LABORATORY 4A:

PLOTTING POLES AND CONTOURING OF STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY DATA

1.0 OBJECTIVE

 To plot poles and carry out contouring of the structural geology data.

2.0 LEARNING OUTCOMES

a) Students should able to use the geological compass.

b) Students should able to measures the dip and dip direction of any planes.
c) Students should able to plot poles of the structural geology data.
d) Students should able to plot contour from the structural geology data.

3.0 THEORY

Analysis of the orientation of structural geology data involves;

 Plotting poles representing the dip and dip direction of each discontinuity. This plot
will help to identify discontinuity sets, for which both the average orientation and the
scatter (dispersion) can be calculated.
 The second step in the analysis is to plot great circles representing the average
orientation of each set, major discontinuities such as faults, and the dip and dip
direction of the cut face.
4.0 EQIUPMENT AND MATERIALS

1. Equal-area for plotting poles and 3. Kalsbeek counting net(Appendix E)

great circles (Appendix C)

4. Tracing paper

2. Equal-area polar net (Appendix D)

5. Pencil
5.0 PROCEDURE

1. Poles can be plotted on the polar stereonet on which the dip direction is indicated on
the periphery of the circle, and the dip is measured along radial lines with zero
degrees at the center.
2. The procedure for plotting poles is to lay a sheet of tracing paper on the printed polar
net and mark the north direction and each quadrant position around the edge of the
outer circle. A mark is then made to show the pole that represents the orientation of
each discontinuity as defined by its dip and dip direction. Poles for shallow dipping
discontinuities lie close to the center of the circle, and poles of steeply dipping
discontinuities lie close to the periphery of the circle.
3. Concentrations of pole orientations can be identified using Kalsbeek counting net.
The Kalsbeek net is made up of mutually overlapping hexagons, each with an area of
1/100 of the full area of the stereonet.
4. Contouring is performed by overlaying the counting net on the pole and counting the
number of poles in each hexagon; this number is marked on the net. These numbers of
poles are converted into percentages by dividing each by the total number of poles
and multiplying by 100. Once a percentage is written in each hexagon, contours can
be developed by interpolation.
6.0 RESULT AND ANALYSIS

Total of data = 120

𝑥
Percentage (%) = x 100%
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎

x Percentage (%) x Percentage (%)

1 0.8 15 12.5
2 1.7 16 13.3
3 2.5 17 14.2
4 3.3 18 15.0
5 4.2 19 15.8
6 5.0 20 16.7
7 5.8 21 17.5
8 6.7 22 18.3
9 7.5 23 19.2
10 8.3 24 20.0
11 9.2 25 20.8
12 10.0 26 21.7
13 10.8 27 22.5
14 11.7
7.0 QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION

1. Give two (2) methods to draw the structural geology data and discuss based on what
situation we choose that method (each method).

i) Cross Section Techniques

This kind of technique is generated from geological maps and can be seen as
vertical slices through a map area showing a profile view of subsurface structure.
Cross-sections are either trial sections, drawn to solve structural problems or are
drawn to supplement a fair copy map or illustrate a report. They are also drawn to
site boreholes in the search for a lost aquifer or ore body. The geological cross
sections drawing are not a small or trivial undertaking and methods for their
generation have become sophisticated. This is because we are trying to make
interpretations about the geometry of features (e.g. bedding, faults) at depth on the
basis of surface geometries. Some aid in this regards may exist in the form of
borehole or geophysical data. However, this is often the exception and skills should
be tuned for cross section construction without such subsurface information.

ii) Streonet Techniques

In this technique, all circles on the sphere plot as circles on the plane, making it
easier to construct the projection. The projection is conformal, meaning that angles
and small shapes on the sphere project are true on the plane. Each projection
represents the important data in the map so the contour can be made. Small regions
on the sphere project true on the plane, making the stereographic a good map
projection for small areas, but radial distortion increases away from the tangency
point.

