overall site to the maximum extent practicable:
1) Lot controls: grassed swales, underground sand filter, infiltration trenches,
vegetated filter strips, vegetated natural buffers, level spreaders, dry wells or
roof downspout systems, rubber rooftops.
2) Site controls: wetland detention, wet bottom detention, grass swales,
infiltration basins, vegetated swales, vegetated natural buffers, level spreaders,
curb cuts, leaky berms.
Applicants who protect water quality and minimize run-off by designing and
implementing a comprehensive and coordinated use of BMPs throughout the project
site may receive partial compensatory wetland mitigation credit.
For additional BMP’s, please refer to the Illinois Urban Manual.47
11.2.5 Endangered Species

Section 10 of the Endangered Species Act is designated to regulate a wide range of
activities affecting plants and animals designated as endangered or threatened, and the
habitats upon which they depend. The Act prohibits many activities affecting these
protected species unless authorized by a permit from the United States Fish and
Wildlife Service or the National Marine Fisheries Service. Parts of the Act make it
unlawful to take (which includes harm, harass, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap,
capture or collect any wildlife within the United States); remove and reduce to
possession any plant from areas under Federal jurisdiction; maliciously damage or
47U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resource Conservation Service, 1995, Illinois Urban Manual, A
Technical Manual Designed for Urban Ecosystem Protection and Enhancement, Illinois Environmental
Protection Agency, Springfield, IL.
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destroy an endangered plant on areas under Federal jurisdiction; and remove, cut, dig
up, or damage or destroy any endangered plant in knowing violation of any state law or
regulation or in the course of a violation of a state criminal trespass law. These
prohibitions apply equally to live or dead animals or plants, their progeny (seeds in the
case of plants), and parts or products derived from them.
An “endangered species” is any animal or plant that is in danger of extinction. A

“threatened species” is any animal or plant that is likely to become endangered in the
near future. “Critical habitat” is a geographic area which maintains biological/physical
features essential to conservation of the species and which may require special
management, consideration or protection.
A take permit allows for the taking of listed species that may result from a lawful
development activity. Take permits are issued by the United States Fish and Wildlife
Service and/or the National Marine Fisheries Service. Applying for a take permit
requires a completed application form, any necessary supporting materials and an
application fee.48
Coordination should occur as early as possible and usually occurs in conjunction with
other project permits or authorizations such as Corps of Engineers or Coast Guard
Permits, Bureau of Land Management Easements and NPDES (construction)
Permits.49
In addition, no activity is authorized under any NWP, which is likely to jeopardize the
continued existence of a state or federally listed threatened or endangered species or a
species proposed for such designation, as identified under the Federal Endangered
Species Act, or which will destroy or adversely modify the critical habitat of such
species.
48 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Undated, Permits for Native Species, Under the Endangered Species Act,
U.S. Department of the Interior and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
49 AREMA Committee 13, 2001, Environmental Permitting Issues on Railroad Construction Projects,
Conference Notes, Overland Parks, KS, AREMA, 8201 Corporate Drive, Suite 1125, Landover, MD 20785-
1420.
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Examples, proposed construction in close proximity to Lakeside Daisy habitat or

proposed placing of fill materials in waterway that’s known to harbor the Humpback
Sucker.
Photos taken from U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: Endangered Species web site.
Federally Threatened Lakeside Daisy (Hymenoxys herbacea (=acaulis var. glabra))
Federally Endangered Humpback Sucker (Xyrauchen texanus)
For more information visit the web at:

http://endangered.fws.gov/
For regional information visit:

http://offices.fws.gov/
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11.2.6 Cultural Resources

A cultural resource is any phenomenon associated
with prehistoric or historical events, themes or
individuals. They are in most cases unique, fragile
and non-renewable.
The basis for all subsequent historic preservation

legislation lies within the National Historic
Preservation Act (NHPA) of 1966.50 Section 106
of the NHPA requires all Federal Agency
Photo taken by Bollinger, Lach & Associates, Inc.
“undertakings” to “take into account” their effect
on historic properties. An “undertaking” is defined to cover a wide range of Federal or
state permitting, funding and licensing activities.
Professional archaeologists who meet the Federal standards set forth in the Secretary
of the Interior’s Professional Qualifications Standards may conduct Federal surveys,
while those meeting the state standards may conduct state surveys. The applicant is
responsible for obtaining and paying for such services. If no sites are found or the sites
found are not eligible for the National Register, the project may proceed. Occasionally,
a significant archaeological site may be encountered. In such a case the agencies will
work with the applicant to protect both the cultural resources and to facilitate the
completion of the project.
Additional federal legislation restricting or limiting activities defined as a cultural

resource (which are archaeological, prehistoric or historic sites, structures and/or
artifacts that provide information on the ritual, spiritual, developmental and/or
organizational structure of a past civilization or group of inhabitants) include:
• The Antiquities Act of 1906 authorizes the President to establish, at his discretion,
national monuments on federally owned or controlled lands. The Secretaries of
the Interior, Agriculture and Defense are authorized to grant permits to institutions
for examination, excavation, and gathering of antiquities under their respective
jurisdiction. A criminal provision is established for unauthorized excavation,
collection, or destruction of any antiquity owned or controlled by the Government.
• Historic Preservation Act of 1966 sets up a national framework for historic

preservation, requiring the federal government to establish a nationwide system for
identifying, evaluating, protecting and rehabilitating “historic places.”
50Illinois State Historic Preservation Office, 1997, Protecting Illinois’ Cultural Resources, An Introduction to
Archaeological Surveys, Illinois State Historic Preservation Office.
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• Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act
• Archaeological Resource Protection Act.
In addition, check with local authorities in your area. For example, Illinois has several
other acts to protect cultural resources: the Illinois Archaeological and Paleontological
Resources Protection Act; the Human Skeletal Remains Protection Act; and the
Revised Illinois State Agency Historic Resources Preservation Act. As of 1990, the
State Agency Historic Resources Preservation Act requires the same for all private or
public undertakings.
Some examples of cultural resources are: historic buildings/districts, burial sites,

campsites, spiritual sites, churches/cemeteries, trails, tunnels, towers, bridges and
miscellaneous structures.
11.2.7 Phase I Environmental Assessment

The Phase I Environmental Assessment is an essential first step in determining
whether contamination exists on a property. It is important that a Phase I
environmental assessment is completed before proceeding with additional site
investigation activities.
A Phase I Environmental Assessment is a report that includes record reviews,

interviews and physical property inspections to identify areas of potential hazardous
substance contamination. The following is an example of details that may be included
in a Phase I environmental assessment:
1) Property overview: Property information, geographic features and potential

receptors/environmentally sensitive areas.
2) Property history: Site specific conditions (past and present): Products (for
example, abandoned drums of pesticides, etc.), waste inventory, waste disposal
processes and recycling or reuse, bulk storage tanks, chemical and waste
storage areas, disposal sites.
3) Regulatory history: Present activities of owner/operator, permits, inspections,

hazardous substance/hazardous chemical inventory and regulatory compliance
history.
4) Environmental investigations and cleanups: Environmental cleanups,

environmental assessments.
5) Physical reconnaissance: Investigators investigate by conducting interviews

and a field reconnaissance, and evaluating current and past site activities.
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6) Visual and physical inspection:
• Buildings interior and exterior,

• Facility grounds and areas of concern, which include:
o Rail spurs or sidings,
o Above or below ground pump stations,
o Sumps,
o Pits,
o Rail or truck loading/unloading docks or areas,
o Storage pads and areas including drum and waste storage,
o Dumpsters,
o Chemical storage cabinets or closets,
o Underground storage tanks and associated piping,
o Above ground storage tanks and associated piping,
o Silos,
o Transformers and capacitors (containing pcbs),
o Underground piping,
o Storm water retention ponds and fire protection water ponds,
o Air vents and ducts,
o Roof drains,
o Stained areas (pavement, soils, wall, etc.),
o Stressed vegetation,
o No vegetation,
o Drainage depressions,
o Pools of liquid,
o Areas of fill material,
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o Areas where chemicals were mixed and loaded,
o Areas where machinery was washed and tanks were rinsed,
o All disposal sites identified in site specific conditions,
o Hazardous substance release documentation on and off-site,
o Asbestos-containing materials,
o Lead based paints, and
o Hazardous materials.
7) Property maps.51
For more information go to:
http://www.epa.gov/
11.2.8 Hazardous Waste

The Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA), also known as “superfund,” has four
objectives. They are:
1) To provide the enforcement agency the authority to respond to the releases for
hazardous wastes (as defined in the Federal Water Pollution Control Act,
Clean Air Act, Toxic Substances Control Act, Solid Waste Disposal Act, and
by the administrator of the enforcement agency) from “inactive” hazardous
waste sites which endanger public health and the environment.
2) To establish a Hazardous Substance Superfund.
3) To establish regulations controlling inactive hazardous waste sites.
4) To provide liability for releases of hazardous wastes from such inactive sites.
CERCLA amends the Solid Waste Disposal Act. It is a response to the concern for
the dangers of negligent hazardous waste disposal practices. One provision authorizes
the EPA to act when there is a release or threat of release of a pollutant from a site,
51Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Undated, Phase I Environmental Assessment for Voluntary
Parties and Lenders, http://www.dnr.state.wi.us/org/aw/rr/cleanup/
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which may endanger public health. Such action may include “removal, remedy, and
remedial action.”
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) is an extension of

CERCLA, which provides for “emergency planning and preparedness, community
right-to-know reporting and toxic chemical release reporting.” There are key
provisions, which apply when a hazardous substance is handled, and when an actual
release has occurred. Even before any emergency has arisen, certain information must
be made available to state and local authorities and to the general public upon request.
Facility owners and operators are obligated to provide information pertaining to any
regulated substance present on the facility to the appropriate state or local authorities.
Three types of information are to be reported to the appropriate state and local
authorities:
1) Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS): They are prepared by the chemical
manufacturer of any hazardous chemical and are retained by the facility owner
or operator. These sheets contain general information on a hazardous
chemical and provide an initial notice to the state and local authorities.
2) Emergency and hazardous chemical inventory forms, which are submitted

annually to the state and local authorities.
3) Toxic chemical release reporting, which releases general information about

effluents and emissions of any “toxic chemicals.”
In the event that a release of a hazardous substance does occur, a facility owner or
operator must notify the authorities. This notification must identify the hazardous
chemical involved; amounts released; time, duration, and environmental fate; and
suggested action.
The Resource, Conservation, and Recovery Act require that generators, transporters,
treaters, storers and disposers of hazardous waste provide information to the state
environmental agencies. The state agencies then provide the information to regional
and national United States EPA offices.
Additional information can be found at:
http://epa.gov/enviro/html/hazard.html
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11.2.9 Brownfields
The United States Environmental Protection Agency has defined Brownfield sites as
“abandoned, idled or underused industrial and commercial facilities where expansion
or redevelopment is contaminated.”
The EPA established its Brownfield Economic Redevelopment Initiative to empower

states, communities, and other stakeholders in economic revitalization to work
together to accomplish the redevelopment of such sites. Many states and local
jurisdictions also help businesses and communities adapt environmental cleanup
programs to the special needs of Brownfield sites.
For more information contact:
Brownfields Technology Support Center hotline at:
1-877-838-7220
11.2.10 Asbestos
Asbestos is the name used to describe a group of natural mineral fibers that are known
for their strength and fire-resistant properties. Asbestos has been used in thermal
insulation and fire proofing for the construction industry, and in brake and clutch
linings for the automotive industry. Some asbestos fibers are so small, that a
microscope is necessary to see them. These small fibers can float or be suspended in
the air, and can be breathed deeply into the lungs, where they can become lodged.
Inhaling asbestos fibers increases the chances of developing lung cancer, mesothelioma
and asbestosis, which cause shortness of breath and coughing.
Areas with the possibility of containing asbestos, set for demolition and/or
construction, are regulated under the National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air
Pollutants (NESHAP). A qualified asbestos hygienist must survey the areas. Airborne
pollutants must be surveyed and reported to the EPA and/or local governing agency
fourteen days prior to the start of work when a permit is required. There are strict
standards for the removal of asbestos. The area must be monitored (pre and post
conditions). If asbestos is released, then there must be an explanation. A qualified
person must be hired to conduct the monitoring, which must be conducted according
to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) standards.
For contact information contact the Environmental Health and Safety Online at:
EHSO, Inc., Roswell Road, Atlanta, GA 30350
Telephone: 770-645-0788
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11.2.11 Air Quality

The Clean Air Act (CAA) of 1970 was established “to protect and enhance the quality
of the Nation’s air resources so as to promote public health and welfare and the
productive capacity of its population.” The major provisions of the act are intended to
set a goal for cleaner air by setting national primary and secondary ambient air quality
standards. These standards define levels of air quality necessary to protect public
health, while secondary standards define levels necessary to protect the public welfare
from any known or anticipated adverse effects of pollutants. Title I of the CAA
describes air pollution control requirements for geographic areas in the United States
which have failed to meet the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS).
These areas are known as nonattainment areas. Nonattainment areas are areas of the
country where air pollution levels persistently exceed the national ambient air quality
standards. Designated nonattainment pollutants are included below:
• Ozone
• Carbon Monoxide
• Nitrogen Dioxide
• Sulfur Dioxide
• Particulate Matter
• Lead
A designated nonattainment area may have some restrictions to bring the area back to
a designated attainment area (an area meeting the National Ambient Air Quality
Standards). Restrictions may include restricting the number of hours a certain piece of
equipment may be used, etc.
Air quality is well regulated and it differs from state to state. For example, in Illinois, a
greater than 1500 hp internal combustion engine is regulated, and in California, a
greater than 50 hp engine is regulated. Air quality regulations must be taken into
account when construction begins. For example, construction issues to keep in mind
are asbestos, lead, etc. In addition, any visible dust is a violation. Check with the local
authorities.
Details of the Clean Air Act can be viewed at:
http://www.epa.gov/region5/defs/heml/caa.htm
The EPA has regional offices responsible for selected states' execution of the Agency’s
programs. The following map illustrates states within specific EPA regions (for
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example EPA Region 10 includes the states of Idaho, Oregon, Washington and
Alaska).52
Additional information on locomotive exhaust emission standards is available

electronically from the EPA Internet server at:
http://www.epa.gov/oms/locomotv.htm
or contact the locomotive certification contact at:

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Mobile Sources (6403J)
401 M Street SW
Washington, DC 20460
(Taken from the EPA website: http://www.epa.gov/epahome/locate2.htm)
52U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2002, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, About EPA,
Regions, http://www.epa.gov/epahome/locate2.htm.
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Canada
Canadian requirements for environmental assessments were
established in 1973 at the cabinet level as the Environmental
Assessment and Review Process. The Federal
Environmental Assessment and Review Office oversees the
environmental assessment system. An independent panel
appointed by the Minister of the Environment conducts the review, and the public has
access to all panel information. In addition to the federal environmental assessment
process, each province has its own program, usually mandated with legislation.
Under the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act, federal departments and agencies
must undertake an environmental assessment before:53
• They carry out a project;

• Provide financial assistance to enable a project to be carried out;
• Sell, lease or otherwise transfer control or administration of land to enable a
project to be undertaken; or
• Issue an authorization to enable a project to go forward.
Depending on the nature of the project and the significance of possible environmental
effects, the type of assessment required will vary. Most projects are assessed relatively
quickly under what is known as a “screening” type assessment.
Larger projects, that have potential for greater environmental impacts, may require a
“comprehensive study.”
If environmental effects of a project are uncertain or potentially significant, or if public

concern warrants, a review by an independent Environmental Assessment (EA)
“review panel” or “mediator” may be required.
Important Canadian Federal Statutes on environmental protection include the

following:
• Canadian Environmental Protection Act

• Canadian Environmental Assessment Act
• Fisheries Act
• Species at Risk Act
53Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency, 2001, Environmental Assessments,

http://www.ceaa.gc.ca/0009/index e.htm.
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• Navigable Waters Protection Act

• Migratory Birds Convention Act
• Federal Policy on Wetlands Conservation
There are also other Federal legislations that require environmental impact assessments
for sensitive projects under certain conditions:
• Canadian Transportation Act

• Transportation of Dangerous Goods Act
• Canada Wildlife Act
• Canada National Parks Act
• Indian Act
• International River Improvement Act
• National Fire Code
Provincially regulated railways, such as most short lines, adhere to different provincial
legislations. Certain undertakings by federally regulated railways may also be subject to
provincial and municipal laws.
http://www.ceaa.gc.ca/0009/index_e.htm
or call or write:
The Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency

Communications Service
200 Sacre’-Coeur Boulevard
Hull, Quebec K1A 0H3
Telephone: 819-997-2891
Fax: 819-953-2891
E-mail: info@ceaa.gc.ca
11.3.1 Canadian Wetlands Environmental

Assessment Guidelines
Wetland protection is a shared responsibility between the federal, provincial and
territorial governments. As required in the CEAA, an environmental assessment must
address impacts in an integrated manner. In the case of an environmental assessment
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involving wetlands, the links between the wetland functions, their derived values, and
the components of the ecosystem must be considered holistically. Mitigation is
required for all impacts. You must be able to demonstrate that the hierarchical
sequence of mitigation alternatives has been followed (avoidance, minimization and as
a last resort, compensation).
When preparing an Environmental Assessment for projects affecting wetlands, include

the following information:
1) Context: The environmental assessment should be conducted in an ecosystem

context. Wetland functions and important ecosystem components must be
determined at the outset.
2) Specific information: The information required to conduct an environmental
assessment for wetlands will depend, in part, on the scale of the proposed
project or activity and on the projected degree of impact. The regional
environmental assessment practitioner of the Environmental Conservation
Service of Environment Canada can provide guidance on how to obtain the
specific information and how to carry out the environmental assessment. The
following information is generally required for a proposed project:
a. A complete project description including engineering details.
b. Geographic boundaries of the environmental effects of the proposed

project.
c. A description of potentially affected wetlands and impact area.
d. Maps or GIS systems that locate the impact areas.
e. Specific wetland functions must be addressed, which includes the

following:
i. Hydrological.
ii. Biological.
iii. Habitat.
iv. Ecological.
v. Social/cultural/commercial.
vi. Aesthetic/recreational.
vii. Education and public awareness.
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viii. General
3. Wetlands in managed forests: Additional information is required when a

wetland is located in a managed forest.
The Environmental Conservation Branch enforces the following regulations:
• Federal Wetlands Policy

• Canada Wildlife Act
• Migratory Birds Convention Act
• Game Export Act
• Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Regulation of International and
Interprovincial Trade Act
• International Rivers Improvement Act
• Canada Water Act
For more information contact:
Environmental Conservation Service of Environment Canada
Or
Canadian Wildlife Service

Environment Canada
Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0H3
Telephone: 819-997-1095
Fax: 819-997-2756
E-mail: cws-scf@ec.gc.ca
http://www.cws-scf.ec.gc/publications/eval/wetl/intro_e.cfm
11.3.2 Endangered Species

In Canada, provinces and territories have worked independently of and in cooperation
with the federal government to protect and recover endangered species. All
jurisdictions provide varying levels of protection to species at risk through bits and
pieces of wildlife legislation. Currently four of Canada’s provinces (Manitoba, Ontario,
Quebec and New Brunswick) have endangered species laws in place. Newfoundland,
Saskatchewan, Nova Scotia and the Northwest Territories are currently developing
legislation.
For further information contact:
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Endangered Species Conservation

Canadian Wildlife Service
Environment Canada
Telephone: 819-953-4389
11.3.3 Hazardous Waste

The Government of Canada regulates international movements of hazardous wastes,
while the provincial and territorial governments control generators, waste management
facilities and transportation within their jurisdictions. Canada already has strict
regulations on the trans-boundary movement and transportation of hazardous wastes
under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act. The provinces and territories also
have regulations that set out requirements for the operation of waste management
facilities.54
For more information on the Export and Import of Hazardous Wastes Regulations,
contact:
Hazardous Waste Division

Office of Waste Management
Environment Canada
12th Floor, 351 St. Joseph Blvd.
Ottawa, Ontario
K1A 0H3
Telephone: 819-997-3377
Fax: 819-953-0508
Alberta Division
Environment Canada
Twin Atria #2, Room 200
4999-98 Avenue
Edmonton, Alberta
T6B 2X3
Telephone: 780-951-8888
Fax: 780-495-2615
Saskatchewan Division
Environment Canada
Room 300, Park Plaza
2365 Albert Street
54Government of Canada, 2001, Hazardous Waste Management in Canada,

http://www.ec.gc.ca/Press/2001/010803 b e.htm.
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Regina, Saskatchewan
S4P 4K1
Telephone: 306-780-6464
Fax: 306-780-6466
Manitoba Division
Environment Canada
5th Floor Federal Building
269 Main Street
Winnipeg, Manitoba
R3C 1B2
Telephone: 204-983-4818
Fax: 204-983-0960
11.3.4 Air Quality

A negotiated memorandum of agreement between Transport Canada and the Railway
Association of Canada has been developed to set air quality standards. Canadian air
quality regulations are very similar to those of the United States. For example, any
visible dust (from a construction project) or emissions (from locomotives) is regulated.
Note: Air quality standards may differ between provinces, so check your local
regulations.
For more information visit the web at:
http://www.ec.ca/air/introduction_e.cfm

Mexico
The development of legislation, scientific resources, and
community interest in environmental assessments in Latin
America has come from external aid organizations, including
the United Nations Environment Programme and the Pan-
American Health Organization, which have sponsored
development projects.
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11.4.1 Regulations
The political constitution of the United Mexican States mandates preservation and
restoration of the environment through a General Law of Ecological Equilibrium and
Environmental Protection. The General Law of Mexico implements these
constitutional provisions and is composed of six titles:
• Title one:
The first title regulates the distribution of authority among federal, state
and local governments. It defines the authority of the federal agency
charged with the overall jurisdiction, which is currently the Secretariat of
Social Development – SEDESOL.
• Title two:
The second title regulates protected natural areas.
• Title three:
The third title regulates rational use of natural elements, including water
and aquatic ecosystems, land use and land resources.
• Title four:
The fourth title regulates environmental protection as it pertains to seven
general categories including air, water, soil, hazardous residues, and the
various government bodies authorized to enact norms and regulations.
The first category concerns air pollution and its control, and classifies
emission sources as either static or dynamic. The jurisdiction over these
issues is delegated to state and local governments. The second category
pertains to the prevention and control of water pollution with special
emphasis on aquatic ecosystems. The third category pertains to the
prevention and control of soil contamination and addresses solid and non-
hazardous waste from industrial and urban sources. It also mandates
fertilizers and toxic chemicals. The fourth category pertains to hazardous
waste, the method of identifying hazardous waste, and proposed programs
to reduce hazardous waste risks.
• Title five:
The fifth title provides for public participation in the formulation of
environmental policy.
• Title six:
The sixth title establishes measures for control and safety and
corresponding sanctions for violations. This title also regulates
inspections, monitoring procedures, administrative sanctions and
administrative appeal procedures, as well as federal environmental crimes
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and penalties. A whistle-blowing provision is included in this title, which

enables any person, who believes that a party is contaminating the
environment, may submit a claim to the Attorney General’s Office for the
Protection of the Environment. The Attorney General’s Office will
investigate the claim and determine whether the accused party is in fact
contaminating the environment. If it is determined that the party is
contaminating the environment, the Attorney General’s Office imposes
corresponding sanctions and requires clean up of the contamination.
The regulations to the General Law establish Environmental Impact Statement

requirements that must be fulfilled according to Articles 28 and 29 of the
Environmental Protection Law for the grant of authorization for projects subject to
approval. The goal of these regulations is to provide the Mexican government with the
authority to maintain control over private and public construction projects prior to
their commencement and to maintain control over any activities that have a potential
adverse impact on the environment.
Before an enterprise may begin its operations, it must submit notice of its proposed
operations to the environmental authority (SEDESOL).
Other regulations govern air pollution control, define the scope of federal jurisdiction,
and govern corresponding air pollution issues. These specific provisions of the
regulations include reporting requirements, as well as requirements to obtain an
operational license, which involves establishing an emissions inventory.
Additionally, there exists a regulation for the prevention and control of water pollution.
The Mexican government recently adopted the National Water Law. Its purpose is to
regulate federal waters, whether flowing or stationary, above ground or subterranean,
as well as to govern water rights issues.
11.4.2 Mexico Regulation for Hazardous Waste

The regulation for hazardous waste governs the environmental protection from
hazardous waste. This regulation requires facilities that generate hazardous waste to
register with SEDESOL and to describe the type of waste that will be generated. The
regulation addresses the transportation, storage, collection and disposal of hazardous
waste.
11.4.3 Ecological Technical Standards

SEDESOL (Secretariat of Social Development) is responsible for environmental
enforcement.
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There are rules adopted by SEDESOL, which establish the specifications, conditions,
procedures, and parameters that must be observed by the industry when conducting
activities that may be harmful to the environment. These standards establish
maximum permissible limits for air emissions from specific industrial processes and
minimum standards for building a controlled waste confinement facility.55
11.5 Wetland Case Study

A railway company wants to construct a maintenance building in the United States on
recently acquired land. The building will be constructed off the existing main track,
along a proposed siding. The railway’s environmental consultant inspects the acquired
land for possible wetland areas.
Drawing made courtesy of Bollinger, Lach & Associates, Inc.
The railway provides the environmentalist with preliminary engineering and site plans,
which illustrate the boundaries of the project. The environmental scientist conducts a
site visit and discovers two wetland areas are located within the limits of the proposed
activity. He flags the wetland boundaries and recommends they be surveyed. After the
survey is complete, the environmentalist reviews the survey to confirm wetland
boundaries. A wetland delineation report is completed and submitted to the railway’s
engineer. The wetland delineation report includes a narrative of what was found on-
site and their jurisdictional statuses. It also includes maps (National Wetland
55 Burguete-Stanek, L., 1994, Regulations to Protect the Environment in Mexico, The United States – Mexico
Law Journal, http://www.natlaw.com/pubs/usmxlaw/usmjnm18.htm.
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Inventory, Soils, Hydrologic Atlas and Topographical Map), on-site photos, an aerial
photo illustrating wetland limits and Routine Wetland Determination Data Forms
(using the 1987 COE Wetlands Delineation Manual). Construction can start in areas
outside wetland limits; however, a permit is required for wetland fills (for portions
where the siding and maintenance building are located in jurisdictional wetland areas).
Next, a jurisdictional determination letter is sent to the United States Army Corps of
Engineers (USACE). In the letter, the environmentalist states that wetland #1 is non-
jurisdictional because it is not hydrologically linked by overland flow to a navigable
waterway. However, wetland #2 is jurisdictional because it is linked by overland flow
to a navigable waterway (the River). The USACE responds by sending a letter to the
environmentalist and the railway company, stating a USACE permit is not required for
activities associated with wetland #1. However, the railway company will need a
permit for activities associated with wetland #2.
To partially fill wetland #2, for the construction of the maintenance building and the
siding track, this project will require nationwide permits No. 14 (for linear
transportation projects) and No. 39 (for residential, commercial and institutional
developments).
The environmentalist will submit all documents required for a USACE permit. He
asks the railway for the following items (which will be included in the permit
submittal):
a. Letter of authorization. (On the railway letterhead with one sentence in

the letter stating “The environmentalist is authorized to act as an agent for
the railway in regards to wetland permitting”)
b. Surveyed wetland boundaries overlaid on the site plan.
c. List of surrounding property owners.
After the environmentalist receives the above information from the engineer, he
prepares and submits the following to the USACE (and other local, state (including the
DNR) and federal appropriate agencies):
1) Cover letter stating intent.
2) Letter of Authorization.
3) Joint Permit Application.
4) Wetland delineation report (this includes supporting exhibits such as maps,
photos, USACE forms).
5) Surveyed wetland boundaries overlaid on site plan.
6) Proof of consultation with the United States Fish and Wildlife Service
regarding potential endangered and threatened species.
7) List of surrounding property owners.
The first response to come back is a letter from the Department of Natural Resources
(DNR) on Endangered and Threatened species. The DNR’s records indicate that
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there is a threatened plant species located in an upland area where the new siding track
is proposed to be constructed. The environmentalist did not see the plant species at
the time of his initial site visit because the plant was not in bloom and is otherwise
unidentifiable. The environmentalist proposes to meet the DNR on-site when the
plant is in bloom, and they will flag individual plants. While on-site, the two parties flag
the species with small pin flags. While on-site, they also discuss remedial action. The
environmentalist proposes to transplant the species to a preserve, willing to take them,
so they will not be impacted by the development. After the site visit, the
environmentalist writes a letter to the DNR, discussing the transplanting idea. In the
letter, the environmentalist recommends digging up individual plants and replanting
them at a local forest preserve with the help of volunteers. The idea is approved by the
DNR and the transplanting takes place. The DNR writes a letter stating the railway
company is in compliance and consultation is terminated.
The USACE responds to the submittal stating that since the development will impact
0.25 acre of wetland, mitigation will be required at a 1.5:1 ratio. Mitigation on-site will
also require a 5-year maintenance and monitoring program or the railway company can
purchase credits in a wetland mitigation bank. Paying into a bank is a cleaner and
quicker process, because once payment is made, the obligation is done. In this case,
wetland credits (within the same watershed) are selling for $125,000 per acre. Since the
company is impacting 0.25 acres, they must mitigate at a 1.5:1 ratio, therefore 0.375
acre of wetland credit must be purchased, multiplied by $125,000, which is $46,875.
This is summarized below:
0.25 (wetland impact acreage) x 1.5 (mitigation ratio) = 0.375 (mitigation acreage
required)
0.375 x $125,000 (cost per acre in mitigation bank) = $46,875 (cost to purchase
wetland credits to comply with permit)
After the payment is made to the proper agency, the company receives its permit and
construction can begin within the wetland area, according to the guidelines specified in
the permit.
Please note, this sample only covers wetland issues, any state or local permits must be
addressed as well.
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12
Chapter

EuropeanCurve
and Turnout
Mechanics
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European Curve and Turnout Practices
Miodrag Budisa
(P.E Railroad Engineer – Germany)
(P.E Railroad Engineer – Yugoslavia)
Consoer Townsend Envirodyne Engineers

Chicago, IL
Miodrag.budisa@cte-eng.com
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12
Chapter
C H A P T E R 1 2 – E U R O P E A N C U R V E A N D
T U R N O U T M E C H A N I C S
European Curve and

Turnout Mechanics
Railroading is railroading, although the methods that we use to get
to the end product may vary significantly. An in-depth
understanding of the geometrical relationships that are common to
all railway configurations is essential, whether designing, building
or maintaining a high-speed passenger line or a 40 mph drag coal
line.
12.1 Introduction
T he purpose of this chapter is to examine mathematically some key components

of the track structure, curves and turnouts, but from a European perspective.
The European railway, in many ways, is significantly different than the typical
railway of North America. High-speed rail plays a very significant role in not only
Western Europe, but also in Eastern Europe as well. In Europe, curves are built broad
and long, favoring high-speed operations. The approach in North America is entirely
different. Privatized North American railways were built to keep construction costs
down and to bridge great distances as quickly as possible. This translates into sharp
curvature and heavy grades, even for heavy haul activities. The need to move bulk
commodities over great distances favored the loading and design approach used by
North American railways. The excellent road system developed over the vast majority
of the populated segments of North America has relegated the majority of passenger
rail travel to a limited few heavily populated corridors. In Europe, the exorbitant cost
of fuel, a very high population density within countries the size of states or provinces,
along with a nationalized system of railways, has necessitated and enabled the
development of an extensive passenger rail based system.
Naturally, the European and North American rail networks evolved in two very
different directions. The one system is based solely on the reliable movement of heavy
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C H A P T E R 1 2 – E U R O P E A N C U R V E A N D T U R N O U T
M E C H A N I C S
tonnage at the lowest cost. The other on pure speed. Vehicle and truck/suspension
development also took diverging paths between the two continents. European trucks
are set much further in than their North American counterparts. Truck (bogey)
suspensions handle track anomalies much differently in Europe. Europeans do not
stagger joints as is done in North America. Rock-off is unheard of in jointed territory.
On the other hand, vehicle bounce can be accentuated.
Today though, the North American engineer may need to take a new look at how our
counterparts "across the pond" have surmounted the problems of dealing with
operating at high speeds within existing alignments. North American railways are
looking for ways to operate faster at lower costs. European tangential turnouts have
been successfully installed in a number of heavy-haul territories. There is renewed
interest in high-speed inter-city passenger trains with a number of feasibility studies
underway. A new 110-mph Amtrak/IDOT service between Chicago and Springfield,
Illinois will soon initiate service.
This chapter does not pretend to cover all the significant design approaches used by
European railways in the handling of curvature and turnouts, particularly at high speed.
Nor does it present itself as being totally inclusive of European practices. There is
wide variance between systems in Western and Eastern Europe. But the reader
hopefully will get an appreciation of why Europeans have taken the approach they
have to these two topics. In addition, the commonality will also be apparent and
hopefully, the reader will secure a better appreciation of why we in North America
have developed the standards that we have.
12.2 Curves
12.2.1 Curve Definition
Prior to discussing curve engineering, one must have a common method of defining a
curve. There are two ways of describing curvature in common practice. In North
America, a railway curve is described by the angle in degrees subtended by two radii,
whose end points on the curve form a chord of 100 feet in length. In other parts of
the railway world, the length of the radius described above, measured in meters,
describes the curve.
The circumference of a complete circle is 2 ⋅ R ⋅ Π . Since the full body of a curve is

theoretically circular in construction, each degree of curvature will describe 100 feet of
chord (at relatively small degrees of curvature, the arc distance is approximately equal
to the chord distance). Thus, the circumference for such a circle made up of 100 foot
chords, each describing 1° of curvature, would for practical purposes, be 3600 feet and
the radius would be:
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M E C H A N I C S
36000 36000
R= = = 5730 feet
2Π 2 ⋅ 3.14
Thus, a 1-degree curve has radius of 5,730 feet. (Divide 5,730 by the degree of the
curve to get the radius in feet.) Converting 5,730 feet into meters, we find the same 1°
curve has a radius of 1746m.
In North America, one says, e.g., 10-degree curve. Outside of North America, one
would say, e.g., 174.6m radius to describe the same curve.
12.2.2 Gage
Obviously, excellent gage is a requirement for high-speed track, especially in curves. In
Europe, the distance between the two rails is also called the flangeway.
As in North America, the gage (flangeway) between the rails is measured on the gage
face at right angle to the axis of the rail. Whereas in North America, gage is measured
5/8" below the top of the rail regardless of rail section; in Europe, the distance
measured down is dependent on the particular rail section in use, a distance of 10 – 15
mm below the top of rail. The specific distance down is associated with the point on
the gage face where the radii begin. This is the controlling point, which emphasizes the
conicity of the
wheel/rail interface
as the wheel
progresses around
the curve.
Allowable gage
variance in Europe is
determined not on
the basis of the
speed operated (as is
done in the United
States and Canada -
under the FRA
213.53 Gage
requirements), but
simply on an Figure 12-1 Wheel and Rail Interface – Courtesy of Miodrag Budisa
allowable deviation
in tolerance for all
speeds.
Determination of the tolerance limits is derived directly from the wheel dimensions
and permissible wear rates that have been established. The standard gage width is
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1435mm. For curves where the radius R ≥ 250m, the Office for Research and
Experiments – International Union of Railways (ORE UIC) has determined that the
flangeway for a speed of V=100km/h (62 MPH) should be 1432mm because it causes
a decrease in the truck hunting of the vehicle and wheel angle of the attack.
In Europe, wheels are condemned when the flange angle is worn down to 14° versus
the new wheel flange angle of 25°. (See Figure 12-1) Per Figure 12-1, when the flange
and the rail are new, the overall gage width is 1426mm. Thirteen hundred and sixty
millimeters is the inside to inside wheel mounting dimension and the flange thickness
for each wheel is 32.5mm; thus E, the gage, is:
E = 1360 mm + 2[32.5 mm] = 1425mm (56.102”)
On the French SNCF railway, the gage is within this value:
E = 1432 +−52 mm
and if the maximum tolerance is to be considered, this will permit a total gage width of:
E = 1435 + 3 = 1438mm (56.614”),

which allows the possibility of a lateral movement of the wheel of:
1438 – 1425/2 = 6.5mm (0.255”)
This translates to a permissible lateral wheel movement from center of slightly more
than 1/4".
Obviously, as wheel flange wear increases, so does truck hunting. On the SCNF
system, wheels are replaced when the flange wear exceeds 9.5mm. Rail is replaced
when the gage wear exceeds 9mm. On the German DB system, wheels are replaced
when the flange wear exceeds 8mm (approximately 5/16”).
With these tolerances, it is possible to get a maximum lateral wheel movement of
16.25mm (approximately 5/8”) under the most extreme conditions. For both wheels,
total lateral movement is:
6.5 + 16 + 10 = 32.5mm (approximately 1-1/4”) total
Note: The FRA 213 Regulations permit a maximum deviation in gage of 1” for
passenger equipment operating at Class 5 (up to 90 mph). This does not consider
additional movement due to wheel wear.
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12.2.3 Elevation in Curves

In Chapters 6 and 8, we learned that the centrifugal force experienced by a body
operating around a curve is defined by:
C = V2/R,
Where V = Speed of the body
R = Radius of the curve
V = Speed km/Hr.
v = the speed traversed in 1 second

(meters/sec)
or 1000 meters/60min x 60 sec/min
C = v2/3.62 R
Sin α = h/s
Where h = amount of cant

(superelevation) and
s = gage Figure 12-2 Centrifugal Force – JZ (Yugoslavian) Superstructure

Regulations
a = (C –g tan α) cos α
a = (v2/13R –g tan α) cos α
Where a = Uncompensated Car Body Acceleration, g = gravitational constant = 9.81

m/sec2 and α = angle between the tilting car and the plane across the top of the rails.
See Figure 12-2.
For very small angles, tan α is approximately sin α and cos α = 1. Thus:
 v 2  h  v2 h
a =   − g  ⋅ 1 = − 9.81
 13R  s  13R s
m feet
a max = 0.65 2
≈ 2.13 2
s s
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v2
a=
equilibrium appears as a= 0. The resultant: R and
v 2 s 11.8 ⋅ V 2
hequilibrium = ⋅ =
R g R
At hequilibrium, the effects of centrifugal force are nullified when the vehicle is traveling at
equilibrium speed. The formula above, of course, is derived for metric units, but is
obviously determined in the same manner with the English units used in North
America.
12.2.4 Elevation Transition

The transition from a segment of track with no crosslevel to another segment with full
cant (superelevation) is performed with the help of the transition ramp. The
superelevation at the beginning of the ramp is h = 0, but at the ending point it has the
full value of the full body of the curve. Transition ramps for the increase in elevation,
for high-speed purposes, are more important than the transition horizontal alignment
curve (spiral) running from tangent track to the full body of the curve. They directly
affect the safety and comfort of the ride. Most European railway companies (like
North American railways) make the superelevation possible by raising the elevation of
the outer rail in the curve, while the inner rail stays at its original position and height, as
shown in Figure 12-3. In some rare cases, the superelevation is attained in the manner
as shown in Figure 12-4. In these situations, the outer track is raised half of the desired
superelevation amount while the inner rail is lowered. This method was used in the
construction of the Japanese Tokaido Railway and also in the Swiss railway network
where the extensive costs associated with increasing overhead clearance in tunnels
justifies the cost of doing such.
Figure 12-3 – Courtesy of Miodrag Budisa Figure 12-4 – Courtesy of Miodrag Budisa
The same procedure is applied for superelevation in reverse curves without the tangent
segment between the curves. The type of coupling system used in Europe will permit
the degree of rotation that coupled cars would undergo in this situation. The advantage
of this type of ramp is the fact that the gravity of the vehicle stays in the central axis of
the track; thus allowing the passengers a smooth transition into the following curve.
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The reason why this type of ramp is not used often is because it is very hard to
maintain.
The vertical ramp can be linear (as in North

America), curved or sinusoidal.
In the case of linear ramps, the superelevation

increase is directly proportional to its location
along the ramp as shown in Figure 12.5. Figure 12-5 – Courtesy of Miodrag Budisa
The slope of the linear ramp equals:
h
1: n =
1000 ⋅ l (length)
Therefore, the length of the transition curve must be:
n
l= ⋅h
1000
The length and slope of the transition ramp for the superelevation must provide for
the required stability of the train on the ramp. The ramp characteristics must:
• Permit adequate stability so that the train does not derail.
• Remain within an acceptable range for rate of elevation increase and.
• Remain within acceptable limits for applied lateral shock (jerk).
The slope of the ramp is dependent on the projected speed to be operated. Steep
ramps are not allowed because of the danger of the wheel flange climbing the rail and
causing the vehicle to de-rail. Within Europe, the limit for the rate of inclination in
slope is around 1:400 (read 1-meter rise in 400-meter run).
The correct value of the ramp slope “n” is calculated by considering the minimum
wheel flange height being 25mm (1”) and the truck spacing being 10m. (Note: In Europe,
the bogies (trucks) are set much further in from the end of the car than in North America.) For the
wheel not to climb the rail, the maximum permissible slope of the ramp would be:
25 1
n= =
10000 400
In order to prevent the vehicle from rolling over when traversing the ramp, the rate of
elevation increase should be within the given formula:
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dh
v= = n ⋅V
dt
The maximum permissible rate of elevation increase will vary with different railway
companies. The SNCF network permits up to 70mm/sec on the DB (Deutche Bahn)
network up to 35mm/sec and on the JNR (Japanese National Railroad) up to
42mm/sec.
According to Prof. A. Prud’homme, a rate of elevation increase of 100mm/sec. is

theoretically possible for high-speed trains, but is not the practice of the European
railways.56
If the rate of elevation increase on the ramp is 28mm/sec, we can get the horizontal
component length of the ramp by:
l = 10 ⋅ V ⋅ h
The value determined is generally rounded to the nearest 5m or so.
For heavy curvature or gradients, the permissible rate of elevation of increase is

increased to 35mm/sec. or:
l = 8 ⋅V ⋅ h
For high-speed rides, Deutche-Bahn AG recommends:
l = 12 ⋅ V ⋅ h
Shock (Jerk)
In Europe, a parameter called shock (jerk) is utilized to determine the configuration of

the ramp. The magnitude of the vertical jerk is defined as a change in the vertical
acceleration within a given time span:
da  m 
Ψ=  
dt  s 3 
The maximum jerk value is set at by experience at:
Ψ = 1 .0 m
s3
and the common range of values of the jerk is:
56 Professor A. Prud’homme, “General Revue for French Railroad,” November 1976, Paris, France.
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Ψ = 0 .3 − 0 .5 m
s3
The curved ramp is the second type of ramp configuration used in Europe to
transition in superelevation and is shown in Figure 12.7.
The slope of this ramp varies along the

curve and the greatest slope is located in the
middle of the ramp, at point S in Figure
12.6. It follows:
2h
1 : ns = Figure 12-6 JZ (Yugoslavian) Superstructure Regulations
1000 ⋅ l
The curved ramp (spiral) is longer than the linear ramp and thus, it is more suitable for
higher speeds. The curved ramp is used for speeds up to V=180 km/h (112 mph) and
its length is defined by:
Lcurve = 1.41 ⋅ Lstraight
where Lstraight is the length of the associated linear ramp (i.e., about 41% longer)
The greater the rate in acceleration change, the longer the required ramp must be. In
the sinusoidal ramps (utilized in the Tokaido Railroad), the length of ramp is calculated
by:
Lsin = 1.60 ⋅ Lstraight
In the case of the curved ramps, the resultant curve and the slope increase in the form
of two squared parabolas touching, but whose slope constantly changes.
In the case of sinusoidal ramp, the largest curve is at the beginning and at the end of
the ramp, while the vertical velocity is continual.
Sinusoidal Ramp
Sinusoidal ramps are longer in length than the other forms of transition ramps and
allow higher speeds. For
V ≤ 180km / h
max .n s = 4V and n s = 400
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2 ⋅ ns h
l=
according to the equation: 1000
we can get the shortest length of the curved ramp.
8 ⋅V ⋅ h
min .l =
1000 and min .l = 0.8 ⋅ h
V2
l =8
If we insert the value of superelevation R
V2
8V ⋅ 8
l= R
we get: 1000
0.064V 3
l=
R for V > 100km / h (62 mph)
V 2 6.4 ⋅ V 2
l = 0.8 ⋅ 8 =
R R for V ≤ 100km / h
If we use the minimum value for the superelevation in the upper equation
V2
hmin = 11.8 − 100
R
we get the shortest length of the curved ramp.
0.0944 ⋅ V 3
− 0.8 ⋅ V
R for V > 100km / h
l min =
9.44 ⋅ V 2
− 80
R for V < 100km / h
The higher value is the value chosen.
In Europe, the minimum length of curved track on which superelevation is imposed is:
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G = V/2 ≥ 30m (98.4 feet)
which is again based on the wider truck spacing utilized.
In a compound curve, each individual curve making up the complete compound curve,
has a different radius and different superelevations h1 and h2. The transition ramp will
be made on the length of the transition (spiral) curve between the circular curve
components, where:
l = n(h2 − h1 )
When there is no transitional curve between the two circular curves, the transitional
ramp will be made in the curve with a longer radius, as shown below in Figure 12-7.
Figure 12-8 JZ (Yugoslavian) Superstructure Regulations
The crosslevel of the two intersecting ramps in

a sinusoidal ramp must be equal for the both
ramps. See Figure 12-8.
12.2.5 Track Warp

The change of crosslevel over the given length
of the transitional ramp or the transitional
curve is defined as track warp. The formula is:
dh  mm 
warp =   Figure 12-9 Track Warp – JZ (Yugoslavian)
∆l  m  Superstructure Regulations
When the car truck (bogie) moves over the
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transition ramp, all points of contact are not positioned in the same plane, so the
applied loads are not equally loaded on all four wheels (See Figure 12-9).
Therefore, the slope of the ramp (mm/m) should be as low as possible and within the
allowed limits. This becomes more critical with a speed increase.
Excessive warp, combined with speed, has a significant influence on the dynamic track
stability of the railway and reduces the level of safety provided.
On the railway Paris-Lion the warp is limited to a 0.6 mm/m.
12.2.6 Horizontal Transition Curves

