Construction and Building Materials 177 (2018) 436–442

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Freezing-thawing and impact resistance of concretes containing waste

crumb rubbers
Tahir Gonen a,b,⇑
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Usak University, 64200 Usak, Turkey
b
Vocational School, Kyrgyz Turkish Manas University, 720044 Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan

h i g h l i g h t s

Concrete was produced by using fine waste crumb rubber.

The freezing-thawing and impact resistance of these concretes have been studied.

The performance of grained crump rubber was better in both freezing-thawing and impact.

It is suitable for use in non-load-bearing exterior concrete elements.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Millions of tires are discarded every year. Disposal or recycling-reusing of waste tire rubber has become a
Received 19 January 2018 big environmental problem in the world. In this study, it was aimed to determine the freezing-thawing,
Received in revised form 13 April 2018 impact resistance, compressive strength and capillary water absorption rate, when the granulated waste
Accepted 10 May 2018
rubber parts are used in the non-load-bearing concrete. Granulated crumb rubbers obtained from waste
tires were used at two different grain diameters of 1 and 2 mm as the maximum value. A total of 9 dif-
ferent series were prepared, one of them being the control group and the others being changed with the
Keywords:
aggregate in the ratios of 0.5%, 1%, 2% and 4%. In all of the blends, the water/cement ratio was kept con-
Freezing-thawing resistance
Impact resistance
stant at 0.50. A drop-weight type impact test was applied to the specimens produced with and without
Crumb rubber waste rubbers. The impact energy required for the first crack and final dent was determined with the
Concrete free-falling steel ball at a certain height. Freezing thawing experiments were carried out on the samples
with 3% NaCl solution ponded on the surface, and weight losses were determined. As the result, signifi-
cant improvements were observed in the freezing-thawing and impact resistances of waste tire added
samples. Weight loss of specimens because of the freezing-thawing was decreased about 90% and impact
resistance was increased different rate depending using rate.
Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction which have been conducted in this direction, continue to be carried

Parallel to the increase in the number of motor vehicles in the
world, environmental pollution caused by the used tires has also
been increasing. Vehicle tires are made of natural and synthetic
rubbers consisting of polymers that are highly durable and that
have strong molecular structure. For this reason, after completing
their useful life, they turn into waste tires that need a century to
be self-destructed in the environment [1,2]. Since the increase in
the number of used vehicle tires and their storage in inappropriate
conditions lead to adverse environmental impacts, the studies,
⇑ Address: Vocational School, Kyrgyz Turkish Manas University, 720044 Bishkek,
Kyrgyzstan.
E-mail address: tahir.gonen@usak.edu.tr
out. Today, the disposal of waste tires is usually in the form of
unearthing them, accumulating in piles, using in rubber coating,
using as fuel, and recently, reclamation after mechanically granu-
lating in various sectors.
The inclusion of waste rubber in concrete has significant effects
on the physical, thermal and mechanical properties of the concrete,
thus, some researchers [3–8] have used waste tire particles in the
concrete mix and have studied the effects of these particles on the
characteristics of the concrete. According to the literature, it has
been found that the use of rubber reduces the compressive
strength of the concrete to a certain extent [9]. It has been
observed that there is a further decrease in the compressive
strength due to the use of coarse aggregate and waste tire particles.
When replaced with coarse aggregate, the loss of compressive