2. Explain the type of geological structure plotted in the stereonet with the aid of
diagram.

According to the geological structure that has been plotted in this experiment by the
stereonet, we can determine the earth geography such as the hill, mountain and many
other earth surface that represent by the contour. There are several data’s that required
in this experiment such as the dip directions and dip angles in the geological map. It
can be plotted on polar stereonet which dip direction and dip degree is being used. In
 this experiment, we have 120 data’s to be plotted. Using the tracing paper, we have
plotted 120 dotes on it which is requires focus on the plotting work or else the result
will be slightly unaccurate base on the data’s. After the data’s were plotted, there are
groups of plotted dotes then calculated. After that, another tracing paper was used to
plot the contour. By using this kind of plotting contour method, the slope stability and
the failure of slope can be determined. The failure of slope is whether planar, wedge,
circular or toppling.

3. Explain the methodology to determine the discontinuities survey data.

Before any design study can be initiated for a particular rock mass, a field
investigation is needed to collect geologic and geotechnical data on features
characterizing the rock mass in order to help evaluate its future response to
construction (Mahe´ et al. 2015). Discontinuities is one of the geotechnical rock mass
properties which plays an important role in the behavior and physical, mechanical,
and hydromechanical characteristics of the rock mass. Therefore, the full knowledge
of discontinuities is essential. The purpose of surveying discontinuities is to fit a
network of discontinuities into the rock mass. However, the rock mass is
heterogeneous, meaning that complete and accurate identification of discontinuities is
almost impossible. Nevertheless, over time different methods have been provided for
surveying discontinuities, given the existing equipment. A discontinuity is
characterized by dip, dip direction, direction, aperture, location, outcrop, shape, and
size. In addition, density and spacing are the parameters related to a set of
discontinuities, which determine the network of discontinuities in a rock mass. There
are many uncertainties in the survey of all parameters of discontinuities, and this may
cause large errors in predicting a network of discontinuities in the rock mass.
However, different methods have been developed to fit the most appropriate network
of discontinuities in the rock mass. Discontinuity surveys are often performed along a
line (one-dimensional), on a plane (two-dimensional) or in space (three-dimensional).
Several methods for discontinuity surveys are briefly described below.
8.0 CONCLUSION

This experiment is about plotting poles and contouring of structural geology data.
From this experiment, the students should able to measures the dip and dip direction of
any planes, plotting poles of structural geological data, and able to plot contour from the
structural geology data. In this experiment, we are using equal-area for plotting poles and
great circles, equal-area polar net, kalsbeek counting net, tracing paper and pencil to
come to the experiment objectives. From this experiment that we have done in geology
lab, we should know how to plot poles and carry out contouring of the structural geology
data now. Poles can be plotted on the polar stereonet on which the dip direction is
indicated on the periphery of the circle and the dip is measured along racial lines with
zero degrees at the center. It should be noted that the stereonet is the lower hemisphere
plot in which the direction scale starts at the bottom of the circle and increase following
the clockwise direction with the north arrow corresponding to the dip direction of 180°.

There is reason why do we set the scale in this way is that if the field reading as
measured with structural compass are plotted directly on the stereonet, the poles are
correctly plotted on the lower hemisphere plot. Then all the data’s are being used to
make the projection and form the contour on the tracing paper using all the requirements
that we have. The procedure for plotting is lay a sheet of tracing paper on the printed
polar net and mark the north direction and each quadrant position around the edge of the
outer circle. A mark is then made to show the pole that represents the orientation of each
discontinuity as defined by its dip and dip direction. Poles for shallow dipping
discontinuities lie close to the center of the circle and poles of steely dipping
discontinuities lie close the periphery of the circle.
 LABORATORY 4B

DETERMINE THE DISCONTINUITIES SETS AND MODES OF FAILURES OF

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY DATA DUE TO SLOPE

1.0 OBJECTIVE

 To identify the major and minor discontinuities set, plot the great circle of
discontinuities and analyze the failure modes.

2.0 LEARNING OUTCOMES

a) Students should able to plot the great circles.

b) Students should able to analyze the potential failures modes.

3.0 THEORY

Mode of rock slope failures.

 Mode of slope failures based on discontinuities sets plot.