Where a circular curve joins directly onto a piece of straight track, there is, at the
tangent point, the condition that at one moment no superelevation is wanted and that
the next the full super elevation appropriate to the curve is required.
If the alignment is to remain unaltered, one of the following conditions must exist:
a. Run the superelevation gradually off
onto the tangent so as to ensure the full
superelevation through the body of the
curve;
b. Begin increasing the elevation at the PC
and attain full superelevation out in the
body of the curve; or
c. Attain and run out the superelevation
partly on the tangent and partly in the
curve body.
These alternatives are all bad both in theory

and practice. (See Figure 12-10)
Figure 12-10 - Courtesy of Miodrag Budisa
In case “a,” the weight of the train gradually becomes shifted to the inside rail while still
on the tangent track, and then is suddenly thrown back to where the superelevation is
at the maximum (the beginning of the curve). The sudden shock produced translates
directly as a rolling action to the locomotive car body and cars, thereby creating track
anomalies.
In case “b” the centrifugal forces are unbalanced at the entrance to the curve and the
leading outside wheels of the vehicles have to bear the brunt of the impact. Even if the
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wheel flange did not climb up on the ball of the rail, there would be excessive gage
wear, and not to mention uncomfortable traveling until the proper amount of
superelevation was reached.
In case “c,” there is a combination of the above faults with the same shock at the
tangent point and conditions conducive to rolling, excessive wear and discomfort.
The one method of getting over these serious difficulties is to insert a horizontal
transition between the tangent and the circular cure. The radius of the transition curve
at the full body of the curve is the radius of the full body curve. At the other end of
the circular unit (point of tangency), the radius becomes infinitely great. This also has
the effect of gradually increasing the curvature to the full amount of the curve, instead
of the sudden application of full curvature.
In this type of horizontal curve, the offsets from the tangent at any point on the
tangent, increase in proportion to the cube of their distance from the point of origin.
Such a parabola plotted with

ten offsets is shown in Figure
12-11.
For convenience, the offset at

the end has been divided into
1000, and where this offset is
fixed in value, the method of
obtaining the offset at any point
is by proportion:
Offset at 5 =
4 ⋅ 125 1
= = 0 .5 m
1000 2 Figure 12-11 German Superstructure Regulations
Similarly, the radius of the curve at

Sta. 4 is half the radius of the curve at
Sta. 2. At Sta. 6, it is one-third of the
radius at Sta. 2, and so on. A
transition curve, such as this, cannot
be inserted between an existing
tangent track and an existing circular
curve without shifting inward the
circular curve to a position parallel to
its original alignment.
Figure 12-12 German Superstructure Regulations
In Europe, this arrangement is commonly
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known as the “platelayer transition” (North American cubic parabola spiral) and it will
be seen from Figure 12-12 that the easing of the curve inward has led to an overall
increase of curvature in the circular curve.
Using basic spiral theory, the proper

arrangement of a transition curve is
shown in Figure 12-13. The
original circular curve TC is
tangential to TZ. The curve is
shifted to ZY, and TZ is the
amount of the “shift”. The
transition curve ANY bisects the
“shift” TZ at N.
The total length of the transition curve (measured along the tangent) is AB, and AT is
equal to TB.
It is important to remember that any transition is better than none.
12.2.7 Theory of the Transitional Curves

The sudden change of movement occurs when the vehicle enters the curve. That is, a
lateral velocity change occurs. The flange of the outside wheel strikes the outside gage
corner of the rail because of the centrifugal force applied. This causes a tilting of the
vehicle to the high side. In order to eliminate these undesirable movements, the
transitional curves are implemented between the location where R = ∞ and the
centrifugal force is c = 0 and the location in the curve for which those parameters
have certain (given) values. Transitional curves can then provide a smooth change of
movement and direction.
The transitional curve has to fulfill certain requirements:
a) The increase in superelevation should be linear. That is, the radius, which changes
from ρ = ∞ to ρ = R at the point of full body of the circular curve, must match
the required superelevation at every point of the transitional curve. The car body
tilt progresses linearly with movement through the transition curve.
b) The superelevation at each point should match its calculated amount.
l l
c) The curve should be continual from = 0 to = Z , respectively transitioning
R R
m ⋅V 2
from tangent with ρ = ∞ and c=0 to circular curve with ρ = R and c = .
R
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The cubic parabola, the fixed cubic parabola and “clothoidal” are suitable for these
conditions.
The simple cubic parabola has been

discussed in this Manual in Chapters 3 and
6.
The fixed parabola has been used in

Europe for transitional curves in lengths
up to:
L = 4 0.64 ⋅ R 3
The cubic parabola is shown in Figure 12-

14.
For transitions that are longer in size, the

Hefer Cubic Parabola is used in Europe.
The equation is: Figure 12-14 – Courtesy of Miodrag Budisa
3
  l 2 
1 +   
  2 R  
y= ⋅ x3
6⋅ R⋅l
This formula gives better values, but its accuracy is not 100%.
The Clothoidal transition curve has been used for high speeds because all necessary
requirements are met.
In the Clothoidal, the transition and circular curves have a joint tangent at the end of
the transitional curve/point of the circular curve.
The Clothoidal equation is:
R ⋅ L = const. and
R ⋅ L = A 2 where A is a Clothoidal parameter.
The Quadric parabola is used for a higher speed with a curved transitional ramp. See
Figure 12-15.
The Sinusoidal transitional curve is shown in Figure 12-16.
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Figure 12-15 - Courtesy of University of Sarajevo Figure 12-16 – Courtesy of University of Sarajevo
Figure 12-17 shows lateral shock (jerk)

m
change Ψ  3  in transitional curves,
s 
such as:
a) Cubic Parabola
b) Quadric Parabola
c) Sinusoidal Curve
Figure 12-17 – Courtesy of University of Sarajevo
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The lateral shock (jerk) is defined as a change of velocity in the given time:
da da
Ψ= =V ⋅
dt dl
12.3 Gradient Change

Consideration is given to variations in design level for run-off, vertical curves and
change in gradient, specifically the deviation from these parameters.
Vertical curve is provided when the change in two neighboring gradients is larger than
2‰ (promils). The radius ρ of such a curve is calculated by the equation:
V2
ρ=
2
and in extreme situations, it is permissible to use:
V2
ρ=
4
The minimum acceptable radius of curvature for a vertical curve in Europe is provided
by ρ = 2000m (6,567 feet).
In Europe, vertical grade changes cannot be located within turnouts and crossings,
transition run-offs, spiral curves and on open deck bridges. The beginning and ending
of the vertical curve must not be located closer than 5m from the above objects.
The tangent length of the vertical curve is given by:
ρ i1 ± i2
T = ⋅
2 1000
where ι1 and ι2 are measured in "promil," which is equivalent to a rise of 1m/1000m of

run.
A + sign is used whenever the track grade is ascending and a – sign is used when the
grade is descending.
The tangent distance T for the vertical curve produced from a descending grade
running into level track is given by the equation:
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ρ i
T = ⋅
2 1000
Ordinates of the vertical curve are given by:
x2
y= as shown on Figure 12-18.
2ρ
Figure 12-18 – Courtesy of Miodrag Budisa
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12.4 Turnouts and Turnout Design

Turnouts commonly used throughout Europe include the following:
Lateral - Provide connection of two tracks (See Figure 12-19)
Single
Complex
Three-way
Three-way Curved
Double turnouts – Provide connection for three tracks (See Figure 12-20)
Slip turnouts – Single and double slip turnouts for track crossings under different
angles. (See Figure 12-21)
Lateral Turnouts
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Double Turnouts
Slip Turnouts
Lateral single turnouts provide divergence from the main straight track to a sidetrack.
Lateral turnouts can be right or left, depending on the diverging direction. Frogs can
be the typical straight flangeway for both straight and diverging moves or may have the
diverging flangeway curved. Some frogs actually carry the closure rail curvature all the
way through the frog. These curved frogs are typically used in light rail situations.
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Some single turnouts with curved points have a curve between P.S. and P.F. with a
reverse direction for the diverging track. In this case, a movable point frog may be
used in order to reduce required ROW for connection to multiple tracks, such as
where parallel tracks are located on a ladder. The advantage of this is a bigger angle
between the ladder and the main track.
For situations where the turnout is located within the curve, the P.S. and frog have a
special design. The flangeway of the frog in the main track direction is in a curve. The
diverging track curves can be concave or convex to the main track.
Double turnouts are designed to connect two tracks laying on one or two sides. The
advantage of using double turnouts in stations and yards is that it significantly reduces
the length of the interlocking.
12.4.1 Measuring the Frog Angle

If at x feet from the gage line intersection, a spread of y feet is found, the unit angle is
x
.
y
x
If = N , - the angle is 1-in-N.
y
There are 3 methods of measuring the frog

angle, which are known as:
1. The centerline measure.
2. The right angle measure.
3. The isosceles measure.
Figure 12-22 shows the measurement

principles.
The unit angle of any frog measured by Figure 12-22 - Courtesy of Miodrag Budisa
the three methods is not the same. Thus,
a frog with a unit angle, which by the central line method is 1 in 8, is a unit angle of 1 in
7.969 by the right angle method, and 1 in 8.016 by the isosceles method. In Europe
(like North America), the centerline measure is the most common method used to
measure the frog angle.
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12.4.2 Turnout Calculations

Conventional European turnout calculations are based on a geometric projection of
the length and the relative direction at the points where the connections are made.
This method assumes that kinematic forces rather than dynamic forces determine
vehicle response.57 To determine the essential equations, one uses one of the
projection methods.
The open polygon method option is shown on Figure 12-23 and the closed polygon
method is shown on Figure 12-24. Elements of the turnout are projected on a
convenient coordinate system. From the geometric length relations, the equation can
be written as:
The equation representing the open polygon of Figure 12-23 is:
A ′E ′ = a ⋅ cos α + b ⋅ cos β + c ⋅ cos γ − d ⋅ cos δ
Figure 12-23 – Courtesy of University of Zagreb Figure 12-24 – Courtesy of University of Zagreb
The equations representing the closed polygon in Figure 12-24 are:
a ⋅ cos α − b ⋅ cos β − c ⋅ cos γ = 0

a ⋅ sin α + b ⋅ sin β − c ⋅ sin γ = 0
On the European Railway network, the tangent of an angle rounded off to the nearest
degree expresses the diverging angle.
57Mejgyeri, J., Geometric Movement in Turnout Development, Austrian Railway Archive Volume 40, Pages
59–65, 1985.
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For example:
(
1 : n = 1 : 10 ∴ α = 50 42'38" or)
(
1 : n = 1 : 14 ∴ α = 4005'08" )
The maximum permissible lateral acceleration is 0.8m/sec2. Thus, one could develop a
curve in the closure rail with a radius that, for a desired diverging speed, generated a
lateral acceleration of a = V2/R, not exceeding 0.8m/sec2. This curve would be
independent of the frog number utilized. In effect, Europeans will utilize a variety of
turnout closure rail curves with the same movable point frog in order to secure
different diverging speeds. The resultant turnout, obviously lengthens significantly as
the radius of the curve grows. This is in direct opposition to the turnout practices of
North American railways, that utilize one given closure rail curve for a given turnout
number.
The effective radius is performed by calculating the offset at the switch heel, based on a
chord (12.2m or 40’) centered about the switch heel. The calculated offset will provide
the effective radius ( R ) at the switch heel by using:
C2
R=
8 ⋅V
On the JZ (Jugoslavian Railroad), the chord length of 12.2m is the shortest distance
between wheel set centers (truck centers currently in service).
Thus, for example, in high-speed operations, the diverging angle can be:
α = 2°29'22"∴ (tan α = 1 : 23.5)
and the permissible diverging radius is R=1390m (4,560 ft.). This permits a diverging
speed of 80 km/h in 120 km/H territory.
For 100km/h in a diverging route, we need a curve with a radius of 1500m.
As determined by the following equation:
Vmax = 2.91 R1/2
This radius is coupled with a tan α = 1:18.5 or diverging angle α = 3º05’38.4”.

For Turnout Model EW (1:40.154) (DB Railroad), α=1º12’ 7.5” (tan α=1:40.154)
with a radius of 6100m (20,013 ft), which allows a diverging speed of 200 km/h.
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Recognize that although the lateral acceleration component will safely permit diverging
speeds of this magnitude, European railways operate at slower diverging speeds
because of maintenance issues.
Switch Blade (Point) Calculation
For a straight switch blade, the

diverging switch angle is
composed of two angles η and
δ . For a standard straight switch
point angle η = angle δ ,
δ is the angle at the heel of the
switch blade. The clearance at the
heel of switch between the gage Figure 12-25 JZ (Yugoslavian) Superstructure Regulations
side of stock rail and the field side
of the point is approximately 58 mm, and e = e0 + g where
e0 = width of the heel spread,
g = width of the rail head.
e
Equation: sin η = sin δ = ,
p
where p= blade length. See
Figure 12-26.
For a curved switch blade, the

amount of theoretical overlapping
of the blade, where if it were
extended past the point of switch,
would be in the range of u=7-
20 mm, where u equals the
amount of theoretical switch
blade overlapping. (See Figure 12-27) Figure 12-26 JZ (Yugoslavian) Superstructure Regulations
γ
p = SK = Rπ ⋅
1800
where SK is the arc formed.
p 1800
γ = ⋅
R π
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 γ
e = t sin η + 
 2
γ
t = SK = 2 R sin
2
u = R(1 − cosη )
Angle η can be a maximum of: η = 1 0 30 '
Angle δ = η + γ
And if angle η is known, we can calculate “e”.
Figure 12-27 Wheel Movement Through a Conventional Turnout – Courtesy of Weichenwork Brandenburg GmbH
12.4.3 Clothoidal Turnout

For high-speed passenger operations, Europeans utilize the Clothoidal turnout with an
allowable diverging speed up to 230 km/h (143mph). This type of turnout minimizes
lateral acceleration and jerk at key turnout locations. This compliments car body
features such as automatic tilting to maximize speeds through the curve. The following
figures illustrate the use of this type of turnout.
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Figure 12-28 Berlin – Halle (Leipzig Line), 300km/H (200km/H diverging) - Courtesy of Weichenwork Brandenburg GmbH
The frog number for this turnout is a #40.154, which corresponds to an angle of
1° 12’ 7.5”. Note the magnitude of the lateral acceleration as one moves through the
turnout. Similarly, note the locations of greatest jerk. The sinusoidal curvature of the
blade (points) minimizes the impact felt at the point of switch as compared to the very
large impact felt in conventional North American turnouts. Figure 12-29 illustrates the
chlotoidal switch point. Figures 12-30, 12-31 and 12-32 show the blade (point) shape
along the switch point.
Kinematic Gauge Optimization is an advanced method to further reduce lateral forces

when a rail car enters a turnout. This design takes advantage of the use of the rolling
radius difference between the two wheels mounted on an axle when the truck enters a
turnout by bending a specially designed stock rail outward. This increases the rolling
radius difference and guides the axle movement in the desired direction.
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Figure 12- 29 – Courtesy of JEZ Sistemas Ferroviorios, Renfe, Spain
Courtesy of JEZ Sistemas Ferroviorios, Renfe
Figure 12-30 Section AA Figure 12-31 Section BB Figure 12-32 Section CC
Figure 12-33 illustrates the action of the wheel as it moves through the clothoidal
switch.
Figure 12-33 Movement Through the Clothoidal Switch - Courtesy of Weichenwork Brandenburg GmbH
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12.5 Speed Raising Improvements

There are several alternatives if one desires to increase the speed on an existing railway,
for example, with the improvement of transition ramps and transition (spiral) curves.
In Method 1, one might increase superelevation through the curve and lengthen the
transition ramp (spiral). The minimum superelevation required is derived from the
following formula:
V2
min. h = 11.8 ⋅ − 100
R
Using the value for the highest allowed superelevation
m inches
h = 150mm and a lateral acceleration of: a = 0.65 2
∴ 25.59
s s2
Solving for V yields the highest speed permissible for the given curve with a radius R:
V = 4.6 R
For a curve of the radius R = 800m,

the maximum permissible speed is:
V = 4.6 800 = 130 km (81mph)

h
See Figure 12-34. Note the

similarity with the Vmax equation Figure 12-34 JZ (Yugoslavian) Superstructure Regulations
used in North America for
maximum permissible speed operated over a given curve.
The length of the linear ramp (spiral) is:
0.08V 3 0.08 ⋅ 130 3

l= = = 220m (715 feet)
R 800
and the curve is shifted for:
l2 220 2
f = = = 2.51m (8’ 1-3/4”)
24 R 24 ⋅ 800
In Method 2, if we used the curved transitional ramp (described earlier):
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The length of the curving ramp would be:
0.064V 3 0.064 ⋅ 130 3

l= = = 176m (572 feet)
R 800
and the curve is shifted for:
l2 176 2
f = = = 0.81m (2’ 7-1/2”),
48R 48 ⋅ 800
which is 1.70 m (5’ 7”) less than with the straight ramp. If the transition curve is 30m
(98.4 feet), the required offset shift of the curve from the tangent would be:
= 302/24 x 800) = 0.046m (1-7/8”)
So it is necessary to move the curve with the curved ramp by:
81 – 4.6 = 76.4 cm (30”)
This is quite often possible to

do. Thus, we can see the
advantage of applying the
curved ramp and re-aligning the
alignment for high speeds.
Method 2 is very convenient

for long curves and is based on
the following criteria:
The end of the transition ramp

will be constructed in such a Figure 12-35 JZ (Yugoslavian) Superstructure Regulations
way that the elevation run-off
will initiate in the tangent and will not reach the full elevation until it is some distance
into the body of the curve as shown in Figure 12-35.
In this case, the transition curve will have a minimal length, by equation:
 0.0944V 3
min .l =  − 0.8V
 R
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4.72V 2
− 40
R
for n=8V and l=0.4h, where n = rate of change.
The maximum superelevation deficiency is when the ∆hmax = 100mm or (4”) at the
point of curve, and the ramp height is defined. In this case, the maximum lateral
m
a = 0.65
acceleration sec 2 (a = 2.13 ft/sec2) is only at the point of curve.
In Method 3, we can apply a longer transition curve. In this case, the beginning of the
ramp can be moved into the tangent segment in front of the beginning of the
transition curve.
Only the transition ramp is extended, but the curvature stays the same. On the points
AB, we have the negative lateral acceleration and it is the largest at the beginning of the
transition ramp. At the point B, the acceleration is a=0 and it still rises till the
beginning of the curve is in a positive direction. At that point, there is the maximum
unbalanced superelevation (permissible for European equipment) and it is
∆h = 100mm (4”).
12.5.1 Curve Improvements

A very important parameter of track geometry is the direction of mid-ordinate throw at
each station when lining curves. Direction becomes more important with high-speed
tracks.
It is necessary that the mid-ordinate throws be balanced (i.e., the net result of the
throws be 0), which will lessen the twist of a vehicle. In a perfectly lined curve, the
mid-ordinate readings would be the same at any point along the full body of the curve.
They are measured on a base (string length) of 10m and 20m and in spirals, the mid-
ordinate measured will vary according to its location along the transition curve.
The value of a mid-ordinate is measured as follows:
s2
f =
8⋅ R
where s is the length of the chord used to measure the midordinate.
Permissible deviation in the mid-ordinates measured is as follows:
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56 ⋅ s
∆f = for V > 60 km/h and
V
∆f = s for V < 60 km/h
One is allowed to have a difference between adjacent mid-ordinates after curve lining
of:
28 ⋅ s
∆f = for V >60 km/h and
V
s
∆f = for V< 60 km/h
2
At the Japanese Railway Network (JNR), the maximum mid-ordinate is determined by:
400
f max =
V
The curve is in compliance if the mid-ordinate difference is within permitted limits.

Otherwise, the curve is re-lined or a speed reduction is applied, which will permit a
larger ∆f .
12.5.2 Surfacing and Lining

The following methods of surfacing and lining are commonly utilized in Europe:
a) Plus-minus method (Comparable to the North American Bartlett or Bracket

Method)
b) Mechanized 3 points method for Matisa machines
c) Three point’s leveling method and 4 point’s method for Plasser machines.
Figure 12-36 shows the effect of throwing a curve at one point at which the mid-
ordinate is significantly different from those produced by the adjoining chords.
The effect of a throw outward at one point is to increase the mid-ordinate at that point
(by the amount of the throw), and to decrease the mid-ordinate on each side at the
next point by the amount equal to half the throw.
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Similarly, a throw inwards is to decrease the mid-ordinate at that point by the amount
of the throw, and to increase the mid-ordinate on each side at the next points by an
amount equal to half the throw.
The Matisa machine

applies the same
methods as above.
“Matisa” automatically
measures the mid-
ordinate and calculates
the necessary correction.
It simultaneously
determines the mid-
ordinate direction (i.e.,
either sharpens or
flattens the curve).
The leveling principle for

the vertical direction is
shown schematically in
Figure 12-37. In this Figure 12-36 JZ (Yugoslavian) Superstructure Regulations
three point measuring
system, point A is located on the already corrected track. The track is to be given an
overall lift equal to the lift height BC. The track at working point D is raised, and the
tie is tamped so that it comes to rest on the straight line AB at E. Leveling can be
expressed mathematically as:
Ζ n (n ) = Ζ n (x − a ) + Ζ o (x + b )
b a
l l
Figure 12-37 – Courtesy of Plasser & Theuer, Theuer, Germany
The machine works in two modes: Normal mode and Automatic mode.
Use of the Four Point Measurement System
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The vertical lining system is based

on a 4-point measurement. A
computer measures three
ordinates Y1, Y2 and Y4, as seen in
Figure 12-38, which determines a
square parabola. At C, where
there is a work point, the track is
thrown so that it lays on this
curve.
The correct position is verified by

mid-ordinates h and H and their
quotient is a fixed value. The
leading point of the long chord D
follows the old track geometry
Figure 12-38 – Courtesy of Plasser & Theuer, Theuer, Germany
whereas A and B follow the new
geometry which has been already corrected.
Figure 12-39 High Speed Turnout, 8 Machines in the

Point, 3 in the Frog, 300km/H (160km/H diverging) -
Courtesy of Weichenwork Brandenburg, GmbH
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13
Chapter

Case Studies
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AREMA COMMITTEE 24 EDUCATION & TRAINING
Case Studies
Gray Chandler
CSX Transportation Company

Jacksonville, FL
Gray_chandler@csx.com
Robert J. Humbert
DMJM+HARRIS
Philadelphia, PA 19102-5021
robert.humbert@dmjmharris.com
William Riehl III, P.E.
Niemeyer & Associates

Jacksonville, FL 32258-2182
wsriehl@attbi.com
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13
Chapter
C H A P T E R 1 3 – C A S E S T U D I E S
Case Studies
The basic principles of track design and maintenance remain
unchanged. A new understanding and application of these
principles may arise, should arise, but the same need continues for
firm subgrade support, good drainage, hard, clean ballast, sound
ties, and tough, load-resistant metal in rails. Track geometry must
be maintained.
W. W. Hay
C alled on to address railway-related engineering problems, the newly schooled

or veteran highway engineer is faced with having to obtain the knowledge
base and railway engineering experience without the advantage of having the
opportunity to learn under the watchful eye of a seasoned railway engineer. This
manuscript prepared by a collection of experienced, multi-disciplined professional
railway engineers offers an insight into the background and fundamental
understanding of the principles and theories associated with railway engineering. This
railway knowledge, coupled with the experience of applying such knowledge to
address real railway challenges, forms the basis of sound railway engineering judgment.
In this section, we will share select railway projects that illustrate how some of the
principles and theories found in this Practical Guide have been applied to solve
railway problems. In addition, these project examples provide the reader with an
insight into the various interactions that occur, not only among the various railway-
engineering disciplines, but also involving other railway departments, outside agencies,
governmental bodies and the general public.
It is the intent of the authors of this Practical Guide to continue to solicit project
examples from the AREMA membership in an effort to compile an electronic library
of case studies for use in providing real examples of applied railway engineering
knowledge.
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# 1 - C A S K Y , K Y - P R O J E C T S U R V E Y
#1 – Casky, KY – Project Survey
Project Summary Location

• Casky, Christian County, Kentucky
Description
• Construct new mainline in order to create new 5,600 TF stub ended
industrial lead track.
Railroad(s) involved
• CSX Transportation, Inc.
Construction Cost
• $1.47 Million
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Construction Duration
• Proposed - Spring 2001 to Fall 2001
• Actual – Summer 2001 to Spring 2002
Statement of Need • The traffic flow along this corridor is high density and high speed.
Switching industries off the main track has caused transportation delays
for through trains and impacted switching operations for five industries.
In addition, future industrial growth in this area is suspended. This
location is the fastest growing industrial area for the CSXT. Five
industries were installed in the last five years. The benefits gained from
the new construction will allow CSX to increase velocity of trains
operating in this corridor and increase the opportunity for future growth
in the Hopkinsville Industrial Park.
Project • A new main track, west of the existing line, will be constructed. The old
Understanding main track will be used as an industrial lead with access on the south end
(Definition) only. Industrial Development gains the opportunity to grow the business
on the north side by future extension of the industrial lead. When fully
developed, this industrial lead will connect to the south end of “Casky
Siding,” providing CSX with a 20,000 foot siding when the industrial lead
is not in use.
• The rate of return is 18% for $1.47 Million
Identify Train Operations

Stakeholders • CSX Transportation, Inc.
Planning Department
Railroad
• Train Operations, Design & Construction, Industrial Development,
M/W, Train Control, Real Property, Inc. and Outside Railroad
(Critical
Contractors (Design, Grading and Track) were main players from the
Dependencies)
railroads approach to the project.
Train Operations/Industrial Development Dept.
• Defined project scope and provided funding for construction.
Design & Construction
• Design and Construction performed preliminary design, prepared estimate
for the track, performed project inspections, managed budget expenditures,
employed track and grading contractors, monitored construction progress,
ordered track materials, coordinated curfews & track time and coordinated
with the County for local road closing.
Engineering Department
• MOW – performed track inspections, scheduled work trains and provided
track protection for the project.
• Train Control – performed all work associated with signals.
Real Estate Department
• Real estate group researched property issues and negotiated price sales with
local landowners. In addition, handled deed records for new acquisitions.
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Design Contractor
• Provided detailed design engineering and construction quantities.
Grading Contractor
• Constructed roadbed in accordance with CSX specifications.
Track Contractor
• Constructed all track and performed track shifts in accordance with CSX
specifications.
Identify • Christian County – the county transportation officials reviewed road crossing
Stakeholders approach design and helped coordinate road crossing closing. Advance
warning signal protection remained flashing lights only.
Non-Railroad • WorldCom – fiber optic company relocated fiber optic cable outside project
limits to allow the start of construction.
(Critical
• 5 Industries – Sun Chemical Corp., Budd Talent Co., Seimer Milling,
Dependencies)
Continental Mills, and Free Flow Pkg. gain better switching operations.
Coordination with Sun Chemical to relocate switch out of mainline and
install in new industrial lead. Track was out of service for 1 week.
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Project Approach
Feasibility Assessment
• Construct new main line on west side of existing main track and realign
existing main track, at each end, into the new main. Will need to purchase
property from adjoining property owners in order obtain enough area to
build roadbed in accordance to CSX specifications.
Alternative Analysis
• Build new industrial lead track on east side and relocate all industrial switches
out of the main and into the new lead track. Will need to construct roadbed
and realign all industrial tracks for 5 industries. No new property needed,
right of way is sufficient to support roadbed according to CSX specifications.
Rejected this alternative because all 5 industrial tracks would require sub-
standard curvature.
Design
• All construction according to CSX specifications.
• Roadway materials to be built in accordance with KYTC specifications.
• Maximum degree of curvature for industrial tracks is 12 degrees. (Should
never exceed 17 degrees)
• All railroad construction is to not interfere with the wetland area.
• All track work and grading work to be performed by outside contractors.
Operating Criteria
• Time table speed to remain at 60 mph for this segment of track with
temporary slow orders as the work was in process.
• Curfew times would only be available on Mondays and not to exceed 8
hours. Maximum allowable track time for any other day would not exceed 4
hours.
• Road crossing could be closed for a period of 1 week.
Project Management
• Overall project management falls with the Project Engineer from Design &
Construction. The Roadmaster will schedule track protection during the
work and schedule work trains to dump ballast. In addition, the Roadmaster
will provide final inspection of the track construction. Train Control will be
responsible with progressing along with the track construction and manage
all signal-related issues.
Key Project
Operating Parameters
Elements
• The railroad operates approximately 40-45 trains per 24-hour period.
Mondays generally have one scheduled critical train, UPS, which runs during
morning hours.
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Schedule
• Project to start early Spring 2001 and be completed prior to Thanksgiving,
due to UPS peak season. In addition, asphalt plants close in early November.
Critical Design
Property Acquisition
Considerations
• Need to acquire two adjoining parcels of land in order to construct roadbed
according to CSX specifications.
Utility Service Availability
• Utility service for crossing protection and industrial switch is not an issue.
The 5 industrial switches are dispatch controlled and already have electrical
service. Industrial lead switch required one pole drop and power was fed by
a nearby electrical line.
Grade-Crossing Considerations
• Asphalt approaches for new road crossing shall fall off at a minimum of 1%,
for a distance of 28 feet from the outside edge of rail. Extending further
away, approaches can fall off no greater than 8% until it ties into the existing
road.
Construction Phasing
• Grading construction will start after fiber optic cable has been relocated.
Train Control will install buried signal wire in roadbed prior to subballast
installation. Track contractor will start track work after subballast is installed
and all material delivered. Train Control will work along with track
contractor schedule in order to keep signal protection for the railroad. Track
and Grading contractors will coordinate road crossing installation in order to
minimize road crossing closure time.
Project Challenges • Complete project prior to CSX-UPS peak season, which begins November
23rd and ends December 25th.
• Start grading work prior to having all property acquisitions under contract.
In addition, Fiber Optic company was waiting on final property lines to
determine which side of track to relocate fiber optic cable.
• Completing grading work within 45 days was not attainable. Contractor
experienced 20 days of weather related delays.
• Redirect waterway for pipe outlet after grading contractor built pond for local
property owner. Waterway originally exited into wetland/tree line area.
Local property owner, as part of his construction contract with grading
contractor, instructed the contractor to build a pond near the CSX property
line and direct all ditch lines to the north to empty into pond. The pond
elevation was higher than outlet end of pipe, causing water to pond up in
water channel and soak into roadbed. CSX had grading contractor to close
south water channel to pond and redirect waterway for the pipe in opposite
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direction.
• Providing a location to spot 8 ribbons of rail prior to grading work being
completed.
• Finding a staging area to receive and distribute track material onto roadbed.
Track contractor did not have same construction easement with local
property owner.
• Dump ballast on the new main and surfacing the track prior to the track
shifts. Project had limited access and trucking in ballast was not an option.
Our original proposal was to construct the industrial lead up to the first track
shift location on the south end, then shift the main on to the industrial lead
and run trains through the industrial lead switch for 3 days. This meant that
this section of corridor would operate without signals for 3 days. A week
prior to cutover, Transportation rescinded their original plan of approval.
We then decided to install a temporary turnout on the north end in order to
dump ballast and surface track. Track shifts on the north and south ends
would both occur during the same curfew.
Lessons Learned • Need property acquisition to occur prior to construction season starting.
Property acquisitions for project caused 2 months delay, preventing the
Grading Contractor from starting in April.
• Provide language in construction contract where Contractor will be penalized
for not meeting the construction schedule. Granted, 20 days of delay was
attributed to weather delays but other outside interferences caused additional
delays.
Recipe for Success • Be firm with outside contractors. Remember that contractors are working
for you. In addition, cover the general conditions during the pre-bid
meetings and after the contract has been awarded. Contractors sometimes
forget their responsibilities and play stupid when told of them.
• Instruct Contractors to complete a daily progress report and provide this to
you on a daily/weekly basis. This will allow you to keep up with days
worked, activities performed on each day and can be used as a tool for future
references.
• Preach the importance of Safety from the pre-bid meeting up until the
contractor completes the job.
• Watch the finances from the beginning and complete budget forecasting
every few weeks to determine if project is on budget.
AREMA •
Reference #
554
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# 2 - C R E S T L I N E , O H – P R O J E C T S U R V E Y
#2 – Crestline, OH – Project Survey

Project Summary
Location: Crestline, OH
Early in 1998, as plans were being implemented to divide the Conrail assets
between CSXT and NS, CSXT and Conrail formulated engineering concepts to
achieve a number of strategic imperatives that would ensure operational viability
prior to the acquisition of Conrail. One such strategic imperative involved the
creation of an alternate route for CSX coal and grain trains between Cleveland
and Chicago. In order to create this alternate route, a direct link in the form of a
connection between the Indianapolis Line and the Fort Wayne Line was
necessary.
This connection involved the construction of approximately 6,000’ of track,

installation of 2 - No. 15 turnouts, 1 - No. 15 crossover and 2 - crossing
diamonds. The design speed for the connection was 30 mph. Included in the
modification to the existing signal systems along both the Fort Wayne Line and
the Indianapolis Line was also required.
The estimated cost of the connection was $3.6 million with $2.2 million for track
and civil work and $1.4 million for signal and communication work. The project
schedule called for the design and construction to be completed within a
fourteen-month timeframe.
Statement of Need
Prior to the acquisition of Conrail by CSXT and Norfolk Southern Railroad (NS),
Conrail owned and operated both the Indianapolis Line and the Fort Wayne
Line. The Indianapolis Line runs in a southwesterly direction from Berea, Ohio
just south of Cleveland, connecting to the St. Louis Line in Indianapolis, Indiana.
The Fort Wayne Line extends from Pittsburgh, PA and generally runs in an
easterly and northeasterly direction, connecting to the Chicago Line just east of
Chicago, IL. The two lines cross each other at-grade with crossing diamonds at
Crestline, Ohio. At Crestline the Indianapolis Line is a two track mainline and
the Fort Wayne Line is a single track mainline.
As part of the acquisition of Conrail, CSXT acquired ownership of the

Indianapolis Line in its entirety with no operating rights provided to NS in the
vicinity of Crestline. The ownership of the Fort Wayne Line, however, was
divided up between both the NS and the CSXT with the NS acquiring the Fort
Wayne Line between Pittsburgh and Crestline while the CSXT acquired the line
between Crestline and Chicago with NS retaining operating rights over the Fort
Wayne Line from Crestline west to Chicago.
The new network envisioned by CSXT following the Conrail acquisition,

included a new route to Chicago from Berea using the Indianapolis Line and the
Fort Wayne Line. This meant that a new connection needed to be constructed
between the two lines at Crestline prior to the acquisition date known as “Day
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One” set as June 1999. Because this connection had to be in operation prior to
the acquisition, it was necessary for CSXT to work with Conrail, as the
owner, to design and construct the connection.
Project
Understanding
Existing Condition
(Definition)
In Crestline, OH, two Conrail lines cross on diamonds at grade. The

Indianapolis Line double track runs SW and the Fort Wayne Line single
track runs east/west. There is an existing control tower in the SE quadrant
in the close proximity of the diamonds. An overhead bridge carrying
Thoman Street (SR-61) crossed over both lines in a north/south direction.
To the north there is one grade crossing of Bucyrus Street and an underpass
of Scott Street on the Indy Line. The Indy mains are on 20’ centers through
the diamonds due to an old center passenger platform, now removed.
To the west on the Fort Wayne Line at a signal bridge, the single track
divides into three tracks passing through Wiley Street at grade.
To the east the single main crosses Washington Street at grade approximately
1,400’ east of the diamonds.
To the south on the Indy Line was an existing connection in the SE

quadrant, approximately 700’ from the diamonds, and a #15 crossover
between the mains.
Existing rail traffic per day was 20 trains on the Indy Line and 6 trains on the
Fort Wayne Line over the diamonds.
There were three separate signal control points: East Crest, Crest and West
Crest.
Proposed Condition
The proposed connection was to accommodate 6 trains per day and 2 trains
east-west used by NS. The trackage east of the diamonds would belong to
NS. Speed through the connection would be 30 mph and 25 mph for the
NS Fort Wayne Line.
Identify • CSXT proposed train operations between Cleveland, OH and Chicago, IL.
Stakeholders • Norfolk Southern Railway Co. proposed train operations between St Louis
and Pittsburgh, PA.
Railroad • Conrail train operations during the construction between Cleveland, OH and
St Louis and between Pittsburgh, PA and the OH and IN State line.
(Critical
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Dependencies)
Project Approach Initially, the connection was designed to tie into the mains without relocating the
main. However, the bridge abutment of the overhead bridge prevented this
approach without rebuilding the bridge, which was cost prohibitive. The next
alternative suggested was relocation of the Fort Wayne west of the diamonds to a
southward direction, without relocating the diamonds. This too proved to be
unsuccessful due to excessive curvature in the connection and relocated main
track.
Finally, it was decided to relocate the entire Fort Wayne Line southward from
Washington Street on the east end to Wiley Street on the west end. This would
give sufficient room to construct the connection for 30 mph, while missing the
bridge abutment and piers. It was also necessary to clear the old tower by 12’
since it would remain to house signal equipment. The #15 turnout in the Fort
Wayne Line would be designed for the straight side to the connection since the
majority of the rail traffic would go through the connection.
The track layout on the west end of the Fort Wayne Line was modified to only
one track through Wiley Street and all turnouts would be placed west of the
crossing. On the Indy Line, the track centers were moved closer at 13-1/2’ and a
right hand #15 crossover was installed north of Bucyrus Street to accommodate
trains off either main to the connection.
• Design
o Conrail Design & Construction handled the engineering on the
project with approvals from CSX Design and Construction.
Outside services were used for topography and existing layout
plans. Conrail in Philadelphia handled design and field supervisors
and company forces handled track construction. Signal design was
performed by a consultant and constructed by company forces.
This project was the typical design-bid-build, using contractors for
grading, drainage and utility work.
Key Project • CSXT Design Standards - Indianapolis Line

Elements • NS Design Standards - Fort Wayne Line
• Operating Design Speed Indianapolis Line -50 mph
• Operating Design Speed Fort Wayne Line - 25 mph
• Operating Design Speed New Connection - 30 mph
• Rationalize Signal Interlocking Control Points
• Construction Phasing
• Crossing Diamond Procurement and Installation
• Drainage
• Project Schedule (Completion - June 1999)
Critical Design • Maintenance of Train Operations
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Considerations • Avoidance of Existing Signal Tower

• Avoidance of Overhead Bridge Pier/Abutment
• Operating Speed Requirements
Project Challenges • Accurate Definition of Project Scope

• Project Schedule
• Design Coordination - CR/CSXT/NS
• Maintenance of Train Operations
Lessons Learned • Need for Continual Communication

o Weekly Project Status Review
• Importance of Inter-company Coordination
o Conrail, CSXT, NS
• Importance of Intra-company Coordination
o Track and Signal Design/Train Operations
o Design/Construction/Transportation Depts.
Recipe for Success • Establishment of Project Core Team Members

• Clear Project Target Scope
• Continual Communication
• Inter and Intra Company Coordination
AREMA •
Reference #
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# 3 - F E C / S F R C C O N N E C T I O N , W E S T P A L M B E A C H , F L F O R A M T R A K
S E R V I C E – P R O J E C T S U R V E Y
#3 – FEC/SFRC Connection, West Palm Beach, FL for

Amtrak Service – Project Survey
Submitted by W. S. Riehl III, P.E.
Project Summary Location

• West Palm Beach, Florida
Description
• Connection track reconfiguration to facilitate efficient movement of
passenger trains between the Florida East Coast and the South Florida Rail
Corridor.
Railroads involved
• Florida East Coast Railway (FEC)
• Amtrak (ATK)
• South Florida Rail Corridor (FDOT)
• CSX Transportation
Construction Cost
• $5 Million (US) (Preliminary Estimate)
Construction Duration
• 90 Days (Preliminary Estimate)
Overall Time to Complete
• Five years (Preliminary Estimate)
Statement of Need • Amtrak desires to reroute two train pairs in their south Florida service from
CSX to FEC. Currently these two train pairs traverse between Jacksonville
and Miami via Sebring, Florida. Amtrak hopes that by redirecting these two
train pairs to the FEC from West Palm Beach to Jacksonville, they can save
time and attract ridership.
• Standing in the way of immediate implementation of this service change is
the fact that the existing connection at West Palm Beach is not suitable for
the efficient movement of trains.
Project • Amtrak has long desired access to the coastal communities serviced by FEC.
Understanding In 1998 FEC changed its position with respect to passenger operations. This
(Definition) opened the door to exploring service opportunities.
• Constraining the service design was the requirement to utilize the existing
passenger infrastructure between West Palm Beach and Miami on the South
Florida Rail Corridor.
• To meet the above requirement, a connection has to be established between
the FEC and the SFRC near West Palm Beach, preferable where the two
lines are in close proximity.
• Existing connections are located at Lewis Terminals in Riviera Beach and
along 27th Street some 2.5 miles to the south.
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• This connection at West Palm Beach is part of the larger railroad

infrastructure capital improvement project necessary to implement the
service.
• The railroad infrastructure improvements are part of the larger service
initiation project managed by Amtrak in coordination with FDOT.
• Engineering, design and construction management of the railroad
infrastructure portions of the service initiative are the responsibility of FEC.
• Funding for the railroad infrastructure portions of the project will be split
between FEC, ATK and FDOT with FDOT providing the majority of the
funding.
• While the railroad infrastructure portions of the service initiative are agreed
to in principal, the overall project remains in limbo pending a funding
commitment by FDOT.
• Final design for this West Palm Beach connection remains in Limbo pending
the final commitment to the overall project by FDOT.
Identify Florida East Coast Railway

Stakeholders: • FEC’s Transportation and Engineering Departments were the main players
in the conceptual development phases of the project. Of this group, the
Railroad Engineering Department was the lead agency for the project.
• Transportation officials negotiated the service and scheduling with ATK
(Critical Operations Personnel. With this information, they then determined the
Dependencies) improvements necessary to facilitate the schedule.
• Once the Transportation Department determined their requirements, the
Engineering Department fully developed the implementation plan.
• As initial negotiations continued, FEC’s Legal Department took the lead role
in developing the operating agreement, which was finally signed in 2001.
• Once the project is funded, the Accounting, Real Estate and Public Relations
Departments will take a more active role.
Amtrak
• ATK approached the project with a service initiation team that represented all
of the concerned functional groups, from operations to stations to legal.
Their team leader was the single point of contact and arranged further
Amtrak coordination as necessary.
CSX Transportation
• While CSX had a significant level of control over the South Florida Rail
Corridor, they did not have any interest or responsibility in this project other
than future responsibility for dispatching the moves.
• At some point, the SFRC siding at Northwood would need some signal
improvements to facilitate the smooth operation of trains to and from the
connection track. This was to be a matter of coordination between CSXT,
SFRC and ATK and did not concern FEC.
South Florida Rail Corridor
• While the SFRC owned the connection track to the FEC right of way, their
position was that this project was the responsibility of FEC and ATK. They
looked to FDOT (their parent organization) for coordination, approval and
funding.
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• As mentioned above, at some point, their siding at Northwood would need

signal improvements to facilitate the smooth operation of train over the
connection. Again, this was to be a matter of coordination between CSXT,
SFRC and ATK and did not concern FEC.
Identify Florida Department of Transportation

Stakeholders • With overall transportation planning responsibilities, FDOT is interested in
bringing alternative transportation to the population centers of the east coast
Non-Railroad of Florida.
• FDOT is providing the majority of the funding for this project. As such,
(Critical they will impose certain project management and accounting responsibilities
Dependencies) on the constructing agencies.
• FDOT, through the SFRC, will own the connection track to the FEC right-
of-way.
• While FEC, in theory, has the necessary condemnation authority to take the
land necessary for this connection track, FDOT’s funding and ownership
involvement in the project makes them the best candidate for initiating any
necessary takings.
• FDOT sets rail-highway grade crossing surface and protection standards for
the State of Florida. Any such work will have to conform to these standards.
However, where these standards provide alternatives, FDOT defers to the
railroad’s selection.
• With respect to other track, civil and signal design and construction, FDOT
defers to the railroad’s own standards. In the case of the connection track,
they will accept FEC’s input on minimum standards.
• FDOT is expected to arrange/preempt any permitting requirements of this
project.
City of West Palm Beach
• At this point in the project development, the City has not been involved.
However, once the final design is selected and right of way acquisition
begins, they are expected to take an active role.
Evergreen Cemetery
• They stand to lose land in the final design.
Several Ongoing Businesses
• They stand to lose land in the final design.
Project Approach Initial Design Approach – Double Diamond

• When the project was initially kicked off, the primary design concern was
minimizing construction costs.
• FEC standards for this type of construction would limit curves to twelve
degree and mainline turnouts to number 10.
• Early conceptual track layouts developed simple geometry connecting to
FEC’s West Main track that would lead to considerable taking of property.
• An alternative design was developed that minimized the taking of additional
property by maximizing the use of the existing FEC right-of-way. In this
alternative, the connecting alignment was moved as far to the east as
possible. This introduced the double-diamond crossing and a connection to
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the East Main track.

