The origin of a fatigue crack is often o notch, cused cither by a surface defect or a

structural defect (inclusion or gas hole).

Fatigue is a structural-sensitive property and is very dependent upon such surface

conditions as stress, finish, porosity, inclusions, and corrosive environment.

1.6.4 Friction coefficient

This is the coefficient of pro portioality of the force necessary to over-come friction between
two metals sliding over each other and the force pressing the two together. Heat is liberated
in the process, and the two surfaces strongly resist the sliding motion. Plastic deformation
plays a significant part in friction, as the high spots on the surfaces deform plastically under
the applied load and flatten until a bond is created. The presence of oxide film interferes
with bonding. A lubricant lower the coefficient of friction from 0.1-0.5 to approximately 0.1.

1.6.5 creep

A viscous flow in metals involving applied stress, time, and temperature is called creep, and
it may be calssified broadly into recoverable and permanent types. Crystalline solids, in
general, tend to recover their shape up to the melting point, depending upon stress and
temperature when the applied stress is released. Crystal imperfections. Often at the grain
boundaries, are sites for instability, and below the yield stress they lead to a recoverable
type of creep. However, above the yield stress, movement of imperfections causes plastic
deformation, which allows small recovery and causes permanent creep.

Typical creep information is obtained in axial tension, from strain-time diagrem,

under constant stess and temperature. Ussually, in a systematic study of creep phenomena
a family of curves is drawn for successive temperatures at a given stress, or for successive
stresses at a given temperature, Fig. 1.31.

The creep process may conveniently also be divided into three stages, called
primary, secondary and tertiary creep, Fig. 1.32.

1.7 phisical properties

These are important when selecting metals for specific applications. For the study of crystal
structure, and the electronic structure.

1.7.1 Electrical properties

Conductivity is an important electronic property of metal, whose characteristically high

electrical conductivity arieses from the ease with which the electrons can migrate through
lattice.

The reciprocal of conductivity (σ ohm−1 . 𝑚−1) is called resistivity (ρ ohm . m) which

is a characteristic property of the metal.

1 𝑅𝐴
𝜌= =
𝜎 𝐿
Where R is the resistance in ohms, and A the cross-sectional area of the conducting metal of
lenght L. Resistivity is caused by the motion of charged particles in an electric field being
impeded by the motions of charged particles in an electric field being impeded by the
motions of, or collisions with, other charged and neutral particles. It originates from the
matallic bond and is defined by Ohm’s law,

i. e. IR = ∆𝑣

where I is the current and ∆𝑣 the voltage drop, and in conductors inscreases linearly with
increasing temperature. In semiconduters, where the resistivity originates from convalent,
ionic or molecular bonding, it decreases exponential with rising temperature.

On melting, the resistivity of metals generally increases because of the disorder in

the liquid state. In some metals, for example bismuth, the resistivity decreases becausethe
special structure the causes low conductivity is destroyed on melting.

1.7.2 Magnetic properties

These can be explained in terms of the atomic structure of metals, and originate in the
orbital movement of electrons round the nucleus, and to the spin of the electrons, protons,
and neutrons in the atom. Domains are produced by interaction of neighbouring atoms,
causing alignment of their magnetic fields, and each domains is equivalents to a permanent
magnet. However, there are, in a slection of metal, many randomly orientated domains that
contain no magnetization, because magnetization is a directional property. The presence of
an external field causes certain orientated domains to grow at the expense of the others,
when the field is removed, the domains may remain aligned (magnetically hard) or may
becoma random again (magnetically soft). If the temperature is raised, the alignmet is
destroyed by the thermal agitation, and the magnetism is destroyed.
 For a metal in a magnetic field 𝐵 = 𝐻 + 4𝜋𝐼, where B = magnetic induction-flux
density-in gauss or lines of force per cm2 , H = field intensity-in oersted, and 𝜇 = permeability
= the ratio B/H which is sometimes termed magnetic conductivity. Ferromagnetic materials,
i.e. high permeability, are strongly attracted by magnets, whereas, paramagnetic materials,
i.e. permaebility slightly > 1, are very weakly attracted by strong electromagnets and
diamagnetic materials, i.e. permeability slightly < 1, are very weakly repelled by strong
electromagnets.