4.0 EQIUPMENT AND MATERIALS

1) Equal-area equatorial net 2) Tracing paper

(Appendix C)
5.0 PROCEDURE

Plotting great circles:-

Great circles are plotted on the equatorial net, but they cannot be plotted directly on this
net because the true dip can only be scaled off the horizontal axis. The plotting procedure
for great circles consists of the following steps:

1. Lay a piece of tracing paper on the net with a thumbtack through the center point so
that the tracing paper can be rotated on the net.
2. Mark the north direction of the net on the tracing paper.
3. Locate the dip direction of the plane on the scale around the circumference of the net
and mark this point on the tracing paper. Note that the dip direction scale on the
equatorial net for plotting great circles starts at the north point at the top of the circle
and increases in a clockwise direction.
4. Rotate the tracing paper until the dip direction mark coincides with one of the
horizontal axes of the net, that is, the 90o or 180o points of the dip direction scale.
5. Locate the arc on the net corresponding to the dip of the plane and trace this arc into the
paper. Note that a horizontal plane has a great circle at the circumference of the net, and
a vertical plane is represented by a straight line passing through the center of the net.
6. Rotate the tracing paper so that the two north points coincide and the great circle is
oriented correctly.
*The slope data was given as 90° (dip direction) and 60° (dip angle), Rock friction angle
= 30°.
6.0 RESULT AND ANALYSIS

Given: Dip direction = 90o, Dip angle = 60o, Friction angle = 30o

Discontinuity set Dip direction Dip angle

P1 206 60
P2 97 48
P3 312 56

Mode Criteria
Circular None
Planar i) 90o ± 20o = 70o – 110o
P2 = 97/48
∴ fulfil criteria
ii) 60o > 𝛹p > 30o
60o > 48o > 30o
∴ fulfil criteria
iii) Release surface present.
∴ P2 potential to plane failure

Wedge i) 60o > Ψi > 30o

Intersection of joint is P1 / P2 = 38o
ii) P1 / P2 potential to wedge failure
Toppling i) (90o±180o) ±10 = 270 ±10
= 260 - 280
ii) Not fulfil the criteria.
7.0 QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION

1) Explain the mode of failure for rock slope for each type.

i) Plane Failure

The failure surface in planar failures are resulted by structural discontinuities like
bedding planes, faults or the interface between weathered rock and the underlying
bedrock. This kind of failure leads to sliding action along the failure surface.
Hence, planar failure occurs in response to a single discontinuity.

ii) Wedge Failure

This kind of failure causes a rock mass to slide along two intersecting
discontinuities. This mode of failure needs the dip angle of at least one joint
intersection to be greater than the angle of friction of the joint surface. Favourable
lithology for the development of wedge failure includes inclined bedding, foliation
and well defined cleavages. Rocks such as Shale, limestone and slate are more
prone to this kind of failure due to its internal form. Wedge failures could occur
very rapidly in a matter of seconds or it could happen slowly and gradually over a
period of several months. The size of the wedge could be a few cubic meters to
enormous landslides that could cause a large scaled natural disaster.

iii)Toppling Failure

Toppling failure occurs due to steep discontinuities in the rock which eventually
leads to slippage of the layers and the outward and downward movement of a
column of rock. Here the column of rock rotates about a fixed point at the base of
the slope. This toppling action is due to the column’s center of gravity lying
outside the base dimensions. Prerequisites for toppling failure include closely
spaced jointed rock mass with steep discontinuities dipping away from the slope
face. Sometimes the removal of an overburden load, that was previously imparting
constraining stresses in the rock structure, could instigate toppling.

2) Identify which discontinuities sets that have some potential to fail and what are their
failure modes.
 P2 (97/48) sets were potential for planar failure because it fulfil criteria (i) which
dip direction lie within ± 20° from the “design slope” dip direction. This set also
 fulfil criteria (ii) of planar failure which is ψf > ψp >𝜃 j (slope angle>plane
angle>friction angle).
 P1/P2 were potential for wedge failure because this sets involved in the area
between slope angle and friction angle (intersection of joint set)
 Toppling failure not occurs at any discontinuity sets because they are not
fulfilling for the first criteria. So that this set was not potential for toppling
failures.