Other Design Considerations
• Drainage is always a first concern. In the case of this project, the area is
generally flat. While this does not afford good runoff characteristics, it also
means that water flowing to the tracks is a great concern. In addition, the
underlying soil is very sandy, which affords excellent drainage properties.
• Grades can also be a concern. However, as stated above, the topography of
the project area is generally flat. Accordingly, allowing the track to follow the
natural grade avoids significant grading while providing insignificant grades.
Operating Criteria
• FEC’s timetable speed through West Palm Beach is 45 mph. Any new
construction should not have a permanent effect on this speed. Nor should
any new construction restrict a long term goal to raise the speed.
• The desired timetable speed through the connection track is as fast as
possible, but the practical timetable speed is Yard Limits (20 mph). In reality,
civil and operating constraints will most likely limit train speeds to 10 mph in
spite of the posted speed.
• In general terms, service is expected to be initiated at any time and in advance
of final construction of the connection track. Since the current connection
does not support pull through operations, initial operations will be in the
form of a back through that utilizes the Wye at Northwood for proper
orientation of the train.
• All work of track construction is anticipated to be under traffic. This will
drive some of the construction sequencing.
Project Management
• Overall project management rests with FEC. Once the project is funded, the
decision will be made to proceed with in-house forces or farm the work out
to some combination of consulting and contractor forces.
Milestones
• As of this writing, the project remains unfunded and no milestones have
been set. However, once this project is funded, the following milestones are
anticipated:
• Timber and surface existing track
• Implement back-through operations
• Final design approval
• Property appraisal
• Condemnation
• Business relocation
• Construction under traffic.
• Of these milestones, the last is the least problematic, other than coordinating
the outages for cutover.
Key Project Operating Criteria

Elements • FEC operates some 20 through freight and 10 local trains past this
connection per 24-hour period.
• Amtrak operations are expected to introduce four movements over the
connecting track.
• Grade crossing density through West Palm Beach to the south of the
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connection track is extremely high, as the railroad traverses the downtown

business district.
• The closest siding to the south is Hypoluxo at milepost 309. This siding is
cut by road crossings. The next siding to the south that can stand trains of
any length of time is Villa Rica at milepost 319, but it is limited to 8,000 feet
of usable space.
• As movements across the double diamond will halt traffic in both directions
on the FEC main, precise coordination will be required to avoid stopping
trains where they block multiple crossings.
• Given this kind of precise coordination cannot be guaranteed and there is
little tolerance for blocked crossings. Conservatism will force holding trains
some 30 minutes away until the Amtrak movements have been completed.
• This realization made the double diamond alternative unacceptable.
• Alternative pull through designs connecting to FEC’s West Main Track were
prepared using curves ranging from 12 to 16 degrees (ATK’s limit).
However, responsibility for final design was delegated to FDOT, as the
connection track would be funded and owned by them.
Scope
• Assuming an alternative similar to the 13 degree alternative is selected, the
final connection track project will involve some 2,000 feet of new and
rehabilitated track, one new mainline turnout, one relocated mainline
crossover, two reconstructed grade crossings with automated crossing
protection and all of the associated site and civil work.
Budget
• Total cost for this project is estimated at five million dollars. However, the
vast majority of these funds are projected for the costs of acquiring the
necessary property through condemnation.
Schedule
• No schedule has been established.
Operating Criteria
• Once a final plan is approved, the property is acquired, and construction can
begin, it is assumed the back through operation will be underway. This
means that all construction staging will have to be performed under traffic.
As such, early planning suggests constructing the FEC mainline turnout plus
all track either side of the existing alignment, with a cutover that fills the hole
over the existing track and ties the west end in, is the appropriate staging to
provide the least impact to existing traffic.
Critical Design Equipment Operating Limitations

Considerations • The key operating considerations in laying out this connection track are the
curving limitations of the intended equipment.
o Amtrak states its equipment can safely negotiate the 16 degree
curves typically found in terminals and other congested areas.
o FEC looks to the long term freight applications for this connection
track and recommends limiting the new alignment to 12 degree
curves to accommodate six axle locomotives.
• The key financial consideration in laying out this connection track is the cost
to relocate the ongoing businesses.
o The preferred alignment of a shallower curve requires more land to
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be taken.
Other Track, Civil, Signal and Crossing Considerations
• All remaining track, civil, signal and crossing considerations were
straightforward and the application of common practice is more than
adequate for permits on this project.
Project Challenges • Fitting an acceptable pull through connection in a confined space, without
disturbing a cemetery or an ongoing business.
• After presenting what appears to be a least cost alternative, having to tell the
funding agencies that your design is no longer acceptable to your company
and that the replacement design will be significantly more expensive.
Lessons Learned • Early identification of corporate support is imperative.

o When this project started, there was only mediocre support from
senior management. The service initiative was explored with no
real expectation of execution. Accordingly, internal development
was not given a top priority and interdepartmental coordination
was not considered until well into the design and estimating
process.
• Following the above, early identification and involvement of the stakeholders
is paramount to success.
o The double-diamond alternative is a prime example of lack of
involvement of the stakeholders. At the time of development, the
only involved parties were the design element. The double-
diamond alternative fully met ATK’s concerns of a best, least cost
alternative. However, serious FEC operating concerns were
introduced, yet they remained unvoiced until it became apparent
that this project was realizable. Then, FEC had to take the
position of rejecting the least cost plan it introduced.
Recipe for Success • Determine early in the process if the project is bonafide.
o If it is, identify and involve the stakeholders. While this may bog
down the project development, it will pay great dividends at
implementation.
o If it is not, kill it with procrastination. If you can’t, treat it like it is
a real project and involve the stakeholders.
AREMA •
Reference #
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# 4 - F T . W A S H I N G T O N , P A – P R O J E C T S U R V E Y
#4 – Ft. Washington, PA – Project Survey

Project Summary
Location:
Fort Washington, PA
Tropical storm Allison struck Fort Washington, Pennsylvania on June 16, 2001,
flooding and collapsing a 100+ year old, 50 foot, two span concrete arch bridge
and catenary tower on Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority’s R-5
commuter rail main line (formerly Reading’s Bethlehem Branch). In addition to
being a main line from the suburbs to Philadelphia, the line is utilized by CSXT
between 12:00 AM and 5:00 AM daily and is a direct link from Greenwich Yard
in South Philadelphia to CSXT’s Lansdale Yard in Montgomery County. A fast
track bridge reconstruction program was immediately initiated and within hours,
SEPTA and DMJM+HARRIS engineers were on site evaluating damage and
developing reconstruction alternatives to restore rail service.
Superstructure designs, in accordance with AREMA, and catenary towers, were

developed hours after evaluating the damage. SEPTA immediately procured the
required structural steel beams. Concurrently, borings were taken to verify
existing soil/rock core data. A design using precast concrete caps set on drilled
shaft/concrete columns was developed to allow for simultaneous construction
and curing. Preliminary plans were made available to bidders three days following
the collapse, with final design documents provided two days later. Seven days
after the collapse, contracts were awarded for fabrication and reconstruction.
The replacement structure is a three span, steel deck girder bridge of 114 feet total
length, with ballasted steel deck. Initial collapse of the structure to bridge
completion, including track and catenary, for restoration of commuter and freight
rail service, took only five weeks. Key to the speed of construction was around
the clock, work and cooperation of all parties.
Statement of Need Reconstruct/replace flood damaged bridge and restore commuter and freight rail
service with full double track capacity within five (5) weeks.
Project
Understanding
Existing Condition
(Definition) Septa’s R-5 Line is a key commuter line to the northwest suburbs of the
Philadelphia metropolitan region. This line carries thousands of daily commuters
and shoppers and is a vital link between Philadelphia and the northern suburbs.
In addition to being a main line from the suburbs to Philadelphia, the line is
utilized by CSXT between 12:00 AM and 5:00 AM daily and is a direct link from
Greenwich Yard in South Philadelphia to CSXT’s Lansdale Yard in Montgomery
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County.
The line was originally constructed by the Reading Railroad Company in the late
1870’s to access Philadelphia’s north suburbs, as well as the industrial
manufacturing centered in the Bethlehem area north of the City.
The bridge damaged by Tropical Storm Allison was the third structure to cross
Sandy Run Creek and the third to be damaged or washed out by flooding.
Records indicated the original bridges were steel structures with the first
destroyed in 1885 and the second replaced by the two span concrete arch in 1911.
The concrete arch was design as a two span structure to provide a relief or over
flow barrel based on information that the center pier was built on the masonry of
the original steel bridge north abutment.
Based on the initial assessment, the following structural damage and distress was
observed:
• Span two was partially collapsed on the upstream side and the north
abutment foundation was undermined/scoured out and had subsided several
feet.
• The northern approach embankment was washed out for approximately 100
feet.
• Catenary structure 15/13 had dropped approximately 10 feet due to the
embankment washout and catenary column bents were twisted and under
distress.
• Additionally, the catenary structure also supported a Philadelphia Electric
Company 110kV transmission line, which were main feeders on the regional
electric grid with no readily available back feeding capability.
Proposed Condition
The proposed solution was restoration of double track rail service within five (5)
weeks. With the directive to restore service within 5 weeks, based on preliminary
field assessments and quick design/construction scheduling analysis, the SEPTA
and DMJM+HARRIS formed an engineering team of specialists in various
disciplines to meet the five (5) week deadline.
In order to accomplish this task, the project team recognized that the solution
would involve a design that readily incorporated prefabrication of the
replacement bridge while the site preparation and foundation work was currently
ongoing.
The initially proposed structure was to meet the full AREMA design
requirements along with the client supplemental specifications.
The structure was to meet or exceed the current waterway opening while not
violating the environmental flood water elevation requirements.
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Identify • SEPTA commuter train operations.

Stakeholders • SEPTA supplemental bus operations around the washed out section of line.
• CSXT freight train operations between Greenwich Yard in Philadelphia and
Railroad Lansdale Yard in Montgomery County.
(Critical • PADOT attempting to relieve upstream flooding of roadways due to
Dependencies) excessive development since the construction of the arch bridge.
Project Approach PROJECT DESIGN & CONCURRENT OPERATIONS
Inspection & Evaluation - Before the floodwaters had receded and while on site
the afternoon of June 17, 2001 DMJM+HARRIS’ Project Manager and SEPTA’s
Assistant Chief Engineer Structures, performed a cursory inspection and
evaluation of the damage.
The initial inspection and evaluation was performed to determine if single-track

service, at best, could be restored. The following was confirmed:
• No rail traffic could traverse the structure prior to emergency shoring and
embankment reconstruction.
• The apparent undermining of the pier and abutment would create shoring
problems.
• Rail operations would be limited to single tracking on the west side of the
bridge.
• Compounding the restrictions on rail traffic was the dropped catenary, which
would need to be cut and dead-ended. This lack of electric traction power
would mean the rail cars would have to glide/coast through the area and
retract and raise the pantograph before and after crossing the damaged area
of track.
• This assessment confirmed SEPTA’s fears that the structure and track
would be out of service for an extended period to permit full
reconstruction. It was at this point that SEPTA’s general management
stated that full service must be restored within five (5) weeks.
In order to accomplish the tasks DMJM+HARRIS and SEPTA developed a plan

of action to ensure coordination and proper execution of the tasks. SEPTA
would assume overall management of the reconstruction and take the lead on
tasks involving easements and execution of emergency permit applications as well
as notification of other affected agencies. DMJM+HARRIS would take the lead
on coordination and execution of all technical and constructibility aspects of the
reconstruction with the goal of a biddable set of design documents within 3 to 5
days.
DESIGN
Structure Alternatives
SEPTA’s standard bridge superstructure consists of steel girders, either deck or
through type, and a reinforced concrete deck with waterproofing membrane and
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protection course. Only two (2) alternatives were viable if the mandated project
schedule was to be met:
• Open deck steel girders with bridge timbers.
• Steel deck girders with a ballasted steel deck plate.
DMJM+HARRIS called upon previous experience for fast track type of railroad
bridge construction, and followed a concept, which allowed for shop fabrication
of large superstructure units with steel plate decks, which required minimal field
erection time. Preliminary superstructure designs were developed in
approximately four hours of initiating the fast track design. The design was
developed in accordance with the following criteria:
• Girders to be rolled beams, W sections
• Minimize all fabrication time
• Utilize four (4) girders minimum per track to provide redundancy
• Provide redundancy and eliminate FCM requirements
• Rolled sections must be from AISC Groups 1, 2 or 3
• Select section with web heavy enough to not require stiffeners
• Avoid welds, use bolted connection plate/angles for diaphragms, except at
the bearing stiffener location and walkway brackets in compression zone –
eliminates fatigue problem
• Design for A36 allowable stresses, use higher grade steel in fabrication, if
available
• The steel girders are designed non-composite with the steel deck plate
• The steel deck plate is detailed to act compositely with the girders, however,
it is sacrificial.
In addition to the criteria established above, the design utilized was SEPTA’s
standard, which follows AREMA with only the Cooper E-80 Live Load.
However, as CSXT has trackage rights on the line, DMJM+HARRIS also
evaluated the structure for the 100 kip alternate axle live load.
Substructure Alternatives
Foundations
Preliminary scour analysis by the Civil/Hydraulic engineers indicated that deep
foundations would be required for both:
• The high foundation loads.
• The scour potential of up to 20 feet.
The two (2) options for deep foundations were either:
• Driven piles – HP or pipe.
• Drilled Shafts – caissons.
Drilled shafts with cored rock sockets were selected for the foundations due to:
• Providing high axial load capacity from railroad bridges.
• Ability to be constructed with low head room equipment if necessary.
• Socketing provides excellent scour resistance.
• Lateral load capacity from seismic and flood loadings can be readily provided
for.
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• Drilled shaft could be positioned to also support catenary structure now on

bridge.
• A precast concrete pier cap could be designed to fit on the shafts.
• A single drilled shaft design could be utilized at all pier and abutment
locations.
Cap Design
A precast pier cap would allow for the concurrent forming, casting and curing of
a cap ready to be picked, set and anchored upon completion of the drilled shafts.
The key constructibility issues were:
• Erection pick weight.
• Reinforcement - sizing and placement.
• Concrete strength required for erection.
• Connections to the drilled shafts.
Key Project Coordination and Scheduling – The engineering team immediately recognized
Elements that several tasks must be performed simultaneously if the schedule was to be
met. Tasks, as a minimum, involved:
• Demolition & Site Access
• In-depth inspection and scour (underwater) evaluation to confirm apparent
undermining
• Establishment of survey control
• Emergency Environmental Permits
• Utility coordination
• Easements for use of private property
• Subsurface exploration contingent on the findings of the underwater
inspection
• Structural design
• Development of construction documents
• Procurement of contractor via emergency procedures
Critical Design • Design Load criteria

Considerations • Scour evaluation
• Allowable lateral deflection of the drilled shafts
• Pick Weight of Precast Pier caps
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Project Challenges • Biddable design Documents in 3 to 5 days

• Project Schedule – 5 weeks construction & design
• Acquisition of steel
• Site access restrictions on use of equipment due to PECO overbuild
Lessons Learned • Avoiding anchor bolt problems through control of reinforcing placement
• Avoidance of confined steel details, causing fabrication and erection
difficulties
• The importance of proper sequencing in construction
• The ability of the entire project team to function for a unified goal and not
for separate agendas
• Need for Continual Communication
Recipe for Success • Establishment of Project Core Team Members

• Clear Project Target Scope
• Continual Communication
• Extended periods of round-the-clock work
• Coordination at as many as five different fabrication sites
• Careful coordination of work around PECO high voltage overhead lines
• Flexibility in the design details
• Rapid resolution of design and field questions
• Use of SEPTA construction forces for key track and electric traction work
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• Cooperation of regulatory agencies in expediting permits.

• Inter and Intra Company Coordination
AREMA •
Reference #
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Appendix
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Appendix
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APPENDIX A – APPLIED SCIENCE FOR RAILWAY TRACKS – 1946 TO 2002
Applied Science for Railway Tracks

1946 to 2002
Robert R. Morrish, P.Eng.
Retired Chief Engineer
Up until 1947, almost all of track maintenance work was carried out using hand tools.
Picks, shovels, brush and grass cutting scythes, post hole augers, fence stretchers and
pliers, were used to for care of right of way, drainage and fencing.
Lining bars, were used to move the track to proper alignment. The proper alignment
was determined using an engineer's transit, a carpenter's string, or simply by "eye".
Track jacks, tamping picks, tamping bars, or track trowels were used to jack the track
to proper elevation and place the ballast under the ties. The proper elevation was
determined using an engineer's level, or a sighting block and board and a track cross
level board. The ballast was trimmed using track shovels and rock ballast forks.
Tie renewals were carried out by using spike pullers to remove the spikes, a pinch bar
to pry up the rail to permit the removal of the tie plate, picks and shovels to remove
the ballast from the ends and sides of the ties, tie tongs to pull out the defective tie and
insert the new tie. Tamping bars or tamping picks and shovels were used to place the
required amount of ballast under the new tie and shovels and rock forks were used to
trim the ballast.
Spike pullers, rail tongs, rail forks, spike hammers, track gauges, rail saws, rail drills,
track wrenches, rail chisels and files, and rail benders were used for rail and fastening
renewals and turnout and special trackwork maintenance. Grindstones were used to
sharpen tools.
Snow brooms, snow shovels and scrapers were used to remove snow from turnouts
and station platforms. Hand cars, track velocipedes, push cars, and track motor cars
were used to transport men and materials.
A more detailed description of this work can be found in a book entitled

“ROADWAY and TRACK” by Walter F. Wrench (formerly Track Supervisor -
Pennsylvania Railroad), Simmons-Boardman Publishing Corporation. A book by the
same author and publisher entitled “Simplified Curve and Switch Work” gives details
on how to string line curves.
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Before 1948, (with the exception of a few gasoline powered rail drills and saws, electric
or pneumatic powered hand held tampers, locomotive cranes, and ballast discers), the
only machine help for trackmen came from:
• Ledgerwood and plows for unloading ballast and gravel from “HART’’ cars
• Jordan spreader ditchers pushed by a locomotive
• Snowplows and snow spreaders also pushed by a locomotive
• An air powered crane mounted on the end of a flat car for loading rails
Dr. Elmer A. Sperry, a noted inventor and founder of various Sperry enterprises,
provided the first major breakthrough in technology. In 1927, he contracted with the
Association of American Railroads (A.A.R.) to build a rail flaw detector car and to
supply a rail flaw detection service for the railways. The "SPERRY CAR" became a
household name in the railway industry and saved the railways millions of dollars by
detecting rail flaws before the rails fractured under trains. The detector cars provided
the railways with data that enabled them to identify bad rail rollings and enabled the rail
producer to identify problems in the manufacture of the rail. Sperry Rail Service Inc.
produced rail defect manuals and has made them available to foremen, roadmasters,
and track engineers. This has made it easier for foremen and track inspectors to find
flawed rails in the track by visual inspection. The book has given track maintenance
personnel a better overall knowledge about rail and its manufacture and history.
Prior to mechanization, the organization for maintaining the track, even though it had
some faults, was reasonably well structured. A typical track section was 5 to 10 miles
long and under the supervision of a section foreman. He had 3 to 5 section men
working for him in the summer and 1 to 3 in winter.
In the summer, the section gang's main activities were:
• Surfacing and lining
• Tie renewals
• Drainage and ditching improvements
• Weed and brush control
• Road crossing maintenance
• Track gauging, and replacement of flawed or worn out rails.
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In the winter the section gang was responsible for:
• Snow removal from turnouts
• Road crossings and station platforms
• Shimming track where there were frost heaves
• Gauging of track
• Replacement of flawed or worn out rails.
The planning and execution of the work was the responsibility of the section foreman
and the roadmaster and was dictated by visual inspections, the Sperry car, the
Maintenance of Way Rule Book, and uniform code of safety rules. A typical
roadmaster's territory was usually a subdivision of track approximately 100 to 130 miles
in length.
On most of the major railways, the section foreman reported to the roadmaster, who
in turn reported to the division engineer, and/or the Division Superintendent. The
division engineer reported to the Division Superintendent (and to the District
Engineer). The District Engineer reported to the general superintendent and/or the
Engineer Maintenance of Way. The Engineer Maintenance of Way reported to the
Operating Vice President and/or the Chief Engineer. The Chief Engineer reported to
the System Vice President of Operations and Maintenance.
The planning, scheduling and execution of work for major rail, ballasting and tie
renewal programs was the joint responsibility of the roadmasters, the division
engineers, the District Engineers and the Engineer Maintenance of Way - with the
approval and cooperation of the operating people, i.e. the Division Superintendents,
the General Superintendents, and the Vice President Operation and Maintenance. The
Chief Engineer was seldom involved in the planning and execution of the work but
approved the overall program. He also looked after Track Standards, Standard Plans,
Special Plans, specifications for rail, fastenings, special track work, ballast and ties and
also the scheduling of the Sperry car. The Chief Engineer had similar responsibilities
for bridges, structures, buildings and signals, and overall budgeting of money.
The organization had many flaws even though it was fairly well structured. Almost
every engineering officer from roadmaster up reported to two people. Quite often, he
ended up reporting to the officer who had the strongest personality, or who he liked
the best, or could do the most for him in terms of more money, materials etc., for the
track under his jurisdiction. There was also duplication and overlapping of authority
and not enough cooperation and communication between departments, i.e.
Engineering, Purchasing, Mechanical, Transportation, Marketing and Sales.
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The duplication of reporting lines of authority along with work methods that were very
labor intensive, a deteriorating track structure, increased traffic volumes, larger cars and
increased wheel loadings, opened the doors for new technology, machines and work
methods, and also for organizational changes. The leaders in all of these changes and
improvements as far as track, bridges & structures were concerned, were the railway
civil engineers. Many of these engineers had field experience by working as
Roadmasters or B&B Masters as part of their training. A few railway civil engineers
even went on to become a vice president or president of the railway. From an
organizational point of view, the first layer of the bureaucracy to be eliminated was the
district. This occurred in the mid 50`s. Organizational changes have been an on going
thing ever since. The changes were required to eliminate duplication of effort, to
promote teamwork, encourage better communication between departments and to
achieve overall corporate objectives, particularly when traffic and other conditions
change.
In order to reduce hand labor, the first machines that were adopted universally were
the small relatively inexpensive machines like rail drills, rail saws, and bolting machines.
The use of Burro Cranes, locomotive cranes and speed swings became more common
because they could be used for many jobs – handling rails, track and bridge ties, bridge
girders and short bridge spans to name a few.
Rail renewal gangs were, and still are, a major expense for railways. They were the first
gangs to be mechanized. Gasoline powered rail drills, rail saws, bolting machines, spike
pullers, spike drivers, and small caterpillar mounted rail lifting cranes were purchased
and introduced into the gangs. Mechanization reduced the number of men on the
gangs, gave a good return on the investment and reduced injuries. Shortly after the
mechanization of the rail renewal gangs came mechanization of the ballast renewal
gangs.
Hand tamping and power tampers and liners could now do lining, formerly done by
tamping and lining bars, and track trowels. Ballast profiling and regulating, formerly
done by rock forks and shovels, could now be done by mechanized ballast regulators.
The first models of the self-propelled track tampers required the track to be lifted by
hand jacks. In the early 1960`s, these machines were replaced by self propelled
tampers that had the capability of lifting the track to a pre-determined grade and cross
elevation and at the same time tamping ballast under the track. By 1963, these
machines were improved so that they could automatically line the track while the track
was being lifted. These machines are continually being refined and upgraded, not only
for improved speed and production, but also for quality of work.
In order to reduce the possibility of buckled track, ballast compactors or track

stabilizers now follow behind the ballast regulator in these gangs. Ballast compactors
have been replaced by dynamic track stabilizers, which have the capability of producing
a very stable track condition and at the same time maintaining the line and surface
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established by the tamper liner. Considerable research has been carried out by the AAR
and also in Europe regarding economics and selection of tamping methods and
practices, including the advantages and savings that are gained by using dynamic track
stabilizers. Summaries of this research has been written up in “Railway Track &
Structures", March 1995, January 1998, and February 1999 issues.
In the 1960`s, most major railways mechanized their tie renewal gangs. For economy,
these gangs work over a territory every 5 to 7 years instead of annually (when the ties
were renewed by the section gangs). The negative side of this change is that pockets of
defective ties can develop, which can cause gauge widening under load and possible
derailments.
In the 1970`s, the utilization of track undercutters and ballast cleaners became quite
common. These machines have the capability of removing all of the ballast from the
ballast cribs and shoulders and from under the ties, then shaking out the dirt and fines
that are not wanted, and retrieving the good ballast. The good ballast is returned to the
ballast section and the rejected materials are placed on the railway embankments, or
loaded into air dumps or material conveyor cars for disposal at selected locations.
Over the years, these machines have been improved in terms of reliability, production
and quality of work.
Probably the most important change for track improvement and reduction of
maintenance costs evolved from the introduction in the early 1960`s of continuous
welded rail. Initially the new rails were delivered to the rail welding plants in 39-foot
lengths and welded into 1440-foot lengths. Later on the steel mills rolled the rails in
80-foot lengths, which cut the welding at the rail plants in half with similar reductions
in the possibility of weld failures. After laying the 1440-foot lengths in the track, the
joints at the ends of the long rails are welded with thermite welds.
The released rails recovered from the new rail programs are classified. The salvable
rails are then cropped of their drilled ends and welded into a variety of lengths up to
1600-foot strings for use on other main track or secondary lines and yards depending
on the rail wear exhibited.
In the 1950`s, Centralized Traffic Control was implemented on selected subdivisions

on many railways. This system included power operated switches, which created a
need for switch heaters to remove snow and ice. The railways with the co-operation of
the supply industry designed and built switch heaters to facilitate operation of the
switches in winter. There is still a need for a more reliable and more efficient switch
heaters, or snow blowers to remove snow and ice from switches.
In the 1930`s, rail lubricators were introduced to reduce rail flange wear in curved
territories. Since the time they were originally introduced, there have been many
improvements in the design of the lubricators, the quality of the lubrication and
identifying better locations for the lubricators.
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In the late 1960`s and early 1970`s, increased volumes of traffic and increased wheel
loadings caused extensive corrugations on the rail surface. The supply industry
responded to the problem by developing and manufacturing rail grinding trains, which
removed the corrugations and extended the life of the rail. Since then, preventative rail
grinding programs have been developed which has resulted in a further extension of
rail life.
Another important development was the introduction of track evaluation cars in the
1960`s. These cars have the capability of finding wide gauge, lateral kinks and poor line
and surface and measuring and prioritizing these deficiencies.. By overlaying charts
from previous runs, track maintenance officers can see adverse trends that are
developing. Proper action will ensure that a small defect will not develop into a large
defect, or that priority defects will not re-occur at the same location. Curve reports
point out required changes in curve geometry to reduce rail wear. Rail curve wear
measurements by these cars reduces the need to perform time consuming manual
measurements when setting priorities for curve patching rail and rail transposal. The
information provided by these cars gives all engineering officers and foremen an
additional important tool for setting priorities and planning track maintenance.
Over the years, there has been constant improvement in the quality of rail, fastenings,
turnouts and special track work. These improvements have been accelerated by
competition from the Japanese steel mills. There has also been a steady increase in the
weight of rail. In the 1940`s, the rail of choice was 100 lb./yard on main lines (130 lb.
at a few selected locations) and 85 lb., 72 lb. and 65 lb. on branch lines. The rail of
choice is now 133 lb. or 136 lb. on main lines and 115 lb., 100 lb. or 90 lb. on
secondary and branch lines. The rail of the future will likely be the new AREMA 141
lb. for heavy haul main lines.
Track improvements have also been achieved by better quality and better specifications
for track and switch ties, and increasing the length of track ties from 8 ft. to 8.5 or 9 ft.
on primary main lines and secondary main lines that have high tonnage and heavy
wheel loadings. Success has been achieved with concrete ties, although there have
been problems at some locations. Steel ties have been used with success where
overhead clearance is a problem. Rolled tie plates spiked to ties with screw spikes and
designed to hold the rail with elastic fasteners are used on curves of 8 degrees or more.
Since 1988, the railways have or are adopting the following improvements:
• Cleaner, head hardening of steel, which goes deeper into the head of rails. Super
pearlite and hypereutechtiod steels are under development.
• Optical (laser) measurement of rail wear.
• Maintenance planning computer models.
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• Chemical tie plugging
• Better electronic rail lubricators
• Improved maintenance procedures and specifications for concrete ties.
• Replacement of track motor cars with hi-rail vehicles
• All welded turnouts with integral base plates
• Improved switch point geometry.
• Improved rail grinding technology.
• Gauge restraint measuring vehicles.
• Wheel impact load detectors
• Hot wheel detectors
• Continuing improvement of all machines, i.e., quality, reliability & ease of

operation, better quality of work and more production.
• Tamping machines that will give a better distribution of ballast under the full width
of the tie from the tie ends to 16” inside the rail. This will create longer cycles
between tamping work, extend tie life and retard tie splitting.
Enough cannot be said about the ingenuity and co-operation of the supply industry.
Without them, most of these improvements would not have been possible. The North
American Railway organizations, i.e., the AREMA (and prior to its organization - the
AREA) and the AAR performed work, which has enabled North American railroads
to maintain a track structure that will carry current and projected volumes of traffic,
and wheel loadings at time table listed speeds. An example of the work of the AREA
is a "Handbook of Instructions for Care and operation of Maintenance of Way
Equipment", published in 1957. The book contains many good basic instructions,
which are still applicable today.
Mechanization, changes in work methods, and the fact that many of the activities
formerly performed by section gangs are now being done by specialized gangs has
resulted in substantial reductions in section forces and lengthening of track sections. A
typical track section is now 30 or more miles in length instead of 5 to 7. The typical
section gang is composed of a foreman and 3 men. The gang may be equipped with a
5-ton hy-rail truck with a 5-man crew cab, a 6-ton crane for changing rails and turnout
components, a hydraulic power system capable of running any 2 of the following
machines at the same time:
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• Power rail drill
• Power rail saw
• Bolting machine
• Power spike puller
• Power spike driver
• Power hand tampers
• Power wrench
The truck body is designed to carry a normal complement of track tools and supplies.
The Track Supervisor (his title was formerly Roadmaster) is assigned a 10-ton hy-rail
truck equipped with a 14-ton crane, a 2-man welding gang, a shared production
tamper/liner and a shared Burro Crane. The section foreman has access to these
machines on request from the Track Supervisor. The 10-ton truck is used for
delivering track materials and supplies, changing rails and turnout components. The
truck is also equipped with a tank and pump for filling rail lubricators.
An activity that received major benefits from mechanization, new technology and work
methods is material handling and distribution. The utilization of machines for
handling track materials has resulted in reductions in:
• Injuries
• Cost
• Damage to the materials being handled
• Train delays
• Use of costly work trains
Prior to the mid 1940`s, rail was received on flat cars and unloaded by turning and
prying the rail off the side of the car on to the ballast shoulder with a hand tool called a
rail fork. A work train was required for the operation. When locomotive, Burro and
other rail cranes became available; they were used for unloading rails. This reduced rail
damage, reduced labor costs, reduced injuries and eliminated the necessity for a work
train.
Before crawler cranes, the released rails were loaded on to flat cars using numerous
laborers to lift each rail or by an air powered crane mounted on the front of a flat car .
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When crawler cranes became available, the crane was loaded on the second car of a
train of empty open top cars. The crane then loaded the car between it and the
locomotive and then backed on to the third car behind the locomotive and loaded the
second car. This procedure was repeated until the entire train was loaded with rails.
Crawler cranes could be used in a similar manner for unloading rails. Locomotive
cranes, Burro and Bert Pike cranes later were used to load released rails as an
alternative to the crawler cranes on open top cars. These cranes eliminated the
necessity of a work train.
The introduction of continuous welded rail made it necessary to design special trains of
cars with special rail carrying racks. CWR trains made it possible to unload the long
welded rails at the exact location where the rail is to be laid by using an anchoring and
cable winch operation. The rail is literally pulled or pushed out by moving the cars out
from under the rail. The procedure is repeated until the entire train is unloaded. The
released rails can be loaded onto the same rail train.
Prior to mechanization, track ties were received in box cars, cattle cars or gondola cars.
The ties were unloaded from these cars by pulling and pushing the ties out of the car
doors with the help of tie hooks and tie tongs. The ties were unloaded out of gondola
cars by lifting the ties over the sides of the gondola cars. A work train was required for
the operation. If a work train was not available, the ties were unloaded at the nearest
siding or spur to where they were to be installed and moved to the work site by a push
car towed by a track motor car. The ties were installed with hand tools and the
released ties were piled and burned.
A special crane (jimbo tie unloader), that has the capability of moving over the tops of
the cars on wheels that travel on the top of the sidewalls, is now one of the modern
methods used to unload the ties. Mechanized gangs install the new ties and the
released ties are picked up and loaded into open top cars using self propelled cranes.
An alternative is a work train with drop end open top cars. Crawler cranes that can
travel through the cars load the ties. The loaded gondola cars are moved to the nearest
siding for sale to landscape gardeners or for shipment to a disposal site.
Many of the larger railroads under contract with equipment manufacturer's, such as
Plasser American Corporation, are currently using fully mechanized tie handling and
track surfacing systems for high production tie renewals and high speed track surfacing,
lining and stabilization. This gang is capable of:
• Carrying with it all of the new track spikes and ties
• Removing the defective ties
• Unloading and installing the new ties
• Picking up and loading the released ties into open top cars
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• Picking up and loading the released track spikes
• Spreading and distributing ballast
• Surfacing, lining and stabilizing the track
• Taking the released materials to the nearest siding or spur for disposal
Among other advantages, this gang eliminates the need for a work train to distribute
ties and fastenings ahead of the gang and a work train or self-propelled cranes for
picking up released ties and fastenings behind the gang.
Prior to mechanization, tie plates and track fastenings were unloaded by hand from
open top cars by throwing the tie plates and fastenings over the side of the cars. This
operation required a work train. An alternative was to unload them at the nearest
siding or spur and then load them on to push cars and distribute them by pulling the
push cars to the work site with a track motor car. The released materials were picked
up by using a work train and by using a reversal of the process used to distribute them.
Mechanization brought the use of cranes equipped with magnets, which greatly
facilitated the unloading, distribution and pick-up of tie plates and fastenings.
Turnout materials were formerly unloaded from flat cars by using lining bars to pry the
materials off the side of the car at the siding or spur or at the location where the
material was to be installed. The released switch points and frogs were then loaded
onto flat cars using lining bars and skids. Today, cranes (rail and hy-rail equipped)
handle the job of turnout component material handling.
Over the last 60 years, there have been many examples of railway construction projects
that have involved new technology, new work methods and new materials. One such
undertaking was Canadian Pacific Railway's four grade reductions and double tracking
project (1977–1988) between Lake Louise and Chase.
In the early 1970`s, four major bottlenecks were identified on the Calgary – Vancouver
main line. At each bottleneck, grades of more than 1% necessitated smaller trains or
pusher locomotives to assist westward trains over these heavy grade sections. By the
end of 1979, the 11.2-mile diversion at Salmon Arm, and the 4.1-mile diversion at
Revelstoke had been completed. The 6.8-mile diversion at Lake Louise was completed
in 1981. In each case, a second main line track was constructed to a maximum grade
of 1%. The existing track continues to be used primarily by eastbound trains and the
heavy westbound traffic moves on the new track.
The more difficult Rogers Pass project was left to last. Construction of the almost 11
miles of surface route leading up to the tunnels was as much an engineering feat as the
construction of the 9 mile tunnel. Six bridges having a total length of 5,491 feet and
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four major culverts were constructed. The largest bridge, the John Fox Bridge (named
after the Engineer in charge of the overall Rogers Pass project) is a 4,032 long structure
crossing an area of extremely steep slopes. The elevated structure was selected over
"cut and fill" methods for both environmental and economic reasons.
Between 1972 and 1982, numerous geology, engineering and environmental studies
were done on the route. State-of-the-art computer technology was used to capture
and present geology and survey data, perform complex roadbed design, and assess the
visual aspect of the project. Five routes were studied before the present route was
selected. The new surface route begins at Rogers siding where as many as six
locomotives were kept to push westbound trains up the 2% grade to Stoney Creek.
The surface route continues up to the east portal of the short tunnel. There is a short
piece of surface route (4500 feet) between the 1-mile tunnel and the long 9-mile tunnel.
To construct the surface route more than 1.5 million cubic yards of overburden and
520,000 cubic yards of rock had to be excavated.
Both new tunnels were constructed to accommodate future electrification. The

finished interior is 17 feet wide on tangent track and 18 feet wide on curves with an
overall height of 25 feet - 10 inches above top of rail. The track in the tunnels is
constructed on reinforced concrete slab rather than on conventional ballast and track
ties. Concrete ties were used on the surface route. The entire length of the long tunnel
is concrete lined and is illuminated.
One of the more complicated aspects of the long tunnel was the its ventilation system.
The ventilation system is important because exhaust fumes from one train must be
purged from the tunnel before the next train enters. If the ventilation system is too
slow, fewer trains will be able to use the tunnel. This creates a capacity problem that
the project was designed to solve. A mid-tunnel ventilation shaft was required that
allows twice the train frequency that could be achieved by having the ventilation system
at the ends of the tunnel. The ventilation system was designed to be able to run a train
through the tunnel every half hour.
The overall project was under the supervision of John Fox who was promoted from
Chief Engineer to Vice President of Special projects to oversee the work. The
planning, design and execution of the work was done by Canadian Pacific engineers,
with specialized consultants brought in when required. The Rogers Pass work was
completed on schedule and under budget and it opened up the last of the four
bottlenecks between Calgary and Vancouver
Similar, smaller and larger projects have been carried out throughout the world. They
present opportunities to develop better and newer technology, better materials and
new work methods; all of which can be used elsewhere in the railway industry.
Traditionally, railway engineers have always done an excellent job in designing a track
structure capable of carrying current traffic volumes and wheel loadings, but also for
the foreseeable future. This is evident in the fact that we still have the same basic track
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structure that we had 60 years ago. The railways have achieved this by strengthening
and improving the basic parts of the track structure, i.e. rail, fastenings, ties, ballast,
turnouts and special trackwork. Improved technology, modern machines and more
efficient work methods combined with fixed plant improvements like grade reductions,
double tracking and better signaling and communications has further assisted railways
in carrying heavier wheel loadings and larger volumes of traffic at increased speeds.
60 years ago, more attention was paid to the care and appearance of the right of way
than that given today. Cash prizes were given to the station agent with the cleanest
and the best looking station and station grounds on the district; the section foreman
whose territory was the best maintained and had the best looking track and right of
way on the district. Even though the same attention is not being given to the
appearance of the railway right of way, most railways have been industry leaders as far
as environmental and safety responsibilities are concerned. Many railways have one or
more environmental engineers on their staff or hire environmental engineering
consultants when required. And for more than 60 years, safety has been the number
ONE responsibility of every railway employee.
Final Thoughts
By the year 1988, almost all track and bridge work was being performed with the
assistance of machines. Virtually every major railroad in North America had Track
Geometry cars and/or Track Evaluation cars. Gauge Restraint technology and tools
for measuring rail wear are being added to these cars. Personal computers and cell
phones have became important tools for communicating. Computers have asserted
their role as an important tool for bridge design, planning and the solving of other
problems.
With all of the above, there has been constant pressure from railway management to
reduce capital and maintenance expenses. Naturally, everyone wants to see all the
machines and new technology purchased being fully utilized. New records for high
production and low cost have become the norm. This combination of events has
caused some North American railways to get away from some basic Engineering time-
worn rules and methods of doing work. The number one concern is the sometimes
lack of quality of work performed. A representative sampling of other concerns
include:
1. Turnouts, road crossings at grade and track at the ends of open deck bridges
are relative weak points in the track structure and expensive and difficult to
maintain. In many circumstances, it is not economical to use high production
gangs for rail renewals, tie renewals, ballast renewals and lining and surfacing
work at these locations. As a result, this work is quite often skipped. When
these areas are skipped, plans should be in place to use smaller specialized
gangs to do the work, preferably when the large gang has been given a work
block in the area. Tie renewals, ballast cleaning, drainage requirements, and
lining and surfacing in these difficult areas cannot be ignored.
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2. The technology built into the Track Geometry and Track Evaluation cars has
not yet reached the point where it can completely replace historical records,
visual inspections and field measurements for rail and tie renewals, ballasting
and locations for lining and surfacing. All too often, requests from Track
Maintenance Supervisors for this work are ignored in favor of recordings from
the track evaluation car. Track Maintenance Supervisors still want to have
their voice heard and if a Track Maintenance Supervisor’s request warrants
a hy-rail field inspection by senior Engineering officers and Operating officers,
it should be done. In years gone by, regular track inspections by senior railway
engineers and operating officers were the norm.
3. Quite often thousands of dollars are spent on ballast cleaning, undercutting

and lining and surfacing programs without provision for proper drainage. If a
material that is not free draining surrounds areas of the track, the water has no
way to get out and the impervious material must be removed and or proper
drainage provided. If there is a mud spot, it is due to improper drainage or a
subgrade problem. Modern-day section gangs do not have the manpower and
other resources to take care of these problems and usually a specialized gang is
required to do the work.
Author's Note
It is not necessary to be a rocket scientist to be a good railway civil engineer. However

a heavy dose of the following qualities is mandatory:
• Lots of common sense, creativity, long-term vision and patience.
• A solid knowledge of what is happening in other areas of the operation of the

railway i.e. Transportation, Operations, Marketing & Sales, and Purchasing &
Stores.
• Keep abreast of new research and practices by AREMA, the AAR, the supply
industry, and the European and other foreign railways.
• Good management and leadership qualities to make sure that you and all of the
people under your jurisdiction are working in the best interest of the railway. You
will be expected to be part of a team that will build and maintain a fixed plant that
will respond to every need of the railway.
• Possess excellent oral and written communication

skills.
• Surround yourself with good people. Be able to recognize their capabilities and
give them every opportunity to work to their full potential.
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Robert R. Morrrish, P.Eng., Retired Chief Engineer, Canadian Pacific Railway
West Vancouver, British Columbia
Canada V7T 1P5
Phone 604 926 1607
Fax 604 926 1009
e-mail lbmorrish@shaw.ca
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APPENDIX B - TURNOUTS, CONNECTIONS AND CROSSINGS
Turnouts, Connections and

Crossings58
Turnouts
The distance P between this actual frog point and the theoretical point, or intersection
of gage lines, equals the width of the blunt point multiplied by the frog number.
The frog number is the ratio of the axial length to the spread, that is, it is the distance,
measured along the bisector of the frog angle, in which the gage lines diverge a unit
distance. Expressed as a trigonometric function,
N = ½ cot 1/2F
Values of N from 7 to 20 are commonly used, but for special purposes values from 3
to 30 are occasionally used.
Location of Turnouts
The first step in staking out a turnout is to establish the position of the frog. The heel
or the toe of the frog should come at a regular rail joint in order to avoid short pieces
of rail in the track. Knowing the length of the frog to be used, the position of the
point of frog, P.F., can be fixed. The next step is to mark the position of the point of
switch, P.S. Measuring along the main track a distance, which is called the lead L, does
this. If this brings the point of switch too near a rail joint, the position of the frog must
be changed, making the toe of the frog come at a rail joint instead of the heel, or vice
versa. Having satisfactorily established the positions of the point of frog and the point
of switch, the outside rail of the turnout curve is then located. This is done by
measuring offsets from the gage line of the outside main rail at the middle and quarter
points of the turnout curve. The inner turnout rail is set by gage from the outer rail.
Turnouts from Straight Track

Since the frog and the switch rails are straight, the alignment of a turnout is not a
simple curve throughout, but consists of two short pieces of tangent connected by
a simple curve.
58 The above material is extracted from the text “Route Surveying,” Chapter 8, Pickels & Wiley, 1947.
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The solution of the turnout curve is as follows:
In triangle 1, Fig. 1, the hypotenuse is the distance from the top to point of frog
and the angles are known. Solve the triangle for the base m and the altitude n.
In triangle 2, the altitude, q = g – h – n, and the angles are known. Solve the
triangle for the base j and the hypotenuse c. c is also the long chord of the outside
rail of the turnout curve, whose central angle is F - s; hence, the radius of the
turnout curve can be computed from the equation:
R + ½ g = c/{2 sin ½(F – s)}
The distance L along the straight main track from the P.S. to the P.F. is:
L = l + j + m + P = Theoretical Lead Length Equation
To compute the offsets from the main track rail to the outside rail of the turnout
curve, extend the turnout curve through the switch angle s until its tangent is
parallel to the main rail. The distance between these tangents is:
e = h - (R + ½ g) vers s
Fig. 1
The offset from the gage line of the main track rail to the gage line of the turnout curve
at its quarter point is then:
y1 = e + (R + ½ g) vers (s + ¼(F – s)
For the middle point:
y2 = e + (R + ½ g) vers (s + ½(F – s)
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And for the three-quarters point:
y3 = e + (R + ½ g) vers (s + ¾(F – s)
Turnouts from Curved Track