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.05.105
0950-0618/Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 T. Gonen / Construction and Building Materials 177 (2018) 436–442
strength is around 50%, while in the case of substitution with fine
aggregate, it is in the level of 25%. To reduce this adverse effect on
compressive strength, certain investigators [10–12] increased the
adherence and minimized the decrease in compressive strength
by treating the waste rubber with NaOH solution, before being
involved in the mix. In previous studies, it was observed that con-
crete samples containing tire particles had high toughness. Con-
crete elements, in some cases, are required to have low unit
weights and high toughness and impact resistance values. It has
been noted by various researchers that increasing the toughness
of the concrete against the reduction of the compressive strength,
which is one of the concrete’s mechanical properties, may provide
a significant advantage to the elements subjected to vibration and
impact [13–15].
One of the biggest problems faced in terms of the useful life of
concretes produced for outdoor use is the effect of repeated
freezing-thawing. Especially when there is terrestrial climate, the
increase in the number of freezing-thawing cycles leads to a short-
ening of the useful life of concrete-produced elements such as
curbs, paving stones, roads, bridges and viaducts. If the tempera-
ture falls below zero, the water present in the cavities in the con-
crete interior freezes and exhibits a volume increase of about 8–9%.
This event causes the tensile stresses to occur in the concrete. Due
to the fact that the concrete is a rigid building material and its ten-
sile strength is low, there is cracking due to the internal stresses
which occur as a result of freezing-thawing. In places where
freezing-thawing is frequent, frost-induced ice pressure can be
reduced by adding air-entraining additives and creating regular
spherical voids. However, as this process increases the cost of the
mixture, it is generally preferred only for the important building
elements. Although they are produced in small pieces, especially
the concrete paving stones are one of the most degraded concrete
elements. The fracture network starting in the material after
repeated freezing-thawing is shown in Fig. 1a which were taken
from Bishkek in Kyrgyzstan. These cracks progress over time and
cause further cracking, resulting in the complete disintegration of
the element as seen in Fig. 1b. Another important problem faced
by concrete paving stone elements is the impact. Replacement
and renovation of the damaged parts is a more labor-intensive
Fig. 1. The start of a crack network with freezing-thawing effect (a), Degradation after repeated freezing-thawing (b).
437
and costly task than the first installation. In this respect, the life
of the material is important in terms of operating costs. Although
concrete is a widely used construction material, freezing-thawing
resistance and impact resistance are often not met by conventional
designs. Additive materials that give concrete these properties
increase the production cost. In certain concrete elements, such
as tile paving stones, which remain in the external environment
and do not have carrier properties, resistance to extreme condi-
tions becomes more important than compressive strength. The
purpose of this study is to use the tires, which are in idle condition,
as an additive material to the concrete by partially replacing them
with sand after granulating them, in concrete paving stone produc-
tion. Thus, it is expected that both environmental benefits will be
obtained by evaluating an inert material and the freezing-
thawing resistance and the toughness (resistance to impact) of
the concrete will be increased.
2. Material and method
2.1. Materials used
In experimental studies, CEM II cement was used. The physical properties of the
aggregates used for paving stone production are given in Table 1. In the study,
waste tires collected from different locations to be used for replacing the sand were
manually dismantled by hand tools (Fig. 2). The grain distribution after mixing with
the aggregate of the granulated waste tire produced during this laminating is given
in Table 2.
2.2. Preparing the sample
Freezing-thawing experiments were carried out on the samples in the form of
cylinders, with a diameter of 100 mm and a thickness of 35 mm. Specimens with
150 mm diameter and 55 mm thickness were tested with capillary water absorp-
tion, impact strength and unit volume weight. Finally, for the compressive strength
test, 150 mm sized cube samples were produced. In the study, one control serie
with 0.50 water-cement ratio was prepared. In the way that all the parameters will
remain the same, granulated waste rubber was replaced by sand and gravel in the
rates of 0.5%, 1%, 2% and 4%. A total of 9 different concrete series were produced, one
of which was the control serie, with granulated waste tires with a maximum grain
diameter of 1 and 2 mm, and was stored in lime-saturated water for 28 days. The
mixing ratios of the produced concrete series are given in Table 3.
438 T. Gonen / Construction and Building Materials 177 (2018) 436–442

Table 1 ment, the samples were dried with the oven until they reached the constant weight.
The physical properties of the aggregates. After drying, only the top and bottom surfaces of the samples were left open, and
other surfaces were converted into a water impermeable state, as shown in
4–8 mm 0–4 mm Fig. 3a. The specimens were placed on two supports in a container and exposed
Density (kg/m ) 3
2630 2770 to water up to 5 mm above the bottom surface of the sample (Fig. 3b). The weights
Water absorption (%) 2.3 2.6 of the samples were determined according to Eq. (2) for water uptake rates of cap-
Unit weight (kg/m3) 1460 1540 illaries by weighing the water at the following 5, 10, 20, 30, 60, 180, 360, 720 and
500 recycled Los Angeles abrasion (%) 5 – 1440th minutes [19–22].