3) What are the others criteria that must be met in order to promote the slope failure?

 The addition of excess water may destabilize slopes by adding weight, destroying
cohesion between grains, and reducing friction.
 Gravity can be divided into components acting parallel to a slope and
perpendicular to the slope.
 The physical properties of the slope materials such as cohesion between grains
may reduce the potential for slope failure.
 Failure is more likely to occur if the effect of friction on the potential sliding
surface is reduced.
 The angle of repose is the maximum slope generated when loose unconsolidated
material is formed into a pile.

8.0 CONCLUSION

In rock slopes plane, wedge, toppling and rock fall are common modes of failures,
however due to complexity in geometry, variability in discontinuity characteristics,
uneven distribution of water forces within the slope, surcharge and dynamic loading
conditions, the failure mechanism may become complex to assess. Over the years several
methods have been developed which can broadly be classified into conventional and
numerical methods. The conventional methods such as; limit equilibrium and
probabilistic methods may be applied to slopes that shows relatively uniform geometry
and homogeneous geologic conditions. Limit equilibrium methods are the most popular
methods and integration with the probabilistic method has further strengthened its
capabilities in simulating the real slope conditions. For complex geometry and the
geological conditions, numerical methods are more suitable. These methods have
capability to simulate the real slope conditions. However, numerical methods are time
consuming and require high computational facilities and special skills in its application.
 LABORATORY 4C

PLANE AND WEDGE FACTOR OF SAFTEY

1.0 OBJECTIVE

 To identify which discontinuities are potential to fail and calculate the factor of safety.

2.0 LEARNING OUTCOMES

a) Students should able to calculate the safety factor for plane failure.
b) Students should able to calculate the safety factor for wedge failure.

3.0 THEORY

To obtain the factor of safety for planar is much simple rather than wedge. For plane,
consideration on one discontinuity, besides wedge two discontinuities (sets). Two (2)
conditions need to exam, wet and dry conditions.

4.0 EQIUPMENT AND MATERIALS

1. Equal-area equatorial net (Appendix 2. Tracing paper

C)
5.0 PROCEDURE

 Determine the mode of failures

 Used appropriate formula of planar or wedge given in APPENDIX A and B
 The other information/properties from the site study and laboratory works are given as
following:-

i. Rock unit weight, 𝛾r = 25 kN/m3

ii. Rock friction angle,∅ = ∅a = ∅b = 30°
iii. Water unit weight, 𝛾w = 9.81 kN/m3
iv. Cohesion of discontinuities, Ca = Cb = 50 kPa
v. Height of slope = Height of wedge = Height of plane, H = 50 m
vi. Tension crack depth, Z = Tension crack height, Zw = 1 meter
vii. Upper slope data = 100° (dip direction) and 20° (dip angle)
viii. Inclined angle of anchor (Ω) = (ψT) = 20°
ix. Bars for Y25 = 10 ton = 100 kN
6.0 RESULT AND ANALYSIS

1) Factor of safety of plane failure in wet and dry condition

For wet condition:

c = 50, Z = 1m, Zw = 1m, H = 50m, 𝛺 = 20o, T = 0, ∅ = 30o, 𝛼 = 60, 𝛽 = 48o, 𝛾r = 25 kN/m3,

𝛾w = 9.81 kN/m3

1 Z 2
A = (H-Z) ∙ cosec 𝛽 W = 𝛾 r ∙ H2 [(1 − (H) ) cot 𝛽 − cot α]
2

1 1 1 2 1 1
= (50-1) ∙ (sin 48) = (25) ∙ (50)2 [(1 − (50) ) (tan 48) − (tan 60)]
2

= 65.936 = 10084.175

1 1
U = 𝛾 w ∙ Zw ∙ (H-Z) ∙ cosec 𝛽 V= 𝛾w ∙ Zw2
2 2
1 1 1
= (9.81)∙ (1) ∙ (50-1) ∙ (sin 48) = (9.81) ∙ (1)2
2 2
= 323.416 = 4.905

cA+ [Wcos𝛽 −U−Vsin𝛽 + Tsin(Ω+𝛽)] tan ∅

FOS =
Wsin𝛽+Vcosβ − Tcos (Ω+𝛽)
(50)(65.936)+ [10084.175cos48 −323.416−4.905sin48 +(0)sin(20+48)] tan 30
=
10084.175sin48+4.905cos48 −(0)cos (20+48)
3296.80 + (6747.630 – 323.416 – 3.645) tan 30
=
7494.002 +3.282
7003.717
=
7497.284
= 0.934 ≈ 1.5