It can be shown that the lead of a turnout from a curved track is practically the
same as the lead of a turnout from a straight track with the same frog number.
Also, the degree of the turnout curve is equal to the degree of curve of the turnout
from a straight track increased or diminished by the degree of the main track
curve, depending on whether the turnout is on the inside or on the outside of the
main track curve. A turnout from a curved track, therefore, is staked out with the
same dimensions as one with the same frog number from a straight track.
Since in jointed rail, it is undesirable do use short pieces or odd lengths of rails; it
is the universal practice to modify the theoretical leads so as to use more
convenient lengths of lead rails. The difference between the theoretical lead and
the practical lead is never very great, and the turnout is located as previously
explained except for this modification in the lead. Changing the lead has the
effect of changing the degree of the turnout curve.
Connections
Connections are the tracks used to connect a turnout from a main track with (1) a
diverging track, (2) a parallel siding, or (3) a turnout on another track.
Diverging Tracks
From Straight Track
The solution of this problem requires that I, N, R, K and P be known. I is the

intersection angle between the diverging track and the straight main track. It is
measured in the field after the point of intersection, A, has been determined. The
angle should be measured to the nearest one-half minute.
N is the frog number chosen for the turnout.
The value of N is determined by the standard practice of the individual railroad.
R is the radius chosen for the connecting curve. The factors that affect the choice of R
and D are (1) the degree of the turnout curve, (2) the topography, and (3) special space
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limitations. Of these factors, the first is generally the one that determines the value of
R. In general, an even value of D is chosen, which is slightly less than the degree of the
turnout curve. The degrees of the turnout curves for the various frogs can be found in
the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering.
K is the frog tangent, or the length of tangent between the actual point of frog and the
T.C. of the connecting curve.
The minimum value of K is the distance from the actual point, to the heel of the frog.
Generally, values of K from 20 to 40 ft. are chosen, the larger values being adapted to
the sharper curves.
Fig. 2
P is the distance from the actual to the theoretical point of frog. It is equal to the width
of the blunt point of the frog multiplied by the frog number. This width is usually ½
in.
The solution of this problem requires the computation of the data necessary to locate
(1) the P.F., (2) the T.C., and (3) the C.T. In triangle 1, Fig. 2, all the angles and the
side, m = gN + P + K + R tan 2(I - F), are known, whence the sides n and j can be
computed.
The point B and the C.T. of the connecting curve are located from point A by the
distances n and j + R tan 2 (I - F), respectively. The P.F. is located from B by the
coordinates gN + P and 2g. The T.C. of the connecting curve is located from B by the
angle F and the distance gN + P + K. For standard gage, g = 4.708 ft.
The frog, as located in the preceding paragraph, will rarely fit the rail joints of an
existing track and will have to be moved either forward or backward until one end does
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meet a rail joint. This involves a change in the location of the point B and the C.T.,
and a change in the length of the frog tangent K . The amount of movement is found
in the field by locating the P . F . with the computed dimensions and then with the
known dimensions of the frog, measuring the distance from either end of the frog to
Obviously triangle 1 could be recomputed using the revised value of the side n , but it
is simpler to determine the corrections to all dimensions by using a correction triangle.
Fig. 3
In Fig. 3, n ’ is the distance the frog must be moved, j’ is the amount the C.T. must be
shifted, and m’ is the change of length of the frog tangent K. All of these will be
negative if the frog is moved forward and positive if it is moved backward.
This triangle may be solved trigonometrically, but it is often easier to solve it by simple
proportion since:
j' : j :: n' : n and m' : m :: n' : n
The corrections, j’, m’ and n’, are then applied to the computed dimensions, j , m and
n, with the proper sign and the points located in the field as previously outlined. The
connecting curve is then run in. It is good practice to back it in from the C.T., since a
longer backsight for orienting the transit can be obtained at this point than at the T.C.
and it saves a set-up.
Turnout from the Inside of a Curved Main Track
Points A and H on circular curve
The data and the requirements of this problem are the same as in the preceding
problem, except that the main track is on a D° curve.
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In triangle 1, Fig. 4, the hypotenuse and the angles are known, and the other two sides
are computed as shown in the figure.
In triangle 2, the base and the altitude can be found by arithmetic. Solve the triangle
for the hypotenuse and the angle a.
In triangle 3, the hypotenuse and the angles are known, and the other two sides are,
computed as shown in the figure.
Fig. 4
In triangle 4, the hypotenuse OO1, is known from triangle 2, and the side O1J can be
found by arithmetic. Solve the triangle for the side OJ and the angle b.
Then x = a - b + (90 - I) - (90 - F)
=a -b-I-F
y=a-b
The point H opposite the theoretical point of frog is located from point A by
measuring along the centerline the distance AH (in feet) = (x/D)100. The C.T. is
located from point A by the distance AE = AG - EG = AG - JO.
The T.C. is best located as follows: set-up over H; back-sight on A; turn off 1/2x to get
on tangent; locate M for a temporary back-sight; plunge telescope and set point B a
distance gN from H; set-up at B and back-sight on M; turn off the frog angle and
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locate the T.C. on this line a distance gN + P + K from B; set point Q for a temporary
back-sight; set-up at the T.C., back-sight on Q, and run in the connecting curve to
point E.
It is to be especially noted that when R cos. I is less than R1, the line OJ, Fig. 4, falls on
the other side of the line 001, and the sign of the angle b where:
x = a – b – I - F and y = a – b, becomes plus.
The frog, as located opposite H in Fig. 4, will rarely come at an existing rail joint in the
main track, and it must be moved forward or backward until it does. This involves a
change in the location of the point B and of the C.T., and a change in the length of the
frog tangent K. The solution is as follows:
In Fig. 5, the points A, H, B, T.C., and C.T. have the same positions as in Fig. 4. It is
necessary to move the P.F. forward, as shown, a measured distance d to a point
opposite H’. The angle z through which the frog is moved is found from the equation,
z (in minutes) = 0.6dD
The moving of the P.F. makes the following changes in the track layout.
1. The direction of the frog tangent is changed an amount equal to the angle z.
2. The length and the position of the frog tangent are changed.
3. The central angle y of the connecting curve is decreased by the angle z, thereby
decreasing the length of the connecting curve.
4. The entire connecting curve is moved parallel to the tangent AE.
It is required to find the length of the new frog tangent and the distance the C.T. is
shifted.
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Fig. 5
In triangle 1, Fig. 5, the angles and the hypotenuse are known.
Solve the triangle for the base r and the altitude t.
In triangle 2, the base, q = K + P - r, and the angles are known. Solve the triangle for
altitude m and the hypotenuse n.
In triangle 3, the hypotenuse, u = R1 + 1/2g + t - m, and the angles are known. Solve
the triangle for the base v and the altitude s.
In triangle 4, the base, w = v - R1 - 1/2g, and the angles are known. Solve the triangle
for the altitude e and the hypotenuse f. Then:
The new K+P=n+s-e
And
The change in the C.T. = f
If the frog is moved backward, another figure is required for an accurate solution.
Although this figure will have a somewhat different appearance, the four triangles
necessary for the solution are constructed in the same manner as those shown in Fig. 5.
For example, triangle 1 is constructed with a hypotenuse equal to d and with a base and
altitude formed by dropping a perpendicular from the old P.F. to a line through the
new frog point parallel to the old frog tangent. The angle at H’, however, now
becomes F + 1/2z instead of F – 1/2z. The change in the length of the frog tangent
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and the change in the position of the C.T., however, are approximately the same as
when the frog is moved forward, but with opposite sign.
The solution of this problem, as given in Figs. 4 and 5, is based on the assumption that
the alignment of the main track is perfect. In many instances, however, the main line
curve will be found to be more or less out of correct alignment. In these cases, the
problem is best solved as follows:
1. Solve the triangles in Fig. 4. Measure from A the computed distance AH, and
locate point H.
2. Locate the point of frog so that the heel or the toe of the frog will come at the rail
joint nearest to the point H.
3. Set-up the transit in the center of the track opposite the selected point of frog, and
establish the tangent to the curve at this point by sighting at a point in the center of
the track 100 ft. ahead of the instrument, plunging the telescope, measuring the
deflection angle to a point in the center of the track 100 ft. back of the instrument,
and bisecting this deflection angle.
4. Measure back along the tangent thus established the distance gN, and locate a
point which corresponds to point B in Fig. 4.
5. Set-up at point B, turn off the frog angle from the tangent BH, and produce this
line to an intersection with the tangent, of the diverging track.
6. Set-up at this point of intersection and measure the intersection angle, which is the
central angle of the connecting curve.
7. From the P.I. established in step 5, lay off the tangent, distances for an R1 curve,
and locate the T.C. and the C.T. of the connecting curve.
Point A on curve, but point H on tangent
When the distance from the T.C. of the main line curve to the point A is so short that
it is evident from inspection that the frog point H will come on the tangent, the
procedure is somewhat different. In this case, point A is taken at the intersection of
the tangent of the diverging track and the tangent of the main track prolonged. The
problem then becomes the same as that illustrated in Fig. 2.
Point A on tangent and point H on curve
In Fig. 6, A is the intersection of the diverging track tangent and the main track
tangent. A' is the C.T. of the main track curve. The distance AA' is measured in the
field.
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Fig. 6
Triangles 1, 2 and 3 are exactly the same as in Fig. 4 and are solved in the same manner.
In triangle 4, Fig. 6, the hypotenuse AA' and the angles are known. Solve the triangle
for the base e and the altitude f.
In triangle 5, which corresponds to triangle 4 in Fig. 4, the hypotenuse OO1 is known

from triangle 2 and the side O1J is equal to R1 - OG' - EE', all of which are known. If
O1J comes out a minus quantity, then J falls on the left of O1, as shown in Fig. 4.
Solve the triangle for the side OJ and the angle b.
Then:
x = a + b* - I + F
y = a + b*
AH = AA' + A'H = AA' + (x/D)100
AE = A'G' - EG - A'L
* Angle b is minus when OG' is greater than O1E'.
If the C.T. of the main track curve is not monumented, it will be impossible to locate it
by inspection closer than about 10 ft.
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Point A on tangent and point H on curve with the main track curve spiraled
In Fig. 7, triangles 1, 2 and 3 are the same as in Fig. 6.
Fig. 7
In triangle 4, the angles and the altitude, o = spiral offset, are known. Solve the triangle
for the base m and the hypotenuse n. In triangle 5, the angles and the hypotenuse, A
A' = t + d + m, are known. Solve the triangle for the base e and the altitude f.
In triangle 6, the hypotenuse OO1, is known from triangle 2, and the side O1J = R1 - R
cos. I - e. Solve the triangle for the side OJ and the angle b. The points H and E are
established as in the preceding problem.
Point A falls on spiral
When the point A falls on the spiral, the problem is slightly different with respect to
the solution of triangles 3, 4 and 5. After the point A is established in the center of the
main track, the distance to the S.T., s, and the intersection angle at A must be
measured. To get on tangent at point A, the transit is sighted at the S.T. and the angle
2a = 2(10 ks2) turned off.
Triangle 4, Fig. 8, is constructed by dropping a perpendicular from A to a tangent

through the C.T. The distance between this tangent and the main track tangent is o, the
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spiral offset. The altitude of triangle 4 is equal to o - 0.291ks3. Since the angle at A1 is I
- ∆, which is known, the triangle can be solved for the base n and the hypotenuse m.
Fig. 8
In triangle 3, the angle at O now becomes I - ∆ instead of I.
In triangle 5, the hypotenuse is equal to t - s + n, all of which are known, and the angle
at A' is I - ∆. Solve the triangle for the base e and the altitude f.
Triangle 6 (not shown in Fig. 8) is the same as triangle 6 in Fig. 7. The problem from
this stage is the same as the preceding one.
The point A in Fig. 8 is between the C.T. and the S.T. The point A, however, is just as
likely to come between the C.T. and the C.S.
In this case, triangles 4 and 5 shift to the other side of the C.T., and the hypotenuse of
triangle 5 = s - t - n. It is suggested that the student draw the figure for this problem.
Turnout from the Outside of a Curved Main - Track
Points A and H on circular curve
In triangle 1, Fig. 9, the angle F and the hypotenuse R + ½ g are known. Solve the
triangle for the other two sides, as shown in the figure.
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Fig. 9
In triangle 2, the base is equal to (R + 1/2g) sin F + K + P, and the altitude is equal to
(R + 1/2g) cos F + 1/2g + R1. Solve the triangle for the hypotenuse OO1 and the
angle a.
In triangle 3, the hypotenuse is R and the angle at O is I. Solve the triangle for the
other two sides, as shown in the figure.
In triangle 4, the hypotenuse OO1 is known from triangle 2, and the base is R cos I +
R1. Solve for the altitude and the angle b. Then
x = (90° - F) - (90° - I) - (a - b)
= b +I – a - F
And
y=a-b
AH = (x/D)100 (in feet)
AE = OJ - R sin I
Fig. 9 and the solution outlined above are correct up to a value of I = 90°. As I
approaches 90°, J approaches E and G approaches O. When I = 90°, J and E coincide
and also G and O. That is, triangle 3 becomes a line. When I is greater than 90°, J falls
between E and O1, and G falls on the other side of O. When I is greater than 90°,
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however, the connecting track should be located on the other side of the diverging
tangent, thus using a value of I less than 90°.
The field work in this problem is the same as explained for the corresponding problem
under a "Turnout from the Inside of a Curved Main Track."
The point of frog as located opposite H in Fig. 9 will rarely be such that the heel or the
toe of the frog will come at an existing rail joint, and the frog must be moved until it
does. This involves a change in the location of the point B and of the C.T. and a
change in the length of the frog tangent. Fig. 10 shows the solution of this problem
when the frog is moved forward through the measured distance d.
In triangle 1, d is the hypotenuse and the angle at H is F + 1/2z.
The angle z is equal to 0.64D. Solve the triangle for the base r and the altitude, t.
In triangle 2, the angle z and the base n = K + P - r are known. Solve the triangle for
the altitude m and the hypotenuse q.
In triangle 3, the angle z is known and the hypotenuse u is equal to:
R1 + 1/2g + t + m.
Solve the triangle for v and s.
In triangle 4, one side equals v - R1 - 1/2g and one angle equals y + z. Solve the
triangle for the hypotenuse f and the other side e. Then
New K + P = q - s - e
And
Change in C.T. = f
The solution of this problem as given in Figs. 9 and 10 is based on the assumption that
the alignment of the main track is perfect. In most instances this curve will be found
to be more or less out of correct alignment.
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Fig. 10
Point A on curve, but point H on tangent
When the distance from the T.C. of the main line curve to the point A is so short that
it is evident by inspection that the frog point H will come on the tangent, the
procedure is somewhat different. In this case, point A is taken at the intersection of
the tangent of the diverging track and the tangent of the main track prolonged. The
problem then becomes the same as that illustrated in Fig. 2.
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Point A on tangent and point H on curve
In Fig. 11, A is the intersection of the diverging track and the main track. A' is the C.T.
of the main track curve. The distance AA' is measured in the field.
Fig. 11
Triangles 1, 2 and 3 are exactly the same as in Fig. 9 and are solved in the same manner.
In triangle 4, Fig. 11, the hypotenuse AA' and the angles are known. Solve the triangle
for the base AL and the altitude A'L.
In triangle 5, which corresponds to triangle 4 in Fig. 9, the hypotenuse is known from

triangle 2, and the side O1J = R1 - EE' + OG', all of which are known. If I is greater
than 90°, J falls on the radius between O and E', and OlJ = R1 - EE' - OG'. Solve
triangle 5 for the side OJ and the angle b.
Angles x and y and distances AH and AE are computed when points A & H are on the
circular curve (Page B-13).
If the C.T. of the main track curve is not monumented, it will be impossible to locate it
by inspection closer than about 10 ft.
Point A on tangent and point H on curve except that the main track curve is spiraled.
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No new figure is necessary for the solution of this case. Triangles 1, 2 and 3 are exactly
the same as in Figs. 9 and 11. Triangle 4 is the same as in Fig. 7. In triangle 5, Fig. 7,
the hypotenuse now becomes t + d - m, instead of t + d + m, and the sides e and f are
computed. These two sides correspond to AL and A'L in triangle 5, Fig. 11.
Then
x=b+I-A-F
And
y=a-b
A'H = x/D 100 (in feet)
AH = A'H + t + d
AE =OJ - R sin I - f - n
Parallel Tracks - Sidings
Parallel Tracks Both Straight Tracks
The best way to connect a turnout to a parallel siding is to make the frog tangent of
such a length that it can be connected to the siding by a simple curve of about the same
radius as that of the lead rails. Coordinates from the actual point of frog most easily
locate a connecting track of this kind.
In Fig. 12, x1, x2 and x3 are distances to points on the main track opposite the T.C., the
middle point of the curve, and the C.T., respectively. And y1, y2 and y3 are the
corresponding offsets from the centerline of the main track.
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Fig. 12
From the figure,
y1 = p – R vers F and x1 = y1 cot F – gN – P
y2 = p – R vers ½F and x2 = x1 + R(sin F – sin ½F)
y3 = p and x3 = x1 + R(sin F)
From surveying texts or railway track standards, one can find the values of x and y for
various track centers and for various frog numbers.
Sometimes the connecting curve is begun at the heel of the frog or a fixed distance
beyond it. In this case x1 and y are known, and the radius of the connecting curve must
be computed. The other dimensions are then computed as before. Although this
method flattens the connecting curve, it increases the distance from the P.F. to the
T.C. There is nothing gained by making the connecting curve flatter than that of the
turnout itself, and also the greater length of tangent is advantageous.
Sometimes the connection is made in the form of a reversed curve with radii about the
same as the radius of the turnout curve under the mistaken idea that this saves distance
between the P.F. and the T.C. The actual difference in x3 for such a connection, and
for one of the form first given for a No. 10 turnout, is only about 1.1 ft., which is an
inappreciable amount when the relative riding qualities of the two layouts are
considered.
Parallel Tracks - Curved Tracks
The coordinates referenced from tables specifying the track center distances and the
frog numbers may stake out a turnout and a connection to a parallel track on a curve.
A portion of such a table is illustrated on page B-19. Such a layout will have the
following characteristics:
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1. The degree of curve of the turnout will be increased or diminished by the

degree of the main curve, depending on whether the siding is inside or outside
of the main track curve.
2. The degree of the connecting curve will be diminished or increased by the

degree of the main curve (approximately), depending on whether the siding is
inside or outside of the main track curve.
3. The track between the frog point and the beginning of the connecting curve
will become a curve of the same degree (approximately) as the main curve.
On curves of about 1° this method is both satisfactory and convenient, but on sharper
curves, or in case it is desired to maintain a frog tangent, it will be necessary to compute
the connection for the particular case. Two general cases arise:
COORDINATES FOR LOCATING PARALLEL SIDINGS

WITH TAPE
Frog Track Connecti Frog

Number Centers X1 X2 X3 Y1 y2 ng Angle
N p = y3 Curve D F
7 13.0 30.28 57.42 81.70 9.12 12.03 15°00' 8° 10' 16 "

13.5 33.76 60.90 88.18 9.62 12.53
14.0 37. 2 4 134.38 91.66 10.12 13.03
15.0 44.21 71.35 98.63 11.12 14.03
16.0 31.15 78.32 105.60 12.12 45.03
17.0 55.15 85.29 112.57 43.12 16.03
18.0 65.12 92.26 119.54 14.12 17.03
8 13.0 33.31 65.71 98.24 8,94 11.98 11° 00' 7°09'10"
13.5 37.29 69.69 102.22 9.44 12.48
14.0 41.28 73.68 106.21 9.94 12.98
15.0 49.25 81.65 114.18 10.94 13.98
16.0 57.22 89.62 122.15 11.94 14.98
17.0 65.19 97.59 130.12 12.94 15.98
18.0 73.16 105.56 138.09 13.94 16.98
9 13.0 38.55 73.83 109.22 9.07 12.02 9°00' 6°21'35"
13.5 43.03 78.31 113.70 9.57 12.52
14.0 47.51 82.79 118.18 10.07 13.02
15.0 56.47 91.75 127.14 11.07 14.02
16.0 65.43 100.71 136.10 12.07 15.02
17.0 74.39 109.67 145.06 13.07 16.02
18.0 83.35 118.63 154.02 14.07 17.02
10 13.0 41.49 82.04 123.00 8.90 11.98 7'00' 5°43'29"
13.5 46.17 87.02 127.98 9.40 12.48
14.0 51.15 92.00 132.96 9.90 12.98
15.0 61.11 101.96 142.92 10.90 13.98
16.0 71.07 111.92 152.88 11.90 14.98
17.0 81.03 121.88 162.84 12.90 15.98
18.0 91.00 131.84 172.80 13.90 16.98
11 13.0 47.16 90.46 133.83 9.05 12.01 6' 00' 5°12'18"
13.5 52.65 95.95 139.32 9.55 12.54
14.0 58.14 101.44 144.81 10.05 13.01
15.0 69.12 112.42 155.79 11.05 14.01
16.0 80.09 123.39 166.76 12.05 15.01
17.0 91.07 134.37 177.74 13.05 16.01
18. 0 102.05 145.3.5 188.72 14. 0.5 17.01
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Sidings on the outside of the main curve
Fig. 13
In Fig. 13
OA = (R + 1/2g) cos. F
AB = (R + 1/2g) sin F
AC = AB + P + K = O1H
OO1 = R + p - R1
OH = OA - (R1 - 1/2g)
In triangle 2, (001)2 = (O1H)2 + (OH)2
(R + P - R1)2 = (AC)2 + (OA + 1/2g - R1)2
expanding and reducing,
R1 = [(AC)2/[2(OA + 1/2g – R – p)]] + [[OA + 1/2g + R + p]/2]
Then
sin a = AC /OO1
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Since the central angle a and the radius R1 are now known, the length of the connecting
curve can be computed.
The curve may be staked out either by deflection angles from either end or by offsets
from the main track. The latter method is the more rapid and convenient.
Since the connecting curve and the siding curve has a common tangent at E and since
the angles are small, the offset between them at any point is equal to the difference of
their tangent offsets. Then the offset from the centerline of the main track to the
centerline of the connecting curve at any point is:
p – 7/8 n2(D1 - Ds)
where D1 and Ds are the degrees of curve of the connecting track and the siding,
respectively, and n is the distance in stations along the connecting curve from the point
where it joins the siding. These offsets should be measured radially to the main curve
and the distances should be measured along the connecting curve.
Sidings on the inside of the main curve
In Fig. 14a,
Fig. 14a Fig. 14b Fig. 14c
OA = (R - 1/2g) cos F
AB = (R – 1/2g) sin F
AC =AB – K – P = OH
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OO1 = R1 + p - R
O1H = R1 + 1/2g - OA
In triangle 2,
(OO1)2 = (OH)2 + (01H)2
(R1 + p - R)2 = (AC)2 + (R1 + 1/2g - OA)2
Expanding and reducing,
R1 = (AC)2/[2(OA - 1/2g - R +p)] + (OA - 1/2g + R - p)/2
Then
sin a = AC / OO1
If R1 yields a positive value, the layout is as shown in Fig. 14a.
If a negative value of R1 is obtained, the layout is as shown in Fig. 14b and the value of
R1 is numerically correct.
If (OA - 1/2g) = R - p, then R1 = infinity, and the frog tangent produced is tangent to
the siding as shown in Fig. 14c.
These connections can be staked out by offsets as explained under Page 22. It is to be
noted, however, that if the layout is as shown in Fig. 14b, the sum of the tangent
offsets must be used.
Parallel Tracks - Crossovers

Since a crossover is equivalent to an entry to a siding, and therefore both turnouts will
be run over at practically the same speed, there is no valid reason for making one
turnout flatter than the other, even when the crossover is between a main track and a
siding. A crossover should therefore always have frogs of the same number at both
ends.
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Crossovers - Straight Tracks
Straight track between frogs of the same number
Fig. 15
From Fig. 15,
AC = p cot F
Then
x = AC - 2gN - 2P
To locate the crossover, one P.F. is set so that the heel or toe will be at a regular rail
joint. The other P.F. is fixed by the distance x. These are the only stakes ordinarily
required.
Simple curve between frogs of different number
Sometimes unequal frogs are used on crossovers, and in this case, the best form of
layout to use is a connecting curve of about the same degree as the sharper turnout,
tangent at the heel of the flatter frog. This will place a short piece of tangent between
the curve and the heel of the sharper frog.
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Fig. 16
In Fig. 16, F, F1, p, g and K1 are known. R is chosen to agree with the turnout curve of
F. (From the example Table on Page B-19)
In triangle 1, the hypotenuse and angle F1 are known. Solve for the sides d1 and m.
In triangle 2, the altitude n = p - m and the angle F are known. Solve for the sides d
and j.
Then
K = j - gN - R tan 1/2 (F-Fl)-P
The distance along the main tracks between frog points is
x = (d + d1) - (gN + P + gN1 + P1)
Crossovers - Curved Tracks
It can be shown that, if a crossover is located between curved tracks with the same frog
numbers and a simple curve tangent to the heels of the frogs, the distance along the
main tracks between frog points is practically the same as for a straight crossover
between straight tracks; and also that the degree of curve of the connection is
practically the same as that of the main tracks.
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Therefore, a crossover on a curve is located with the same dimensions as one on

tangent. It may be desirable, however, to locate points on the connecting curve.
Usually one point at the middle is sufficient, and it will be seen that this point is
midway between the frog points and on the centerline between tracks. Crossovers
should be avoided on curves.
Ladder Tracks
The series of parallel tracks in a railroad terminal yard upon which freight or passenger
cars are temporarily stored are called "body tracks." At one or both ends of the body
tracks there is a diagonal track, called a "ladder track," which connects the body tracks
to the main track, or running track. Fig. 17 shows a main track, a ladder track and four
body tracks.
Fig. 17
The angle between the ladder track and the main track is generally equal to the frog
angle used for the turnouts from the main track and the body tracks, as shown in
(Fig.17). Sometimes, however, the ladder track makes a slightly larger angle than the
frog angle. This necessitates a short curve, beyond the frog of the main track turnout
and a curve at the beginning of each body track. This condition is illustrated in Fig. 18.
Again, the angle, which the ladder track makes with the main track, may be twice the
frog angle. In this case, only alternate body tracks are connected to the ladder track and
the other body tracks are connected to the preceding body track.
Angle of Ladder Track Same as Frog Angle
In triangle 1, Fig. 17, the frog angle and the altitude p, or distance between body tracks,
are known. Solve for the hypotenuse AC. The distance AC equals CD, DE and EH,
and also equals the distance between switch points X. The minimum distance which
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should be used between the frog point of one turnout and the switch point of the
succeeding turnout is about 13 ft., hence AC must be equal to or greater than the lead
of the turnout plus 13 ft. The distance p between body tracks must be large enough to
satisfy this condition.
The ladder track and body tracks are staked as follows: the approximate location of the
frog in the main track is known, being determined by the location of other tracks and
connections not shown in the figure. Locate the frog so that it will abut the end of a
rail. Measure the distance gN from the theoretical point of frog and locate point A.
Set-up at A and turn off the frog angle F. The line of sight is now along the line AH.
On this line locate the points C, D and E, which are the distance AC apart. Measure
forward from each of these points the distance gN and locate the successive frog
points. The body tracks are best located by perpendicular offsets from the main track.
Angle of Ladder Track Larger than Frog Angle
Fig. 18
In this problem F, F1, a, h, K, K1, P, P1, R and R1 are known. In triangle 1, Fig. 18, all
of the angles are known and the longest side is equal to gN + K + P + R tan a/2.
Solve for the other two sides.
Triangle 2 is solved in the same manner. If the angles F and F1 are equal and the radii
R and R1 are equal, triangle 2 is identical to triangle 1.
In triangle 3, the angles and the altitude p are known. Solve for the hypotenuse BH.
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In the field, point A is located as in the preceding problem. The distance AB locates
point B. Generally B will fall between A and the P.F. Set-up at B and turn off the
angle F + a. The line of sight is now along the ladder track. The point of frog of the
turnout to body track No. 1 is located from point B by the distance B H - G H +
g N . The other body tracks, not shown in the figure, are located in the same
way. In this case, as in the preceding one, the clearance between the frog point of
one turnout and the switch point of the next turnout should be at least 13.0 ft.
If F + a in Fig. 18 equals F1, as frequently happens, no curve is necessary to connect

the body tracks to the ladder track, and the solution given in Fig. 17 is used to
determine the distances between the frog points of the turnouts to the body tracks.
Sometimes it is considered desirable to group the body tracks in pairs and to use a
greater distance between groups than between the two tracks in each group. This
involves the solution of two triangles in Figs. 17 and 18 instead of one, using p as the
altitude of one triangle and p' as the altitude of the other.
Intersecting Tracks
Intersecting Tracks - Both Tracks Straight
Connection in form of simple curve
Given in Fig. 19, the intersection angle I, the frog angles F and F1, the radius of the
connecting curve, and K and K1.
Required: The distances, A and B, from the intersection of the centerlines to points
opposite the frog points.
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Fig. 19
In triangle 1, the angles are known and one side, n, is readily obtainable. Solve for r
and m.
In triangle 2, one side, j + r, and the angles are, now known, whence k and l can be
computed.
Then
A = k - gN1 - P1
B = l + m - gN - P
When the distances A and B are measured off in the field, it will generally be found
that the frog points thus located will not be such that the heel or the toe of the frog will
come at rail joints. The points, therefore, will have to be moved a short distance
forward, or backward, until the frogs will abut rail joints. This will change the lengths
of both frog tangents; and before the connecting track can be located, the new frog
tangents, must be computed. The solution for the case where both frogs are moved
forward is shown in Fig. 20.
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Fig. 20
In triangle 1, the hypotenuse c is the measured distance the N1 frog is moved, and the
small angle is F1. Solve the triangle for the sides a and b.
In triangle 2, the hypotenuse d is the measured distance the N frog is moved, and the
small angle is F. Solve the triangle for the sides e and f.
In triangle 3, the altitude b and the angle, I - F – F1, are known. Solve the triangle for h
and q.
In triangle 4, the altitude e and the angle, I - F – F1, are known. Solve the triangle for a
and v.
Then
New K1 = old K1 - a - q + u
New K = old K - f + h - v
When both frogs are moved backward, the new frog tangents become:
New K1 = old K1 + a + q - u
New K = old K + f - h + v
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When the N1 frog is moved forward and the N frog is moved backward, the new frog
tangents become:
New K1 = old K1 - a - q - u
New K = old K + f + h + v
Connection in form of reversed curve
Given in Fig. 21, the intersection angle I; the frog angles F and F1; the radii of the
reversed curve, R and Rl; and the location of one frog point, which is the distance T
from the P.I. at A.
Required: The central angles a and b of the reversed curve, the distance T1 from the
P.I. to the unknown frog point, and the distance x between frog points measured along
the straight track.
Fig. 21
In triangle 1 (CDB), CD and angle F are given. Solve for CB and DB, whence AB and
OB can be found.
In triangle 2 (ABE), AB and the angles are known. Solve for BE and AE.
In triangle 3 (OEG), OE and the angles are known. Solve for OG and GE.
In triangle 4 (LHQ), LH and the angles are known. Solve for HQ and LQ = JM.
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In triangle 5 (HJO1) HO1, and the angle F1 are known. Solve for O1J and HJ.
In triangle 6 (O1OS), O1O = R + R1 and O1S = O1J + JM + GO are known. Solve for
angles c and d, whence angles a and b are readily determined.
T1 = AE + EG - OS - LM + gN1 + P1
x = T - AL cos I - gN1 - P1
If T1 instead of T is known, the plan of solution is the same, but another figure is
necessary, in which triangle 1 comes at the other frog. If the same letters are used to
designate corresponding points, the solution as outlined above for Fig. 21 can be used.
If the tracks do not run to an intersection or if it is inadvisable to run out the tangents
and determine I, locate the point D, set-up and turn off 90° from the frog tangent, and
measure DE. Then set-up at E and measure DEL. With these data the problem can
be solved in the same manner as before.
Intersecting Tracks - One Straight and One Curved Track
From Fig. 22:
In triangle 1, the hypotenuse and the angle F are known. Solve for the two sides.
In triangle 2, the two sides can be obtained by arithmetic. Solve for the hypotenuse
and the angle a.
In triangle 3, the hypotenuse and the angle I are known. Solve for the two sides.
In triangle 4, the altitude, R1 + 2g, and the angle F1 are known. Solve for the
hypotenuse and the base.
In triangle 5, the hypotenuse and the angle F1 are known. Solve for the sides l and m.
In triangle 6, the altitude is found by arithmetic and the hypotenuse is known from
triangle 2. Solve for the angle b.
Then
x = a - b + (90°- I)-(90° - F)
=a-b-I+F
And
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(curve) AH (in feet) = 100x/D
The P.F. is set at the distance AH - P from A.
From triangles 3, 5 and 6, the distances AC, m and OJ are known. Then AC is found
by arithmetic.
Fig. 22
The P.F.1 is set at a distance AC - P, from A. The central angle of the connecting curve
is
y = I + x - F1 - F
Obviously a connecting track can be placed in any of the four quadrants formed by the
intersection of the two main tracks, but the plan of solution for any quadrant is
identical with that given above; and if the same letters are used to designate the
corresponding points and the triangles are constructed in the same manner, no
difficulty should arise in the solution of the other three cases. When the frog points H
and C are located in the field, it will be found generally that the frogs as thus located
will not abut existing rail joints. In jointed rail, both frogs will therefore have to
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be moved a short distance backward or forward until they do abut existing rail
joints. Both frog tangents will thus be changed in length, and the direction of
the frog tangent from the curved main track will be changed by an amount equal
to the angle z. Angle z, in minutes, equals 0.6dD, where d is the distance the N
frog is moved and D the degree of the main track curve. The solution for the case
where both frogs are moved toward A is as follows:
t = d sin (F-1/2z) (See triangle 1, Fig. 5)
r = d cos (F - 1/2z) = d (approx.)
m = (K + P - r) tan z (See triangle 2, Fig. 5)
n=(K+P- r) sec z
u = R1 + 1/2g + t - m
s = u sin z (See triangle 3, Fig. 5)
v = u cos. z
w = v - (R1 + 1/2g)
b = w cos (y - z)
c = w sin (y - z)
e = d' cos F1 (d' equals distance N1 frog is moved)
f = d' sin P1
h= f-b
i = h/[sin (I + x – F – F1 – z)]
j = h cot (I + x + - F – F1 – z)
Then
New Frog Tangent, K' = n + s + i
And
New Frog Tangent, K'1 = K1 + P1 - e + c - j
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It is to be noted that if b is greater than f in the above equations, h, i and j become

minus.
For main line curves badly out of alignment: due to the fact that the main line curve
may be somewhat out of alignment, it may be best to solve this problem in another
way. First, solve for AH and AC, Fig. 22, approximately only. Then measure these
approximate distances and locate the frogs at the nearest rail joints. Set-up, in turn, at
the frog points thus established, get on tangent and measure back toward the switch
points the distances gN + P and gN1 + P1, respectively, to locate points corresponding
to point B in Fig. 22. Set-up the instrument at these points and turn off the respective
frog angles, thus obtaining the tangents for the connecting curve. Produce these
tangents to an intersection and measure the intersection angle, which is also the central
angle of the connecting curve. For this angle and for the degree of the connecting
curve, compute the tangent distances. By lying off these tangent distances from the
P.I. of the frog tangents produced, the T.C. and the C.T. of the connecting curve are
established.
Intersecting Tracks - Both Tracks Curved
Fig. 23
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From Fig. 23:
In triangle 1(HEO), the hypotenuse and the angle F are known. Solve for the sides HE
and EO.
In triangle 2 (OO2G), the two sides can now be found by arithmetic. Solve for the
angle a and the side 002.
In triangle 3 (AOO1), the two sides, R and R1, and the included angle I are known.
Solve for the side OO1 and the angles b and c.
In triangle 4 (O1CM), the hypotenuse and the angle F1 are known. Solve for the sides
CM and O1M.
In triangle 5 (0102J), the base and the altitude can now be found by arithmetic. Solve for
the hypotenuse O1O2 and the angle d.
In triangle 6 (OO1O2), the three sides are now known. Solve for the angles e and f.
Then
x = a + b - f - (90 - F)
= a + b + F - f -90
And z = c + d - e + F1 - 90
Arc AH = (x/D)100 (in feet)
Arc AC =(x/D1)100 (in feet)
The central angle of the connecting curve is:
y = I + x + z - F - F1
In case a connection is placed in any other quadrant, the plan of solution is identical
with that above, and if followed exactly no difficulty should arise.
Wye Tracks
A wye is an arrangement of tracks in the shape of the letter "Y," connected to a main
track to make it possible to turn an engine or cars so that they will head in the opposite
direction. A wye performs the same function as a turntable. Fig. 24 shows a wye
connected to a straight main track, and Fig. 25 shows a wye for a curved main track
with the wye on the outside of the curve. The third case, where the wye is inside of a
curved main track, is not solved, but its general method of solution is the same as that
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where the wye is on the outside of the curved main track, although a new figure with all
the centers of curves on the same side of the main track is required.
Wye Track - Straight Main Track

In Fig. 24, F1, F2, F3, N1, N2, N3, K1, K2, K3, P1, P2, P3, R1 and R2 are given. It is
required to find the distance along the main track between frog points, and the central
angles x and y of the wye curves.
Fig. 24
In triangle 1, the angles and the base are known. Solve for altitude m and hypotenuse l.
In triangle 2, the angles and the hypotenuse, R1 + m, are known. Solve for the altitude
n and the base p.
In triangle 3, the angles and the base are known. Solve for the altitude q and the
hypotenuse r.
In triangle 4, the angles and the hypotenuse, R2 + q are known. Solve for the altitude t
and the bases.
In triangle 5, two sides and the included angle are known, as shown in the figure. Solve
for the third side O1O2 and for the angles a and b.
In triangle 6, the hypotenuse O1O2 and the altitude n - t are known. Solve for the base
v and the angles c and d.
Then
x = 90 - (F1 + a + e)
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y =180- (F2 + b + d)
L = (l - p) + v + (r - s)
Distance between frog points = L - gN1 - gN2.
Wye Track - Curved Main Track
In Fig. 25, R, R1, R2, F1, F2, F3, K1, K2, K3, P1, P2 and Ps are given. It is required to find
angles x, y and z and the distance along the train line track between frog points.
Fig. 25
In triangle 1, the angles and the base K1 + P1 are known. Solve for the altitude m and
the hypotenuse l.
In triangle 2, two sides and the included angle F1 are known. Solve for the other side
OO1 and the angles a and b.
In triangle 3, the angles and the altitude K2 + P2 are known. Solve for the base q and
the hypotenuse p.
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In triangle 4, two sides and the included angle F2 are known. Solve for the third side
OO2 and the angles c and d.
In triangle 5, two sides and the included angle F3 are known. Solve for the third side
O1O2 and the angles e and f.
In triangle 6, OO1O2, the three sides are known. Solve for the angles A, B and C.
Then x = B - (b + e)
y = C - (d +f)
z = A - (a + c)
The distance between frog points on main track is equal to (z/D)100. In the two cases
illustrated in Figs. 24 and 25, the wye tracks beyond the N3 frog are not shown. Of
course it is necessary to continue one of the tracks until it is long enough to contain a
full train. As far as the solution for the locations of the three frogs is concerned, it is
immaterial what arrangement of tracks is used beyond the N3 frog. For example, either
branch of the wye can be considered as the primary branch and continued as far as
desired either as a curved track or as a straight track, and the other branch connected to
it with an N3 turnout. Another arrangement is to give equal importance to the two
branches and use the "diamond" turnout as explained in the following section.
Diamond Turnouts
When both tracks through a turnout are of equal importance, as where a single track
changes to double track or where two branches of a wye unite, it is often desirable to
insert the turnout shown in Fig. 26. This is termed a diamond turnout.
Fig. 26
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The switch is so installed that the points deflect one-half the switch angle (½ s) to each
side instead of the full angle s to one side as in the normal turnout. The frog is placed
with its axis coinciding with the centerline of the approach track. The lead L is
unchanged by this arrangement but the radius of the lead rails becomes twice the radius
in a normal turnout, and the total deflection of the train at the frog point is only ½ F.
It is therefore evident that the diamond turnout subjects both track and rolling stock to
less shock as a train passes through it and consequently trains can be operated faster if
desired. This is the especial point of merit of the diamond turnout.
If the approach track is on a curve the turnout is installed in the same way with respect
to the centerline as on straight track. The relative positions of the parts are unchanged
but the radii of the lead rails are different as explained on Page B-3.
Crossings
A crossing is a device used at the intersection of two tracks. It consists of four frogs
and the necessary connecting rails. Any one of the frogs is a crossing frog. The
crossing angle is the angle between the centerlines of the tracks at their point of
intersection.
Crossings are designated as single curve, double curve or straight, according to whether
one, both or neither of the tracks is curved. Crossings are usually made of rolled rails
fitted together. When the crossing angle is greater than about 25°, the various pieces
are cut to fit against each other and are united by filling blocks and heavy straps well
bolted. This is frequently termed solid construction. For angles under about 25°,
regular frog point construction is used, and such crossings are termed frog crossings.
Distinguish between frog crossing and crossing frog.
The end frogs of a frog crossing are similar to a standard rigid frog in that there is a
single point on which the wheels run. The middle frogs, however, have two running
points and are therefore frequently termed "double-pointed frogs.”
When "slip switches" are used, the crossing is made to a standard frog number, and if
located at an interlocking plant the middle frogs are frequently made with movable
points. That is, with movable points joined in pairs and moving together similar to a
split switch in such a way that the wheels have a solid bearing and no flangeway to
jump.
A "slip switch" or "combination crossing" is a combination of a small angle crossing

with a pair of connecting tracks placed entirely within the limits of the crossing. They
are used in large yards and terminals and are usually made to some standard frog
number. A double slip switch is illustrated in Fig. 27.
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Fig. 27 – Double Slip Switch
Crossing Data
The field engineer is rarely called on to compute the dimensions of a crossing. It is far
more important that the manufacturer has all the data, and the field engineer is
frequently required to furnish the data. The information required is:
1. The crossing angle.
2. The gage of each track.
3. The curvature - degree of curve, radii or the equivalent.
4. The direction of curvature.
5. The length along each gage line from one gage line intersection (theoretical P.F.) to
6. Length over all along each gage line.
7. The height, weight and style of rail of which the crossing is to be made.
8. The height, weight and style of rail in intersecting track if offset splices are to be
furnished.
9. The spacing and size of holes for splice bars.
10. The type of crossing, etc., unless covered by general specifications.
This information can best be given by means of a small sketch. Field dimensions
should be taken to the nearest 1/8 in. (0.01 ft.). Occasionally the field engineer is called
on to compute the dimensions of a crossing. The values required are the frog angles,
F1, F2, F3, F4, the length of sides along the gage lines, and the two diagonals. The
computations should be made with sufficient accuracy to give results that are correct to
the nearest 1/16 in., which is the working limit of the manufacturers.
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The solutions of the three kinds of crossings are outlined as follows:
Straight Crossings
Fig. 28
Unequal Gages
In Fig. 28, g1, g2 and I are given, and the sides and diagonals are required.
In triangle 1, the altitude g1 and the angle I are known. Solve for s1, and b1.
Similarly, solve for s2 and b2 in triangle 2.
In triangle 3, the altitude g1 and the base s2 + b1 are known. Solve for the hypotenuse,
which is the long diagonal of the crossing.
In triangle 4, the altitude g2 and the base s1 - b2 are known. Solve for the hypotenuse,
which is the short diagonal of the crossing.
Equal Gages
In this case, triangles 1 and 2 are identical and all four sides are equal. The angle
between the hypotenuse and the base of triangle 3 becomes ½ I, and of triangle 4
becomes 90° - ½ I, which simplifies the solution.
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Single-Curve Crossings
Given in Fig. 29, g1, g2 and I to find the frog angles, length of sides and both diagonals.
Fig. 29
Project the radius on a perpendicular to the straight track. Then OB = R cos I, whence
OE and OC are known.
In triangle F1CO, the base and hypotenuse are known. Solve for F1C and the angle F1.
Similarly solve for F2 and F2C, F3 and F3E, and F4 and F4E from corresponding
triangles. Then the straight sides F1F2 and F3F4 can be found by subtraction. The
curved sides F1F4 and F2F3 can be determined since their radii are known and their
central angles can be found by subtraction.
The long diagonal is the hypotenuse of a triangle whose altitude is g1 and whose base is
F3E - F1C, and the short diagonal is the hypotenuse of a triangle whose altitude is g1
and whose base is F2C - F4E.
Double-Curve Crossings
In Fig. 30, R1, R2, g1, g2 and I are given, and it is required to find the frog angles, length
of sides, and both diagonals.
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Fig. 30
In triangle AO1O2, two sides and the included angle are known. Solve for the distance
between centers, O1O2.
Then in the four triangles formed on O1O2 by the radii from F1, F2, F3, F4, the three
sides of each are known, and the angles can be computed. From the angles at O1 and
O2 determine the central angles of the arcs, F1F2, F2F3, F3F4 and F4F1, from which the
lengths of the arcs can be computed since their radii are known. The long diagonal is
found from the triangles F1O1F3 or F1O2F3 and the short diagonal from the triangles
F2O1F4 or F2O2F4.
Seven-place tables should be used when I is less than about 30° and when D is less
than about 15°.
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APPENDIX C – EXAMPLE CURVE PROBLEMS WITH SOLUTIONS
Example Curve Problems With Solutions59
PROBLEM 1.
Given: Degree of curve = D = 10° (US definition)
Required: Curve radius = R
Solution: R = (50 ft.) / sin (D/2) = 50 ft. / sin 5° = 573.69 ft.
Note: To calculate an approximate R, given D:
for D = 1°, R = (50/sin 0.5°) = 5730 ft.
for D ≤ 20°, R = 5730 ft./(D/l°) = 5730 ft./D
PROBLEM 2.
Given: Curve radius = R = 500 ft.
Required: Degree of curve (US definition) = D
Solution: D = 2[sin-1 (50/R)] = 2[sin-1 (50/500)] = 11° 28' 42”
PROBLEM 3.
Given: Degree of metric curve = Dm = 10°
Required: Curve radius = Rm
Solution: Rm = (10 m) / sin (Dm/ 2) = 10 / sin 5°
= 114.74 m ≈ 376.45 ft.
Note: A 10° metric curve is much sharper than a 10° (US) curve.
59 Courtesy of Parsons Transportation Group, “Railroad Track Design Manual.”
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PROBLEM 4.
Given: Curve radius = Rm = 200 m
Required: Metric degree of curve = Dm
Solution: Dm = 2[sin-1 (10/Rm)] = 2[sin-1(10/200)] = 5° 43' 55"
PROBLEM 5.
Given: Simple circular curve (unsuperelevated), with:
Angle of Intersection I = 16° and
Degree of Curve D = 10°
Required: All the customary curve components
Solution: R = 573.69 (see PROBLEM 1. above)
Semi-Tangent T = R tan (I/2) = 573.69 (tan 8°) = 80.63 ft.
Chord C = 2R sin (I/2) = 2(573.69) sin 8° = 161.25 ft.
Length of Curve L = R (π·I/180) =
(573.69)(16°)(π/180°) = 160.20 ft. or approximately 100 (I/D)
= 160.00 ft.
Center of Curve to P.I. X = R sec (I/2) = 573.69 (sec 8°) = 579.33 ft.
Center of Curve to Chord h = R cos (I/2) = 573.69 (cos 8°)
= 568.11 ft.
External Distance E = R exsec (I/2) = R [sec (I/2) - 1 ]
= 573.69 [(sec 8°)–1] = 5.64 ft.
Middle Ordinate M = R vers (I/2) = R [1-cos (I/2)]
= 573.69 [1- (cos 8°)] = 5.58 ft.
Check: h + M + E = 568.11 + 5.58 + 5.64 = 579.33 = X
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PROBLEM 6.
Given: Compound Curve where:
R1 = 750’, R2 = 500’
∆l = 20° 30’, ∆2 = 15° 15’
Required: Total Intersection Angle I,
Individual Curve Tangents T1, T2,
Total Curve Tangents T3, T4,
Curve Lengths L1, L2, LTotal
and a, b and c
Solution: I = ∆l + ∆2 = 20° 30’ + 15° 15’ = 35° 45’
T1 = R1 (tan ∆l/2)= 750 ft. (tan 15° 15’)= 135.62 ft.
T2 = R2 (tan ∆2/2)= 500 ft. (tan 7° 37.5’)= 66.94 ft.
c = T1 + T2 = 135.62 + 66.94 = 202.56 ft.
a/sin ∆2) = (b/ sin ∆l) = (c/ sin I) = 202.56/sin 35° 45’
= 346.701
a = 346.701 sin ∆2 = 346.701 sin 15° 15’ = 91.19 ft.
b = 346.701 sin ∆1 = 346.701 sin 20° 30’ = 121.42 ft.
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T3 = T1+a = 135.62 + 91.19 = 226.81 ft.
T4 = T2+b = 66.94 + 121.42 = 188.36 ft.
L1 = R 1 ∆1 (π/180°)= (750’)(20° 30’)π/180 = 268.34 ft.
L2 = R 2 ∆2 (π/180°)= (500’)(15° 15’)π/180 = 133.08 ft.
LTotal = L1 + L2 = 268.34 ft. + 133.08 Ft. = 401.42 ft.
(Vs. T3 + T4 = 415.17 ft. – check)
PROBLEM 7.
Given: Circular curve to be superelevated, with:
I = 22° and D = 3°
Required: (a) Superelevation for V = 50mph (train speed)
(b) Spiral curves to accommodate that superelevation
(c) Stationing for the curve
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Solution: Superelevation:
e = 0.0007DV2 = equilibrium superelevation
e = 0.007(3°)(50 mph) = 5.25 in.
eact =5.25 – 3” (unbalance) = 2.25 in.
= superelevation with 3 in. unbalance
Length of spiral:
LS = 1.63EU Vmph = 1.63 (3”)(50mph) = 244.5 ft. per AREMA
= 250 ft. (round up) = 2.5 stations
Spiral characteristics:
D = a L, … a = D/L = 3/2.5 = 1.2
∆S = (1/2) DL = 0.5(3°)(2.5 stations) = 3.75° = 3° 45'
y = 0.291 aL3 - 0.0000000027 a4L3 =
0.291(1.2)(2.5)3 - 0.0000000027(1.2)4(2.5)3
= 5.46 ft. - 0.00000008748 = 5.46 ft.
x = 100 L - 0.000752 a2L5
= 100 (2.5) - 0.000752 1.2)2(2.5)5 = 250 - 0.10575
= 249.89 ft.
θ = (1/3)∆ = (1/3)(3.75°) = 1.25° = 1° 15'
o = 0.0727 a(L S ) 3 =0.0727(1.2)(2.5) 3 = 1.36 ft.
t = 50 L S - 0.000127a 2 L 5
= 50(2.5) - 0.000127 (1.2) 2 (2.5) 5
= 125 - 0.018 = 124.082 ft. = 125 ft.
R = 50/(sin D/2) = 50 (sin 1° 30')
= 1910.08 ft.
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T = t+(R+ o) tan (1/2)I
= 125.00 + (1910.08 + 1.36)[tan(22°/2)]
= 125.00 + 371.55 = 496.55 ft.
E = (R + o) exsec (1/2) I + o
= 1911.44 [(sec 110)–1] + 1.36
= 35.74 +1.36 = 37.10 ft.
C = 100L - 0.000338 a2L5 or 100L - 0.000338D2L3
= 100 (2.5) - 0.000338 (1.2)2(2.5)5
= 250 - 0.048 = 249.05 ft.
u = x - y cot ∆ = x - v cos A
= 249.89 – 5.46 [cot (3° 45')]
= 249.89 - 83.30 = 166.59 ft.
v = y/(sin ∆) = 100L/ 3 + 0.000244a2L5
= (5.46 /sin 3.750) = 83.48 ft.
Check: u + v = 166.59 + 83.48 = 250.07 ft. ~ LS (OK)
Check: x = 249.89 ~ Ls = 250.00 (OK)
ф = (2/3)∆ = (2/3) (3.750) = 2.475°
= 2° 29'(OK) Check: ф = (2/3)∆ = 2θ
= 2 (1.25°) = 2.50 (OK)
Curve stationing:
∆c = I - 2∆S = 22° - 2(3.75°) = 14.5°
LC = 100 (∆c/D) = 100 (14.5°/3°) = 483.33 ft.
LS = 250.00 ft.
TS = BSC = ES 0+00.00
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SC = CC = ES 2+50.00
CS = CCS = ES 7+33.33
ST = EC = ES 9+83.33
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PROBLEM 8.
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PROBLEM 9.
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PROBLEM 10.
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PROBLEM 11.
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A P P E N D I X D - S P I R A L P R O B L E M S & S O L U T I O N S - A T S F
Spiral Problems & Solutions60
ATSF
60 Courtesy of the Burlington Northern Santa Fe Railroad.
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A P P E N D I X E – D E T E R M I N I N G D E G R E E O F C U R V A T U R E
DETERMINING DEGREE OF CURVATURE
MEASURING THE MID-ORDINATE DISTANCE AT THE

CENTER OF THE CHORD (GAGE OF RAIL TO CHORD).
WITH A CIRCULAR CURVE: EQUAL STATION LENGTHS WILL
GIVE YOU EQUAL MID-ORDINATE DISTANCES.
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A P P E N D I X E – D E T E R M I N I N G D E G R E E O F C U R V A T U R E
METHOD OF DETERMINING DEGREE OF CURVATUE
1. Stand at "A" directly over gage face of the high rail.