Q pffiffi
¼k t ð2Þ
A
In Eq. (2), Q is the amount of absorbed water (cm3), A is the area of the surface
in contact with the water (cm2), k is the capillary water absorption coefficient (cm/
s1/2), and t is time (s).

2.5. Freezing-thawing experiment

In this study, freezing-thawing experiments were carried out according to TS

2824 EN 1338 [23] (Concrete paving blocks for flooring – necessary conditions
and test methods) since the produced concrete is intended to be used as paving
stone.
Cylindrical specimens with a diameter of 100 mm and a thickness of 35 mm
were prepared for freezing-thawing experiments and standard cure was applied.
The freezing-thawing test specimens were prepared as in Fig. 4a and b according
to TS EN 2824 EN 1338 [23]. A total of 45 specimens were prepared (5 for each
serie). At the beginning of the experiment, the samples were laced with 5 ± 2 mm
3% NaCl solution on their upper surfaces. This solution was renewed every 7 cycles
and the experiment was completed in cycle 28. After freezing-thawing recycling,
the peeling on the sample surface was cleaned and the total material loss was
determined in kg/m2.

2.6. Impact resistance

For the impact tests, the drop-weight test method described in ACI 544 [24] was
used. To this end, a system for an iron ball’s making freefall in a single direction is
prepared as shown in Fig. 5. On the cylinder samples, a steel ball weighing 1 kg was
Fig. 2. Granulated waste tire.
left to make repeated free fall from a height of 45 cm and the surface of the sample
was observed. The number of impacts required for a full dent was determined
through the first crack appearing on the surface of the specimen. The impact ener-
2.3. Apparent porosity gies of the samples were calculated using Eq. (3) [25,26].

For porosity tests, cylinder samples with a diameter of 150 mm and 55 mm E ¼ N:m:g:h ð3Þ
height were prepared. The porosity values of the samples were found according
Where E is the impact energy, N is the number of impacts, m is the weight of the
to the Eq. (1) [16–18], after determining their oven dry (Wk), saturated dry surface
steel ball, g is the gravitational acceleration, and h is the fall height.
(Wdyk) and underwater weights (Ws). Each porosity value is the average of three
samples.

W dyk  W k 3. Findings and discussion

P¼  100 ð1Þ
W dyk  W s
3.1. Compressive strength and physical properties

2.4. Capillary water absorption
Cylindrical specimens that were 150 mm in diameter and 55 mm in thickness
were prepared for the capillary water absorption experiments. A total of 27 cylinder
samples were produced, containing three each per series. After 28 days of treat-
In this study, specimens were prepared by adding granulated
waste rubber in the rates of 0.5%, 1%, 2% and 4% with the maximum
grain diameter of 1 mm and 2 mm to the concrete mortar. The unit
weight, porosity, capillary water absorption, compressive strength,

Table 2
The granulometry of aggregate and crump rubber.

Sieve size (mm) 16 8 4 2 1 0.50 0.25 0.125 0.063

Passing (%) Mix. Aggregate 0–8 mm 100 98 85 70 53 30 14 5 0
Crump rubber 2 mm 100 100 100 100 64 24 5 0 0
Crumb rubber 1 mm 100 100 100 100 100 37 8 1 0

Table 3
Concrete sample mixing ratios.