When FOS = 1.5

 cA+ [Wcos𝛽 −U−Vsin𝛽 + Tsin(𝛺+𝛽)] tan ∅
FOS =
Wsin𝛽+Vcosβ − Tcos (𝛺+𝛽)
(50)(65.936)+ [10084.175cos48 −323.416−4.905sin48 +Tsin(20+48)] tan 30
1.5 =
10084.175sin48+4.905cos48 −Tcos (20+48)
3296.8 + (6747.630 – 323.416 – 3.645 +0.927T) tan 30
1.5 =
7494.002 +3.282−0.375T
3296.8+(6420.569 +0.927𝑇 ) tan 30
1.5 =
7497.284 −0.375𝑇
1.5(7497.284 − 0.375𝑇) = 3296.8 + (6420.569 + 0.927𝑇 ) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 30
11245.926 − 0.563𝑇 = 3296.8 + 3706.917 + 0.535T
0.563𝑇 + 0.535𝑇 = 11245.926 − 3296.8 − 3706.917
1.098𝑇 = 4242.209
4242.209
T=
1.098
T = 3863.58 kN

No of bars required to reinforce the plane failure

T = 3863.58 kN
3863.58
No. of bars =
100
= 39 bars

Wet Condition using excel:

For dry condition:
c = 50, Z = 1m, Zdry = 0, H = 50m, 𝛺 = 20o, T = 0, ∅ = 30o, 𝛼 = 60, 𝛽 = 48o, 𝛾r = 25 kN/m3,
𝛾w = 9.81 kN/m3

1 Z 2
A = (H-Z) ∙ cosec 𝛽 W = 𝛾 r ∙ H2 [(1 − (H) ) cot 𝛽 − cot α]
2

1 1 1 2 1 1
= (50-1) ∙ (sin 48) = (25) ∙ (50)2 [(1 − (50) ) (tan 48) − (tan 60)]
2

= 65.936 = 10084.175

1 1
U = 𝛾 w ∙ Zdry ∙ (H-Z) ∙ cosec 𝛽 V= 𝛾w ∙ Zdry2
2 2
1 1 1
= (9.81)∙ (0) ∙ (50-1) ∙ (sin 48) = (9.81) ∙ (0)2
2 2
=0 =0

cA+ [Wcos𝛽 −U−Vsin𝛽 + Tsin(Ω+𝛽)] tan ∅

FOS =
Wsin𝛽+Vcosβ − Tcos (Ω+𝛽)
(50)(65.936)+ [10084.175cos48 −0−0sin48 +(0)sin(20+48)] tan 30
=
10084.175sin48+0cos48 −(0)cos (20+48)
3296.80 + (6747.630) tan 30
=
7494.002
7192.546
=
7494.002
= 0.960 ≈ 1.5

When FOS = 1.5

 cA+ [Wcos𝛽 −U−Vsin𝛽 + Tsin(𝛺+𝛽)] tan ∅
FOS =
Wsin𝛽+Vcosβ − Tcos (𝛺+𝛽)
(50)(65.936)+ [10084.175cos48 −0−(0)sin48 +Tsin(20+48)] tan 30
1.5 =
10084.175sin48+(0)cos48 −Tcos (20+48)
3296.8 + (6747.630 +0.927T) tan 30
1.5 =
7494.002−0.375T
3296.8+3895.746+0.535T
1.5 =
7497.284 −0.375𝑇
1.5(7497.284 − 0.375𝑇) = 3296.8 + 3895.746 + 0.535T
11245.926 − 0.563𝑇 = 3296.8 + 3895.746 + 0.535T
0.563𝑇 + 0.535𝑇 = 11245.926 − 3296.8 − 3895.746
1.098𝑇 = 4053.38
4053.38
T=
1.098
T = 3691.60 kN