2. Sight rail at "C" on line ABC tangent to gage face of low rail at "B."
3. Count the high rails from "A" to "C."
4. Refer to first column of above table and obtain degree of curvature in proper rail
length column.
Example: Figure 1 above shows 4-1/2 rails.
If length of each rail is 33 ft., curvature is 10.0°.
If length of each rail is 39 ft., curvature is 7.1°.
Degree Degree
Number of Number of
of Curvature of Curvature
Rails Rails
33 Ft. 39 Ft. 33 Ft. 39 Ft.
3 22.1° 15.8° 8 3.1° 2.2°

3-1/4 19.0° 13.5° 8-1/2 2.7° 1.95°
3-1/2 16.3° 11.6° 9 2.4° 1.75°
3-3/4 14.1° 10.1° 9-1/2 2.2° 1.60°
4 12.5° 8.9° 10 1.95° 1.44°
4-1/2 10.0° 7.1° 11 1.65° 1.18°
5 7.9° 5.7° 12 1.40° 0.98°
5-1/2 6.5° 4.7° 13 1.18° 0.84°
6 5.5° 3.9° 14 1.00° 0.73°
6-1/2 4.7° 3.3° 15 0.89° 0.63°
7 4.1° 2.9° 16 0.77° 0.55°
7-1/2 3.6° 2.5° 17 0.68° 0.50°
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A P P E N D I X F – S T R I N G L I N I N G C U R V E S
String Lining Curves

A. String lining of curves is based on the following principles:
1. The mid-ordinates of a curve are indicative of its degree of curvature.
2. The mid-ordinates of a circular curve are equal for chords of uniform length.
3. For practical purposes, the mid-ordinate varies directly with the degree of
curvature.
4. Where track is thrown in or out at a single station on the curve, the mid-
ordinate of the curve at the station is affected by the amount of the throw, and
the mid-ordinates at the adjacent stations are automatically affected by one-half
(1/2) of the amount, but in the opposite direction.
B. String lining of curves is a method for determining the most advantageous

alignment that can be obtained with reasonable amounts of throw.
C. Any of the established mathematical methods, such as the "Bartlett Method" or

"Bracket Method," may be used to calculate the throws of curves. All calculations
should be checked to ascertain that the calculated throws would actually produce
the required changes in mid-ordinates.
D. Machines, like the ARC "Curveliner," are approved for mechanically calculating the
throw of curves. The operator of the machine must be properly trained in its
operation.
E. Track should be stationed for string lining on the gage side of the outer (high side)
rail of the curve, with stationing marked on the web or base of the rail.
1. Stationing shall begin at a point on tangent sufficient to permit measurement

of any reverse curvature or "dog-leg," and continue through the curve to a
similar point on the tangent at the other end of the curve.
2. Usually, 31-foot stations are used, which permits use of a 62-foot chord where
1" of mid-ordinate measurement is indicative of a 1-degree curve.
3. Other chord lengths may be used as long as the relationship between the mid-
ordinate and the degree of curvature is known.
a. 15' 6" stations: 31' chord - 1/4" mid-ordinate = 1 degree curve.
b. 22' stations: 44' chord - 1/2" mid-ordinate = 1 degree curve.
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A P P E N D I X F – S T R I N G L I N I N G C U R V E S
c. 44' stations: 88' chord - 2" mid-ordinate = 1 degree curve.
F. Mid-ordinates should be measured from the gage face of the rail, 5/8" below the
top of the rail, to the string in sixteenths of an inch. To permit measurement of
any reverse curvature, string line holders or offset blocks that position the string 1
inch from the gage line of the rail should be used.
G. The location of both ends of each elevation runoff should be noted so that the
relationship between spirals and runoffs can be maintained.
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A P P E N D I X G – S T R I N G L I N I N G O F R A I L R O A D C U R V E S
STRINGLINING OF RAILROAD CURVES

1995 ROADMASTERS & MAINTENANCE OF WAY ASSOCIATION
COMMITTEE REPORT
Chairman: A.M. Charrow, Asst. Dir. - Mtce., Santa Fe
Co-chairman: B. Jamison, Tech. Instr., Norfolk Southern
In this age of automatic tampers, computers, geometry cars and, of course, reduced
forces, why bother teaching the traditional methods of stringlining? The answer to that
question is that the traditional methods of stringlining will allow the practitioner to
rapidly field determine curvature and, if necessary, line track with low-tech hardware.
Railroad track is a dynamic structure, and there are many causes of its movement from
design alignment to one of irregular alignment, particularly on curves. Train operations
impart forces to the track structure, which, over time, tend to change the alignment.
Our predecessors who discovered that as speeds increased, the alignment entering and
leaving simple curves became distorted recognized this early, which in turn lead to the
development of transition curves between the tangents and simple curves and spirals.
However, even with perfectly designed curves with the correct superelevation and
spiral length for the associated curvature and track speed, lateral forces will still occur as
not every train will be operating at design speed. Running traffic at an unbalanced
condition is a compensation for this, but lateral forces will still be imparted to the track
related to directional tonnage, grades and current of traffic operation.
Therefore, alignment should be expected to change or deteriorate as time goes by

through normal operations, eventually requiring surfacing and lining. Compounding
the above, there exist locations not blessed with perfectly designed or constructed
subgrades, which for various reasons, poor original location, poorly constructed fill,
slides or high water, the alignment changes.
Another type of track instability relates to thermal expansion and contraction, primarily
the dreaded sun-kink, which can make the alignment most irregular, possibly leading to
catastrophic results. Less dramatic changes in alignment will occur also, as I am sure
most of you have seen curves gradually shift in and out during the different seasons,
especially where insufficient ballast exists.
Another cause of irregular curve alignment, or at least alignment different from what
was originally designed, is previous lining. Years of smoothing and surfacing without
staking will result in a curve that while perhaps not particularly bad looking or poor
riding might be off alignment. Likewise, normal maintenance operations, such as tie
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gangs, might shift the alignment, especially without staking curves when surfacing
behind.
Deferred maintenance is included, as a catch-all phrase, to remind us that railway track

without the appropriate maintenance cycles for its particular territory, will deteriorate,
alignment being only one of a number of interrelated characteristics. Obviously, poor
tie conditions or mud holes can contribute to alignment problems if not corrected.
Irregular alignment affects our customers directly by reducing ride quality and
schedules. Poor alignment can cause damaged lading and for passengers, an
uncomfortable ride. A slow order, while one corrective solution, would increase transit
time, eventually resulting in loss of business.
Furthermore, poor alignment affects us internally by increasing the pressure on our

maintenance budget through premature curve wear, abnormal tie wear and accelerated
deterioration of surface and line. Once the track is out of line, it won't get better by
itself, and maintenance dollars better spent elsewhere must be diverted to correct the
situation.
In order to stringline, it is useful to be familiar with curve geometry; although the

beauty of stringlining is that it can be performed without a thorough knowledge of
geometry or civil engineering.
By definition, curvature, that is the degree of curvature, is the angle in degrees subtend-
ed by a 100-foot chord. This is simply an arbitrary label, as other ways of defining
curvature exist, such as by radius. How can curvature be measured in the field without
a survey? After all, it would be most impossible to measure the radius of a curve in the
field, unless the curve was super sharp.
There is a property of the curve called the mid-ordinate which is the distance from the
midpoint of the chord to the midpoint of the arc subtended by that same chord (By
calculation, it can be shown that the mid-ordinate equals curvature squared divided by
eight times the radius, but this still leaves the guy in the field saying, "so what?").
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Well, if a 62-foot chord is used instead of the 100-foot chord, it just so happens that
the mid-ordinate measured in inches is approximately equal to the curvature in degrees.
In other words, if the mid-ordinate is three inches, the curvature is three degrees and so
forth. If you want to check this out for yourself, refer to the right triangle formed by
the radius (hypotenuse), the half-chord (31') and the radius minus the mid-ordinate,
which forms the adjacent side. Remembering from your geometry that the adjacent
and opposite sides of a right triangle squared and added to each other equal the
hypotenuse squared. In the case of a one-degree curve with a radius of 5730', the
mid-ordinate works out to be 1.006", which is close enough for railroad work.
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So now we have a quick and easy way to field check curvature. All that is needed is
something to form a 62-foot chord, something to measure the mid-ordinate, and a way
to fasten both ends of that chord, such as a couple of stout lads.
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Let's review our shopping list:
• A steel tape, in order to measure the half chords, which will be the stations.
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• Some sort of marking device, like kiel or paintstick.
• A string, preferably a chord with properties unlike that of a rubber band--it should
remain at 62' under tension.
• Something or someone to clamp the string ends.
• A tape measure and someone to hold it and take notes.
That's it. It's fairly low tech.
Paddles can be used to which the string ends are affixed, for reasons that will become
apparent shortly.
Observe the schematic of a curve. It should be apparent that if the entire chord were
on tangent, the mid-ordinate would be zero. It should also be apparent that as the
chord moves off the tangent and onto the spiral, the mid-ordinate would increase until
the entire stringline is within the full body of a curve. Within the full body of the curve,
theoretically, the mid-ordinates should all be equal. As the stringline passes from full
body to spiral to tangent, the mid-ordinate of the chord will decrease back to zero.
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In real life, however, some curves have doglegs, with a slight reversing curve coming
out of the spiral onto tangent. As the chord is to be measured on the high rail as
reference, areas of reversing curvature might not be captured if the string ends are not
offset. The use of paddles, where the string ends are attached an even one inch away
from the rail, at a distance the traditional 5/8" down the head of the rail, will keep the
string from simply lying against the rail in the dogleg areas. In this situation, the
measurement of less than the one-inch offset, for example, a measurement of 3/4", is
recorded as a negative 1/4" (subtracted from the offset).
The most direct way to illustrate what has been said is graphically. Here are the
recommended steps in field measurement of curvature:
The necessary equipment has already been reviewed.
Prior to commencing this or any other operation, a comprehensive job briefing should
be held in order to ensure the safety of all the participants, which should particularly
address protection from train traffic, and any other hazards that may be encountered.
Next, mark the stations on the rail, starting with your first station far enough outside or
ahead of the beginning of the curve to ensure that any doglegs are included, and that
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the point of spiral is captured. That is recommended to be around three or four

stations. Remember, the stations are 31 feet apart.
In order not to lose track of the stations while marking them, which is easier to do than
you might imagine, the person holding the trailing end of the tape should yell the
station number upon arrival at that station, and the person holding the leading end of
the string should yell the next number as it is marked on the rail. The entire curve is
thus stationed ahead of the measurement of the mid-ordinates. Notice that the tape
and not the string are used to mark the stations. In earlier years, stringlining
instructions recommended the use of the rail joints as the stations (rather than
measuring), but this is impractical in welded rail territory. If joints are used, keep in
mind that the stations will not be at 31', so the mid-ordinates will not relate exactly to
the degree of curvature. Of even more significance, keep in mind that the rails sure
need to be of uniform length.
As at the beginning of the curve, continue marking the stations well out of the curve
and onto tangent.
The next step is the measurement of the mid-ordinates. Using a 62-foot stringline,
held tight so as to eliminate inaccuracy caused by slack, move around the curve,
measuring and recording mid-ordinates at the station in between those at the end of
the stringline. If plotting the mid-ordinates, obviously someone needs to be recording
them, and traditional instructions recommend using mid-ordinates recorded as either
eighths of an inch, tenths of an inch, or hundredths of a foot. The advantage of using
eighths of an inch is that it is familiar to the average trackman. The disadvantage is that
in sharp curves, the mid-ordinates get into multiple inches and conversion becomes a
little more difficult. For example, a measurement of 4-5/8ths mid-ordinate would be
shown on the curve plot as 37/8ths, or simply 37.
After measurements are complete, the data can be plotted as a mid-ordinate plot,
where the approximate points of spiral and full body, points of simple curve and
approximate curvature can be derived. Points of compound curves, if applicable, are
likewise accessible, as are areas of poor alignment, which will be noticeable. It is
important to reference on your notes those stations or areas of the curve which may
restrict lining, such as open deck bridges, through trusses, road crossings, turnouts,
platforms and signals.
If all this looks familiar to those of you experienced with automatic lining and tamping
equipment, it is because the principles are similar. The stringline used is a wire, laser or
light, and the guy with the tape has been replaced by a shadowboard. However, the
number plotted by the machine or the operator, if done manually, is not a
mid-ordinate, but simply an ordinate, the difference being that this ordinate is simply
the distance between the chord and the arc at some distance other than halfway. Our
predecessors who discovered that as speeds increased, the alignment entering and
leaving simple curves became distorted recognized this early, which in turn lead to the
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development of transition curves between the tangents and simple curves and spirals.
In theory, this should make no difference as long as the location of the ordinate is the
same at every station and the chord length remains the same throughout the entire
operation.
Interpretation of the points of spiral and simple curve is slightly different. Obviously,
these machines have the ability to rapidly plot the curve, but if one or three people
were willing to spend the time and effort stringlining a curve manually, measuring the
mid-ordinates every few inches rather than just at 31-foot stations, the plot would be
just as accurate. Such an example is the curve plot taken off the track geometry car,
where the chord can be as short as the distance between the wheels on the same truck
set, and the measurement continuous.
In the days before automatic tampers, when lining was performed by hand, the
mid-ordinates derived by stringlining were used in various methods to arithmetically
line curves to a "best fit" condition, with minimal throws. These methods, such as the
Bracket and Bartlett methods, are almost an art, trial and error systems, and the limiting
factor was the size of the acceptable throw to attain the revised mid-ordinates.
The systems are based on the following fundamental principles:

Lining a curve out defines a positive throw; lining a curve in defines a negative
throw; throw is the distance the curve is moved at a particular station.
If a curve is lined OUT at a particular station, the mid-ordinates at the stations

adjacent to it are REDUCED by half that throw. For example, if station 15 is
lined out 4 inches, the mid-ordinate of stations 14 and 16 are reduced by 2 inches.
If a curve is lined IN at a particular station, the mid-ordinates at the stations

adjacent to it are INCREASED by half the throw.
The Bartlett method starts with the assumption that the sum of the mid-ordinates of all
the stations must remain the same after lining. This should be instinctive, assuming
that no rail is to be added or taken out of the curve, and for a best fit with what is on
the ground, the throws should balance each other out.
The end throws at the beginning and ending stations must be zero. If this doesn't
occur, then the station immediately ahead of the first one or immediately following the
last one will have one half of that first or last throw added or subtracted to its
mid-ordinate, if one was to be measured. This would be a dogleg.
In the Bartlett method, a revised set of mid-ordinates is chosen, in a way similar to

setting the new ordinates after running through a curve with a tamper, plotting the
ordinates, then drawing the new curve. The algebraic difference between the original
mid-ordinate and the new one selected is called the "error." As an example, if the
original mid-ordinate is 17 and the new mid-ordinate is 23, the error is 17 - 23 or -6.
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This is all set up as a spread sheet, with columns labeled, from left to right, STATION,
MID-ORDINATES, REVISED MID-ORDINATES, ERROR, SUM OF ERRORS,
HALF-THROW and THROW.
Two ways to check your progress are as follows. Add the original and revised
mid-ordinates. If the sums are not equal, revise the revised mid-ordinates again in
order to make it so. Also, the sum of the errors should be zero.
The column labeled "sum of errors" will have as its entry a running total of the errors
up to that station. In other words, if the error at station 1 is 0, station 2 is -1 and
station 3 is 0, the sum of error entry at station 3 should be 0 + (-1) + 0 or a -1. As said
in the preceding paragraph, the final entry in the "sum of errors" column should be
zero.
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The column labeled "half throw" is the algebraic sum of the errors up to the preceding
station and the half-throw of the preceding station. This takes into account the
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relationship between the errors and the throws. As example, if the sum of errors at
station 25 is -3, and the half-throw at station 25 is 40, the half-throw at station 26 is
now -3 + 40, or 37.
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If the final half-throw is not zero, another try must be made. There is no sense in
calculating the throw, which is double the half-throw, if the operation must be
performed again. The recommended way to revise the revised mid-ordinates is to
select two stations, the same number of stations apart as the remaining half-throw.
Example, if the remaining half-throw at the last station is 10, select two stations 10
stations apart, such as 5 and 15. If the remaining half-throw is positive, reduce the
revised mid-ordinate at the higher station number and increase the revised
mid-ordinate at the lower station by the same amount. If the remaining half-throw is
negative, increase the revised mid-ordinate at the higher station and subtract the same
amount to the station with the lower number. If there aren't enough stations in the
curve to use one pair, either use two pairs of stations or change the revised
mid-ordinates by more than one. As you can see by the following examples, when the
final sum of errors is off by only small numbers, the pair of stations to be revised again
might only be adjacent.
If the mid-ordinates describe eighths on an inch, then the largest throw in this example,
38, or 38/8", equals a throw of 4-3/4".
It should be obvious from the example that this system lends itself readily to the personal computer.
After an agreeable solution is found, stakes are set at the stations according to the new
mid-ordinates chosen, and the manual lining takes place. Undoubtedly, it is for this
reason, as well as for the fact that automatic tampers with curve lining programs do
these types of calculations quickly, that almost all the respondents on this committee
stated that the major value of stringlining these days is for the rapid determination of
curvature in the field, without the expense of a survey, when other methods, such as
plotting with a tamper or geometry car, are not readily available. This could be of
critical importance in derailment investigations and does not afford a way to line track
when no references or surveyors are available. An example of this would be during
derailment restoration where the panels could be lined according to the stringlining
prior to dumping ballast.
It cannot be stressed enough that when lining track, keep in mind your organization's
instructions on disturbed track, and consider clearances, where a best fit solution to a
curve lining problem could impair the clearance on an adjacent track, signal or other
structure.
Bibliography
Bartlett, Charles, H., Stringlining Railroad Curves.
Cabrera, A., Hand Measurement Techniques: Stringlining. Symposium on Track Lining

Techniques, AREA Committee 2, Track Measuring Systems, Chicago, IL.
Hay, W.W., Railroad Engineering, J. Wiley & Sons.
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A P P E N D I X H – M A I N T E N A N C E P R O C E S S E S
Maintenance Processes61
61 Maintenance SPC Processes Provided Courtesy of the Canadian National Railway.
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A P P E N D I X H - M A I N T E N A N C E P R O C E S S E S - B A L L A S T
U N L O A D I N G
Ballast Unloading
Process:
The following process description considers unloading ballast from railcars. Various
unloading requirements (i.e. shoulders, centers, one side) are considered.
I - Plan to Unload Ballast
There are three general levels of planning to be considered to complete a ballast

unloading project.
1. Pre-project planning (done weeks/months prior to job)
2. Pre-job planning (done day(s) ahead of job)
3. Pre-block planning (done hour(s) before job)
1. Pre-project planning for:

Emergencies (safety)
Work environment
Ballast requirements
Project impediments
2. Pre-job planning for:
Work environment
Ballast requirements
Production impediments
3. Pre-block planning for:
Shortages of ballast delivered
Change of plans
Make up of train
II - Preparation
Prior to unloading ballast, a series of preparation tasks must be performed to ensure

that the safety of employees is considered, S&C or other installations are not damaged,
ballast is not unloaded where it is not required (wasted) and all employees involved
including the train crew are familiar with the locations and unloading procedures.
1. Ensure unloading employees are provided with proper breathing apparatus.

2. Provide train crew with list of unloading sites (should be pre-marked in the
field).
3. Ensure there is enough ballast on hand to complete proposed work.
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U N L O A D I N G
If ... Then...
not enough ballast is available
prioritize where unloading will
be done
4. Job briefing by the unloading foreman, including:
• Locations and how much ballast will be unloaded at each location
• Obstructions
• Direction of unloading
• Whether there will be unloading centers, shoulders or both
• Speed of unloading
• Signals for shaking cars
• Site where employees will clear for trains
Note: This should be done at each unloading site.
5. Job briefing by train crew, including:

• The time available to unload ballast
• Where trains will be cleared
• How track gradients may affect unloading process
Note: This should be done at every unloading site.
III - Unload Ballast
The following is a general outline to follow when unloading ballast from railcars:
1. Ensure proper unloading bars/cranks available for old/new cars

2. Crack doors on Morrison-Knudsen or similar type door ballast cars
3. Move ballast train into position, ensuring that train is blocked so that:
• Same car types are blocked together (should be done prior to obtaining
work block)
• Only loaded cars will move over ballast flooded track
• Spreader (if equipped) is next to locomotive and train is “pushed” during
unloading (where possible)
Unloading is in the direction away from obstructions (where possible)
4. Unload ballast, ensuring train travels at “walking speed” for unloading
employees.
Unload:
• Between rails first
On shoulder only after centers have been unloaded if applicable
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U N L O A D I N G
If ... Then...
it is necessary to unload toward stop unloading a few car lengths
obstructions before the obstruction,
unloading “heavier” near the
end (allow regulator to move
excess closer to obstruction).
unloading to strengthen weak use 6-10 cars per mile, unloaded
shoulders on the shoulders approximately
3-4 inches higher than the ties.
unloading for spot surfacing unload light amounts of ballast
on the shoulders (often 3-5 cars
per mile is sufficient).
unloading for out-of-face unload through center doors ((3-
surfacing 4 inch) ridge above the ties for
minimum surface lift). A light
unloading on the shoulders may
also be required.
more ballast is required on one unload in several passes, and
side than on the other shake the cars periodically to
ensure ballast does not sit on
one side of car. Never have two
doors open on one side without
having at least one door open on
the opposite side. It creates a
derailment risk.
Note: Unloading to fill empty cribs on short spots is not recommended since it may
be too difficult to control the flow of ballast. Allowances should be made to dump on
shoulder and regulate into center.
5. Level ballast to top of rail

• Use spreader nose or
Minimum (9’) ties under loaded car
6. Shake ballast cars on track that has not yet been unloaded upon. Do not
shake cars on:
• Ballast flooded track
• Open deck bridges
• Turnouts, especially in switch area
• Road crossings
Skeletonized track
7. When finished unloading, close ballast car doors
H-5
©2003 AREMA®
U N L O A D I N G
If ... Then...
using older enterprise type cars
clean all ballast off center doors
and close them. Then clean side
doors prior to closing.
using Morrison-Knudsen type close chute and engage locking
cars lever.
Note: Always close and lock doors after car has been unloaded.
Clean any switches, crossings, flange ways, etc., that may be affected by ballast.
H-6
©2003 AREMA®
A P P E N D I X H – M A I N T E N A N C E P R O C E S S E S – G A U G I N G O N
W O O D A N D C O N C R E T E T I E S
Gauging on Wood and Concrete Ties

Overview:
Over periods of time, track may require re-gauging due to the tendency of track to
“spread” on curves because of the combination of lateral loads applied to the rail from
wheel flanges and frictional curving forces. Excessive lateral forces will also cause
gauge widening on tangents. Common causes or locations of gauge widening are:
Low rail joints

Broken tie plates
Plate cut ties where cant is changed
Soft or muddy track
Turnouts and railway crossings (especially when out of alignment)
Highway crossings
Frost heave locations
Track that is off cross-level or out of line
Truck hunting on tangents where speeds are in excess of 45 mph
Poor maintenance practices (no tie plugging when re-spiking)
Rail wear
Track geometry defects, such as wide gauge, worsen at a progressive rate when left
unattended and will cause other related defects such as variation in gauge, uneven rail
wear and corrugation.
The purpose of a gauging program is to produce track that is to proper gauge, not only
under static conditions, but also when track is under load. Often both rails must be
respiked when gauging to eliminate incidents of rails moving from dynamic gauge. To
that extent, the guiding principle of re-spiking both rails on curves or tangents is the
same.
When gauging, the gauge rail is always moved to standard gauge relative to the line rail;
therefore, the line rail must always be checked for any indication of movement under
load (dynamic gauge). If the line rail or plates indicate signs of movement under load,
the line rail must be refastened prior to moving the other rail to gauge.
On tangent track, either rail may be used as the line rail but the same rail must be used
throughout the tangent. The other rail will be the gauge rail. On curves, the high
(outside) rail shall be used as the line rail. The low (inside) rail will be the gauge rail.
Whenever gauging on wood ties, it is essential that gauge at the outer limits of the
gauging location is run out or feathered so as not to cause variation in gauge due to the
abrupt change of gauge within a short distance.
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©2003 AREMA®
Gauging on wood ties is often completed as part of a rail relay, tie replacement or
sledding operation, but may also be done as a separate activity. The same applies on
concrete ties, however, when the combination of high lateral loads and worn
components such as cast shoulders, tie pads and insulators contribute to accelerated rail
wear, immediate action must be taken to restore the gauge to within acceptable limits.
When not part of a tie gang, gauging on wood ties is usually performed ahead of the tie
gang. This eliminates the need to pull spikes from and plug new ties (reduces “spike
killing” of ties).
Process:
The following general procedures consider gauging on wood and concrete ties as
separate processes. Stages, which are shaded, may be performed at the discretion of
the Division Engineer.
I - Plan for Gauging
There are three general levels of planning to be considered to complete a gauging

project.
1. Pre-project planning (done week(s) prior to job)

Emergencies
Work environment
Material requirements
Specialized equipment requirements
Location details
Project impediments
Emergencies
Work environment
Jump start possibilities
Protection requirements
Conducting job briefing
Distributing material
Jump starting gang
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©2003 AREMA®
IIa - Gauging on Wood Ties
Certain types of work can be performed prior to obtaining the major work block for
the gang when adequate protection is provided. Completing these activities ahead of
time will ‘jump start’ the operation and increase productivity through more efficient use
of work block time.
1. Distribute material as required

If ... Then...
using new spikes distribute new spikes
changing/adding anchors distribute anchors
upgrading tie plates distribute plates (and clips if
required)
2. Eliminate dynamic gauge
If ... Then...
spikes are loose or high on the pull spikes on line rail
line rail, or if tie plates show throughout area being gauged
signs of moving under load plug all spike holes
re-spike line rail to standard
3. Remove spikes on gauge rail
If ... Then...
gauging curves remove spikes on the low rail of
the curve
gauging on tangent remove spikes on rail opposite
the line rail
4. Spread or remove anchors as necessary
5. Remove tie plates to adze if required
6. Plug spike holes and seat plugs
7. Adze as required to provide level bearing surface
8. Apply approved preservative as required to adzed surfaces
9. Install plates and clip rail if required
10. Move gauge rail to proper gauge
11. If installing tie screws, pre-drill ties to be gauged
12. Fasten gauge rail with spikes or tie screws
If ... Then...
on a curve gauge every 3rd tie
on a tangent gauge every 4th tie
13. If installing tie screws, pre-drill remaining ties
14. Fasten remaining ties on gauge rail to standard
15. Reinstall/tighten anchors
H-9
©2003 AREMA®
IIb - Gauging on Concrete Ties
Due to a combination of rail wear and wear of cast shoulders, insulators, pads, and rail
seat damage, it is sometimes necessary to gauge concrete ties.
Normally the tie pads are changed whenever gauging is performed and new (with
wider posts) insulators are used on the field side of the rail. Insulators on the gauge
side of the rail are normally worn insulators.
of work block time.
1. Distribute pads, insulators, and clips as required

2. Remove clips on one rail in area to be gauged
3. Raise one rail to remove insulators
4. Remove old tie pads if changing
5. Inspect rail seat for abrasion and note condition
6. Insert new tie pad
7. Lower rail and place appropriate insulators into position
8. Set insulators into proper position
9. Install clips to standard
10. Repeat steps 2-9 for other rail
III - Completing Quality Control
Completing Quality Control ensures that the gauging operation meets criteria
established for the gang, as well as safety standards.
1. Check that rail is properly seated

2. Check that tie plates, pads and insulators are properly installed
3. Check that spikes (where used) are driven in standard spiking pattern
4. Check for missing, high or bent spikes
5. Install and/or properly adjust all anchors/clips
6. Pick-up and pile all unused or recyclable materials and used pads
7. Inspect track conditions for signs of overstress
H-10
©2003 AREMA®
A P P E N D I X H – M A I N T E N A N C E P R O C E S S E S – M E C H A N I C A L
S U R F A C I N G O F T R A C K
Mechanical Surfacing of Track

Overview:
The purpose of mechanical surfacing is to provide properly surfaced track over long
distances, to standards outlined in maintenance or track construction guidelines. With
properly set tamping pressures and lifts, a more uniform tamp and lift can be achieved
than can be obtained by hand tamping. Mechanical tampers are more productive and
produce uniform tamping pressures, which ensure high quality track surfacing.
Mechanical tamping is also longer lasting due to more uniform settlement of the
ballast.
Surfacing gangs may perform various “degrees” of surfacing. Some gangs may only
perform a touch-up surfacing lift while others may actually resurface the track behind a
major ballast rehabilitation program, requiring lifts in excess of four (4) inches.
The following definitions will apply:
Surfacing - bringing track to a uniform gradient with corresponding cross-level to

suit the alignment, without raising the general surface of the track more than 40
mm (1-1/2 inches). Surfacing may be spot or out-of-face.
Spot Surfacing - the raising of short depressions (disconnected points) in the track
to the general level of the adjoining rails both along and across the track without
raising the general track level.
Surfacing Lift - the continuous raising of the track elevation with or without
additional ballast and without raising the general elevation of the track more than
40 mm (1-1/2 inches).
Ballast lift - continuous raising of the track elevation by the use of additional ballast
and where the general elevation of the track is raised more than 40 mm (1-1/2
inches).
Process:
Final Surfacing lifts may be performed to extend track life and improve rideability. On
many gangs, such as tie gangs and rail gangs, it may only be necessary to perform a final
surfacing lift. However, depending on the amount of lift necessary to bring the track
to proper surface elevation, the surfacing gang may be required to unload ballast and
perform ballast lift(s) in addition to the final surfacing lift. The following process
describes both a ballast lift and a final surfacing lift, as would be performed in
operations such as the under cutter or track sled.
Shaded areas in the following process outline represent additional steps that would be
performed if a ballast lift were required.
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©2003 AREMA®
I - Plan to Surface Track
There are three general levels of planning to be considered to complete a surfacing

project.


Emergencies
Work environment
Project impediments
Access
Emergencies
Work environment
Track protection
Job briefing
Jump starting gang
II - Prepare to Surface Track
Prior to surfacing track, the track must be up to standard with respect to maintenance
guidelines. All track, C&S or other wayside installations must be identified so as not to
be damaged. Before undertaking the project, steps must be taken to ensure there is
adequate ballast on hand.
1. Perform basic track maintenance (this is particularly important when surfacing

switches)
Tighten bolts, tap high spikes and adjust anchors
Plug and re-spike wood ties as required
Install any missing insulators/clips on concrete ties
2. Replace fouled ballast
3. Prepare road crossings (ensure final elevation of road crossing is known)
Erect safety road signs
Assign flagmen as required
H-12
©2003 AREMA®
If ... Then...
surfacing through crossing remove crossing surface
4. Protect C&S installations
C&S to mark or disconnect ALL potential obstructions (bootlegs, track leads,
buried cable, etc.)
5. Obtain up-to-date curve list for territory
Required length of spirals & curves
Transition points (if field survey has been performed)
Required super elevation
6. Examine track ahead
Determine surfacing limits
Check for fixed points requiring run-in/run-out or lining to
Graph curves ahead of gang & mark curve transition points
7. Check ballast conditions to determine whether required amount of ballast is
available prior to surfacing
If… Then…
Not enough ballast is available Do not attempt to lift the location.
Perform stage III – Ballast Track before
surfacing
III - Ballast Track
In typical surfacing lift or ballast lift programs, additional ballast may be required to
ensure adequate ballast sections are maintained.
IVa - Surface and Line Track
Depending on the type of surfacing being completed, different procedures will be

employed. Surfacing/lining operations involving ballast rehabilitation or ballast lifts
may take place in stages over several days. Surfacing lifts or spot surfacing involves
fewer steps, but the same general procedure is used. Surfacing switches requires yet
another set of procedures.
In all cases, the production behind each pass of the tamper must be monitored to
ensure the quality of the work is what is expected from the machine. Temporary slow
orders may be required due to disturbed ballast. The following is a general outline for
surfacing track:
1. Regulate ballast for tamping

2. Perform first major ballast lift
May lift up to 100 mm (4”)
H-13
©2003 AREMA®
If ... Then...
dynamic stabilizer is used increase speed to suit track
conditions
stabilizer is not used apply railway designated speed
restrictions for designated period
of time and/or number of trains
3. Unload and regulate additional ballast as required. Repeat steps
1 & 2 if more lift is required (such as undercutter or sledding operations,
where 12” ballast required under ties)
4. Perform final ballast lift (where required)
Normally one pass with 50-75 mm (2-3”) lift and line
Top of rail should be with 25 mm (1”) of design
Emphasis on getting tangents in place (use laser)
5. Perform final surfacing
Emphasis on cross-level and alignment of spirals and curves
If ... Then...
Dynamic stabilizer is used Remove TSO and resume track
speed
Dynamic stabilizer is not used Apply railway designated speed
6. Unload additional ballast and regulate as required
7. Broom track
IVb - Surface and Line Turnout
When performing surfacing on a turnout, if there are areas, which cannot be tamped
by the machine, they must be tamped manually.
1. Regulate ballast flooded track for tamper

2. Perform surfacing lift on mainline and turnout sides
• Lift so that top of rail is within 25 mm (1”) of design
• Complete run-outs on mainline and turnout side before releasing track to
service
4. Perform final surfacing on mainline and turnout sides
• Normally one pass with 25-50 mm (1-2”) lift and line
• Complete run-outs on mainline and turnout side before releasing track to
service
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©2003 AREMA®
If ... Then...
Dynamic stabilizer is used Remove TSO and resume track
speed
Dynamic stabilizer is not used Apply railway designated speed
5. Hand tamp at locations where tamping tools cannot reach
• Ties on each side of switch rods
• Ties that support heel castings, toe of frog and heel of frog
• Under frogs (especially if frog is sitting on a base plate)
6. Regulate ballast and add additional ballast if necessary
7. Check track geometry prior to releasing track to service
• Surface, alignment and cross-level
• Warp and twist behind frog on turnout side
8. Broom track
9. Apply temporary slow orders as necessary
V - Complete Quality Control
Quality Control of the surfacing operation must be completed to ensure that the entire
operation meets criteria established for the gang, as well as safety standards.
1. Check track for geometry - surface, line, cross level, etc.

2. Check ties, ties may be skewed or tipped
3. Check that rail is properly seated in plates
4. Check tie plates, pads and insulators
Pads not shifted
Insulators seated
5. Check spikes, anchors or clips
None missing, high or bent
Installed properly in standard pattern
6. Ensure full cribs and ballast section trimmed to standard
7. Ensure all road crossings and wayside appliances reinstalled
Install planks
Place ‘slow’ signs if required
8. Inspect track for signs of overstress
‘Kinky’ rail; inadequate ballast; realigned track
9. Place Temporary Slow Order to protect track as required
10. Transfer/cancel/remove track protection
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©2003 AREMA®
VI - Destressing
If rail conditions indicate, or if alignment of track is significantly altered, destressing

should be performed behind the final lift of the surfacing operation.
H-16
©2003 AREMA®
A P P E N D I X H – M A I N T E N A N C E P R O C E S S E S – S W I T C H T I E ,
Y A R D A N D S I D I N G T I E S P R O G R A M M E D M A I N T E N A N C E T I E
R E N E W A L
Switch Tie, Yard and Siding Ties and Programmed

Maintenance Tie Renewal
Overview
Tie renewal is more productive when performed by mechanized tie gangs. The tie
renewal process for smaller gangs is similar to that of large tie gangs, however,
“reduced” tie gangs are used to perform switch tie renewal, yard and siding tie renewal
and spot maintenance tie renewal.
This smaller gang size provides the benefits of being mechanized and still remains
flexible enough to work under the constraints of time and location and the nature of
the work (i.e. switch ties or track ties) that are imposed on this type of gang.
Process
The following process description is based on a tie gang, which performs switch tie
renewal or track tie renewal in yards or sidings. Where necessary, “If-then” tables are
used to differentiate between the two operations. Since the necessity for gauging
and/or surfacing is site specific and often dependent on the number of ties to be
renewed, shaded areas are used in the following process outline to indicate steps, which
may not be required (i.e. single, or spot tie replacement).
I - Planning for Tie Renewal
There are three general levels of planning to be considered to complete a tie renewal
project.

Emergencies
Work environment
Project impediments
Access
Emergencies
Work environment
H-17
©2003 AREMA®
R E N E W A L

Pre-block planning for:
Job briefing
Material distribution
Jump starting gang
II - Removing Old Ties
Various types of equipment are available for tie removal, any of which may or may not
exist in a particular gang consist. The general process for tie removal is similar,
whether performed manually or by machine:
1. Remove spikes/clips
If ... Then...
changing switch ties remove the spikes on every
second tie only (i.e. make two
passes)
using machinery that cannot pull spikes by hand with claw
reach spikes in turnout area bar
using machinery capable of leave rail anchors on
removing ties with rail anchors
on
using machinery incapable of remove rail anchors
removing ties with anchors on
2. Pick-up spikes/clips and rail anchors (Reuse/Recycle)
3. Remove defective ties
4. Pick-up tie plates, tie pads and insulators (Reuse/Recycle)
If ... Then...
plates are still on old ties remove and set in convenient
location for reuse
5. Stockpile old ties
III - Installing New Ties
The general procedure for tie installation is:
1. Prepare for insertion of new ties

If ... Then...
rail anchors are still on rail spread or remove rail anchors
before tie insertion
tie bed requires clean/scarify, disturbing the
cleaning/scarifying roadbed as little as possible
H-18
©2003 AREMA®
R E N E W A L
tie cranes are used pile scrap ties and spot new ties
as required
ties are unbored provide for a method to ensure
the line end of ties is uniform
(mark line on ties or set machine
“stops”)
ties are bored ensure tie is spotted with
marking upright and with line
end of tie in proper position
2. Insert new ties, lifting track as little as possible
3. On concrete ties, distribute pads and insulators
4. Place tie plates/pads
5. Tamp or ‘Nip’ ties prior to spiking/clipping
6. On concrete ties, install insulators
7. Fasten ties to standard
If ... Then...
gauging is to be performed refer to Gauging, Stage IV of
within the tie gang consist this Recommended Method
Install and adjust all anchors to standard
If ... Then...
completing tie renewal in two repeat Stage II & Stage III
passes
IV - Gauging
While gauging is shown in this stage of the tie gang consist, it is not often performed
by this type of gang (other than gauging on the actual tie as it is installed). A separate
gang normally performs gauging on concrete ties. However, if the tie gang is also
gauging, the general procedure on wood ties is:

If ... Then...
gauging curves remove spikes on the low
(inside) rail
line rail
2. Remove tie plates to adze if required
4. Adze as required to provide level bearing surface
5. Apply approved preservative to adzed surfaces
7. Re-spike gauge rail
H-19
©2003 AREMA®
R E N E W A L
If ... Then...
on a curve gauge spike every 3rd tie
on a tangent gauge spike every 4th tie
8. Re-spike remaining ties on gauge rail to standard
9. Eliminate dynamic gauge
If ... Then...
on the line rail spikes are seen to pull spikes on line rail
be loose or high, or if tie plates throughout area being gauged
show signs of moving under plug all spike holes
load re-spike line rail to standard
10. Install and adjust all anchors throughout gauged area
V - Completing Quality Control
Quality Control of the tie renewals must be completed to ensure that the entire
1. Straighten ties
Ties may be skewed
Rail is not sitting on shoulder of plate
Ties are tamped tight to rail base
Plates centered on ties
Pads not shifted
Insulators seated
4. Check spikes
Driven properly in standard pattern
None missing; properly driven or adjusted
6. Pick-up and pile all unused or recyclable materials
Keep piles of scrap and reusable materials separate
7. Fill cribs and trim ballast section to standard
8. Reinstall all road crossings and wayside appliances
Install planks
H-20
©2003 AREMA®
R E N E W A L
VI - Line/Surface
Tie gangs generally perform lining and surfacing operations as part of the program
because of the extreme disturbance that tie change out causes to the ballast section and
track geometry. In addition, ballast compaction is uneven and therefore must be
corrected to ensure even settlement.
1. Regulate ballast up from shoulder for tamping

Transfer ballast if necessary
Ensure enough ballast covers ties for required lift
2. Line and surface track
Use laser to align tangents
Use curve list to ensure spirals/curves lifted/lined to design
3. Check line and surface
Verify cross-level with level board
Ensure proper superelevation throughout spirals and on curves
Ensure proper alignment throughout spirals and curves
4. Spot dump additional ballast
Ensure cribs are full
Ensure shoulders are to standard
5. Trim shoulders to proper ballast section
Regulate shoulders to even out shoulder width
6. Broom track
7. Complete final Quality Control for job
Check alignment, surface and cross-level
Check for damaged or tipped ties
8. Place slow order as required (not to exceed allowable TSO for track condition)
H-21
©2003 AREMA®
A P P E N D I X H – M A I N T E N A N C E P R O C E S S E S – R A I L T R A I N
R A I L P I C K U P
Rail Train Rail Pickup

Overview:
Rail is the single most costly asset of the fixed plant. Every effort must be made to
maximize rail life by wearing the rail out in place or by utilizing it in another suitable
location until the rail reaches condemnable wear limits.
Rail relay or abandonment projects generate used rail that may be reclassified and
reused or sold as scrap in the field. Frequently, jointed rail or rail on a heavy tonnage
line that was removed because of a high defect count is quite satisfactory for lower
tonnage lines, especially if the rail was previously located on a tangent. It is often cost
effective to pick up this rail in long strings, which greatly reduces handling costs.
When long lengths of rail are picked up as welded or bolted strings, a specialized Rail
Pickup Unit (RPU) and rail train are used to load and transfer the rail to a new field
location or to the rail yard for classifying and redistribution or scrapping.
Loading rail with a work train, RPU, and rail train involves threading rail through the
RPU and pushing lengths of rail into pockets of the rail train until all tiers of the rail
train are full.
Process:
I - Plan Rail Pickup Project
Along with recognized best practices, the following essential planning will help
maintain a safe work environment and ensure gang productivity:
Determine working direction for rail pickup

Determine clearing locations for work train and rail train
Determine size/length/locations of rail to be salvaged or scrapped
Determine availability of rail pickup unit and rail train
Discuss work train requirements with transportation officer
There are three general levels of planning to be considered to complete a rail pickup
project.
1. Pre-project planning: done weeks/months prior to job

2. Pre-job planning: done day(s) ahead of job
3. Pre-block planning: done hour(s) before job
Budget preparation
Emergencies
H-22
©2003 AREMA®
R A I L P I C K U P
Work environment
Material and equipment requirements
Project impediments
Access, clearing, tie-up locations

Emergencies
Work environment
Material and equipment requirements
Rail size, length and locations
Clearing/tie-up points

Job briefing
It is extremely important that a thorough job briefing be held with all
members of the rail pickup gang, including the train crew. The loading
procedure and type of communication to be used must be discussed with
and understood by all employees.
Rail loading plan
II - Prepare for Rail Pickup
Much work can be done ahead of the arrival of the rail train to ensure that the rail
pickup operation runs smoothly, and makes the most efficient use possible of available
track time.
Ensure logistics of work train are covered with the train crew. Depending on the
location of the rail pickup, it is often beneficial to tie-up on-line and taxi crew to train
(where proper arrangements have been made through the transportation officer).
Ensure fueling/servicing of train are also arranged as required.
Appropriate numbers and sizes of rail anchors, splice bars, bolts & washers must be on
hand for the various sizes of rail that may be picked up. Also, check the number and
condition of rail shoes. Estimate the available loading time. Determine work plan
based on location of rail and available time.
The location of all C&S equipment and other wayside items or obstructions such as
signs, bridges, road crossings, etc., must be identified prior to loading the rail, so that
they can be protected as necessary.
To maximize available track time, rail should be prepared for pickup before the work
train arrives at the site, taking into account the following:
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©2003 AREMA®
R A I L P I C K U P
1. Prepare the rail in the field for pickup