0% 0.5% 1% 2% 4%
Water/Cement 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
Water kg/m3 253 253 253 253 253
Cement kg/m3 506 506 506 506 506
Sand kg/m3 304 302 299 294 283
Aggregate kg/m3 1218 1207 1196 1175 1131
Crumb rubber kg/m3 0 4.875 9.75 19.50 39
 T. Gonen / Construction and Building Materials 177 (2018) 436–442
Fig. 3. The capillary water absorption test specimens (a) and experimental setup section (b).
Fig. 4. Freezing-thawing test samples (a) and sample cross-section view (b).
Fig. 5. Impact test setup.
freezing-thawing resistance and impact strength of the granulated
waste rubber added samples were examined and the results are
given in Tables 4 and 5.
The unit weight of the concrete is normally reduced as the
amount of the used waste tire increases. Porosity values are also
seen to increase together with the increase in the amount of rub-
ber. However, the values found here are not actual porosity values,
these are the visible porosity values. In visible porosity, materials
in the concrete tile that are lower than the unit weight of water
439
are perceived as spaces. The waste tires used in this study seem
to have increased their porosity values because their unit weight
is smaller than water. This did not change for both of the grain
diameters used.
An important parameter in characterizing durability in cemen-
titious systems is the resistance of the produced samples to water
penetration. Water also has an abrasive effect in the case of
freezing-thawing, in addition to carrying hazardous substances
(sulphate, chloride, etc.) for cementitious systems. For this reason,
the way of providing durability for the cementitious systems is
through producing impervious samples. In this sense, capillary
water absorption, pressurized water permeability and chlorine
permeability are the most widely used test methods. Pressurized
water permeability is more important for water pressure exposed
elements such as dams and water reservoirs. Chloride permeability
is important if steel reinforcement is used in the cementitious sys-
tem. Capillary water absorption is important for building elements
that are in contact with the ground. It is a very important param-
eter especially for the paving stones found in the open area and
on the ground. Capillary water absorption is directly related to
the cavity structure. Anything that can ruin the continuity of the
space network can reduce the capillary water absorption. Since
the granular waste tire used in this study does not have the water
absorption feature, it has a blocking effect on the cavity continuity
in the capillary cavity network, and it reduces the capillary water
absorption rate in a significant way. As shown in Tables 3 and 4,
in the case of 4% rubber addition, a 60–65% reduction in the capil-
lary water absorption rate is observed. Samples with a maximum
grain diameter of 1 mm reduced this speed more than that of 2
mm diameters. This is due to the fact that the same quantity of
waste granulated rubber tire has more surface area per unit vol-
ume as the diameter decreases. If the granulated parts are further
thinned, the effect on the capillary water absorption rate will prob-
ably increase. Similar finding was reported by Girskas [27].
As shown in Table 4, as the utilization rate of the granulated
vehicle tire sawdust increases, the compressive strength decreases.
This decline is an expected decline and is not an important param-
eter for paving stones. Crumb rubber created defective area in term
440 T. Gonen / Construction and Building Materials 177 (2018) 436–442

Table 4
Certain properties of granulated waste tire added specimens with a maximum grain diameter of 2 mm.

Crumb rubber rate 0% 0.5% 1% 2% 4%

3
Unit weight (kg/m ) 2163 2152 2141 2106 2044
Porosity (%) 13.7 14.3 14.6 15 15.4
Capillary water absorption (cm/s1/2) 2.22 1.47 1.19 1.13 0.93
Compressive strength (MPa) 36.1 33.1 32.8 29.9 24

Table 5
Certain properties of granulated waste tire added specimens with a maximum grain diameter of 1 mm.

Crumb rubber rate 0% 0.5% 1% 2% 4%

Unit weight (kg/m3) 2163 2139 2096 2041 1994
Porosity (%) 13.7 14.8 15.7 16.2 16.6
Capillary water absorption (cm/s1/2) 2.22 1.33 1.23 0.95 0.77
Compressive strength (MPa) 36.1 34.8 33.7 30.5 25.1

of compressive strength. The decrease in strength is due to the lack
of adhesion between the crump rubber and cement paste. The
decline of strength containing 2 mm crumb rubber is more than
1 mm crumb rubber. Cracks will develop quickly around the rub-
ber particles at the time of loading which results in rapid failure
of concrete. The decline in compressive strength occurs also due
to generation of voids which might have developed due to fine nat-
ure of crumb rubber. Concrete containing coarse crumb rubbers
occurs more voids than fine crumb rubbers. As the result, there is
no load-bearing function for cobblestones laid on pavements or
in-site roads.
tion rate is increased to 4%, a reduction of mass loss of 80% is
observed. Samples with a maximum grain diameter of 2 mm
improved the freezing-thawing resistance to 1% by weight, com-
pared to those with a grain diameter of 1 mm. The higher utiliza-
tion of low-caliber granules in higher addition rate has a higher
contribution to freezing-thawing resistance. After freezing-
thawing, the damage develops either in the form of cracks or exfo-
liation. Crack formation is seen in slower freezing and slower
thawing. In this study, damage to the specimens is in the form of
fragmentation and exfoliation (Fig. 7). If the concrete strength is
high or the freezing-thawing cycles are harder, the damage may
be in the form of fragmentation or exfoliation.