No of bars required to reinforce the plane failure:

T = 3691.60 kN
3691.60
No. of bars =
100
= 37 bars

Dry Condition using Excel:

2) Factor of safety of wedge failure in wet and dry condition
Item Degree (𝜽) Item Degree (𝜽)
 A: P2 97o/48o 𝜃𝑛𝑎.𝑛𝑏 90o
B: P1 206o/60o 𝜃2.𝑛𝑎 85o
Slope 90o/60o 𝜃1.𝑛𝑏 116o
Upper Slope 100o/20o 𝜃24 22o
𝛾𝑟 25 kN/m3 𝜃45 16o
𝛾𝑤 9.81 kN/m3 𝜃13 25o
𝐻𝑇 50 m 𝜃35 54o
∅𝑎 30o 𝛹5 38o
∅𝑏 30o 𝛹𝑎 48o
𝐶𝑎 50 kPa 𝛹𝑏 60o
𝐶𝑏 50 kPa

𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃24 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃13
X= Y=
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃45 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃2.𝑛𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃35 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃1.𝑛𝑏

𝑆𝑖𝑛 (22) 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (25)

X= Y=
𝑆𝑖𝑛 (16) 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (85) 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (54) 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (116)

X = 15.593 Y = -1.192

𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛹𝑎 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛹𝑏 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑛𝑎.𝑛𝑏 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛹𝑏 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛹𝑎 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑛𝑎.𝑛𝑏

A= B=
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛹5 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝑛𝑎.𝑛𝑏 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛹5 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝑛𝑎.𝑛𝑏

𝐶𝑜𝑠 (48)−𝐶𝑜𝑠 (60)𝐶𝑜𝑠 (90) 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (60)−𝐶𝑜𝑠 (48)𝐶𝑜𝑠 (90)

A= B=
𝑆𝑖𝑛 (38) 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 (90) 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (38) 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 (90)

A = 1.087 B = 0.812

3 𝛾𝑤 𝛾𝑤
Fos = 𝛾𝐻 (𝐶𝑎 . 𝑋 + 𝐶𝑏 . 𝑌) + (𝐴 − . 𝑋) 𝑇𝑎𝑛∅𝑎 + (𝐵 − . 𝑌) 𝑇𝑎𝑛∅𝑏
𝑇 2𝛾 2𝛾

3 9.81
= (25)(50) (50𝑋15.593 + 50𝑋 − 1.192) + (1.087 − . (15.593)) 𝑇𝑎𝑛 (30) +
2(25)

9.81
(0.812 − . (−1.19)) 𝑇𝑎𝑛(30)
2(25)

= 1.728 – 1.139 + 0.604

= 1.193
Factor of safety of wedge failure using Excel:
7.0 QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION

I) For some cases, give the recommended value of safety factors for the rock slope in
civil engineering / construction industry with some justifications.

Typical target design Factor of Safety (FS) values range from 1.3 to 1.5. However,
based on engineering judgment, values outside of this range may be appropriate,
depending on the circumstances. The minimum FS to be used in stability analyses
for a specific rock slope depends on factors such as:

 The degree of uncertainty in the stability analysis inputs; the most important
being the amount of intact rock, rock mass strength, discontinuity spacing,
discontinuity shear strength and groundwater conditions.
 The level of investigation and data collection.
 Costs of constructing the slope to be more stable.
 Costs, risks to the travelling public, risks to the roadway, and other
consequences should the slope fail.
 Whether the slope is temporary or permanent.