• Cut out rail defects in the field if rail is being cascaded to another location
• Drill holes in rail ends as required and splice shorter strings together
• Ensure that rail is set up on track shoulder for ease of handling and
threading through rollers
2. Ensure logistics of work train are covered (in conjunction with appropriate
Transportation officer)
• Train and crew ordered
• Arrangements for meals, taxi and tie-up
• Arrangements for fuel and servicing of work train as required
3. Ensure the proper tools and equipment are available
• Portable radios for the supervisor (and employees as required)
• Rail shoe(s)
• Rail anchors of the proper size for the rail to be loaded. (A dozen anchors
are required to anchor each string on the anchor car of the rail train.)
• Splice bars, bolts and washers as required for various sizes of rail
4. Protect essential C&S and wayside installations
• C&S to mark or disconnect ALL potential obstructions (bootlegs, track
leads, fiber optic or other buried cable, etc.)
• Crossing circuits
• Adjacent tracks
• Fixed signals
III - Thread Rail Through RPU
The rail pick-up unit (RPU) pushes lengths of rail onto the rail train. Two (2) strings of
rail may be loaded at the same time, one on each side of the RPU, with each string
being loaded independently of the other by the operator(s) of the power roller on the
RPU.
The first strings of rail to be loaded should be long enough to be threaded through the
rollers on the threader car, power rollers on the RPU and adjustable rack on the rail
car. Generally, 90m (300’) will ensure that enough rail is available to hook the next
length up to without having to go through the process of threading rail each time.
Before spotting the train for rail pickup, the locomotive engineer must pull the slack
out of the train. Instructions must be given for the locomotive engineer to use only the
train line break (not independent breaks) when loading rail. This will eliminate any run-
in of slack (which could cause rails to buckle on the train, causing personal injury or
damage to equipment).
The following step/action table outlines the procedure for threading rail through the
threader car and RPU.
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©2003 AREMA®
R A I L P I C K U P
1. Spot the end of the first rollers on the threader car in position so that the rail on
the ground is approximately 0.3m (1’) short of the threader box
2. Thread winch cables through RPU and threader car to allow rail to be pulled
through threader car and RPU
3. Use the hydraulic crane on the threader car to lift the rail
4. Install the rail shoe to be used for the first string of rail and attach winch cables.
Note: The rail shoe used on the first string(s) loaded on each tier is different from
the shoe used on subsequent strings on the same tier.
5. Adjust the first set of hydraulic roller boxes to the proper height and winch the
rail, threading it through the rollers on the threader car and the power rollers on
the RPU
Note: Rollers on RPU must be properly adjusted for size of rail
6. Once the rail is threaded through the RPU, the power rollers on the RPU are
clamped down on the rail
7. Adjust the roller rack on the rail train to match the level of racks that the rail will
be loaded on
IV - Load Rail on Rail Train
Loading full strings is the most economical approach in terms of utilizing the full
capacity of the rail train. However, in situations where shorter strings are loaded, the
rail ends must overhang the rack by at least 3.8m (15’) and must be at least the same
distance from the next rack. At the ends of the rail train the rail ends must be kept at
least 2m (6’) from the doors. This will ensure that rail ends do not fall off the rack or
bind on the racks or end doors due to slack action of the train when transporting the
rail.
When transporting, all rails on the train must be anchored with at least 6 rail anchors
on each side (total 12 per rail) on the anchor car, which is located at the center of the
train plus the bolted tie downs must be in place. This means that each rail loaded must
be at least half the length of the rail train or approximately 190m (750’). If the rail being
loaded is not that long, it must be adjoined to another piece. These details should be
worked out before the work train arrives, so that unexpected problems are not
encountered in the field.
The first rails loaded are placed in the center of the bottom rack. Subsequent rails are
loaded, filling the bottom tier first by working from the center of the rack outward,
then moving to the next tier and filling it in the same manner.
A rail shoe of a different design from the shoe used to load the first rail(s) on each tier
is used to load the second and subsequent rails. This rail shoe is equipped with a
sliding “clamp bracket” which slides along the head of the adjacent rail.
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R A I L P I C K U P
It is always advantageous to leave rail threaded through the RPU as this simplifies the
procedure and stabilizes any partially loaded rail when changing loading locations.
However, care must be taken to ensure that the adjustable threader boxes on the
leading end of the threader car will not contact any obstruction when the consist is
moved.
1. Instruct the locomotive engineer to provide full break application and start
the RPU rollers, which will pull the rail from the ground onto the train.
• The height of the guide boxes on the RPU may need
adjustment
• A point man must monitor the progress of each rail
while loading
If ... Then...
the rail does not move instruct the engineer to release
the train breaks and let the
power rollers pull the consist
along as the rail is loaded
2. Remove the rail shoe at lead end once the RPU has loaded the string
• Leave at least 2m (6’) clearance to rail train end
doors
• Place six anchors on each side of each rail at anchor
car
• Replace hold down clamps
3. Disconnect rail being loaded at RPU end of rail train
• Train must be stopped while breaking connection
• Salvage nuts/bolts/washers and joint bars
• Install a guide shoe (for second and subsequent rails
on the same tier) on rail extending from RPU
• Start loading each rail in new position with RPU
4. Repeat the above steps for each tier until the rail train is filled
Note: Ensure that all employees remain clear of the rail being loaded.
Only those employees so authorized may be situated on the threader and RPU cars.
V - Complete Paperwork
The final step in completing the rail pickup project is to complete all the necessary
paperwork, including recording a list of rail picked up, mileage etc., as well as
completing any way billing as required.
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A P P E N D I X H – M A I N T E N A N C E P R O C E S S E S – C W R R A I L
R E L A Y O N W O O D O R C O N C R E T E T I E S
CWR Rail Relay on Wood or Concrete Ties

Overview:
When rail is worn to condemnable limits or rail contains defects, which are deemed
excessive and/or severe, it will be removed from the main track and replaced as
necessary.
Where replacement of strings of continuous welded rail is required, it is cost effective

to program the replacement of large quantities of rail with a mechanized rail relay gang.
In addition to removal and replacement of rail where other track material (OTM) does
not require changing or upgrading, rail relay gangs may also complete:
• Tie plate renewal

• Rail anchor renewal
• Pad, insulator, clip renewal
• Destressing
Process:
The following process describes a Rail Relay crew changing out one or more string(s)
while also renewing tie plates, rail anchors and destressing.
“If-Then” tables are used in the various stages of the process outline to describe tasks
which may or may not be included in any particular gang consist. (i.e. concrete tie rail relay,
tie plate change out, or additional tasks that would otherwise not be required in every relay)
Shaded tables indicate steps that are optional to the basic rail relay procedure.
I - Planning for Rail Relay
There are three general levels of planning to be considered to complete a rail relay
project.
1. Pre-project planning (done week(s) prior to job)

Work environment
Specialized equipment requirements
Location details
Project impediments

Work environment
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©2003 AREMA®
Conducting job briefing
Distributing material
Jump starting gang
II - Preparing for Rail Relay
of work block time.
1. Prepare cut-in and cutout points

2. Distribute material as required
If ... Then...
using new spikes distribute new spikes
changing tie plates distribute new plates
changing anchors distribute anchors
on concrete ties distribute pads, insulators and
clips as required
3. Thread new rail to upright position
4. Add additional anchors to either side of relay limits on wood ties
5. Adjust anchors for at least 60m (200’) to either side of cut point
III - Removing Old Rail
Match marks provide a reference to indicate any rail movement of adjacent strings,
which may cause or indicate rail stress problems.
At the time of rail removal, consider the method of rail pick-up to be used as this may
affect rail removal procedures.
1. Match mark an unanchored tie on each side of cut point

2. If cut-in was previously prepared, unbolt joint. Otherwise cut rail at starting end
and drill if not welding immediately.
3. Prepare rail for pick-up if necessary
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©2003 AREMA®
If ... Then...
CWR is to be scrapped Cut through head of rail at
approximately 40’ intervals
Jointed rail is to be picked up in Unbolt the rail while it is still
pieces standing in track
4. Remove anchors/clips on string to be removed
5. Pull spikes on wood ties
If ... Then...
changing tie plates pull all spikes
not changing tie plates pull only necessary spikes
6. Pick up used spikes, anchors, clips and insulators for reuse/recycling
7. Remove old rail
IV - Preparing for New Rail
If tie plates are being changed, or if rail is to be gauged, the ties must be adzed and in
some cases the tie plates pre-gauged. On concrete ties, often the tie pads and insulators
are changed as part of the relay.
1. Remove tie plates/pads

If... Then...
changing tie plates remove and pile old plates
changing tie pads remove and pile old pads
2. Plug spike holes in wood ties
3. Install new plates/pads
If... Then...
changing tie plates Crib ballast from tie cribs
Adze ties and preserve cut
surfaces as required
Place new tie plates
Pre-gauge plates if equipment
available
changing tie pads Clean tie seat
Inspect for rail seat abrasion
Place new tie pads
V - Laying & Fastening New Rail
New rail must be seated properly in plates/rail seats and gauged to standard.
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©2003 AREMA®
Destressing, when necessary, is best performed when new rail is laid (CWR). Field
welds should be made immediately when relaying CWR. However, if welders are not
immediately available, rail joints should be laid tight to prevent rail end (joint) batter.
1. Set new rail into position

2. Join rail at starting end
3. Seat rail
Iff... Then...
on wood ties seat in tie plates ensuring plates
are properly situated on ties
on concrete ties install and seat insulators
4. Gauge new rail
If... Then...
rail laid on tangent gauge every 4th tie
rail laid on a curve gauge every 3rd tie
5. Determine whether destressing is required
If... Then...
rail temperature is below the spike at least every fourth tie
PRLTR and destress rail
rail temperature is above the plan to destress later when the
PRLTR rail cools to within the PRLTR,
or below the PRLT
6. Complete closure connection
If... Then...
welding immediately leave 25mm (1”) gap and don’t
drill bolt holes
not welding immediately leave no joint gap and drill only
outer 4 holes of 6 hole joint
7. Complete fastening of new rails
If... Then...
on wood ties finish spiking and anchoring or
clipping to standard
on concrete ties apply remaining clips
VI - Completing Quality Control
Quality Control of the relay must be completed to ensure that the entire rail relay
operation meets established criteria.
1. Check that rail is properly seated

2. Check that tie plates, pads and insulators are properly installed
3. Check for missing, high or bent spikes
4. Check that spikes are driven in standard spiking pattern
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©2003 AREMA®
6. Tighten any joint bolts to standard torque

10. Inspect track conditions for signs of overstress
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T I E R E N E W A L
Mechanized Tie Renewal

Overview:
Where large-scale tie replacement is identified, it is cost effective, on a per unit basis, to
use a specialized tie gang to replace the defective ties. Smaller tie gangs may be
arranged in a consist to perform small quantities of tie replacement, only removing
defective ties and installing new ties.
Tie gangs may perform gauging in addition to tie removal and replacement and
lining/surfacing operations. When not part of the tie gang consist, gauging on wood
ties is usually performed ahead of the tie gang. This eliminates the need to pull spikes
from and plug new ties (reduces “spike killing” of ties).
Process:
The following process description is based on a tie gang, which in addition to changing
defective ties also performs gauging, and lining/surfacing. The shaded areas in the
following process outline indicate stages that may or may not be included in any
particular gang consist.
“If-Then” tables are used in various stages of the outline to describe tasks which may or
may not be included in any particular gang consist. (i.e. some machinery can remove ties
without first removing anchors, while other machinery is not designed to remove ties with the anchors still
on. This requires the gang to perform additional tasks that would otherwise not be required.)
I - Planning for Tie Renewal
There are three general levels of planning to be considered to complete a tie renewal
project.

2. Pre-job planning (done day(s)/weeks ahead of job)
Emergencies
Work environment
Project impediments
Access
Emergencies
Work environment
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©2003 AREMA®
T I E R E N E W A L

Job briefing
Jump starting gang
Set up temporary slow order for the planned days work
II - Removing Old Ties
Various types of equipment are available for tie removal, any of which may or may not
exist in a particular gang consist. The general process for tie removal is similar,
whether performed manually or by machine:
1. Remove spikes/clips
If ... Then...
using machinery capable of leave rail anchors on
removing ties with rail anchors
on
using machinery incapable of remove rail anchors
removing ties with anchors on
2. Pick-up spikes/clips and rail anchors (Reuse/Recycle)
3. Remove defective ties
4. Pick-up tie plates, tie pads and insulators (Reuse/Recycle)
If ... Then...
plates are still on old ties remove and set in convenient
location for reuse
5. Stockpile old ties
III - Installing New Ties
Various types of equipment are available for tie installation, any of which may or may
not exist in a particular gang consist. The general procedure for tie installation is:
1. Prepare for insertion of new ties

If ... Then...
rail anchors are still on rail spread or remove rail anchors
before tie insertion
tie bed requires cleaning/ clean/scarify, disturbing the
scarifying roadbed as little as possible
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©2003 AREMA®
T I E R E N E W A L
tie cranes are used pile scrap ties and spot new ties
as required
ties are unbored provide for a method to ensure
the line end of ties is
uniform(mark line on ties or set
machine “stops”)
ties are bored ensure tie is spotted with
marking upright and with line
end of tie in proper position
2. Insert new ties, lifting track as little as possible
3. On concrete ties, distribute pads and insulators
4. Lift rail and place tie plates/pads
5. Tamp or ‘Nip’ ties prior to spiking/clipping
6. On concrete ties, install insulators
7. Fasten ties to standard
If ... Then...
gauging is to be performed refer to Gauging, Stage IV of
within the tie gang consist this Recommended Method
8. Install and adjust all anchors to standard
9. Adjust temporary slow orders, if required
IV - Gauging
It is often cost effective for tie gangs to perform gauging operations when replacing
defective wood ties, particularly in heavily curved territory. While gauging is shown in
this stage of the tie gang consist, it is frequently performed ahead of the tie gang (with a
separate gang). A separate gang normally performs gauging on concrete. The general
procedure for gauging on wood ties is:
1. Eliminate dynamic wide gauge (line rail)

If ... Then...
on the line rail tie plates show pull spikes on line rail
signs of moving under load throughout area being gauged
plug all spike holes
re-spike line rail to standard
If ... Then...
gauging curves remove spikes on the low
(inside) rail
line rail
2. Adze as required to provide level bearing surface (using tie router)
3. Apply approved preservative to adzed surfaces as required
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T I E R E N E W A L

5. Re-spike gauge rail
If ... Then...
on a curve gauge spike every 3rd tie
on a tangent gauge spike every 4th tie
6. Re-spike remaining ties on gauge rail to standard
V - Completing Quality Control
1. Straighten ties
Ties may be skewed
Pads not shifted
Insulators seated
4. Check spikes
9. Place temporary slow order to protect track as required
VI - Line/Surface
Larger tie gangs perform lining and surfacing operations as part of the program
because of the extreme disturbance that tie change out causes to the ballast section and
track geometry. In addition, ballast compaction is uneven and therefore must be
corrected to ensure even settlement.
The general procedure for lining/surfacing is:
1. Regulate ballast up from shoulder for tamping

Transfer ballast if necessary
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T I E R E N E W A L
Ensure enough ballast covers ties for required lift

2. Line and surface track
Use laser to align tangents
Use curve list to ensure spirals/curves lifted/lined to design
3. Check line and surface
Verify cross-level with level board
Ensure proper superelevation throughout spirals and on curves
Ensure proper alignment throughout spirals and curves
4. Spot dump additional ballast
Ensure cribs are full
Ensure shoulders are to standard
5. Trim shoulders to proper ballast section
Regulate shoulders to even out shoulder width
6. Broom track
7. Remove slow order if
Dynamic stabilizer is used, or
Specified railway policy involving time and/or number of trains
8. Complete final inspection for quality control
Check alignment, surface and cross-level
Check for damaged or tipped ties
Ensure standard ballast section
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A P P E N D I X H – M A I N T E N A N C E P R O C E S S E S – T R A C K
A B A N D O N M E N T
Track Abandonment
Overview:
When profitability is not achievable and a once profitable rail line is deemed redundant
to the company’s needs, the rail line may be considered for conveyance or
abandonment. If short line operators show no interest in the line, the line may be
decommissioned. When performed efficiently, decommissioning of the rail line will
often generate enough funds to pay for the abandonment. It may also generate
second-hand material that is of value in other locations.
Depending on the scope of abandonment, a rail sled, rail pick-up unit, and rail train
may be used in the abandonment process. Otherwise on-track locomotive cranes and
off-track hoisting equipment are used to load salvageable rail, plates and OTM (Other
Track Material).
Process
Track abandonment may consist of picking up a short stub track or unused siding, or
may involve the dismantling and pick-up of an entire subdivision. Depending on the
extent of abandonment, different equipment or techniques may be employed to
dismantle and dispose of materials. Often scrap or unusable material is sold on-site to
reduce handling and shipping costs. If classified as reusable, rail may be loaded in long
lengths utilizing a rail sled, rail pick-up unit, and rail train for cascading to another
location.
Below are the work stages for a typical track abandonment operation using a rail sled.
I - Plan Abandonment Project
Along with recognized best practices, the following essential planning will help
maintain a safe work environment and ensure gang productivity:
Ensure regulatory approval given to abandoned trackage

Determine working direction for track abandonment
Determine clearing locations for gang consist, crane, material cars, etc.
Determine which components/material are to be salvaged/scrapped
Determine availability of rail sled, rail pickup unit, rail train, etc.
Discuss work train requirements with transportation officer
There are three general levels of planning to be considered to complete a track

abandonment project.

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©2003 AREMA®

Emergencies
Work environment
Project impediments
Access
Emergencies
Work environment
Job briefing
Jump starting gang
II - Prepare Track for Work Train
Prior to operating the work train on a line to be abandoned, a thorough inspection

must be made of the track, bridges, ditches and crossings. Any sinkholes, slides,
broken rails, etc., must be repaired to allow hi-rails, roadway equipment, and the work
train to safely operate on the track.
1. Inspect track
• Look for broken rails or bars, roadbed stability problems, etc.
2. Stabilize roadbed
• Drain high water (break beaver dams, clear culverts/waterways)
• Repair washouts
3. Perform basic track maintenance
• Repair broken rail and joint bars
• Repair pull-aparts and track buckles
• Spot surface and line track as required
• Gauge track as required
4. Clear any fallen trees or vegetation fouling the main track
5. Protect essential C&S installations
• C&S to mark or disconnect ALL potential obstructions (bootlegs, track
leads, fiber optic or other buried cable, etc.)
• Crossing circuits
• Adjacent tracks
• Fixed signals
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©2003 AREMA®
III - Prepare Track for Abandonment
A small crew normally works ahead of the main gang to remove turnouts, sidings and
storage tracks. If a rail train is to be used to pickup reusable rail, rail joints are not
disassembled and some anchors are left to prevent pull-apart/track buckle problems
from rail creep. All material removed from the track must be either loaded in cars for
salvage or scrap, or stockpiled at designated locations for disposal.
1. Dismantle spurs, stub tracks and sidings

• Remove stop blocks, derails, signs
• Remove rail anchors and stockpile
• Pull spikes at joints
• Disassemble joints and stockpile bars and otm
• Pull remaining spikes and stockpile
• Stockpile rails for loading or disposal
If ... Then...
rail on siding or other track is to DO NOT disassemble joints,
be picked up by rail train but thread rail over to each side
of main track for pick-up in long
lengths.
2. Remove usable signs (that are no longer required)
If ... Then...
salvaging entire turnout in panels load turnouts onto A-frame cars
and install panel in turnout area
preparing turnout for rail sled straight-rail turnouts removing
points, bent stock rail, frog,
guard rails, all other rails except
main track running rails and
replace all turnout plates
(including brace plates on
straight stock rail) with standard
tie plates
scrapping turnout remove all rails and
components, keeping the points
and frog separate for possible
salvage
3. Pick-up all stockpiles of material (rail, major/minor OTM, etc.)
4. Remove turnouts
5. Remove rail anchors
If ... Then...
preparing for rail sled remove all but every 5th set of
abandonment boxed rail anchors
performing conventional remove all rail anchors and
abandonment stockpile
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©2003 AREMA®
IVa - Remove Rail with Conventional Gang
Removing rail with a conventional abandonment gang involves pulling all spikes,
removing all bolts, dismantling joints, then stockpiling all released material for disposal
on-site or loading into gondola cars. Care must be taken to not mix track components,
rail, plates, joint bars and OTM in gondola cars. If necessary, different types of material
can be placed in each end of a car.
1. Ensure all anchors are removed from rails

Place in suitable location for pick-up with magnet
1. Pull all spikes and stockpile
Joint spikes may have to be pulled by hand
Do not mix stockpiled spikes with rail anchors
2. Disassemble rail joints
Stockpile bolts, washers and nuts away from joint bars
3. Pick-up rail and move to location for loading
IVb - Sled Rails and Load on Rail Train
A rail sled and/or a rail pick-up unit (RPU) and rail train are used to load long lengths
of rail. It is always advantageous to leave rail threaded through the RPU and rail sled.
This simplifies the procedure, however, the procedure below includes steps to initially
thread the rail into this equipment.
1. Remove all anchors from track

This should be done for several miles ahead of the rail sled, however, track
inspection must be performed prior to operating the rail train on unanchored
track due to rail creep causing pull-aparts and track buckles
2. Set rail sled into position at end of rail behind rail train and RPU
3. Jack in-track rail up while pushing rail sled with loader to thread rail into rail sled
4. Connect rail sled to end car of RPU
5. Move work train to thread rail through rail sled for about 15m (50’)
6. Install spreader bar to guide loose rail to end of ties
7. Sled rail by moving work train the length of the rail train plus the length of the
distance from the end of the rail train to about 30m (100’) behind the rail sled
Ensure that about 30m (100’) of rail extends past the rail sled so that
connections on the rail train can be made before connections behind the rail
sled are required
8. Disconnect in-track rails about 15m (50’) behind rail sled
9. Install a rail shoe on the free rails and thread these rails through the RPU and onto
the rail train
The height of the guide boxes on the RPU may need adjustment
A point man must monitor the progress of each rail while loading
10. Move the rail train the length of the rail train to sled another string
The RPU continues to load rail while the work train sleds
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©2003 AREMA®
It may be necessary to stop sledding when loading rail on sharp curves,

especially when in rock cut area
11. Remove the rail shoe at lead end once the RPU has loaded each string
Leave at least 2m (6’) clearance to rail train end doors
Place six anchors on each side of each rail at anchor car
Replace hold down clamps
12. Disconnect rail being loaded at RPU end of rail train
Train must be stopped while breaking connection
Salvage nuts/bolts/washers and joint bars
Install a guide shoe on rail extending from RPU
Start loading each rail in new position with RPU
13. Disconnect the in-track rail behind sled and connect to the length of rail extending
from the RPU
Install rail spreader behind rail sled
14. Repeat steps 10 - 13 until rail train filled
V - Move Plates and OTM to Railhead
When performing conventional abandonment, the length of track being abandoned is

usually short or adjacent access to the track is available. Most material is normally
handled with machines equipped with magnets. Smaller piles are consolidated into
larger piles and usually loaded into gondola cars with a locomotive crane.
Subdivision abandonment with a rail sled creates a unique problem in that the ‘rail
head’ is constantly being moved forward as the rail is loaded on the rail train. As
anchors are removed prior to the rail being loaded, a locomotive crane directly into a
gondola loads the anchors. This crane working ahead of the rail train also loads all
other stockpiled material at turnout, siding, or side track locations.
A work crew follows the rail sled to pickup plates and OTM and stockpile. Suitable
locations for stockpiling must be selected to enable night transfer crews room to turn
scrap buggies. At the end of the shift, a turn-around area must be constructed with the
loaders to enable the night crew to haul all stockpiled material to the ‘rail head’. A
night crew moves the stockpiles to the ‘rail head’ where a locomotive crane transfers
the material into gondola cars. The night crew usually fuels all equipment at the end of
the shift.
1. Pull all spikes not removed by the rail sled

Most spikes are removed by the rail sled but some may not fully pulled out,
especially on curves
If spikes are not pulled from low side of rail on curves, the joint bars will strike
spikes causing the ties to roll or bunch-up
2. Pick-up and pile all spikes in center of tie cribs
3. Place spikes into loader bucket
Lead loader bucket is filled first
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©2003 AREMA®
Rear loader bucket is filled if necessary

4. Load plates with magnet into scrap buggy
The loaders each haul a scrap buggy and are followed by a speed swing with a
magnet
Normally each speed swing loads plates from one side only
5. Stockpile plates when scrap buggy is filled
6. Dump spikes from loader buckets at ‘rail head’
7. Make turn-around pad at ‘rail head’ for night crew
8. Night crew haul stockpiled plates and OTM to ‘rail head’
9. Load all material stockpiled at ‘rail head’ with locomotive crane
VI - Load and Bill Out Salvaged Material
A locomotive crane is normally used to pickup stockpiled materials and load into
gondola cars for transfer to other locations for possible reuse, or for shipment to scrap
dealers. There will always be some stockpiled materials even when performing
subdivision abandonment and loading rails as long lengths. Care must be taken to
ensure that materials are not mixed in cars, especially reusable and scrap materials.
Care should also be taken to ensure cars are not overloaded.
1. Load all 39’ rails into gondola cars

Ensure reusable control-cooled rail is not mixed with non-control-cooled rail
Scrap rail can be of mixed types
2. Load anchors into gondola cars
Keep different types of anchors separated if possible
3. Load plates into gondola cars
4. Load spikes and OTM into gondola cars
5. Load splice bars into gondola cars
6. Load turnout materials into gondola cars
Keep frogs and points separated from switch plates
7. Bill out cars as directed
VII - Clean-up After Abandonment
When the rail, plates, and OTM have been picked up, road crossing must be repaired
and ties marked for possible salvage. A contractor normally does pick-up of salvage
ties. A railroad representative marks reusable ties. The contractor as designated in the
contract delivers bundles of reusable ties. Old ballast sections are normally leveled so
as not to present a hazard to those using the property at a later date.
1. Repair road crossing following rail removal

Remove ties prior to backfilling crossings
Road surface in old crossing location must be repaired to condition similar to
that of adjacent road surface
2. Remove any crossing protection no longer required
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©2003 AREMA®
Includes all signs and S&C warning systems

Insure regulatory approval prior to removal
3. Mark ties for reuse
Either mark scrap or reusable ties
Ensure any marks on reusable ties will not be confused with markings on
scrap ties
4. Designate location for stockpiles of reusable ties
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©2003 AREMA®
S L E D D I N G
Track Sledding
Overview:
Ballast is used to obtain:
a) Resistance against lateral, longitudinal and vertical movement of the track.

b) Distribution of tie loads uniformly over the subgrade.
c) Rapid and effective drainage to provide proper roadbed conditions and reduce
frost heaving.
Water trapped in the roadway material is the most common cause of rapid degradation
of the overall track structure. Ballast, which has broken down to the extent that there
is excessive fine material, or that has become fouled through external sources, must be
replaced. Fouled ballast will interfere with drainage, causing problems in maintaining
surface, line and cross-level.
In locations where the ballast is severely fouled and the percentage of ballast, which
could be reclaimed by undercutting, is not sufficient to justify the expense of
undercutting, and where an increase in the final elevation of the track is not a
constraint, sledding of the track is a cost effective alternative.
Sledding may also be performed where the ballast is severely fouled and the width of
the roadbed at the top of the sub-ballast is not sufficient to accommodate an increased
height of track (effectively using the fouled ballast as bank widening material).
Sledding gangs may vary in consist depending on a variety of factors such as, sledding
on concrete or wood ties and the extent of tie renewal taking place. The general
procedure, however, is consistent with the following outline.
Process:
Sledding involves raising the track and plowing and leveling the fouled ballast from
between the cribs and under the ties, onto the top and shoulders of the roadbed.
The old ballast section, when leveled, forms the top of the sub-ballast on the new
roadbed. Defective ties are changed and spaced as part of the operation. Additional
clean, large voided, free-draining ballast is placed and the track is given a major ballast
lift, and then lined to design alignment and appropriate cross-level applied. If
destressing is deemed necessary, it is completed following final surfacing.
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©2003 AREMA®
S L E D D I N G
Below are the work stages for a typical track sled operation with tie change out within
the consist and destressing following the gang. Stages in the process, which may not
be included in any one particular gang, are shaded in the following process outline.
I - Plan to Sled Track
There are three general levels of planning to be considered to complete a Track

Sledding project.

Emergencies
Work environment
Project impediments
Access

Emergencies
Work environment
Job briefing
Jump starting gang
II - Preparation
Prior to operating the sled, a series of preparation tasks must be performed to ensure
defective ties are well marked, good ties are well spiked, obstructions are identified or
removed where appropriate, C&S or other installations are not damaged, etc.
1. Ensure defective ties to be removed are well marked (this is typically performed by
the Track Supervisor)
Plug and re-spike any good wood ties to ensure they will stay up
Install any missing insulators/clips on concrete ties
2. Remove or mark any obstructions
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©2003 AREMA®
S L E D D I N G
Move any pieces of rail, scrap ties, OTM, etc., out of the way for sled and
regulators
Mark locations that sled might damage or bury, i.e. culvert inlets, signal
apparatus, rail lubricators, etc.
3. Prepare road crossings
Erect signage
Assign flagmen as required
If ... Then...
undercutting through gravel road remove crossing surface
crossings
4. Protect C&S installations
C&S to mark or disconnect ALL potential obstructions (bootlegs, track leads,
fiber optic or other buried cable, etc.)
5. Install lift/line or offset stakes (usually done with/by surveyors)
Curve point transitions should be identified
6. Pre- mark tie spacing on the base of rail
7. Cut shoulder off existing grade using spreader or hydraulic regulator
III - Cut-in and Sled Track (includes tie change out)
The track sled must be “cut-in” by clamping onto and raising the track with the auto
sled jacking system. With the track raised, plows on the sled fold under the track and
lock in place. Sledding then begins by winching the plows along or pulling the plows
with a locomotive, leveling the old ballast section as it progresses.
1. At cut-in location, set-up auto sled to raise track and set-up plows
2. Begin sledding by winching or pulling the sled
3. Manually pick up any down ties which may fall ahead of plow
4. Operator of liner on sled lowers track back to lining stakes
5. Operator of hammer on sled knocks off all marked defective ties
Any defective ties missed by operator must be knocked off manually and
removed from under the rail
6. Reclaim tie plates (from defective ties)
7. Remove and recycle all anchors
8. Space all ties remaining in the track (to the nearest tie spacing mark on the rail)
9. Spot the appropriate number of reclaimed tie plates on ends of ties which are still
in track
10. Pick-up and pile scrap ties
11. Distribute and spot new ties for tie inserter
12. Install new ties
13. Set tie plates
Clean off tie
Raise rail
Insert tie plates
14. Spike rail to proper pattern
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S L E D D I N G
15. Space ties to marks indicated on base of rail

16. Install and adjust all rail anchors
17. Pre-line track before flooding with ballast
IV - Ballast Track
In track sledding programs, enough new ballast is added to ensure adequate depth of
clean material below the ties as part of the ballast rehabilitation project. The following
is a general outline for unloading ballast:
1. Crack all doors on ballast cars

Ensure proper unloading bars/cranks available for old/new cars
2. Move ballast train into position
Ensure that only loaded cars will move over ballast flooded track
Make up train so that new cars will be unloaded first
3. Flood track with ballast
Unload between rails first
Unload shoulder ballast
Use spreader nose or at least 2.8 m (9’) ties under loaded car
5. Shake ballast cars outside of unloading limits
Do not shake cars on ballast flooded track
6. Close ballast car doors
If ... Then...
old enterprise cars clean all ballast off side doors
prior to closing
7. Place 10 mph temporary slow order until track is tamped
V - Surface and Line Track
Surfacing and lining is a major component of the gang’s operation. Typically

surfacing/lining operations take place in stages over a few days. Temporary slow
orders are required following the various stages. The following is a general outline:
1. Regulate ballast for tamping

2. Perform first major ballast lift
May lift up to 100mm (4”)
If ... Then...
dynamic stabilizer is used increase speed up to ≤30 mph
(Note: Check individual
railway’s policy on appropriate
speed restriction.)
stabilizer is not used ensure appropriate temporary
slow order in place
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S L E D D I N G
3. Unload and regulate additional ballast as required

Repeat steps 1 & 2 if more lift is required (such as under cutter or sledding
operations, where 12” ballast required under ties)
4. Perform final ballast lift (where required)
Top of rail should be with 25 mm (1”) of design
Emphasis on getting tangents in place (use laser)
5. Perform final surfacing
Emphasis on cross-level and alignment of spirals and curves
If ... Then...
Dynamic stabilizer is used Remove temporary slow order
and resume track speed
Dynamic stabilizer is not used Apply railway’s established slow
orders for designated period
and/or number of trains
7. Broom track
VI - Complete Quality Control
operation meets criteria established for the gang, as well as the railway’s standards
requirements.
1. Straighten ties
Ties may be skewed
Pads not shifted
Insulators seated
4. Check spikes
Install planks
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S L E D D I N G

VII - Destressing
Unless methods have been employed to ensure that the track is returned to its original
location and alignment, destressing should be performed behind the final lift of the
sledding operation.
Destressing of CWR should be done when the rail temperature is at or below the
preferred rail laying temperature. However, it should be done before the advent of
warm weather.
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A P P E N D I X H – M A I N T E N A N C E P R O C E S S E S – I N S T A L L A T I O N
O F P A N E L I Z E D T U R N O U T S
Installation of Panelized Turnouts

Overview:
Replacement of entire turnouts by installing panelized turnouts including the ties and
ballast section, has in most instances replaced the ‘build-by-number’ method of the
past. Entire turnouts can be replaced in a shorter period of time than actually
rebuilding the turnout in place.
Panelized turnouts are built on a jig and shipped to the field on special A-frame cars.
Each turnout is assembled in four (4) pieces and unloaded at the worksite for assembly
in the field.
Process:
Decisions are made as to whether to build the turnout, as the panels are unloaded at
the site, or unload the panels and assemble the turnout at a later date. Assembling the
turnout at a later date is the usual method. Other decisions to be made are whether or
not the turnout will be welded as it is assembled or bolted in the field and welded at a
later date as well as whether or not the turnout will be installed as a fully assembled unit
or in separate sections.
Below, the work stages are outlined for a typical panelized turnout installation. Shaded
areas indicate steps or procedures that might not be performed, depending on the
method of installation.
I - Plan Panelized Turnout Installation
There are three general levels of planning to be considered to complete a panellized

turnout installation project.
1. Pre-project planning (done months/weeks prior to job)

2. Pre-job planning (done weeks/day(s) ahead of job)
Emergencies
Work environment
Project impediments
Access
.
Emergencies
Work environment
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©2003 AREMA®

Job briefing
Jump starting gang
II - Unload Panels
Panels are generally unloaded with a large crane, but can be unloaded with a large
loader if other hoisting equipment is not available.
1. Prepare to unload panels

Spot A-frame cars in location that allows crane to move while carrying panels
Ensure dwarf and fixed signals do not interfere with equipment hoisting
panels
If ... Then...
panels are not to be installed prepare level, dry area to
immediately when unloaded stockpile panels
2. Release load binders and unhook securing chains
3. Remove each panel from A-frame car
Attach 2-part bridle sling to panel
Hoist panel clear of car
4. Handle panels with 4-part bridle sling
If ... Then...
not installing panels immediately stockpile panels on dry, level
area
if stacking, ensure longer panels
are on bottom
installing panels directly into set panels down in order by
prepared opening in track, or laying the point panel first, as
installing panels on a prepared close as possible to marked
grade Point of Switch (PS) to jump-
start C&S
lay following panels to butt
against previous panels
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©2003 AREMA®
III - Prepare to Install Panels
Depending on the method of installation, various preparation work can be completed

before the actual installation. This preparation work will reduce problems during the
installation process.
1. Prepare cut-in locations

Mark initial cut-in location to ensure location of Point of Switch (PS) is not
changed (and 1/2” point of frog is at proper location)
Measure rail wear to determine if transition rails required
Tighten anchors for at least 60 m (200’) to either side of turnout
If ... Then...
new panels are to be laid down determine appropriate overlaps
in-track one panel at a time for particular installation
cut and drill rail at cut-in
locations if appropriate
2. Prepare old panels for handling
Plug and spike or add additional spikes as required
Adjust all anchors
Prepare area to place removed panels
3. Prepare head blocks for new point panel
Head block ties for point panel are laid flat to transport
Check plan to ensure proper gauge plates are supplied for head block ties
Attach head block ties ensuring proper order
4. Drill outer holes wherever temporary joints are required
5. Connect new turnout at side of track
If ... Then...
welding panels together while thermite weld panels together
out of the track (approximately 12 welds)
not welding panels out of track join panels with splice bars and
at least 4 track bolts
IV - Exchange Panels
Turnouts may be changed out in panels under traffic or built as one large panel and slid
into place. It is best if the panels being removed are a little longer on the frog end than
the new panels being set in to reduce problems in placing the new panels. Closure rails
can be cut for the final closure.
After removing a panel, the roadbed must be dug out and leveled for the new, slightly
shorter panel.
1. Disassemble joints or make cut(s) at end(s) of panel
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If end location is... Then...

at a joint disassemble joint
not at a joint cut rail at marked locations
2. Lift old panel from ballast
If ... Then...
entire turnout is being changed use two large loaders, or crane at
as one panel frog end and large loader at
point end
using panel by panel change out use crane or large loader(s)
method
3. Move old panel(s) out of way or to designated location
4. Excavate ballast and level roadbed
Dig to desired depth (minimum 75-125mm (3-5”) below ties)
Level as much as possible
5. Install new panel(s)
Set panel(s) down in order by laying the point panel first, as close as possible
to marked Point of Switch (PS) to jump-start C&S
Lay each following panel tight to butt against previous panel
6. Repeat Steps 1-5 until all panels laid
V - Prepare Turnout for Surfacing
The final connection of rails should be welded immediately after placement, where
possible. All efforts to place turnout as close as possible to the final alignment of the
track will help reduce the amount of lining and surfacing required.
1. Make connections
If ... Then...
welding panels together lay panels tight
immediately cut 25mm (1”) gap
complete field welding
not welding panels immediately join panels with splice bars and
at least 4 track bolts.
2. Pre-raise track using sandbags
3. Pre-line track
4. Complete final closures
Concentrate on mainline closure first
5. Straighten or reattach any skewed or fallen ties
6. Pre-ballast track
7. Assist C&S with initial adjustment of switch
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©2003 AREMA®
VI - Unload Ballast
Ballast must be placed to ensure adequate depth of clean material below the ties as part
of the turnout installation project. At times, dumping stockpiled material into the track
with loaders or hi-rail dump trucks completes all ballasting. In most instances, ballast
cars are used to dump the bulk of the ballast on panelized installations. The following
is a general outline for unloading ballast from ballast cars:
1. Crack all doors on ballast cars

Ensure proper unloading bars/cranks available for old/new cars
2. Move cars into position
Ensure that only loaded cars will move over ballast flooded track
3. Flood track with ballast
Unload between rails first
Unload shoulder ballast
Use ties under loaded car
5. Shake ballast cars outside of unloading limits
Do not shake cars on ballast flooded track
6. Close ballast car doors
7. Do not operate at speeds in excess of 5 mph until track is tamped
VII - Surface and Line Turnout
Surfacing and lining is a major component of a panelized turnout installation. Typically

surfacing/lining operations take place in stages. The following is a general outline for
surfacing and lining panelized turnout installations:
1. Regulate flooded track for tamper

2. Perform surfacing lift on mainline and turnout sides
Lift so that top of rail is within 25mm (1”) of design
Complete run-outs on mainline and turnout side before releasing track to
service
4. Perform final surfacing on mainline and turnout sides
Normally one pass with 25-50mm (1-2”) lift and line
Complete run-outs on mainline and turnout side before releasing track to
service
If ... Then...
Dynamic stabilizer is used Remove temporary slow order
and resume track speed
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©2003 AREMA®
Dynamic stabilizer is not used Apply railway’s established slow

orders for designated period
and/or number of trains
5. Hand tamp at locations where tamping tools cannot reach

Ties on each side of switch rods
Ties that support heel castings, toe of frog and heel of frog
Under frogs (especially if frog is sitting on a base plate)
6. Regulate ballast and add additional ballast if necessary
7. Check track geometry prior to releasing track to service
Surface, alignment and cross-level
Warp and twist behind frog on turnout side
8. Broom track
9. Apply temporary slow orders as necessary
VIII - Complete Quality Control
Quality Control of the panelized turnout installations must be completed to ensure that
the entire operation meets criteria established for the gang, as well as designated
railway’s standards requirements.
1. Adjust switch (with S&C)

3. Check plates
4. Check fasteners
None missing, high, bent or improperly installed
Inadequate ballast; track geometry; ‘kinky’ rail or shifted anchors to either side
of installation
9. Ensure Temporary Slow Order is in place to protect track as required
IX - Load Panels
At times, old turnouts are cut into panels and shipped for reclaim or for cascading to
other territories as second-hand panellized turnouts.
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©2003 AREMA®
Turnout panels are generally handled with a large crane, but can be moved with a large
loader if other hoisting equipment is not available.
1. Prepare to load panels

Spot A-frame cars in location that allows hoisting equipment to move while
carrying panels
Ensure dwarf and fixed signals or overhead obstructions do not interfere with
equipment hoisting panels
2. Prepare A-frame car for loading
Lay out securing chains
Clean bottom of car
3. Load panels onto A-frame car
Attach 2-part bridle sling to panel
Hoist panel clear of car
Set panel in designated location on car
Secure panel with chains and load binders
4. Waybill car to destination
X - Destress Rail
Hot or cold weather may cause rods to bind on switch ties, alignment problems, or
problems in maintaining throw of switch. Unless panelized turnouts are installed at
temperatures within the designated rail laying temperature range, the entire turnout and
adjacent rails to each side of turnout should be destressed.
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A P P E N D I X H – M A I N T E N A N C E P R O C E S S E S – U N L O A D I N G
C O N T I N U O U S W E L D E D R A I L
Unloading Continuous Welded Rail (CWR)
From rail train (lengths up to 1600 feet)
Overview:
When properly maintained, CWR provides a smooth surface for trains, thereby
reducing damage to customers’ goods. Additional benefits are reduced maintenance
requirements on the track structure as well as on railroad equipment. Replacement of
worn, defective or jointed rail with CWR requires that rail be welded in lengths of up to
1600 feet to form “strings” of CWR. Welding and testing of CWR is performed more
efficiently under controlled conditions in the rail butt weld plant (as opposed to being
performed in the field). The strings of CWR produced at the plant must then be
delivered to the proper locations for installation in the track.
Delivery of CWR to the field is accomplished by loading it onto rail trains designed
specifically for this purpose. The rail trains transport the CWR to the desired field
locations where it is unloaded into position to be installed in the track. Preparation is
key in unloading rail efficiently, since unloading strings as close as possible to their final
position in the track reduces the amount of handling required when installing the rail.
Process:
The following process describes the unloading process. Because of the nature of the
work and often-extreme environmental conditions, the utmost regard for safety must
be given top priority.
“If-then” tables are used to describe where variations to the unloading procedure may
occur.
I - Planning for Rail Renewal
There are three general levels of planning to be considered to complete a rail unloading
project.
1. Pre-project planning (done months/year prior to job)

Emergencies
Work Environment
Material Requirements
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©2003 AREMA®
Project impediments
Access

Emergencies
Work environment

Job briefing
Material readiness & distribution
Jump starting gang
II - Preparation
Preparation is key to efficiently unloading rail. In addition to all the planning involved
and recognized “Best Practices,” the following essential preparations will help maintain
a safe and productive work environment:
o Job briefing with the entire unloading gang, including the work train
crew
o Ensuring all unloading equipment is on hand and in good shape.
Note: The following items may or may not be used with the rail train
provided. Railways will differ in their approach on how they connect
the winch cable to the rail string, how succeeding strings are connected
and how the first string is anchored on the ground.
o Rail “shoe” (for rail being unloaded)
o Winch cables (for threading rail through threader boxes)
o Rail grip (for anchoring strings on train to rail in track)
o Short cables, clevises and turnbuckles (for rail grip)
o “Pigtails” (for unloading more than one consecutive string)
• Ensuring all location details are known, including:
o List of unloading locations
o Limits (staked out in the field)
o Obstructions in the unloading area (crossings, bridges, turnouts, etc.)
o Exact length of rail required at each location and side of track it is to
be unloaded on
o Single, double or multi-track territory
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©2003 AREMA®
III - Set up Ramp & Threader Cars
In order to place the CWR beside the track, two specialized cars are utilized to guide
the rail into position.
1) Ramp Car
• Contains adjustable height rollers (movable tables) to match the height of
the tier from which rail is being unloaded. This allows the proper angle to
be maintained for rail that is threaded through the threader car, to prevent
the rail from binding or kinking.
2) Threader Car
• Used to guide rail off the rail train to its proper position on the shoulder
of the track by threading it through adjustable roller “threader boxes”
mounted on the sides of the car.
The following procedure is followed to thread rail through the ramp and threader cars,
prior to the actual unloading of rail.
NOTE:
If ... Then...
Rail is already threaded in ramp Begin at Stage IV - Anchor rail
and threader cars to be unloaded
Unloading rail on both sides Perform the following
procedure for the rail on each
side
1. Spot end of threader car at stake (or other mark) that indicates beginning of
unloading limits.
2. Attach rail shoe to the leading end of the rail to be unloaded
3. Thread winch cable(s) through threader boxes, over movable table and connect to
rail shoe on string to be unloaded
4. Remove rail tie down on anchor car at middle of rail train, on string to be
unloaded
5. Winch rail over movable table and through first set of threader boxes
6. Hook “head puller” assembly onto rail and winch rail through end threader boxes.
Head puller assembly may have to be reset. (This assembly allows winching of the rail
through the last set of threader boxes which are located beside the winch at the front of the threader
car.)
Note: In order to reduce the risk of personal injury, unloading personnel must not be
allowed to occupy a position on the deck of the unloading cars or in the vicinity of the
winch cables while rail is being threaded.
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©2003 AREMA®
IV - Anchor Rail to be Unloaded
Locomotive(s) are used to push (or pull) the train from under the rail while the rail end
is secured to the existing track.
The following procedure is applicable once the rail has been threaded through the
threader boxes. If rail is being unloaded on both sides, perform the following
procedure for each rail and unload rails simultaneously:
1. Ensure the unloading end of the threader car is spotted at the stakes that mark the
beginning of the unloading limits.
2. Attach chain around a tie or to a “rail grip,” which will be placed on the head of
the in-track rail behind the unit.
3. Attach cable(s) and turnbuckle(s) to string(s) being unloaded and rail grip or chain
around tie. Ensure turnbuckles are adjusted to the short position so that tension
can be reduced later by lengthening them.
4. Once connected, remove all slack in the chain or cable.
V - Unload Rail
Once rail has been threaded and secured, the actual unloading process begins.
1. Slowly move the train in the direction of unloading to pull rail off the rail train.
(unload slowly so that rollers do not overheat and wear excessively)
If ... Then...
unloading more than one string connect the additional string(s)
on the same side of the track at a to the trailing end of the
particular location preceding string using short
cable connectors (“pigtails”)
through the drilled holes in the
rail ends
2. Stop the train when the end of the threader car reaches the stake which marks the
end of the unloading area
If ... Then...
the end of the string being unload the entire string.
unloaded is near (i.e. only a short OTHERWISE cut the rail with
piece is left on the train) an oxy-acetylene torch at the
required length
next unloading area is close travel at slow speed with rail in
threader box to next location
next unloading area is not close cut hole in rail, install clevis to
secure rail to side of threader car
before moving to next unloading
area
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©2003 AREMA®
3. When finished unloading at a particular location, loosening off the turnbuckle to

reduce the tension will retrieve the rail grip.
VI - Move to Next Unloading Location
The initial process of threading rail through the ramp and threader cars is time
consuming in comparison to the time it takes to unload one string (generally in the
vicinity of 40 minutes to thread and 20 minutes to unload per string). Therefore it is
advantageous to keep rail threaded through the unloading cars as much as possible.
Limiting the amount of travel between unloading points, i.e. unloading rail at locations
that are in close proximity to one another, can greatly reduce the amount of set up time
required. However, DON’T leave rail in the threader boxes unless moves are short.
When traveling with rail in the threader boxes, restrict speeds to a maximum of 15
mph if train is making a reverse movement and 25 mph if train is making a forward
movement. If rail is fully on the racks and tie downs applied, train may travel at track
speed.
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G L O S S A R Y
GLOSSARY
GENERAL RAILWAY DEFINITIONS