3.2. Freezing-thawing

In this study, the use of granulated waste vehicle tires was
investigated to increase the resistance to freezing and thawing.
Thus, due to the transformation of the water into the ice, the ice
pressure, which will form in the concrete gaps, is expected to be
damped by the rubber aggregates. In studies on concrete in the lit-
erature, it is common to conduct air and water dissolution cycles
and maintain them for about 300 cycles. Since the concrete sam-
ples produced with waste tires are considered as tile paving stone,
the method specified in TS EN 2824 [23] is used in this study. In
addition to freezing and dissolving in water, the abrasive effect is
enhanced by containing 3% NaCl in the water pooled on the sam-
ple. A total of 28 cycles were carried out, and the mass losses in
the samples at the end of these cycles are given in Fig. 6.
As the amount of waste rubber used in the samples increased, a
significant decrease in mass loss was observed. When the tire addi-
3.3. Impact resistance
The impact resistance is another important parameter for tile
paving stones. These stones may be exposed to impact during
transport, or during use. Generally, impact tests have been used
to demonstrate the relative brittleness and impact resistance of
concrete and similar construction materials. The easy of impact
test is drop weight test. In this study, the drop weight method
was used as specified in ACI 544 [24]. In each sample, the number
of impacts was determined up to the first crack formation (Fig. 8a),
and it is failure crack (Fig. 8b).
As a result of the impact tests, the impact energy was calculated
by using the number of impacts, the free fall height and the weight
of the falling steel ball for the first crack and failure tests and is
given in Fig. 9.

12 %0 %0.5 %1
D max 2 mm
10 D max 1 mm
Lost of weight kg/m2

0
0% 0.50% 1% 2% 4% %4
%2
Crump rubber

Fig. 6. Freezing-thawing test results. Fig. 7. Surfaces of samples after freezing-thawing.

 T. Gonen / Construction and Building Materials 177 (2018) 436–442
1200
D max 2 mm at first cracking
1000
D max 1 mm at first cracking
D max 2 mm at failure
D max 1 mm at failure
Impact Energy J
800
600
400
200
0 Conflict of interest
0% 0.50% 1%
Crumb rubber
Fig. 9. The impact energy required for the first crack.
In case of using waste rubber with a maximum diameter of 2
mm, there is a steady increase in usage rate. When the usage rate
is 4%, an increase of about 200% is observed. For specimens with a
maximum grain diameter of 1 mm, the impact strength was
improved up to 2% of the use rate, after which a decrease was
observed. However, despite this drop, the impact resistance has
improved by around 50%. When sorting the data, it seems that
the higher the rubber content, the higher ability to resist more
blows and thus, the higher tendency to absorb energy. Yang et al.
[28], found improved sectional ductility of the beam, and the duc-
tility of the crumb rubber concrete beam was significantly
improved. Khaloo et al. [29] also reported a significant decrease
in the brittle behavior of concrete with increasing rubber content
and unlike in plain concrete.
4. Conclusion and evaluation
In this study, the effects of using the granulated vehicle tire
obtained from the grinding of waste tires in tile paving stones on
impact strength, freezing-thawing and certain physical properties
were investigated. Based on the test results of the concrete with
cramp rubber made from waste tire, the following conclusions
are drawn from the present study.

When used instead of 4% of the aggregate, the waste tire
reduced the compressive strength by 40%, while reducing the
capillary water absorption rate by 65% and a reduction of 90%
in weight loss after freezing-thawing.
441
Fig. 8. The first crack (a) and failure condition (b).

In impact resistance, the performance of the used tire varies
depending on the diameter of the grain. As the grain diameter
and the utilization ratio increased, a significant increase in
impact strength occurred.

As a result, it has been concluded that it will be beneficial to use
the fine waste rubber components in concrete elements such as
concrete paving stones, concrete barriers on the roadsides and
curb stones, which are not used as carriers and which are
expected to have a high impact resistance especially when they
are subjected to freezing-thawing effect.
2% 4%
None.
Acknowledgments
Author is grateful to the financial support and experimental
assistance provided by the Kyrgyz Turk Manas University and Kyr-
gyz Concrete. This research was supported with Project (2017.
FBE.02) by The Scientific Research Projects Coordination Unit of
Kyrgyz Turkish Manas University.
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