Transformers:

A transformer is an electrical device that takes electricity of one voltage and changes it
into another voltage.
A transformer is an electrical device which, by the principles of electromagnetic
induction, transfers electrical energy from one electric circuit to another, without
changing the frequency. The energy transfer usually takes place with a change of
voltage and current. Transformers either increases or decreases AC voltage.

Transformers on the electrical Grid:

When electricity moves from a power plant it is put into a very high voltage to be able
to travel long distances. The high voltage lines can be as high 155,000 to 765,000 volts
to travel many hundreds of miles.

In order for a home or a store to use the electricity, it has to be at a lower voltage than
on the long-distance lines. So, the electricity is "stepped-down to a lower level using a
transformer. This lower voltage electricity is put into the local electric wires at a
substation. The substation breaks the larger amount of power down into smaller pieces
at lower voltage. It then is stepped down again and again.

Once smaller transformers take that voltage down to usually 7,200, the power leaves
this substation.

In a neighborhood, a transformer on top of a utility pole, or one connected to

underground wires, transforms the 7,200 volts into 220-240 volts. This is then
transferred by single phase or three phase supply.

Working Principle of Transformers:

It is important to remember that transformers do not generate electrical power; they

transfer electrical power from one AC circuit to another using magnetic coupling.

The main principle of operation of a transformer is mutual inductance between two

circuits which is linked by a common magnetic flux. A basic transformer consists of two
coils that are electrically separate and inductive, but are magnetically linked through a
path of reluctance.The core of the transformer is used to provide a controlled path for
the magnetic flux generated in the transformer by the current flowing through the
windings, which are also known as coils.
There are four primary parts to the basic transformer. The parts include the Input
Connection, the Output Connection, the Windings or Coils and the Core.
 Input Connections - The input side of a transformer is called the primary
side because the main electrical power to be changed is connected at this point.
 Output Connections - The output side or secondary side of the transformer is
where the electrical power is sent to the load. Depending on the requirement of
the load, the incoming electric power is either increased or decreased.
 Winding - Transformers have two windings, being the primary winding and the
secondary winding. The primary winding is the coil that draws power from the
source. The secondary winding is the coil that delivers the energy at the
transformed or changed voltage to the load. Usually, these two coils are
subdivided into several coils in order to reduce the creation of flux.
 Core - The transformer core is used to provide a controlled path for the magnetic
flux generated in the transformer. The core is generally not a solid bar of steel,
rather a construction of many thin laminated steel sheets or layers. This
construction is used to help eliminate and reduce heating.
Transformers generally have one of two types of cores: Core Type and Shell Type.
These two types are distinguished from each other by the manner in which the
primary and secondary coils are place around the steel core.
o Core type - With this type, the windings surround the laminated core.
o Shell type - With this type, the windings are surrounded by the laminated
core.

1. Step up transformer: transforms a low voltage, high current AC into a high

voltage, low current AC system In this type of transformer the number of turns in
the secondary winding is greater than the number of turns in the primary
winding. If (V2 > V1) the voltage is raised on the output side and is known as Step
up transformer

2. Step down transformer :converts a high primary voltage associated with the
low current into a low voltage, high current. With this type of transformer, the
number of turns in the primary winding is greater than the number of turns in
the secondary winding. If (V2 < V1) the voltage level is lowered on the output side
and is known as Step down transformer.
 3. Power Transformer: The power transformers are used in the transmission
networks of higher voltages. The ratings of the power transformer are as follows
400 KV, 200 KV, 110 KV, 66 KV, 33 KV. They are mainly rated above 200 MVA.
Mainly installed at the generating stations and transmission substations. They
are designed for maximum efficiency of 100%. They are larger in size as
compared to distribution transformer.

4. Distribution Transformer: This type of transformer has lower ratings like 11 KV,
6.6 KV, 3.3 KV, 440 V and 230 V. They are rated less than 200 MVA and used in
the distribution network to provide voltage transformation in the power system
by stepping down the voltage level where the electrical energy is distributed and
utilized at the consumer end. The primary coil of the distribution transformer is
wound by enamel coated copper or aluminum wire. A thick ribbon of aluminum
and copper is used to make secondary of the transformer which is high current,
low voltage winding. Resin impregnated paper and oil is used for the insulation
purpose.

5. Single Phase Transformer: A single phase Transformer is a static device, works on

the principle of Faraday’s law of mutual Induction. At a constant level of
frequency and variation of voltage level, the transformer transfers AC power from
one circuit to the other circuit. There are two types of windings in the
transformer.The winding to which AC supply is given is termed as Primary
winding and in the secondary winding, the load is connected.

6. Three Phase Transformer: If the three single phase transformer is taken and
connected together with their all the three primary winding connected to each
other as one and all the three secondary windings to each other, forming as one
secondary winding, the transformer is said to behave as three phase transformer,
that means a bank of three single phase transformer connected together which
acts as a three-phase transformer.

Types of electric current:

 In direct current (DC), the electric charge (current) only flows in one direction.
Electric charge in alternating current (AC), on the other hand, changes direction
periodically. The voltage in AC circuits also periodically reverses because the current
changes direction.
Although complicated in construction, D.C generators were developed first to generate
power in bulk. However, due to limitation of the D.C machine to generate voltage
beyond few hundred volts, it was not economical to transmit large amount of power
over a long distance. For a given amount of power, the current magnitude (I = P/V),
hence section of the copper conductor will be large. Thus generation, transmission and
distribution of d.c power were restricted to area of few kilometer radius with no
interconnections between generating plants. Therefore, area specific generating
stations along with its distribution networks had to be used.