If the magnetizing force applied to a previously unmagnetized ferromagnetic

materials is increasing to some value Hmax and is then reduced gradually to zero, the flux
density B corresponding to a given value of H is greater while H is diminishing that it was
while H was being increased, Fig. 1.33.

Even when H is reduced to zero, B still has an appreciable magnitude, termed

residual or remanent magnetism Br (remanence). Application of a gradually increasing
magnetizing force in the reverse direction causes B to continue to diminish until it become
zero at a negative magnetizing force, Hc-termed the coercive force of the material
(coercivity). Increasing the negative magnetizing force to a maximum value equal to the
previous positive maximum (-Hmax) reducing again to zero, reversing and increasingto the
original value, performs a cyclic process which, when H, gives a hysteresis loop. The
significance of this loop is that shows that the magnetic behaviour of the materials is
dependent on its previous magnetic history. Its are represents the energy expanded in
performing the corresponding cycle of magnetization.

The study of magnetic propertise is limited to the ferromagnetic materials that are
based, principally, on the metals Fe, Co, Ni. All ferromagnetic materials become magnetized
when the are in an external magnetic field, e.g. that generated by a current flowing in a coil.
These substance, which easily lose their magnetization after the magnetizing field is
removed, are called magnetically soft materials. Substance that strongly retain appreciable
magnetization when the field is removed are called magnetically hard.

Magnetically soft metals have the following propertise :

1. A high value of saturation magnetization Bmax, which is almost always desirable

since it determines the degree of magnetization that can be developed in a
perticular magnetic material.
2. The large the value of the permeability, the smaller the magnetizing force, H,
necessary to produce a given megnetization, B. Large initial permeablility is
especially significant for applications in which only a weak magnetizing force is
available (i.e. low field strength). Thus, in certain cases a high value of saturation
magnetization (Bmax) may be sacrificed in favour of high permeability.
 3. The coercive force (Hc) should be small in magnetically soft materials. It is
defined as the reverse magnetizing foerce required to elimate residual
magnetization (Br).
4. The total core lose (i.e total power lose, watts/lb) should be as small as possible.
It is the sum of the hysteresis and eddy current losses, and laminated cores may
be used to reduce these losses. Application of magnetically soft materials include
transformer, relay and electromagnet cores, Table 1.2.

TABLE 1.2. Data and typical applications for some magnetically soft metals and
alloys

Magnetically soft materials are easy to magnetize, because little energy is required
to climinate residual magnetism when the external field is reversed, but magnetically hard
materials are more dificult to magnetize, although the retain their magnetism after the
magnetizing field has been removed. The coercive force necessary to the demagnetize them
is high, Fig. 1.34, and therefore their residual magnetism is fairly stable agains stray external
magnetic fields, temperature fluctuations, shock, and vibration. The are used as permanent
magnets when a conflow of magnetizing current. Permanent magnets are used in a variety
of electrical equipment such as control, meters, and communications equipment.

Quenched high carbon steelsare suitable for permanent magnets, but the most
powerful types require the addition of Cr, W, Co. Aluminium-nickel steels with, in some
cases, up to 25% Co (Alnico) and some Cu, are outstandingly good, though expensive.

Other factors beside those given by the demagnetization curve are important in the
practical application of permanent magnets, e.g. cost,

Fig. 1.34. Comparison of hysteresis loops for soft iron, and Alnico (permanent magnet
material)

The forming methods that can be used , the mechanical propertise of the final product, the
density, and the resistance of the magnetized alloy to various demagnetizing influences.

When a forromagnetic materials has its degree of magnetization changed there is a

small corresponding change in length, a phenomenon termed magnetostriction. Conversely,
an externally produced strain in a magnetized materials causes a chenged in the amount of
magnetization. In spite of the small changes in length involved, this phenomenon has
practical applications.

Magnetic properties are very sensitive to changes of composition, e.g. (a) the large
change in permeability with increasing purity of iron, (b) the