II) Describe and explain the rock slope stabilization method.

a) Excavation and filling techniques. This would include excavating the toe of an
earth flow until successive failures result in a stable slope, removing and
replacing failed material with lighter, more stable material, or re-compacted
debris, excavating to unload upper portions of a mass failure, and filling to load
the lower portions of a mass failure (most likely in conjunction with other
loading or restraining structures).
b) Drainage techniques. This would include efforts to remove or disperse surface
water (as discussed in Chapter 4), drainage of tension cracks, using rock fill
underlain by filter cloth to prevent upward migration of water into the road
prism, insertion of trench drains, perforated, horizontal drains, or drainage
galleries, insertion of vertical drains or wells discharged by syphons, or pumps,
and electro-osmosis (the use of direct current passing between well points and
steel rods placed midway between the rods to increase the drainage rate) for
drainage of low permeability soil.
 c) Restraining structures. These include retaining walls, piles, buttresses,
counterweight fills, cribs, bin walls, reinforced earth, and pre-stressed or post-
tensioned soil or rock anchors (Figure 98). Organizations such as highway
departments and railroads have developed charts and tables giving earth pressures
for the design of retaining walls that requires a minimum of computation. Nearly
all of these charts and tables are based on the Rankine formula which describes
earth pressures as a function of unit weight and internal angle of friction of the
backfill material.
d) Miscellaneous techniques. Grouting can be used to reduce soil permeability,
thereby preventing the ingress of groundwater into a failure zone. Chemical
stabilization, generally in the form of ion exchange methods, is accomplished by
high pressure injection of specific ion exchange solutions into failure zones or
into closely spaced pre-drillled holes throughout the movement zone. Heating or
baking of clay soils can sometimes improve their strength, and, rarely, freezing of
soils will help gain temporary stability. Localized electro-osmosis can be used to
form in situ anchors or tie-backs. Suppression of natural electro-osmosis can be
used to reduce unfavourable groundwater pressures. Blasting is sometimes used
to disrupt failure surfaces and to improve drainage.

III) Explain the main differences about the assessment of the Rock Slope and Soil Slope.

Large-scale geologic structures provide the initial framework upon which landscape
development proceeds. Finer details of landscapes (i.e. individual landforms) are
usually determined by differential erosion. E.g. domed strata provide rock layers
dipping away radially from a central high point; differential erosion produces
inward-facing scarps (S), outward-facing dip slopes (D) and radial strike valleys
(SV). Strength and Stress In the context of geomorphology, strength refers to the
ability to resist being moved by erosional processes, which normally operate in a
downslope direction. The force exerted by erosional processes (including gravity) is
a SHEAR STRESS directed downslope and causing a mass of rock or soil to shear
over the underlying material. Controls on Soil Characteristics The characteristics of
soil depend on: parent material; climate; vegetation; slope. Parent material
influences;
  The rate of soil development (rate of weathering)
 Soil composition e.g. shales produce a lot of clay; sandstone produces sandy soil
 Physical properties of soil e.g. permeability/drainage (number, size and
connectivity of pore spaces); shrink-swell potential (amount of expansive clay)
cohesive strength (clay content - clayey soils are "sticky" - this aids cohesion).

The slope stability safety factor refers to the ratio of the soil shear strength to the
shear stress of a possible sliding surface in the slope. The soil stress state and its
changes are prerequisites of slope stability; the existing slope circular slipping
method (Petterson 1916) and slice method (Fellenius 1927) ignore the impact of the
stress state. In reality, the slope stability changes with changes in the stress state.
Researchers [11–14] are currently looking for the sliding center and slip surface,
supplementing and modifying the basic assumptions of the slice method, and
providing a fundamental basis in engineering applications for the slice method.
However, defects of slice method and statically indeterminate problem of this
method [15] have produced challenges in practical engineering applications.

8.0 CONCLUSION

For the success of many civil and mining engineering projects, especially in hilly and
rocky terrains, and for mining excavations, it often becomes essential to know the
realistic values of factor of safety of the rock slopes. Because of this fact, the subject area
of the present work has been one of the important research topics in civil and mining
engineering disciplines. Activities that must be consider the following:

 Experimental model studies, though difficult to carry out, especially in laboratory

environments, to compare the mathematical values of the factor of safety.
 More design charts can be prepared for specific field situations following the
approach described in the present work.
 Effect of other reinforcing techniques on the stability of rock slopes.
 Development of a generalised expression for other failure modes including wedge
failure under surcharge and seismic loading conditions.
 Effect of dynamic loads other than earthquakes on rock slope stability.
 Rock slope stability analysis using pseudo-dynamic approach.