AND COMMON RAILWAY TERMS
“A” End:
A In a railway freight car, the end that does not
have the brake handle; opposite to the “B” end –
AAR: SEE “B” End.
See Association of American Railroads
Air Dump Car:
Adjacent Track: Hopper Car with air dumping capabilities.
In relation to excepted track and for the purposes
of the Track Safety Standards, any track or tracks Alinement [or alignment]:
next to a track that is designated as an excepted The position of the track or rail in the horizontal
track. Any tracks or tracks with centerlines that plane expressed as tangent or curve.
are 30 feet or closer to the excepted track in
question are considered as adjacent and speeds on Angle Cock:
those tracks must not exceed 10 m.p.h. An appliance used for the purpose of opening or
closing brake pipe on ends of cars, rear ends of
Adjustment, Rail: tenders, and front ends of switch engines so
A process whereby the neutral temperature of equipped. Provision is made for the supporting
continuous welded rail (CWR) is raised or hose at proper angle.
lowered through the removing or adding of rail.
Antisplitting Iron:
Administrator: A piece of steel strip, beveled on both sides at
The chief officer of the Federal Railroad one edge, and bent to a desired shape, for
Administration. That person has the authority to application by driving into the end (cross section)
issue safety regulations and other emergency of a tie or timber to control its splitting.
directives.
Approach Track:
Advanced Signal: In signaling, the section of track on the approach
A fixed signal used in connection with one or side of a signal which is equipped with a circuit to
more signals to govern the approach of a train or detect the arrival of a train and transmit its
engine to such signal. presence to the controlling circuits of the signal
and its associated route. Used to lock a route and
Advanced Train Control System: (ATCS) prevent it from being altered once a train has
Term referring to the next generation of train approached within a safe braking distance, known
control. Aspects of control include accurate train as approach control. This prevents the route
location, train and locomotive monitoring and being changed at a time when the train could run
reporting, computerized analysis and track orders, onto it and be derailed.
and automatic order enforcement.
Also use to clear signals normally maintained at
Adzing Machine: danger until a train has approached within a given
Portable power-operated machine designed to adz distance. This distance is calculated to ensure the
(smooth) the rail seat on ties to provide proper locomotive engineer sees a red signal as he
bearing for rail or tie plates. approaches. This has the effect of causing the
locomotive engineer to reduce train speed to a
AEI: required level, at which point the signal will clear.
See Automatic Equipment Identification System
Glossary-1
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G L O S S A R Y
Apron Track: location of trouble spots and to monitor recurring

A railway track along the apron of a pier or dock problems on the same car.
used for the direct transfer of cargo between
railways and ships. Automatic Train Control:
A train control system for a complete line or lines
AREMA: supervised from a central control room, often
American Railway Engineering and Maintenance with a computerized train regulation system and
Association. North American body for some degree of automation of the trains.
determination of railway engineering standards.
If a train passes a restricted signal, and the
Articulated Car: engineer does not comply with the speed within
Articulated cars are multi platform cars, which 20 seconds, a penalty brake application is
share a set of inboard trucks. administered, which reduces the speed of the
train until lit comes to a complete stop.
Two permanently connected rail cars, which for
car accounting purposes are, considered as a Auxiliary Train (Wreck Train):
single car each having the same car number. Car An auxiliary train is a train ordered to assist in
hire charges are assessed as though both cars are a cleaning up a derailment. It is comprised of
single unit. various cars, such as a tool car, kitchen and dinner
car, and a crane car (or derrick), which can lift
Asbestos: derailed cars or units.
The name used to describe a group of natural
fibers that are known for their strength and fire- B
resistant properties. Inhaling asbestos fibers Back Track:
increases the chances of developing lung cancer, Is a track which is adjacent to a siding, secondary
mesothelinoma and asbestosis. track or even another backtrack.
Association of American Railroads (AAR): Back-up Valve:

An organization of railroads serving the United A device, either portable or permanently
States, Canada and Mexico for the purpose of connected to the brake pipe, for the purpose of
improving transportation services. controlling brakes from the rear end of the train
during back-up movements.
Authority:
An authority is permission to occupy or “foul” a Bad Order Car:
track. It is granted in three ways: A car (rolling stock), with a mechanical problem
signal indication in CTC, ABS, Interlocking serious enough to make car unavailable for use,
in writing which is in need of repair.
verbally
Balance Speed:
Automatic Air Brake: The velocity through a curve whereby the
An arrangement of air brake equipment. A elevation (superelevation) fully counteracts the
reduction in the brake pipe pressure, once the centrifugal force in the train. This may also be
system is charged, causes a brake application and expressed as balancing the forces to equal
increasing the brake pipe pressure causes the amounts on the outside and inside rails of a
release of the brake. curve.
Automatic Block Signal System (ABS): Ballast:

A series of consecutive blocks which are Rock, gravel or other granular material placed on
governed by block signals, cab signals, or both, a road bed to support cross ties and rails and to
activated automatically by a train engine, or other aid in holding the desired track geometry.
certain conditions affecting the use of a block.
Ballast Car:
Territories in which ABS operating rules apply. Hopper car equipped with special doors designed
to control the unloading of ballast onto the field
Automatic Equipment Identification (AEI): side or gauge side.
Automatic Equipment Identification (AEI) can
be used in connection with the detectors to relay Ballast Cleaner:
precise car identification and location. Such Any tool used to remove foreign material from
location information is helpful in identifying exact the track.
Glossary-2
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G L O S S A R Y
Ballast Compactor: Block Signal:

Machine designed to compact loose ballast. A block signal is a fixed signal at the entrance to a
block to govern trains and engines entering and
Ballast Curb: using that block. Block signals prevent a train
A longitudinal timber placed along the outer edge from ramming the train or crew ahead by dividing
of the floor on ballast deck bridges to retain the the main line into segments or “blocks” and
ballast. allowing only one train in the block at a time.
Signals can be set by hand, by remote operation,
Ballast Regulator: or by the passing train itself.
Production machine used to smooth and shape
the ballast section. Blocking:
The manner of placing cars in a train to form a
Ballast Scarifier: Block.
Production machine that removes and loosens
ballast to facilitate the installation of new ties Blocking Device:
where old ties have been removed. A blocking device is a device that prevents a
controlled signal from being changed to show an
Ballast Spreader: indication less restrictive than stop or prevents
Production machine used to spread ballast evenly the movements of a controlled switch. It is a
on both sides of the track. means of sectioning off, or protecting, a segment
of track for a specific purpose such as to protect
Batter: maintenance of way personnel, or to route traffic
Batter occurs when the rail ends at joints are not around an accident.
secure. As a train passes, the rail ends are
alternately pushed down and then up. When the Block Signaling:
rails touch, the ends can become chipped or Dividing track into section or blocks and
cracked. improving train safety by allowing only one train
at a time within each section. Wayside or cab
The deformation of the surface of the head of the signals indicate train-operating messages.
rail in the immediate vicinity of the end.
Blue Signal Protection (or Blue Flag
“B” End of Car: Protection):
In a railway freight car, the end on which the Protection provided to protect people working
hand brake is located or toward which the brake on, under, or between rolling equipment, in yards,
cylinder piston moves when the brakes are main lines, or servicing areas, typically through
applied. the use of a clearly distinguishable blue light or
blue flag, and/or the lining and locking of
Best Management Practices (BMP): switches to prevent access to the equipment. The
Polices, practices, procedures or structures only person allowed to remove a blue flag is the
implemented to mitigate the direct and indirect person who put it there in the first place.
degradation of surface water quality from an
activity. Bogie:
An assembly of two or more axles and wheel
Big Hole: units, which can be removed from trailers or
Emergency application of brakes. containers.
Block: Bolted Track:

A length of track of defined limits, the use of Bolted track comes in length usually 39 feet in
which by a train or engine is governed by block length. Bolts and plates to the adjacent sections
signals, cab signals, or both, indicating whether or fasten it. Rail joints are staggered to reduce the
not the block ahead is occupied. bounce of cars as they pass over. Bolted rails do
not touch each other to prevent binding as trains
In signaling terminology, a physical length of pass over.
track, the use of which by a train or an engine is
governed by block signals, cab signals, or both. Bottom Dumps:
Trailers or rail cars that can be unloaded through
Also rail cars in a train, grouped together for bottom chutes or gates.
movement to the same destination or terminal.
Glossary-3
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Brake Pipe Hose: Buffing:

A reinforced tubing with a fitting that a screws Slack between the couplers running in and
into the angle cock at the end of the brake pipe of causing compressive (buff) forces in the cars.
each car or locomotive. The other end of the
hose is fitted with a coupling (gladhand), which Bull Switch:
engages with an identical coupling on the A yard switch that divides lead tracks.
adjoining car. The complete arrangement forms a
flexible air connection between the brake pipes of Bumping Post:
the cars and locomotives throughout the train. Braced block placed at the end of a track to
prevent equipment from running off the track.
Brake Valve, Independent: Also called a car stop.
A device, manually operated, to control the
application and release of the locomotive brakes. Burro Crane:
A feature whereby the locomotive brakes can be A self-propelled crane on railway wheels. The
released and applied independently of the train crane equipped with drawbars can be moved in a
brakes. train or can move one or two flat or dump cars
under its own power. The crane can be equipped
Branch: with dragline, shovel, rail hooks, or electro-
A portion of a division designated by a time table. magnet.
Rules and instructions pertaining to subdivisions
apply on branches. Burrs:
The rough edges left at the end of a rail when
Branch Line: sawed; or on the side of the web when drilling
A secondary, local or feeder line of railway bolt holes.
connecting with the main line; also any line other
than a main line. See Main Line. Bus Bar:
A termination point for multiple electrical
Branch Line Tracks: conductors.
These are secondary line track(s) on a railway.
Trains and engines might be operated with or C
without Time Table, train order, or block signal.
Cab Signal:
Branding: A signal located in the locomotive engineer’s
The identification markings hot rolled in raised compartment or cab, indicating a condition
figures and letters in the rail web indicating the affecting the movement of a train or engine and
weight of rail and section number, type of rail, used in conjunction with interlocking signals and
kind of steel, name of manufacturer and mill, and in conjunction with or in lieu of block signals.
year and month rolled. Special instructions are issued to govern the
operation of cab signals where in use.
Brownfield:
An abandoned, idled, or underused industrial and Camp Cars:
commercial facilities where expansion or Cars used to house Maintenance of Way and
redevelopment is contaminated. Structures (MW&S) employees on line of road
near work sites.
Buckled Track (Sun Kink):
Major irregularity in track alignment that is caused Canadian Rail Operating Rules (CROR):
by excessive compression of the rails. The This is the operating rule book that governs
formation of a lateral mis-alignment sufficient in Canadian railroads.
magnitude to constitute a deviation. Normally
occurs when rail temperatures are relatively high Cant:
and are caused by high longitudinal compressive The inward inclination of a rail, affected by the
forces. This condition is usually unsafe for train use of inclined: surface tie plates, usually
passage. expressed as a rate of inclination, such as 1 in 40,
etc.
Buff Forces:
Compressive coupler forces when slack is in or Cant Deficiency:
running in. The difference between the actual superelevation
and calculated equilibrium superelevation. See
“Balance Speed.”
Glossary-4
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G L O S S A R Y
Car Department Personnel: Classification:

Their duties include the maintenance of railway The act of switching rail cars for sorting,
rolling stock equipment. segregating or grouping according to their kind,
contents or destination.
Car Retarder:
See “Retarder, Car.” Classification Yard:
A set of tracks where rail cars are sorted,
Catenary: segregated or grouped according to their kind,
The overhead contact wire and the associated contents or destination. (classification)
system of support wires used on an electric
railway. Clearance:
An authority issued to permit trains to operate
Cautionary Limits: outside of yard limits, cautionary limits or
Limits indicated in a time table in which switching zones. The time table may require a
cautionary rules apply. clearance to operate in yard limits, cautionary
That portion of the main track or main tracks limits, or switching zones.
within limits defined by cautionary limit signs.
Clearance Limits:
Cautionary Limits Sign: The dimensions beyond which the size of, or
A yellow, reflective square placed to define projections of a shipment may not extend in
cautionary limits. order to clear such things as switch stands,
platforms, tunnels, low bridges, etc.
Center of Gravity:
That position in a rail car where it would be Clear a Track:
balanced in all directions if supported from a Is a term used to describe a train/engine or other
single point. Typical center of gravity for freight movement, which has moved off the main track
equipment is about 96 inches above the top of or out of the way (e.g. of a siding, backtrack).
rail. On passenger equipment, center of gravity
is about 84 inches above the rail. The lateral Clear Block:
forces encountered in a car body are of a greater A block not occupied. Sometimes used to denote
magnitude for equipment with higher center of a clear signal indication.
gravity.
Closure Rails:
Centralized Traffic Control (CTC): The rails between the parts of any special
This method of control consists of controlled trackwork layout, as the rails between the switch
block signals and dual control switches controlled and the frog in a turnout (sometimes called the
by the Rail Traffic Controller, from a central Lead Rails or Connecting Rails); also the rails
location, for both opposing and following connecting the frogs of a crossing or of adjacent
movements on the same track. Train movements crossings, but not forming parts thereof.
are authorized by block signals whose indicators
supersede the superiority of trains. Coach Yard:
A set of tracks where rail passenger cars are
Change in Crosslevel: stored, cleaned, generally maintained and
The mathematical value between two crosslevel assembled into trains.
measurements. Adding two opposing rail values
or subtracting two same rail values obtains Collective Bargaining Agreements:
change. The labor contracts between the Company and its
trade unions.
Chord:
A straight line of specified length between two Compromise Joint:
points on the gage line on the high rail of a curve. A joint for uniting the abutting ends of
A wire or string called a “stringline” is used in the contiguous rails of different rail weights, or of
field to project a chord, which is used to measure rails of the same rail weights but of different
the mid-chord offset. drillings.
Classes of Track: Concrete Ties:

A categorization of track based on the maximum Ties made of concrete are gaining wider use as
allowable operating speed. the demand and cost of wood increases. For
large-scale projects, the cost for concrete ties is
Glossary-5
©2003 AREMA®
G L O S S A R Y
generally comparable to wooden ties. Concrete until, requested to display a less restrictive
ties are reported to be stronger and have a longer indication by the RTC.
life than wooden ties, but they lack the elasticity
of wood. Some companies use concrete ties on Controlled Location:
curves or grades where their strength is an asset. A location in CTC consisting of one or more
Abrasion from the ballast sometimes leads to controlled block signals.
concrete tie failure. Rail clips are used to fasten
the rail concrete ties. Controlled Point:
A location designated by number where a control
Conductor: operator controls signals and/or switches of a
The person officially in charge of the train’s CTC system.
overall operation. S/he also does most of the
paperwork associated with the handling of the Controlled Siding:
train. A siding within CTC or interlocking limits, the
authorization for use of which is governed by
Conflicting Movement: signal indication or control operator.
An engine or train is authorized to move in the
same direction as another engine or train or is on Controlled Signal:
converging routes. A control operator controls an absolute signal,
the aspect of which.
Consist:
A listing showing the train number, the dates and Conventional (Jointed Track):
times of departure as well as arrival; the Track consisting of rail joined together and
locomotive, radio and caboose number; the initial fastened to the ties by spikes and tie plates.
and car numbers of each car on the train; the
billing of these cars; the special handling of the Corrugated Rail:
cars and the name of the conductor. It reflects all A rough condition on the Rail treads of alternate
activities that took place on the movement of cars ridges and grooves, which develops in service.
between any two stations. (Corrugation)
Consolidated Code of Operating Rules: Creep:

An operating rule book formerly used in much of Creep refers to the longitudinal stretching of the
the USA. rail under the loads. Related to lipping, it involves
the stretching of the entire rail and not just the
Continuous Welded Rail (CWR): ends. Rail creep is a problem associated with
Traditionally, track was laid in lengths of 39’ with CWR and manifests itself by rail ends touching or
a joint between each to allow for expansion and by rail buckling.
contraction due to heat and cold. Joints were
points of high maintenance. Continuous Welded Crew Calling:
Rail typically consists of lengths between 400 and The process in which train crews are called for
1600 feet in length and the joints between them assignment.
are eliminated by in-place welding using portable
equipment. Without joints, expansion and Crib:
contraction can result in buckling in high 1. The space between two adjacent ties.
temperatures and breaking in cold conditions. 2. A retaining structure.
Control Cooled: Critical Habitat:

A method of controlling the cooling rate of steel A geographic area, which maintains
products. For rails this is accomplished by placing biological/physical, features essential to
75 to 150 rails in an insulated container. Control conservation of a species and which may require
cooling common after about 1936. (by law) special management consideration, or
protection.
Controlled Block:
A block in CTC between consecutive controlled Crossbucks:
locations. A term for railway crossing sign with crossed
arms.
Controlled Block Signal:
A block signal at a controlled location in CTC,
which is capable of displaying a Stop indication
Glossary-6
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G L O S S A R Y
Crossing (Track):
A structure, used where one track crosses another
at grade, and consisting of four connected frogs.
(Rail Crossing, Diamond) Crossover:
Bolted rail: A crossing in which all the Two turnouts with the track between the frogs
running surfaces are of rolled rail, the arranged to form a continuous passage between
parts being held together with bolts. two nearby and generally parallel tracks.
Manganese steel insert: A crossing in Double: Two crossovers in which a
which a manganese steel casting is movement may cross from the first to the
inserted at each of the four intersections, second track in either direction or from
being fitted into rolled rails and forming the second track to the first track in either
the points and wings of the crossing direction.
frogs.
Solid manganese steel: A crossing in Cross-spans:
which the frogs are of the solid Catenary wire system, which permits continual
manganese steel type. contact with the energized conductor at street or
Movable point: A crossing of small angle other trolley crossings.
in which each of the two center frogs
consists essentially of a knuckle rail and CTC:
two opposed movable center points with See “Centralized Traffic Control.”
the necessary fixtures.
Single-rail: A crossing in which the Cultural Resource:
connections between the end frogs and Any phenomenon associated with prehistoric or
the center frogs consist of running rails historical events, themes or individuals. They are
only. in most cases unique, fragile and non-renewable.
Two-rail: A crossing in which the Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation
connections between the end frogs and Act requires all Federal Agency “undertakings” to
the center frogs consist of running rails “take into account” their effect on historic
and guard rails. properties.
Three-rail: A crossing in which the
connections between the end frogs and Current of Traffic:
the center frogs consist of running rails, The movement of trains on a main track, in one
guard rails, and easer rails. direction, specified by the rules.
Crossing plates: Plates interposed
between a crossing and the ties or other Curved Lead:
timbers to protect the ties and to better The distance between the actual point of switch
support the crossing by distributing the and the half-inch point of the frog measured on
loads over larger areas. the outside gage line of the turnout.
Center frogs: The two frogs at the
opposite ends of the short diagonal of a Curved Track:
crossing. Curved track is measured by degrees, with most
End frogs: The two frogs at the opposite main track curves falling between 1 and 5 degrees.
ends of the long diagonal of a crossing. The degree of curvature is the angle subtended at
Knuckle rail: A bend rail, or equivalent the center of a simple curve by a 100_foot chord.
structure, forming the obtuse point Curves require more power from locomotives,
against which the movable center points, and the forces present while a train negotiates a
of a movable point crossing or slip switch, curve increases rail and car wear. Stronger track,
rest when set for traffic. ties and additional spikes are used in curves in
Movable center point: One of the order to take the added loads.
movable tapered rails of a movable point
crossing or slip switch. Cut:
Running rail: The rail or surface on String of cars.
which the tread of the wheel bears.
Cut Spikes:
Crosslevel: Cut spikes are driven into the wooden ties and
The relationship in altitude that the two rails of a help to keep the rail upright. For tangent
track has in relation to each other. Where both (straight) track, generally only two spikes per rail
rail treads are of equal altitude, the track is per tie are used. On curved or graded track,
considered as having zero crosslevel at that point. additional spikes are necessary.
See Level.
Glossary-7
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CWR: measure to protect workers or other trains. (See

Continuous Welded Rail also Switch Point Derail.)
D Designated Switch:
A main track switch, at the station at either end of
Daily Operating Bulletin (DOB): a subdivision, which is marked by a sign
Instructions regarding track condition restrictions displaying the symbol and indicated in the time
and other information which affect the safety and table by location.
movement of a train or engine within limits
indicated in the time table or specified in special Desired Rail Installation Temperature:
instructions. The optimum temperature that continuous
welded rail (CWR) should be installed or adjusted
Dangerous or Hazardous Goods: and anchored based on the local temperature
Articles or substances, which are capable of range. Such a temperature will keep the axial
posing a significant risk to health, safety or (compression and tension) forces within
property when transported. acceptable limits during the extreme temperatures
throughout the calendar year. It is possible to
Dark Territory: obtain this temperature by artificially heating the
A section of track that is unsignaled. rail or by physically stretching the rail with
hydraulic rail pullers.
Dating Nail:
A nail with a head having a raised or depressed Deviation:
number of symbol which is driven into a A geometric measurement or physical attribute of
longitudinal surface of a pile, pole, tie, or timber the track that is beyond the minimum specified
to identify the year in which the material was regulatory requirement.
treated.
Diamond:
Deadhead: A place where two railway tracks cross each
Transportation of employee at company’s other.
expense. Also applies to equipment, i.e., engines,
passenger, coaches, etc. Difference in Crosslevel:
The change in crosslevel between any two points
Debris Shoots: less than 62 ft apart.
Locations where rock or snow slides are prone to
move down from mountains or high hills. Direct Train Control:
Dispatcher-directed authority issued to permit
Depth (Ballast): track usage not contained in the operating rules
The distance from the bottom of the tie to the using specified blocks to identify the limits of
top of the subgrade. track authorization.
Depressed Point: Dispatcher:

A frog design that incorporates a profile with the See Rail Traffic Controller.
tip of the frog point that is slightly lower than the
rail tread. This design reduces the wheel tread Distant Signal:
impact that would otherwise occur if the tread A fixed signal outside of a block system, used to
adjacent to the point and the frog point were govern the approach to a block signal,
level. interlocking signal or switch point indicator. It
will not convey information as to conditions
Depressed Track: affecting the use of the track between the distant
Track lower than ground level. signal and block signal, interlocking signal or
switch point indicator to which approach is
Derail: governed. A specific sign on the signal mast
Derails are mechanical devices in the track that identifies it.
intentionally derail a car or train. The idea behind
a derail is that it is often better to derail a car Disturbed Track:
rather than to have it continue on the track and Track that has been shifted or loosened from the
cause more damage to life or property. Typically, ballast thereby reducing the ability of the track to
derails are used to prevent trains from running maintain required geometry during thermal or
through an open bridge, or are set as a safety dynamic forces.
Glossary-8
©2003 AREMA®
G L O S S A R Y
Ditch Lights: momentum to a different track than that being

Lights on a locomotive that shine off to the sides used by the engine.
of the path in front, instead of directly in front
like a headlight. Dual Control Switch:
A switch equipped for powered operation, also
Division: equipped for hand operation.
A portion of the railroad designated by time table.
Dump the Air:
Double-heading: Emergency application of the air brakes causing a
The use of two or more locomotives to pull a train to stop abruptly, usually causing damage to
train. the merchandise being carried or to the train
equipment itself.
Doublestack:
A SPINE CAR that can accommodate containers Dwarf Signal:
placed one on top of the other, maximum two A signal, usually proportioned smaller than a high
containers high. signal, mounted low, on the ground or just above
it. Usually intended for use in low-speed areas
Some doublestacks are articulated and exceed two such as terminals or yards, for trains traveling
hundred feet in length. against the current of traffic. Dwarf signals
aspects may or may not match high signal aspects
Double Track: of the same name. On some railroads, dwarf
Two main tracks, on one of which the current of signals can only display the lowest speed aspects.
traffic may be in a specified direction and on the
other in the opposite direction. In CTC, trains Dynamic Brake Interlock (D.B.I.):
generally may operate in either direction on either A device installed on a locomotive to prevent the
track. locomotive brake from applying, when an
automatic brake application is made during
Downed Tie: dynamic braking operation.
When the track is jacked up, a tie that does not
come up with the rail. Dynamic Braking:
A method of train braking where the kinetic
Draft Gear: energy from the train movement generates
Draft gear act as shock absorbers between current at the locomotive traction motors and is
railroad cars. dissipated in a resistor grid on the locomotive.
Drag: Dynamite:
Slow freight train. Emergency application of brakes.
Drawbar:
The part of a railway car that connects the car to E
the coupler. It’s usually not fastened directly to
the car frame, but connects to the car through a Electric Switch Lock:
spring-loaded draft gear that allows the coupler to An electric lock connected with a hand-operated
move in or out slightly, cushioning the impact of switch to prevent its operation until the lock is
sudden starts and stops. released.
Drift Bolt: Elevation:

A piece of round or square metal, with or without See superelevation.
head or point and of specified length, driven into
timber to secure a connection between members Emergency Application:
such as caps and stringers. A rate of brake pipe reduction fast enough to
cause the control valves to move to emergency
Drill Track: position.
See Track: Drill
Emergency Stop:
Drop or Running Switch: An application resulting from an emergency rate
When a car being pulled by an engine in a facing of brake pipe reduction which causes the brakes
point movement toward a switch is cut off in to apply quickly and with maximum braking force
motion and allowed to proceed under its own for the shortest practical stopping distance.
Glossary-9
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Endangered Species:
Any animal or plant species that is in danger of Federal Railroad Administration (FRA):
extinction. Regulations regarding endangered A U.S. Federal agency attached to the
species vary from Country to Country. Department of Transportation. The FRA serves
as the principal organization for assistance to the
End Hardening: Secretary of Transportation on all matters relating
Heat treatment of the top portion of the heads of to rail transport and safety.
rails at the ends to minimize rail batter.
Field Side:
End of Train Device (EOT): The side of the rail away from the center of the
A device, which enables the operation of a train track.
without a manned caboose. This device serves as
a marker and provides information regarding the Fish-Plate:
train line air pressure to the engineer. A short piece lapping a joint, secured to the side
of two members, to connect them end-to-end.
End Overflow:
A projection of metal into the joint gap at the top Fishing Space:
or side of the head of a rail. The space between the head and base of a rail
occupied by the joint bar.
Engine (Eng):
A unit propelled by any form of energy, or a Fixed Signal:
combination of such units operated from a single A signal or sign at a fixed location indicating a
control, used in train or yard service. condition affecting the movement of a train or
engine.
Engine Burns:
See Rail Defects: Engine Burn Fracture Flagging Distance:
The distance a flag must be placed before and
Equilateral Turnout: after a location where movement of a train is
See “Turnout: Equilateral.” restricted and not protected in another way.
Flagging distance and location are regulated by
Event Recorder: government regulations and/or rules.
A device that records operator activities such as
throttle position, dynamic brake position, horn Flagging Equipment:
and bell operation as well as train parameters Flagging equipment consists of red flags, red
(speed, air pressures, relative location). fusees and torpedoes and by perhaps by nights, a
white light. Quantities and exact equipment
Excepted Track: required can vary from one railway to another.
Low speed track exempted from meeting certain
requirements of the Track Safety Standards. Flag Man:
An employee authorized to restrict the movement
Exemption or Waiver: of trains through the use of flags.
A procedure by which a railroad may not be
obligated to comply with a specific regulation Flag Protection:
based on special circumstances. The FRA may A method of protecting track using colored flags
grant a waiver when a railroad submits a petition to notify a train of a situation ahead.
that demonstrates that the regulation in question
is burdensome and compliance will not affect Flange Bearing Frog:
safety. A frog designed with a shallow flangeway depth
whereby wheel flanges will contact the casting
F and raise the wheel treads slightly up thereby
eliminating the impact that otherwise occurs on
Facing Point Movement: conventional frogs.
A movement toward or over a switch, in which
the movement approaches the switch points first. Flanger:
A car with special blades used to remove snow or
Fastenings: gravel from between the rails.
Joint bars, bolts, and spikes.
Auxiliary: Nutlocks, spring washers, tie
plates, rail braces, and anticreep-devices.
Glossary-10
©2003 AREMA®
G L O S S A R Y
Flangeway:
The space between a running rail and an active Frog:
guard rail, which provides a passageway for wheel A track structure used at the intersection of two
flanges. running rails to provide support for wheels and
Depth: The depth of the wheel flange passageways for their flanges, thus permitting
passageway, or the vertical distance from wheels on either rail to cross the other.
the top of the tread surface to the top of Bolted rigid frog: A frog built essentially
the filler or separator introduced between of rolled rails, with fillers between the
the tread portion and the guard portion of rails, and held together with bolts.
a track structure. Clamp: A frog built essentially of rolled
Flare: A tapered widening of the rails, with fillers between the rails, and
flangeway at the end of the guard line of a held together with clamps.
track structure, as at the end of a guard Moveable Point Frog: A frog with
rail or at the end of a frog or crossing movable rails at a shallow angle, which
wing rail. form a continuous path. The movable
Opening: The distance between the gage point frog is used in track crossings and
line and the guard line of a track structure slip switches
at the wider end of the flare. Railbound manganese steel frog: A
Width: The distance between the gage frog consisting essentially of a manganese
line and the guard line of a track structure, steel body casting fitted into and between
which provides a passageway for wheel rolled rails and held together with bolts.
flanges. Rigid Frog: A frog made of tee rails
milled and fitted to form an assembly held
Flat Spot: together with frog bolts and filler blocks.
Loss of roundness of the tread of a wheel, caused Self-guarded (flange frog): A frog
by wheel-sliding. provided with guides or flanges, above its
running surface, which contact the tread
Flat Yard: rims of wheels for the purpose of safely
A yard where car switching is dependent on guiding their flanges past the point of the
locomotive power with little assistance from frog. Used only in low speed areas such as
gravity. yards and industry tracks.
Spring-rail frog: A frog without fillers
Foot Guard: between the frog point and one wing rail
A filler for the space between converging rails to and with springs holding the wing rail up
prevent the feet of persons from becoming against the frog point. Traffic on the
accidentally wedged between the rails. main track side of the frog has an
uninterrupted surface for the passage of
Foreign Car: wheels. The diverging traffic opens the
A car on the rails of a carrier by which it is not spring wing rail when each wheel passes.
owned. Spring frogs are right and left-hand
depending on which track requires the
Foreign Line Foreign Carrier: unbroken path.
A term used by a carrier in making reference to all Spring-rail frog, right hand and left
other rail companies, collectively. hand: Standing at the toe end of a spring-
rail frog and looking toward its point, a
Foul a Track: right-hand frog has the movable wing rail
Obstruction of the train profile envelope by men located on the right-hand side, and a left-
and equipment on or about a track. Under hand frog has the movable wing rail
Roadway Worker Protection Regulations, located on the left-hand side.
encroachment closer than 4 feet of the field side Angle: The angle formed by the
of the rail. intersecting gage lines of a frog.
Half-inch: A point located at a
Fouling Point: distance from the theoretical point
Location on the turnout back of the frog at which toward the heel equal in inches to
insulated joints or derails are placed at or beyond one-half the frog number, and at
a clearance point. which the spread between the
gage lines is ½ inch. It is the
Foul Time: origin from which measurements
Means of establishing On-Track Safety inside the are usually made.
limits of a controlled interlocking
Glossary-11
©2003 AREMA®
G L O S S A R Y
Guard: The point formed by Frost Heaves:

guards introduced or extended Frost heaves occur when cold weather expands
into the toe portion of a frog. the water trapped in the ballast. Frost heaves can
Heel end of: That end of a frog, promote deterioration of the ballast or might
which is the farther from the even throw track out of alignment.
switch; or, the end which has both
point rails or other running Fusees:
surfaces between the gage lines. Red flares used to signal approaching trains.
Heel length: The distance Operating rules govern the use of fusees.
between the heel end and the half-
inch point of a frog, measured G
along the gage line.
Heel spread: The distance Gage (of Track):
between the gage lines at the heel The distance between the rails, measured at right
end of the frog. angles thereto 5/8 inches below the top of the
Number: The number of units of rail. (Standard gage is 4 feet 8-1/2 inches or 56-
centerline length in which the 1/2inches.)
spread is one unit.
Point: That part of a frog lying Gage (Track Tool):
between the gage lines extending A device by which the gage of a track is
from their intersection toward the established or measured.
heel end.
Theoretical: The point of Gage Rod:
intersection of the gage lines of a Gage rods are pieces of metal that connect rails
frog. (parallel to the ties) to prevent rail separation or
Throat of: The point at which the rollover and to maintain gage. Generally, gage
converging wings of a frog are rods are used on bridges and other structures
closest together. where rail gage is extremely important.
Toe end of: That end of a frog,
which is nearest the switch; or, the Gage Side:
end, which has both gage lines The side of the rail towards the center of the
between the wing rails or other track.
running surfaces.
Toe length: The distance Gauging of Track:
between the toe end and the half- To reposition rails to the required track gauge and
inch point of a frog, measured holds in position with spikes or a resilient
along the gage line. fastener.
Toe spread: The distance
between the gage lines at the toe General Bulletin Orders (GBO):
end of the frog. Instructions regarding track condition restrictions
Wing wheel risers: Raised and other information, which affect the safety
portions provided on the top and movement of a train or engine.
surfaces of the wings of a frog,
more particularly when of Grade Line:
manganese steel design, directly The line on the profile representing the tops of
opposite the point and gradually embankments and the bottoms of cuttings ready
sloping down to the general level to receive the ballast; and is the intersection of the
of the running surface, thereby plane of the roadbed with a vertical' plane
providing additional metal at through the centerline.
those parts of the frog which
usually wear out first, and also Grade Rail:
making the transverse contour One track is designated as the line rail. When
conform more closely to that of laying new track, the line rail is laid first. One
the tread of a tapered wheel. existing track, the line rail is usually the right hand
Wing Rail: The rails of the frog rail running either north or west. Around curves,
that are the running rails in the toe the line rail is always the outside rail. On double
of the frog and flare out to non- track, the line rail is generally the outside of each
running rails in the body of the track pair. Whenever adjustments to gage are
frog. necessary, the line rail remains stationary, and the
other rail is brought into line with it. Line rails are
Glossary-12
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also used for determining and correcting track Switch: A rail or other track structure laid
surface. parallel with the running rail ahead of a
split switch and forming a flangeway with
Gravity Yard: the running rail, to hold the wheels of
See “Hump Yard.” rolling stock in correct alignment when
approaching the switch
Grooved: One-piece: A guard rail consisting of a
A cross tie which has had machine-gouged single complete unit, either fabricated or
depressions across its top into which ribs on the cast, so designed that no auxiliary parts or
bottom of a tie plate may fit. fastenings other than spikes are required
for its installation.
Gross Ton: Adjustable filler block: A metal block of
2,240 pounds, essentially same as Metric Tonne. two or more parts acting as a filler
between the running rail and the guard
Gross Ton Miles: rail and so designed as to provide varying
The movement in line-haul service of widths of flangeways.
transportation equipment and contents, for a Brace: A metal shape designed to fit the
distance of one mile. The weight of the haul is contour of the side of the guard rail and
expressed in tons of 2,000 pounds. extend over the tie, with provision for
fastening thereto, to restrain the moving
Gross Ton Miles Per Train Mile: or tilting of the guard rail away from the
The number of gross ton miles divided by the running rail.
number of train miles. Gross ton miles of Brace, adjustable: A guard rail brace
locomotive and tender are excluded unless which may be adjusted laterally with
otherwise stated. respect to the rail, to vary the distance
between the guard rail and the running
Grossly Negligent Violation: rail.
Ignoring an obvious condition when there is a Clamp: A device consisting of a yoke and
serious hazard exposing railroad employees or the fastenings designed to engage the running
general public to death or injury. rail and the guard rail and hold them in
correct relation to each other.
Guard Check Gage:
The distance, measured at a right angle to the Guard Rail, Active:
track, between the guarding face of a guard rail Any rail other than a running rail that the back of
and the gage line at a frog point. wheels makes contact. An example is a frog
guard rail.
Guard Face Gage:
The distance, measured at a right angle to the Guard Rail, Passive:
track, between the guarding face of a guard rail Any rail other than a running rail that wheels do
and the face of a frog wing rail. not normally make contact. An example is an
emergency guard rail on a bridge.
Guard Line:
A line along that side of flangeway, which is Guard Rail, Timber:
nearer the center the track and at the same A longitudinal timber placed outside of the track
elevation as the gage line. rail, to maintain the spacing of ties.
Guard Rail:
A rail or other structure laid parallel with the H
running rails of a track to prevent wheels from
being derailed; or to hold wheels in correct Harmonics:
alignment to prevent their flanges from striking The side-to-side motion of rolling stock that
the points of turnout or crossing frogs or the occurs due to repeated crosslevel changes that are
points of switches. A rail or other structure laid spaced in such a manner that the speed of the
parallel with the running rails of a track to keep movement, truck spacing and the track
derailed wheels adjacent to running rails. irregularities are synchronized.
Frog: A rail or other device to guide the Hazardous Materials:

wheel flange so that it is kept clear of the Cargo that poses a risk to individuals and/or the
point of the frog. environment, the movement of which is governed
by the Department of Transportation
Glossary-13
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Regulations. Hazardous Materials (hazmat)

include corrosive materials, poisons and Horn (Spring Frog):
explosives among other substances. A metal prong on the side of a spring wing rail, it
projects into a hold down housing on a spring
Head Wear: frog to prevent vertical movement of the spring
Head wear refers to the normal wear that occurs wing rail.
to the rail head. Over time, the rail head becomes
deformed because of the constant rubbing of the Hospital Train:
wheel flanges as they bump into the track. Head A hospital train is a train that is carrying damaged
wear is especially seen in curves where flange-rail cars.
friction is greatest.
Hostler:
Heel of Switch: A person who operates engines in engine house
The end of a switch rail closest to the frog. area and works under the direction of a
Mechanical Department foreman or supervisor.
Helper Service:
Additional locomotive power used to assist trains Hot Box:
while climbing ascending grades. Where a journal on the wheel of any rolling stock
has run hot due to lack of lubrication or internal
Highball: defect.
“OK to go.” “All OK.”
Hot Box Detector (HBD):
High/Wide Load: The device is located at track level. It detects
A load that exceeds clearance limits. See overheated journal bearings. A train must be
Clearance Limits immediately stopped and inspected when
evidence of an overheated bearing or other
Highly Visible Marker (HVM): defective condition is suspected. Overheated
A marker light present on an End-of-Train device bearings, etc. are critical as they can easily derail a
indicating the tail end of a train. train at speed. Sometimes supplemented by
“smart” acoustic sensors that listen for stuck
Hi-rail Equipment: brakes and failing bearings.
Equipment designated to travel on rail as well as
on pavement, used primarily for the inspection of As bearings on car axles begin to fail, the turning
track conditions and for maintenance of way. axle creates heat that can cause axles to freeze or
break off. Special roadside detectors can sense
Hi-rail Inspection Vehicle: heat or excessive noise coming from the bearings
A self-propelled vehicle equipped with both steel as the train passes. If a fault is detected, the hot
wheels and rubber tires for movement on either box detector sends a message directly to the train
railway tracks or highways. Normally used by giving side and axle locations. Such detection
division personnel conducting track inspections. devices are typically spaced 20 – 50 miles apart.
They can catch many but not every fault.
Hog Head or Hogger:
Locomotive Engineer; controls the locomotive. Hot Wheel Detectors:
Similar to hot box detectors, hot wheel detectors
Holddown Housing: sense excessive wheel heat caused by stuck or
An upside down U shaped steel strap attached to unreleased brakes.
a spring frog.
Hours of Service:
Hole: A government regulation which determines the
Slang for a passing track, which allows one train number of hours covered employees (defined by
to pass another. law and regulations) may work before going off-
duty for a specified length of time.
Hood:
The part of the locomotive behind and/or in Hump:
front of the cab. Most freight locomotives have a A small hill in a rail yard.
long hood behind the cab and a short hood in
front of the cab. Most modern freight Hump Yard:
locomotives run short hood forward. A yard where freight trains are broken up and rail
cars are classified (sorted and segregated).
Glossary-14
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G L O S S A R Y
Trains are pushed by motive power to the summit

of an artificially constructed elevation, uncoupled Inner Guard Rail:
and allowed to run down the other side by means A longitudinal member, usually a metal rail,
of gravity. secured on top of the ties inside of the track rail,
to guide derailed car wheels. Used mostly on
Remote control operated switches are used for bridges.
classification of rail cars and the speed is
controlled by Automatic Car Retarders. Insulated Joint:
A rail joint designed to arrest the flow of electric
Hunt, Hunting: current from rail to rail by means of insulation so
A lateral instability of a train truck, generally placed as to separate the rail ends and other metal
occurring at high speed, and characterized by one parts connecting them.
or both wheelsets shifting from side to side
(hunting) with the flanges striking the rail. The Interchange or Interchange Point:
resulting motion of the car causes excessive wear A place where the line of a railway company
in car and truck components, and creates connects the line of another railway company and
potentially unsafe operating conditions. In freight where loaded or empty cars may be stored until
equipment, this generally occurs when empty or delivered or received by that other company.
lightly loaded with worn wheelsets.
Interlocking:
I A configuration of switches and signals
interconnected to direct trains along different
Idler Car: routes, the limits of which are governed by
Usually a flat car used in the transportation of an interlocking signals.
article or shipment, the length of which extends
beyond the limits of the car carrying the An arrangement of interconnected signals and
shipment. The shipment extends over but does signal appliances for which interlocking rules are
not rest on the “idler” car. in effect.
In the Clear: An arrangement of signal appliances so

When equipment or train is clear of main line. interconnected that their movements must
succeed each other in proper sequence. It may be
Incident: operated manually or automatically.
Any event involving the movement of railroad
on-track equipment that results in a death, a Interlocking consists for most of them of
reportable injury, or a reportable illness, but in controlled block signals with dual-control
which railway property damage does not exceed switches that are controlled by the dispatcher.
the reporting threshold.
Interlocking Limits:
Inclined Catenary: The tracks between the extreme or outer
Main messenger wire in a catenary system that is opposing interlocking signals of an interlocking.
offset to the field side of the contact wire
supported by the main messenger. Interlocking Signals:
The fixed signals of an interlocking, governing
Independent Brakes: trains and engines using the interlocking limits.
Independent brakes are the brake controls in the
locomotive that apply the brakes on the Intermodal Traffic:
locomotives only. Traffic, which moves in containers, trailers on
flatcars.
Initial Station: Traffic, which moves in via two or more different
For a regular train, it is the station at which its modes of transport.
schedule is first time on each subdivision.
Initial Terminal: J
Where train is originally made up.
Job Briefing:
Initials, Car: When two or more employees meet to discuss the
Initials, which signify the name of the railway car task to be performed, including work plans,
owner. awareness of safety issues, etc.
Glossary-15
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Joint Authority: L
Two or more parties involved in train operations
or track maintenance who must work together Ladder Track:
and ensure protection against each other. A multiply branched track allowing train
movements from one track to one of many
Joint Facility: tracks. Frequently found at the ends of yards or at
Two or more railways jointly operating on the both sides of large passenger stations. A series of
same segment of tracks, covered by agreement turnouts providing access to any of several
between the affected railroads. parallel yard tracks.
Joint Gap: Lading:

The distance between the ends of contiguous rails That which constitutes a load. The freight in a
in track, measured at a point 5/8 inch below the car, vessel, or truck.
top of the rail on the outside of the head.
Lap (RR):
Joint, Rail: A surface defect on metal appearing as a seam
Joint Bar, also know as an Angle Bar – A caused from folding over hot metal, fins, or sharp
fastening design to unite the abutting ends of corners and then rolling or forging, but not
rails. welding them to the surface.
Joint Stagger: Lateral Mis-alignment:

Conventional track with bolted joints placed in A departure in the desired horizontal alignment
such a manner that the joints are placed in an of a track.
alternating position. In a staggered configuration,
each joint will be positioned in the center two Lateral Turnout:
thirds of its opposite rail. See “Turnout: Lateral.”
Journal: Lead:
The bearing in which an axle turns. The distance between the actual point of the
switch and the half-inch point of the frog.
Journal Box: Actual: The length between the actual
The metal housing on a plain bearing truck that point of the switch and the half-inch
encloses the journal bearing, and the wedge. It point of the frog measured on the line of
also holds the oil and lubricating device. the parent track.
Curved: The distance between the actual
K point of the switch and the half-inch
point of the frog, measured on the outside
Kick: gage line of the turnout.
When a car being pushed by an engine is cut off Theoretical: The distance from the
in motion and allowed to move under its own theoretical point of a uniform turnout
momentum while the engine stops or slows. curve to the theoretical point of the frog,
measured on the line of the parent track.
Kicker:
A common expression for an emergency brake Lead Curve:
application, which occurs when a service brake The curve in a turnout interposed between the
application is intended, or when no application is switch and the frog.
intended.
Level:
Kinky Rail Condition: The condition of the track in which the elevation
A series of short departures in the desired of the two rails transversely is the same.
alignment of the track, usually an indication of (Crosslevel)
thermal stress.
Light Engine:
Knuckle: A locomotive proceeding under its own power,
The Knuckle is the opening and locking not pulling a train. Two or more locomotives may
mechanism of the coupler. With the Knuckle be coupled together and still be referred to as a
open, on-coming cars will couple and lock light engine.
automatically. To release, pressure on the
Knuckle is removed and the lock pin is removed.
Glossary-16
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G L O S S A R Y
Limits: Locotrol:
A segment of track that can be controlled by A system that enables a Locomotive Engineer to
signals or other identifiable means. control locomotives mid-train.
Line: Longitudinal:
The condition of the track in regard to uniformity A conceptual reference to a force that occurs
in direction over short distances on tangents, or along the length of the track.
uniformity in variation in direction over short
distances on curves. Long Ton:
2,240 pounds. Same as Metric Ton.
Line Capacity:
The maximum possible number of trains capable Lost motion:
of being operated over a line in one direction. Excessive motion, usually due to worn
Usually expressed as trains per hour, it will components, which can reduce the effectiveness
depend on all trains running at the same speed, of a device. This concept is used in relation the
having equal braking capacity and on how the movable components of a switch.
signaling is arranged.
M
Line Wires:
Wire supported by poles or other overhead Main Line:
supporting structure, which convey signal and A main line track is the principal line of a given
communication circuits. railroad company’s rail network. Main lines
consist of either single, double or multiple track
Lining Track: lines extending between major stations. Trains are
Shifting the track laterally to conform to the operated by time table, train order, or governed
established alignment by block signals.
Lipping: A track extending through yards and between

Lipping occurs when the weight of the cars stations, upon which trains or engines are
pushes some of the steel in the rails toward the authorized and operated by time table or train
ends, causing the metal to be higher. Lipping is order, or both, or the use of which is governed by
more likely to occur when trains consistently block signals by one or more methods of control.
travel in one direction more than in the other. May not be occupied without proper authority or
protection.
Load Limit:
See Marked Capacity. Main Track:
For the purposes of the Track Safety Standards, a
Local Train: track other than an auxiliary track extending
A train, which stops at all stations, as required, on through yards and between stations.
its route.
Maintenance of Way (M.O.W.):
Location: On-track maintenance of repairing, testing, and
The established position of the centerline and inspecting track, including ties, ballast, and rail.
grade line of a railroad preparatory to its M.O.W. work is usually conducted by the
construction. Engineering Department of a railway.
Locomotive: Mandatory Time Off Duty: See Hours of

A unit propelled by any energy form, or a Service
combination of such units, operated from a single
control, as defined in the railroads Operating Manifest Train:
Rules (an engine). Manifest traffic refers to the freight trains that
carry the bulk of the freight along regularly
Locomotive Engineer (Engineer): scheduled runs. Manifest traffic routes are
The person in charge of the engines and in charge advertised as regularly occurring, yet the actual
of the train handling. S/he is the person that runs composition of the train will vary from day to day
the train, i.e. permits the train to move to track based upon the specific commodities being
speed, apply the brakes whenever or wherever shipped. Regularly scheduled mixed freight trains
needed, blows whistles at crossings and so on. can be referred to as manifest trains.
Also known as "hoghead" or "hogger".
Glossary-17
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Manual Block Signal (System): Mid-offset:

A system of track blocks that are controlled and The distance between a chord and the gage line at
operated manually, and which relies on the center of the chord in tangent track.
communication between the beginning and the
end of block limits to determine when a block is Mile Post:
clear. Post along a railroad right of way, which indicates
the distance, in miles, to or from a given point.
A series of consecutive blocks, governed by block
signals operated manually, upon information Milling Rail:
received by telegraph, telephone or other means The cutting of the ends of rails with a milling hob
of communication. to eliminate roughness and inaccuracies of
sawing.
Marked Capacity:
The weight carrying capacity of a rail car, which is Million Gross Tons Of Traffic (MGT):
stenciled on the car. The "Load Limit" which is The total amount of traffic on a track based on
also stenciled on the car, indicates the total weight the sum of the weight of all trains that operate
which may be loaded with safety and which is over the track over a period of one year.
greater than the marked capacity.
Momentum Grade:
Marker: A grade that is not long enough to actually impact
A train signal that is used to indicate the end of a the normal operation of the typical train.
train.
Mother:
Marshaling: A locomotive that produces electricity to power
The procedure(s) for positioning of railway an attached slug.
equipment in a train.
Motive Power:
Maximum Gross Weight Carrying Capacity: Railway Locomotives.
The maximum tare weight of rail car and lading
must not exceed 286,000 pounds on any line of Motor Car:
track. Generally, certain branch lines are A small self-propelled flanged wheel vehicle for
restricted to lesser gross weights. The maximum used for inspection and maintenance of track.
weights may vary from railroad to railroad. The size may range from 2000 pounds with a 30
hp engine to one weighing 750 pounds with a
Mechanical Services: four to six hp engine. The small car is capable of
The Mechanical Services Department is being handled on or off the track by two men.
responsible for the maintenance, repair and
inspection of engines and rail cars. Moveable Bridge Lift Rail Assembly:
The special trackwork assembly that spans
Mechanical Stabilization: between the fixed and movable span of a bridge.
The accelerated consolidation of ballast by
specialized equipment to reduce or eliminate the Multi-platform Cars:
time that would be otherwise required to produce Any intermodal car with two or more platforms
the same effect by the passage of trains. which share a set of in-board trucks or which are
connected by solid drawbars.
Meet:
A location at which two opposing trains clear one Multiple Unit (MU):
another or at which one train overtakes another Two or more locomotive units coupled in such a
train moving in the same direction. manner that control is from a single control
point.
Metric Ton:
A Tonne: 2,240.6 Imperial (English) pounds. N
Mid-Chord Offset or Mid-Ordinate: Narrow Gauge:

The distance between a chord and the gage line at The distance between the rails of a railway track
the center of the chord in curved track. Also, the that is less than Standard Gauge. See Standard
distance between the center of a chord positioned Gauge.
on the top of a track and the top of rail when
measuring profile
Glossary-18
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National Transportation Agency: Out:

It is the regulatory body, which governs the In radio communications a term meaning
transportation of goods by rail in Canada. "transmission is ended and no response is
expected."
Non-shunting Equipment:
On-track equipment that does not activate block Out-of-Face (Referring to Track Work):
or interlocking signals. Work that proceeds completely and continuously
over a given piece of track as distinguished from
Nosing: work at disconnected points only.
A transverse, horizontal motion of a locomotive,
which exerts a lateral force on the supporting Over:
structure. In radio communications a term meaning
"transmission is ended and a response is
Notching Up: expected."
An increase in the throttle position of an electric
locomotive or cab control car. Overbalance Speed:
Traveling through a curve slower than balance
O speed. This may also be expressed as the curve
being over elevated for the speed.
Occupancy Control System (OCS):
This method of control consist on giving Overspeed:
authority on a clearance to a train and engines or A speed greater than the maximum authorized
a Track Occupancy Permit to a track unit by the speed for the locomotive, cars, track or
Rail Traffic Controller (dispatcher), most of the components; often associated with an overspeed
time on the radio, to permit them to occupy a penalty brake application (locomotive overspeed).
block of track.
Off Line: P
A car on a foreign line.
PPE:
Oiler: Personal Protective Equipment such as hard hat,
A rail lubricator mounted on the track. safety glasses, safety toed boots, hearing
protection, etc.
On Company Service:
Carloads, moving on non-revenue waybills, Paired Track:
containing company materials for movement over Paired tracks result when two or more rail
company owned lines. Also includes the companies own duplicate track. An agreement is
distribution of mail/stationery using a company’s reached whereby each railroad can use the other’s
internal facilities. track. Traffic flowing in one direction uses one
set of tracks, and the other set of tracks is used
On Duty Time: for the opposite direction. Each railroad retains
Means the total elapsed time from when an ownership of its own tracks and its responsible
employee is required to report for duty until the for all maintenance costs.
time when an employee goes off-duty.
Pandrol Clip:
On-track Equipment: Where used, a “G” shaped piece of metal used to
A machine that operates on a railway track and is attaching the rail to the crosstie with a specific
used in connection with construction or work on, type of tie plate.
or inspection of, a railway track.
Panel Track:
Operating Employee: Sometimes when new track is needed, the track is
Means on board train employees directly involved assembled on ties at another location and
in operating or assisting in the operation of the transported to the work site. The panel pieces are
train, including those employees who are trainee then set into place and bolted together. Turnouts
candidates for such positions. are almost always pre-constructed because of the
complexity of parts in the turnout.
Opposing Movements:
An engine or train moving in the opposite
direction of another engine or train.
Glossary-19
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Pantograph:
Collector bar extending up from the locomotive Points:
to make contact with the overheads catenary The movable rail that moves when lining a
wires to receive electrical current. switch.
Penalty Brake Application: Power Operated Switch:

An automatic brake application caused by A switch equipped for powered operation but not
operation of a safety control device. equipped for hand operation.
Person In Charge: Private Siding:

A person appointed by the company to ensure A track built for the exclusive use of a shipper,
the safe conduct of an operation or they work of and not to be used by the railroad for its own
employees, and who is certified or qualified general purposes.
according to the appropriate Transport Canada or
Federal Railroad Administration rules and Profile:
regulations. A line representing the ground surface or an
established grade line, or both, in relation to the
Phase I Environmental Assessment: horizontal.
An essential first step in determining whether
contamination exists on a property. The top of rail geometric position of a track
expressed over its length.
Piggy Packer Top Lifter:
A machine used to load and unload containers Proper Authority:
from railcars. Term used to mean the Rail Traffic Controller or
the Roadway Worker in Charge.
Piggyback:
The service of hauling highway trailers or Protection:
containers on specifically designed flat cars. (Also A means specified in the Operating Rules to
known as TOFC, trailer on flat car.) prevent collisions between personnel, equipment,
and trains.
Piggyback Cars:
A steel railway flat car equipped with retractable Pull:
hitches for transporting highway trailers or Picking up loaded cars and moving them to
containers by rail. switching districts or yards where they will be
classified according to destination.
Pilot:
An employee assigned to a train when the Pull-offs:
engineman or conductor, or both, are not fully Insulated horizontal guy wire used to center
acquainted with the physical characteristics or catenary system main messenger wire in a curve.
rules of the railroad, or portion of the railroad
over which the train is to be moved. Pull Apart:
The unintentional opening between rails ends
Pin: caused by broken parts of a bolted rail joint or a
A pin used to lock the knuckles in place after broken rail. Pull aparts are also attributed to cold
coupling. temperatures and rail creep caused by moving
trains.
Pitting:
Localized corrosion. Pusher:
A locomotive(s) used to assist a train over an
Placard: ascending grade.
Paper Forms of various designs used to identify
cars requiring special attention e.g., dangerous or Q
hazardous material.
Plug, Tie: Qualified Person:

Rectangular sections of wood, shaped somewhat A person who has the knowledge, training and
like spikes, for driving into holes from which demonstrated experience to perform a specific
spikes have been withdrawn. duty safely and properly.
Glossary-20
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Shell: Where a thin shell of metal

becomes separated from the head,
R usually at the gage corner.
End Chipping: The loosening of the
Rail (Track): metal on the top or gage side of the end
A rolled steel shape, commonly a T-section, of a rail.
designed to be laid end to end in two parallel lines Engine Burn Fracture: A progressive
on crossties or other suitable supports to form a fracture originating in spots where driving
track for railway rolling stock. It has three main wheels have slipped on top of the rail
parts: head. In developing downward they
1. The head that comes into contact frequently resemble the compound or
with car wheels. even transverse fissure with which they
2. The web, which is the thinner, should not be confused or classified.
middle part of the rail; and Flaking: A rail condition consisting of
3. The base. the gouging of metal on the rail head. It
is indicated by small chipping and cavities.
Rail Anchors: Flowed Head: A rolling out of the metal
Rail anchors are fastening devices that put contact on top of the head of a rail toward the
pressure on the rail to keep it stationary. Rail sides without showing any indication of a
anchors are used with CWR to prevent breaking down of the head structure.
longitudinal movement due to thermal expansion Head Checks: A rail condition
or train movement. consisting of shallow surface cracks in the
rail head usually found on the gage corner
Rail Clips: of the rail.
Rail clips perform the same function as cut and Horizontal Split Head: A horizontal
screw spikes. Clips have the added advantage of progressive defect originating inside of
easy attachment and removal. Re-attachment of the rail head, usually ½ inch or more
rail clips does not arm ties as do cut or screw below the running surface and
spikes. Clips require the use of rail plates. They progressing horizontally in all directions,
are always used for concrete and steel ties. and generally accompanied by a flat spot
on the running surface. The defect
Rail Defects: appears as a crack lengthwise of the rail
Broken Base: Any break in the base of a when it reaches the side of the rail head.
rail. (See Compound Fissures.)
Compound Fissure: A progressive Internal [Rail] Defect: An internal
fracture originating in a horizontal split metallurgical defect caused by a
head which turns up or down in the head discontinuity in the steel that originated
of the rail as a smooth, bright or dark during the manufacturing process.
surface, progressing until substantially at a Ordinary Break (Square or Angular
right angle to the length of the rail. Break): Any partial or complete fracture
Compound fissures require examination in which there is no sign of a fissure, and
of both faces of the fracture to locate the in which none of the other defects or
horizontal split head from which they damage is visible.
originate. Piped Rail: One with a vertical split,
Detail Fracture: A progressive fracture usually in the web, due to failure of the
originating at or near the surface of the sides of the shrinkage cavity in the ingot
rail head. These fractures should not be to unite in rolling.
confused with transverse fissures, Progressive Crosswise Fracture: A rail
compound fissures, or other defects, flaw in the transverse plane that increases
which have internal origins. Derail in size in incremental stages over time.
fractures usually have their origins in the Shatter Cracks: Minute cracks in the
following types of defects, and progress interior of rail heads, seldom closer than
crosswise into the head of the rail. ½ inch from the surface, and visible only
Head checks: Usually at or close after deep etching or at high
to the gage corner where magnification. They may extend in any
movement or flow of surface direction. They are caused by rapid (air)
metal is sufficient to start a cooling, and may be prevented from
hairline crack. forming by control cooling the rail.
Shatter cracks also occur in other steel
products.
Glossary-21
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Shelly Spots: A rail flaw consisting of Rail Head Cross-Sectional Area:

shell like flakes of steel that come off the The dimension in square inches of the rail head as
rail head. viewed from the end of a rail.
Split Web: A longitudinal or diagonal
transverse crack in the web of a rail. Rail Joints:
Transverse Defect: For defects found by Rail joints are plates of metal with holes used to
detector cars, a tentative group join two pieces of rail end-to-end.
classification, applied prior to the
breaking of the rails, of all types of rail Rail Section:
defects, which have transverse The shape of the end of a rail cut at right angles
components, such as transverse fissures to its length. The rail mills identify the different
(TF), compound fissures (CF), and detail shapes and types of rails by code numbers, as for
fractures (DF). example 131-28 for the 131 RE rail section.
Transverse Fissure: A progressive
crosswise fracture starting from a Rail Temperature:
crystalline center or nucleus inside the The temperature in the steel of the rail, which
head from which it spreads outward as a may not be the same as the ambient temperature.
smooth, bright or dark, round or oval
surface substantially at a right angle to the Rail Traffic Controller (RTC):
length of the rail. The distinguishing The person responsible for the good usage of the
features of a transverse fissure from other main track(s), so that trains may be expedited
types of fractures or defects are the from one point to another in the smoothest and
crystalline center or nucleus and the fastest manner, allowing also responsible
nearly smooth surface of the maintenance of way personnel to make repairs
development, which surrounds it. and enhancements to our main tracks with as few
Vertical Split Head: A split along or delays as possible to trains so that everybody gets
near middle of the head of a rail and a fare share of the main track to be able to
extending into or through it. A crack or perform their duties accordingly. Same as
rust streak may show under the head close dispatcher.
to the web, or pieces may be split off the
side of the head. Railway Association of Canada (RAC):
An organization representing all railroads
Rail Diesel Car (RDC): operating in Canada, for the purposes of
A self-propelled passenger car with a diesel collective action.
engine.
Rate of Change:
Rail End Mismatch: See runoff.
The uneven rail head surface that produced an
exposed rail end on the gage or tread of a rail at a Re-Consolidation:
joint. Mismatch is caused by loose joints or The compaction of ballast for stabilization either
installing an unworn or new rail against a worn by train or specialized equipment.
rail.
Reconstituted Wood Ties:
Rail Fasteners: Reconstituted wood ties are similar to plywood, in
Contrary to what one may think, most rail that wood and wood fibers are glued together to
fasteners are not used to hold the rail down. In create the tie. Metal brackets are sometimes
fact, moderately loose spikes pose no danger to driven into the tie to increase the strength.
the track or train. The major function of rail Reconstituted wood ties are strong, but often lack
fasteners (except for rail anchors) is to keep the the elasticity of natural wood. Holes for spikes
rail in gage and to prevent rail roll over. The must be pre-drilled.
weight of the train and the design of the rails keep
the rails upright. Another function that fasteners Regular Train:
perform is to prevent the rail from stretching A train authorized by a time table schedule.
lengthwise under the force of the train.
Remedial Action:
Rail Grinder, Self-Propelled: To eliminate a track defect by repair or imposing
A machine pulled by its own locomotive to grind movement restrictions over the track.
lateral ridges from the top of the rail to remove a
washboard effect.
Glossary-22
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G L O S S A R Y
Remote Controlled Switches: Roadway Sign:

Switches controlled from a central location by the Any marker displaced on or near the right-of-way
rail traffic controller/dispatcher. for instruction or information of employees or
others.
Renewals/Restoration:
Repair or maintenance of track whereby that Roadway Worker in Charge (RWIC):
activity disturbs the track structure. Roadway Worker means any employee of a
railroad or of a contractor to a railroad engaged in
Repair Track: inspection, construction, maintenance, or repair
See Rip Track. of railroad track, bridges, roadway, signal and
communications systems, electric traction
Rerailer: systems, roadway facilities fouling a track or
Manually handled devices used to rerail derailed capable of fouling a track. The RWIC is the
equipment. May also be called replacers. “roadway worker” that obtains the authority from
the “rail traffic controller/dispatcher” to occupy
Retarder, Car: or foul the track and is responsible for the on-
A braking device built into a railway track to track safety of other “roadway workers” under
reduce the speed of cars being switched over a his/her charge.
hump. Power activated shoes press against the
lower portions of the wheels and slow the car to a Roll Angle:
safe coupling speed. The geometrical relationship between the position
of a rail car and the track it is on. Roll angle will
Retarder, Inert: show as a rail car leaning to one side when acted
A braking device, without external power, built upon by the lateral forces encountered in a curve.
into a railway track to reduce the speed of cars by
means of brake shoes against the sides of the Rotary Couplers:
lower portions of the wheels and sometimes Rotary Couplers allow a car to be rotated to
provided with means for opening it to nullify its dump its contents. Rotary couplers lock vertically
braking effect. and are used mostly with unit trains carrying bulk
commodities.
Right of Way:
The property owned by a railway company on Roundhouse:
which tracks have been laid, including the track A building used to house locomotives while being
and land surrounding that track. serviced or stored.
Rigid Harps: Running Rail:

Wheel shaped fixture at top of a trolley pole that The rail on which the tread of the wheel bears.
maintains contact with the trolley wire.
Rail that is inadequately anchored and is moving
Road: through the plates.
Term often used to mean a railway line.
Run-off (Superelevation):
Roadbed Shoulder: A gradual transition from zero crosslevel to full
That portion of the subgrade lying between the superelevation in an area usually encompassing a
ballast covered portion and the ditch in cuts and spiral.
the top of slope on embankments.
Run-off (Surface):
Roadrailer: A section of track between an undisturbed
An intermodal trailer, which has the ability to portion of track and a track that was raised during
operate on railway tracks as well as on a highway, a surfacing operation that can be described as a
utilizing steel wheel sets and rubber wheel sets. “ramp.”
Rubber wheel sets are a permanent part of the
unit and are raised when on railway tracks.
Steel wheel sets are detached and rubber wheel S
sets are lowered for movement over the highway.
These cars are not equipped with hand holds, step Safety Control:
sills or ladder. A device or devices, which will cause an
automatic brake application to be initiated when
the locomotive engineer becomes incapacitated.
Glossary-23
©2003 AREMA®
G L O S S A R Y
Sanded Rails: Short Spiral:

Rails on which sand has been applied by the A spiral of a length less than standard dimension
locomotive to increase traction between the due to a limiting physical characteristics such as a
locomotive wheels and rail. bridge, building, etc.
Schedule: Short Ton:

Information pertaining to the movement and 2,000 pounds.
times of a passenger train. A schedule does not
convey operating authority. Shoulder of Track:
The outside portion of the track comprised of the
That part of the time table, which prescribes class, ballast. The width of the shoulder is usually
direction, number and movement of a regular expressed as the level top portion of the ballast
train. up to the point where is begins to slope down.
Scouring: Shoulder (RR):

Where water running alongside the track has That portion of the ballast between the end of the
washed away the roadbed from beside, or under tie and the toe of the ballast slope.
the end of the ties.
Shunt:
Screw Spikes: In signaled track, to make an electrical connection
Screw spikes are screwed rather than driven into across both rails of the track
the ties. Their construction puts less stress on the
tie (leading to a longer tie life); broken screws Side Track:
typically are driven down rather than removed. An auxiliary track which is used to perform a
variety of different functions, such as to allow the
Seam: set off of cars, change crews, etc.
A crack on the surface of metal which has been
closed but not welded; usually produced by blow Siding:
holes which have become oxidized. A track auxiliary to the main track, for meeting
and passing trains, which is so designated in
Set Off (Set Out): Timetable, General Bulletin Order, or
A car left by a train at a station. Also when a Dispatchers Operations Bulletin.
railroad delivers a car to another railroad at one of
its terminals so that it can be placed within that Siding Agreement:
terminal. Contract between a railroad and a shipper
establishing rights as to the use and operation of
Service Equipment Cars: an industrial track.
A term for cars used to house employees at work
sites, material cars used to transport maintenance Signal:
of way equipment or for other railway purposes Visual indication passed to the locomotive
(not revenue). engineer to advise the speed, direction or route of
the train. There are almost as many types of
Shells: signals as there are railways. Some are:
See Rail Defects: Shelly Spots. Engine whistle signals, Display of
headlights, Markers, Blue signal
Shelled Wheel: protection, Signals imperfectly displayed,
A wheel tread defect where portions of the tread and emergency protection
surface are missing.
Signal Aspect:
Shim: The appearance of a fixed signal conveying an
A small piece of wood or metal placed between indication as viewed from the direction of an
two members of a structure to bring them to a approaching train; or the appearance of a cab
desired relative elevation. signal conveying an indication as viewed by an
observer in the cab.
Shoo Fly:
A temporary diversion track built around an Signal Block:
obstruction such as a derailment or bridge under A mechanism applied to prevent clearing a signal.
construction.
Glossary-24
©2003 AREMA®
G L O S S A R Y
Signal Indication: Speed:

The information conveyed by the aspect of a Note speed definitions may vary from one
fixed signal or cab signal. railroad to another and from one country to
another.
Signaled Siding: Caution Speed: Used within cautionary
A siding, which is controlled by manual or limits. A speed that will permit stopping
automatic signals. within one-half the range of vision of
equipment or a track unit.
Signaled Turnout: Limited Speed: A speed not exceeding
A turnout that is controlled by signals. 45 miles per hour.
Maximum Authorized Speed: The
Single Track: fastest speed that trains are permitted to
One main track upon which trains are operated in operate over a track as designated in a
both directions. railroad timetable or special instruction.
Medium Speed: A speed not exceeding
Sink Hole: thirty miles per hour.
Where a section of track has sunk below the Reduced Speed: A speed that permits
normal level. complying with flagging signals and
stopping short of train or obstruction.
Skeleton Trailer Cars: Restricted Speed: A speed that will
These are specialized trailer cars tripped of all but permit stopping within one-half the range
the essentials. A center beam supports the weight of vision of equipment, also prepared to
of the trailer on the wheels and secures the trailer stop short of a switch not properly lined
with a built-in hitch. and in no case exceeding SLOW SPEED.
At restricted speed, the engineer should
Skeleton Track: be on the lookout for broken rails.
See Track: Skeleton Slow Speed: A speed not exceeding
fifteen miles per hour.
Skidded Wheel: Yard Speed: A speed that permits
A wheel that has flat spots. stopping within one-half the range of
vision.
Slab Track:
Track constructed without ties with the rail Special Control Systems (SCS):
attached to a concrete base by means of a resilient A method of control usually supervised by the
rail fastening system. RTC, governed by special instructions.
Slack: Special Control Zone (SCZ):

Unrestrained free movement between cars in a A designated length of track in which all
train, created by movement in the coupler movements are coordinated by the site
assemblies. supervisor.
Slack Action: Special Inspection:

The slack between drawbars on cars, which An inspection of the track that is required after
bunches and/or stretches while running. any significant storm that could damage or
obstruct the track.
Slip-out:
(Canadian Term) When a track has moved out Special Instructions:
sideways, leaving the track out of line. Instructions locate in a time table or other
publication that modify railroad operating rules
Slow Order: and procedures.
Is a term sometimes used for train speed
restriction order. Special Track Unit Track Occupancy Permit:
A TOP that authorizes occupancy of a track by
Slug: one-track unit.
A locomotive that has no diesel engine or electric
generator but only traction motors powered by Special Trackwork:
the electricity produced by another locomotive. Special components such as RR crossings, frogs,
Sometimes known as a booster unit switch points, guard rails, and special related
plates, fastenings, and other components.
Glossary-25
©2003 AREMA®
G L O S S A R Y
Speed Restriction: Stamping:

An imposed speed restriction of a train to below The figures and letters indented after hot sawing
the maximum speed for the railroad, division, or in the center of the rail web, parallel with the
subdivision, caused by track, signal, train direction of rolling, indicating the serial heat
equipment, or environmental conditions. number, the ingot number as cast or rolled, and
one letter designating the position of each rail
Seeder: with reference to the top of the ingot.
A small, low rail vehicle with gasoline engine used
to transport work crews; sometimes called a Stand – Alone Cars:
jigger. These are multi platform cars that do not share a
set of in-board trucks but are connected by solid
Sperry Car: drawbars.
A unit owned and operated by a private company,
Sperry Rail Service, for non-destructive rail Standby:
testing for flaws by electronic or ultrasonic means In radio communications a term meaning,
while in motion. "monitor this channel for my next transmission.”
Spike: Standard Gauge:

Square steel rods, with a tapered end and off-set The distance between the rails of railway track.
head, used for attaching the rail to the crosstie. Standard gauge in North America is four feet
eight and one-half inches (56-1/2 inches).
Spine Car:
251-foot car capably of handling 10 x 20 foot Station:
containers; 5 x 40 foot containers or 5 x 48 foot A location designated in the time table by name.
domestic containers. Unlike double stack cars,
spine cars can only accommodate one container Steel Ties:
high. Another alternative to wooden ties are ties made
of steel. Stronger than wood and reportedly less
Spiral (When used with respect to track): susceptible to damage than concrete, steel ties
A form of easement curve in which the change of have not undergone widespread testing. Steel ties
degree is uniform throughout its length. are thinner and often are used in tunnels and
Ten chord: An approximate spiral other locations where height is a concern. They
measured in 10 equal chords and whose are also used in turnouts where they help to
change of degree of curve is directly maintain the track gage.
proportional to the length measured
along the spiral by such chords. Stock Guard:
A barrier of wood, metal, or other material placed
Spot Board: between and alongside of track rails to prevent
A sighting board placed above and across the the passage of livestock on or along the railroad
track at the proposed height to indicate the new track or tracks.
surface and insure its uniformity.
Stock Rail:
Spotting (Car): A running rail against which the switch rail (point)
Placing of cars by a railroad where they are operates.
required for loading or unloading.
Stock Rail Bend:
Spreader: The bend or set, which must be given the stock
Maintenance equipment used to spread snow or rail at the vertex of a switch to allow it to follow
ballast away from the rail. the gage line of the turnout.
Spring Washer: Structurally Supported:

A member designed to prevent backward Track constructed on an initial structural
movement of the nut and looseness in the bolted component other than ballast. Examples include
members of a rail joint due to wear, stretch, rust, slab track and open deck bridges.
or other deterioration.
Stub Track:
Spur Track: Same as Spur Track Side track that is connected
See Stub Track at one end only to a running track. Some form of
bumping post or other solid obstruction usually
protects the other end.
Glossary-26
©2003 AREMA®
G L O S S A R Y
Subballast: Samson: A switch in which the tips of the

Any material of a superior character, which is switch points are beveled and fit into a
spread on the finished subgrade of the roadbed special undercut stock rail. These type
and below the top ballast, to provide better switches are usually used where there is
drainage, prevent upheaval by frost, and better heavy and/or high-speed traffic or the
distribute the load over the roadbed. switch is located in a curve.
Semi-automatic: A yard switch equipped
Subdrain: with a mechanism, which permits an engine
A covered drain, below the roadbed or ground to trail through the switch points thus
surface, receiving water along its length through setting the switch for the route being used.
perforations or joints. Slip, Double: A combination of a crossing
with two right-hand and two left-hand
Subgrade: switches and curves between them within
The finished surface of the roadbed below the the limits of the crossing and connecting the
ballast and track. two intersecting tracks on both sides of the
crossing and without the use of separate
Sun Kinks: turnout frogs.
Continuous Welded Rail is especially sensitive to Slip, Single: A combination of a crossing
weather changes. Warmer weather causes the with one right-hand and one left-hand
track to expand. In places where the track is switch and curve between them within the
unable to expand longitudinally and the resulting limits of the crossing and connecting the
compression is not adequately constrained by the two intersecting tracks without the use of
use of rail anchors, strong and properly tamped separate turnout frogs.
ties, and sufficient ballast section, buckling or Split: A switch consisting essentially of two
kinking can result. movable point rails with the necessary
fixtures.
Superelevation: Split, with uniform risers: A split switch in
As a train goes around a curve, the cars tend to which the switch rails have a uniform
tip towards the outside of the curve, especially elevation on riser plates for the entire length
with tall and top-heavy loads. To compensate, the of the switch, and therefore not having a
outside rail is raised or superelevated to force the heel slope, the point rail rise being run off
load back toward the inside of the curve. The back of the switch in the closure rails.
amount of superelevation is determined by the Split, with graduated risers: A split switch
degree of the curve and the intended train speed. in which the switch rails are gradually
elevated by means of graduated riser plates
Surface (Track): until they reach the required height above
The condition of the track as to vertical evenness the stock rail, and therefore having a heel
or smoothness. Track surface may need to be slope.
measured while under load, since some setting of Split, manganese tipped: A split switch in
the track can occur. which the head of one or both of the switch
rails is cut away in the point portion and
Surface, running (tread): manganese steel pieces fastened to the rail to
The top part of track structures on which the form the point.
treads of the wheels bear. Split, insulated: A switch in which the
fixtures, principally the gage plates and the
Surface Transportation Board: switch rods, connecting or reaching from
An organization in the United Sates Department one rail to the opposite rail are provided
of Transportation that regulates certain business with insulation so that the electric track
elements of ground transportation. circuit will not be shunted.
Spring: A switch in the operating
Sweep, Rail: mechanism of which is incorporated a spring
Two flexible parts attached to the front of a track device so arranged as to automatically return
car in such a location as to brush from the rail any the points to their original or normal
easily removable obstruction on the top of the position after they have been thrown over
rail, as the car moves forward. by the flanges of trailing wheels passing
along the other track from that for which
Switch: the points are set for facing movements. A
A track structure used to divert rolling stock from “SS” sign usually identifies spring switches.
one track to another. When operated by hand, rules governing
hand operated switches apply.
Glossary-27
©2003 AREMA®
G L O S S A R Y
Tongue: A switch piece consisting Planing, top: The cut made on the top of
essentially of a movable tongue with a the head of the switch rail from the point
suitable enclosing and supporting body and to approximately the head separation.
structure, designed for use on one side of Planing, chamfer cut: The vertical beveling
the track while on the other side there is of the gage side of the switch point to
used either a mate or another tongue switch. produce a sharp edge, so as to prevent wheel
(A tongue switch is termed "inside" or flanges from striking the point.
"outside" depending upon whether it is Rail brace: A metal shape designed to fit
placed on the inside or on the outside of the the contour of the side of the stock rail and
curve, the "outside tongue switch" being extend over the switch plate, with provision
comparatively little used.) for fastening through the plate to the tie, to
restrain the movement of the stock rail.
Angle: The angle included between the gage Rail brace, adjustable: A rail brace which
lines of the switch rail at its point and the may be adjusted laterally with respect to the
stock rail. stock rail, to compensate for variations in
Detector bar: A strip of metal mounted the dimensions of the rail and to permit of
alongside the track rail and connected with adjusting for wear.
the throwing mechanism of the switch to Throw of: The distance through which the
prevent the moving of the switch under points of switch rails are moved sidewise,
trains. measured along the centerline of the No. 1
Head separation: The point on a switch switch rod or head rod. (This distance is
rail where the head of the rail attains its full about 4-3/4 inches.)
width.
Heel of: That end of a switch rail, which is Switch:
the farther from its point, nearer the frog. The act of rearranging rail cars on railway tracks.
Heel spread: The distance, at the heel, See Switching.
between the gage line of a switch rail and the
gage line of its stock rail. (This has been Switch Heaters:
standardized at 6-1/4 inches for straight Because some switches operate in cold weather,
switches.) and because switch operators cannot visually
Heelslope: The inclination produced by inspect or maintain all switches, switch heaters
graduated risers in that part of the switch, guarantee operation. Snow or ice is melted from
which reduced the elevation (as the height of the switch mechanisms so the switch can be
the risers decreases) toward the heel of the thrown. Remote sensors on some heaters allow
switch. them to come on automatically when weather
Point of, actual: That end of the switch rail conditions warrant.
which is the farther from the frog; the point
where the spread between the gage lines of Switch Latch:
the stock rail and the switch rail is sufficient Latching device installed on switch stands that
for a practicable switch point. prevents the switch lever arm from moving as
Point of, theoretical or vertex: The point trains pass. Latch must be released before switch
where the gage line of the switch rail, if lever can be thrown.
produced, would intersect the gage line of
the stock rail. Switch Point Derail:
Point rail, switch rail, or switch point: A derail consisting essentially of a split switch
Tapered rail of a split switch. point with the necessary fixtures.
Point rail rise: The elevation of a switch rail
to allow the overhanging part of hollowed- Switch Point Lock:
out treads of worn wheels to pass over the Device installed on a switch point that prevents
stock rail. the switch point from moving under passing
Planing, bottom: The cut planed at an trains. Manual release is required before the
angle on the bottom of the base of the switch can be thrown.
switch rail from the point and toward the
heel to allow the switch rail to rest on the Switch Rail:
top of the base of the stock rail when the The entire moveable rail assembly from the
switch rail is closed. switch point to the heel of the switch.
Planing, side: The cuts made on the sides
of the head of the switch rail to form the Switch Stand:
taper. A device for the manual operation of switches, or
of movable center points.
Glossary-28
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Switching: Tie, Bored:

The physical movement of rail cars from one A tie which has had holes for spikes provided by
place to another within the limits of a yard, passage through a machine designed for the
terminal or station. (as opposed to Line Haul) purpose.
Tie, Cross:
T The transverse member of the track structure to
Tail Room: which the rails are spiked or otherwise fastened to
In yard operations, the track space available to provide proper gage and to cushion, distribute,
pull out of one track and then switch over to and transmit the stresses of traffic through the
another. Desirable tail room is as long as the ballast to the roadbed.
longest yard track.
Talker System: Tie, Grooved:

A system located at the hot box detector location, A crosstie which has had machine-gouged
which automatically transmits by train radio a depressions across its top into which ribs on the
recorded voice message of alarm data. bottom of a tie plate may fit.
Tamper: Tie, Heart:

Production machine that tamps the ballast under A tie with sapwood no wider than one-fourth the
ties. width of the top of the tie between 20 and 40
inches from the middle of the tie.
Tamping:
After the track has settled, special machines go up Tie, Incised:
and down the track tamping or compacting the A tie which has machine-made indentions across
ballast around and beneath the track. its top to facilitate penetration of preservatives
and reduce the width and depth of checks (small
Tare Weight: cracks) that develop during seasoning.
The weight of a railcar, trailer or container when
empty. Tie, Sap:
A tie with sapwood wider than one-fourth the
Temperature Range: width of the top of the tie between 20 and 40
The preferred temperature of a rail during inches from the middle of the tie.
installation or adjustment that is between an
upper and lower of limit to keep the axial force Tie, Slabbed:
within acceptable limits throughout the calendar A tie sawed on top and bottom only. (Known
year. also as "pole" tie and "round" tie.)
Terminal Area: Tie, Substitute:

A location that includes one or more yards A tie of any material other than wood or of wood
together with the tracks connecting the yard or in combination with any other material.
yards and the industries within that area.
Tie, Switch:
Threatened Species: The transverse member of the track structure,
Any animal or plant species that is likely to which is longer than but functions as does the
become endangered in the near future. crosstie and in addition supports a crossover or
Regulations regarding threatened species vary turnout.
from Country to Country.
Time Table:
Tie Plate: The document, which contains subdivision
A plate interposed between a rail or other track information footnotes and special instructions
structure and a tie. relating to movements of trains, engines and track
units.
Tie, Adzed:
A tie, which has had the plate-bearing areas of its Time Windows:
top, made plane and smooth by passage through a Prearranged blocks of time in which all trains are
machine designed for the purpose. Generally held for the performance of track or bridge work.
done when laying new rail or larger tie plates on
existing ties.
Glossary-29
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Tongue and Mate: Passing: A track auxiliary to the main

See Switch: Tongue. track for meeting or passing trains.
Same as a Siding. The correct term to
Tonne: use is “Siding.”
See Metric Ton. Pullback: Same as “Drill.”
Repair: A track on which cars placed
Top Ballast: for repairs.
Any material of a superior character spread over a RIP: Same as “Repair.”
subballast to support the track structure, Receiving Track: Tracks where
distribute the load to the subballast, and provide a incoming trains are received.
good initial drainage. Running: A track reserved for
movement through a yard.
Track: Scale: A track leading to and from and
An assembly of rails, ties, and fastenings over passing over a track scale.
which cars, locomotives, and trains are moved. Secondary Track: These types are
Bad Order: Track on which bad order cars subordinate to the main line tracks and
are placed for either light running repairs or major branch line tracks. Secondary
for subsequent movement to allow track tracks can be described as a track on
repair. which trains and engines can be
Body: Each of the parallel tracks of a yard operated without time table authority,
upon which cars are placed or stored. train order, or block signal.
Classification: One of the body tracks in a Skeleton Track: Track that has no
classification yard, or a track used for ballast.
classification purposes. Side: A track auxiliary to the main
Connecting: Two turnouts with the track for purposes other than for
track between the frogs arranged to meeting and passing trains.
form a continuous passage between Sorting: One of the body tracks in a
one track and another intersecting or sorting yard or a track used for sorting
oblique track or another remote parallel purposes.
track. Spur: A stub track diverging from a
Crossover: Two turnouts with track main or other track.
between, connecting two nearby and Storage: One of the body tracks in
usually parallel tracks. storage yards or one of the tracks used
Departure: Tracks where rail cars are for storing equipment.
classified and assembled into trains for Stub: A track connected with another
line-haul movement. one at one end only.
Drill: A track connecting with the Team: A track on which cars are
ladder track, over which locomotives placed for transfer of freight between
and cars move back and forth in cars and highway vehicles.
switching. Thoroughfare: Same as “Running.”
Hold: One of the body tracks in a hold Wye: Railway tracks arranged in the
yard or a track used for hold purposes. form of a “Y” which are used for
House: A track alongside of, or turning locomotives and rail cars in the
entering a freight house, and used for opposite direction.
cars receiving or delivering freight at
the house. Track Assembly Fittings:
Interchange: A track on which cars Track components commonly called track
are delivered or received, as between fastenings
railways.
Ladder: A track connecting Track Bolt:
successively the body tracks of a yard. A bolt with a button head and oval, or elliptical,
Lead: An extended track connecting neck and a threaded nut designed to fasten
either end of a yard with the main together rails and joint bars.
track.
Main Track: For the purposes of the Track Block:
Track Safety Standards, a track other A track block is planned track work that is
than an auxiliary track extending authorized for larger work gangs. When a track
through yards and between stations. block is issued, it will completely close the track
Make-up Tracks: Railway tracks line segment where the work is being performed.
where trains are assembled.
Glossary-30
©2003 AREMA®
G L O S S A R Y
Track Circuit:
An electrical circuit carried in the rails for the Tractive Force:
purpose of sensing the presence of a train in The amount of force at the wheels available for
signaled territory or for highway grade crossing pulling a train. Tractive force varies with
signals. locomotive weight and adhesion values
Track Gage: Traction Motor:

Measured at right angles, the distance between An electrical motor on a diesel locomotive. The
running rails of a track at the gauge lines, which diesel engine drives a generator, which produces
are 5/8" below top of rail. electrical power to drive traction motors. There is
usually one traction motor on each axle.
Track Geometry Car:
A type of equipment handled as occupied Trailing Movement:
passenger equipment and is used to measure the A movement toward or over a switch in which
geometry of track. the movement trails through the switch points.
Track Occupancy Permit (TOP): Trailer on Flat Care (TOFC)

Permit(s) issued for the protection of track units Today's term for piggyback service.
and track work.
Trailing Tonnage:
Track Owner: The total weight of the contents and tare
The corporation holding title to the track in excluding the weight(s) of the locomotive(s).
question. A corporate entity that leases a track
and maintains such a track may be held Train:
accountable for the track safety standards in the An engine or more than one engine coupled, with
same manner as a track owner. or without cars, or a track unit(s) so designated by
its operating authority, displaying a marker(s).
Track Panels:
Short, pre-assembled sections of track complete Transport Canada:
with rails and ties. Used for temporary repairs or Regulates Canadian Railways in matters of Safety.
shooflys.
Trolley Shoe:
Track Patrol: The shoe that picks up the electrical current from
Is a term used to describe a track maintenance third rail electrically powered systems.
employee’s inspection of the track. Track patrols
include the inspection of rail, ties, spikes and the Truck or Trucks:
surrounding environment in order to ensure that An assembly that contains the wheels, bearings,
movements in the area are safe and in keeping springs, and connecting frames that supports the
with company standards and governmental car on the rail.
regulations.
Turnout:
Track Release: An arrangement of a switch and a frog with
Is a term used to describe the release of a portion closure rails, by means of which rolling stock may
of track by a train crew. A track release is given be diverted from one track to another.
when a train has cleared a section of track, in Equilateral: A turnout in which the
order for that portion to be used for other diversion due to the angle of the turnout is
purposes (e.g. another train movement or a Track divided equally between the two tracks.
Occupancy Permit) Lateral: A turnout in which the diversion
due to the angle of the turnout is entirely on
Track Unit (TU): See On-Track Equipment one side of the track from which the turnout
is made.
Track Work:
Any work that may, during the course of work, Turnout Number:
render the track unsafe for engine or train The number corresponding to the frog number of
movements at normal speed and any work on or the frog used in the turnout. See”Frog: Number.”
near the track that necessitates protection of
employees or machines. Turns:
Runs, which go out to a designated point, turn,
Tractive Effort: and come back.
See Tractive Force.
Glossary-31
©2003 AREMA®
G L O S S A R Y
U territorial seas, and (6) wetlands adjacent to

waters.
Unbalanced:
The superelevation in a curve that is less than a Warp:
calculated value that will otherwise equally See Difference-in-cross-level
distribute onto both rails the dynamic force of
trains that are traveling at the maximum Welded Rail:
authorized speed. Two or more rails welded together.
Unbalance Speed: Wetlands:

Traveling through a curve faster than balance The transitional land between the terrestrial and
speed. This may also be expressed as the curve aquatic environment where the water table is
being under elevated for the speed. The amount usually at or near the surface, or the land is
of reduction in elevation from balanced can be as covered by shallow water.
much as 3 inches for conventional equipment.
Wheel Impact Load Detector (Wild):
Undercutter: A device found in some Hot Box Detectors or as
Production machine that removes the ballast stand alones, which measure excessive wheel
from the track in one continuous operation. impact on rail.
Under balanced: Wig Wag:

See unbalanced. A reference to the motion of lights on railway,
vehicle-crossing signals.
Uniform Code of Operating Rules:
An operating rules book formerly used in the Willful Violation:
U.S.A. To intentionally circumvent or ignore a regulatory
safety requirement.
Unit Train:
A freight train consisting of carloads of the same Wing Rail:
commodity moving from origin to one See “Frog: Wing Rail.”
destination, on one day from one shipper to one
consignee on one bill of lading. Wing Wheel Riser:
See “Frog: Wing Wheel Riser.”
V
Wood Trestle:
V-max: A wood structure composed of bents supporting
The maximum speed, based on a mathematical stringers, the whole forming a support for loads
formula, permitted on a curve based on the applied to the stringers through the deck.
average curvature and average superelevation.
Work Train:
Variation (Crosslevel): A train engaged in railway maintenance or repair
The change in crosslevel between two points work.
exactly 31 feet apart in a “short spiral.” [see
definition of short spiral] Written Authorization:
The formal procedure where a person is
W designated in a document generated by a railroad
to conduct certain safety related functions such as
Waivers: track inspection or maintenance of track under
See exemption. traffic conditions.
Waters of the U.S.: Wye Track:
Regulated by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers See “Track: Wye.”
and sometimes state and local authorities they
include: (1) Waters used for interstate or foreign Y
commerce, (2) all other waters including lakes,
rivers, streams, mudflats, sandflats, wetlands, Yard:
sloughs, prairie potholes, wet meadows, playa A system of tracks within defined limits provided
takes, or natural ponds, (3) impoundments, for making up trains, storing cars, and other
(4) tributaries of waters of the U.S., (5) the purposes, over which movements not authorized
by time table or by train-order may be made,
Glossary-32
©2003 AREMA®
G L O S S A R Y
subject to prescribed signals and rules, or special

instructions. Under freight yard, the definition is:
“A network of tracks set aside for a railway’s own
working purpose, such as classification, switching
and holding rail equipment.” It is common to use
the words yard and track interchangeable in some
instances but they are basically tracks used for a
specific purpose and located within the yard
limits.
Classification: A yard in which cars are
classified or grouped in accordance with
requirements.
Departure: A yard in which cars are
assembled into trains for forwarding.
Hold: A yard for the temporary holding of
cars.
Receiving: A yard for receiving inbound
trains and cars.
Storage: A yard in which idle equipment is
held awaiting disposition.
Flat: A yard in which the movement of cars
is accomplished by a locomotive without
material assistance by gravity.
Gravity: A yard in which the classification
of cars is accomplished by a locomotive with
the material assistance of gravity.
Hump: A yard in which the classification of
cars is accomplished by pushing them over a
summit, beyond which they run by gravity.
Marshaling Yard: A large set of sidings
used to marshal trains i.e. put together cars,
which are going to the same destination into
one train.
Retarder: A hump yard provided with
retarders to control the speed of the cars
during their descent to the classification
tracks.
Yard Limits:
That portion of the main track or main tracks
within limits defined by yard limit signs.
Yardmaster:
The railroad employee in charge of the operation
of larger yards.
Glossary-33
©2003 AREMA®

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I N T R O D U C T I O N

Practical Guide to Railway

It seems appropriate that this book should be dedicated to someone. As a Committee,

Remember what you design, someone must maintain!

Kootenay Valley Railway

Andrew Sensing (CN-IC)

Paul Li – UMA Group Denis Morin – Canadian National Railways

Charley Chambers – Hanson - Wilson Inc Dallas Richards – HSMM Inc.

Brian Lindamood – Hanson – Wilson Inc. Larry Slater – TrackSense

Ronald Berry - Burlington Northern Santa Fe Railroad Craig Kerner – TrackSense

James Strong – Parsons Transportation Group Kevin Keefe – Union Pacific

Chapter 1 - Railway Development___________________________________________________________________5

Chapter 2 - Railway Industry Overview______________________________________________________________31

Chapter 3 - Basic Track__________________________________________________________________________67

Chapter 4 - Right-of-Way & Roadway_____________________________________________________________ 149

Chapter 6 - Railway Track Design_________________________________________________________________215

Chapter 7 - Communications & Signals___________________________________________________________ 263

Chapter 8 - Railway Structures___________________________________________________________________317

Chapter 9 - Railway Electrification________________________________________________________________393

Chapter 10 - Passenger, Transit & High Speed Rail__________________________________________________445

Chapter 11 - Environmental Conditions & Permitting_________________________________________________471

Chapter 12 - European Curve and Turnout Mechanics________________________________________________511

Chapter 13 - Case Studies_______________________________________________________________________ 546

AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING AND

Prof. Don Cleveland, P.E. (Retired)

Robert R. Morrish, P. Eng.(Retired)

Canadian Pacific Railway

John F. Unsworth, P. Eng.

Canadian Pacific Railway

What is a railway? A railway can be defined as an engineered structure consisting of

passengers or freight are drawn by locomotives, 2. A complete system of such roads,

Many of you will be considered as transportation engineers specializing in railway

Time needed to move from an origin to a destination.

Departure and arrival time.

Reliability of moving the actual or potential demand for movement.

Safety and comfort dimensions are also highly important.

Providing modern forms of transportation requires large initial investments and

North American transportation innovations, which contributed immensely in benefits

1.3 Pre-railway Transportation in

Figure 1-1 Primitive North American Transportation

1.4 Physical Determinants of Land

Railway 0.001 g 0.024 g

Truck 0.009 g 0.090 g

This significant advantage of railways in overcoming resistances can be used in several

Figure 1-2 Model Resistance

Figure 1-3 Train Resistance

Table 1-1 Early Studies of Resistances and Transportation Efficiencies

Source: Day; 1831

Resistive Force Resistance Ton miles Net ton miles Cost/net

Gravel Road 147 .063 21.4 16.1 5.23 c

Broken Stone Rd. 46 .020 68.5 51.4 1.64 c

Well made pavement 33 .014 95.4 71.6 1.17 c

Tramway 24 .010 133.9 100.5 0.84 c

Railroad 9.8 .004 321.4 241.1 0.35 c

1.5 North American Railway

Within five years of Stephenson’s 1825 English demonstration, the railway

African Queen Screw 5 MPH

Figure 1-4 Early Steam Applications in Watercraft

Figure 1-8 An Early Track Section - Source: Day

1.6 Developments of the

Concrete tie usage expanding dramatically.

Precast bridge segments.

Geotextile applications in subgrade improvement.