Changeover from D.C to A.C

In later half of eighties, in nineteenth century, it was proposed to have a power system
with 3-phase, 50 Hz A.C generation, and transmission and distribution networks. Once
a.c system was adopted, transmission of large power (MW) at higher transmission
voltage becomes a reality by using transformers. Level of voltage could be changed
virtually to any other desired level with transformers.

A.C generator
A.C power can be generated as a single phase or as a balanced poly-phase system.
However, it was found that 3-phase power generation at 50 Hz will be economical and
most suitable. Present day three phase generators, used to generate 3-phase power are
called alternators (synchronous generators). An alternator has a balanced three phase
winding on the stator and called the armature. The three coils are so placed in space
that there axes are mutually 120° apart as shown in figure 2.1. From the terminals of
the armature, 3-phase power is obtained.

Single Phase And Three Phase Connections

in the world of electricity, current through the wires carry electricity that light our
bulbs and run our appliances. The type of current that is supplied from electricity grid
is Alternating Current (or AC). In a single-phase supply, a single alternating current in
supplied through a single wire, whereas in a three-phase system 3 wires carry
alternating current with a definite time offset in between the voltage waves.
In India a single-phase supply is a 230V supply through two wires and 3-phase supply
is 415 V supply through 4 wires and in the house the line can be divided to give 230V at
individual point. The basic difference between the two is that a three-phase connection
can handle heavy load while a single-phase cannot.
There is a limit to the load that a single phase can handle and typically that number is
set to 7.5 kW (or 7500 watts or 10 Horse Power). So if sum of wattage of all the
appliances that you are running at a time is more than 7.5 kW, then you need a three-
phase connection. And you can get to 7.5 kW if you have three 1.5 ton ACs and a water
heater all running together. Or you have a machine that has a motor that is more than
10 HP. If the load is less than 7.5 kW, then a single-phase connection can easily handle
it.

Single phase connection:

Single Phase power is a two wire Alternating Current (AC) power circuit. Typically
there’s one power wire and one neutral wire and power flows between the power
wire (through the load) and the neutral wire. The one which is connected with the
phase conductor called Live wire and the other one which is connected to the neutral
wire is called Neutral. The current which you receive through the live wire is
called Single-phase current, 230 volt (standard).

With the wave form of single-phase power, when the wave passes through zero, the
power supplied at that moment is zero.

Three Phase Connection:

Three-phase electric power is a common method of alternating current electric
power generation, transmission, and distribution It is a type of polyphase system and is
the most common method used by electrical grids worldwide to transfer power. It is
also used to power large motors and other heavy loads.
A three-phase system is usually more economical than an equivalent single-phase at
the same line to ground voltage because it uses less conductor material to transmit a
given amount of electrical power.
In a three-phase power supply system, three conductors each carry an alternating
current of the same frequency and voltage amplitude relative to a common reference
but with a phase difference of one third the period. The common reference is usually
connected to ground and often to a current-carrying conductor called the neutral. Due
to the phase difference, the voltage on any conductor reaches its peak at one third of a
cycle after one of the other conductors and one third of a cycle before the remaining
conductor. This phase delay gives constant power transfer to a balanced linear load.
3-phase power has 3 distinct wave cycles that overlap. Each phase reaches its peak
120 degrees apart from the others so the level of power supplied remains consistent.

Benefits of a three phase connection:

The benefit that a three-phase connection provides is that it gives flexibility to divide
the load in a setup on three different phases. So for example if there are three Air
Conditioners, then each can be setup on each of the phase, thus not putting excess load
on any one phase. In case one of the phases fails due to a fault at the distribution point,
the other two phases keep running and this prevents complete blackout of the setup.

A three phase supply provides 73% more power than a single phase supply for the
addition of a wire.with a three phase supply the voltage between two lines or phase
cables is 1.73 times that between the neutral and any one of the line cables. i.e., 230 x
1,73 =400 volts, where i.73 is derived from the square root of the three phases.

HT and LT Supply Line:

Tension is a French word for Voltage. A low-tension line is a low voltage line and a
high-tension line is a high voltage line. In India LT supply is of 400 Volts for three-
phase connection and 230 Volts for single-phase connection. High tension or HT
supply is applicable for bulk power purchasers who need 11 kilo-Volts or above. Most
small consumers of electricity like individual houses, shops, small offices and smaller
manufacturing units get their electricity on LT connection. HT is applicable for bulk
purchasers of electricity like industries (big manufacturing units), big offices,
Universities, hostels and even residential colonies (if the apartment complexes
purchase together in bulk). The tariff structures of most state distribution companies
are different for LT and HT.

Distribution companies provide electricity at different rates to different categories of

consumers. Every state has different categories that cater to the needs of the businesses
prevalent in their states. But the most common categories are domestic (residential),
commercial (shops and offices) and Industrial (manufacturing units). With rates being
lowest for residential consumers and highest for industrial consumers. Within these
categories there are separate rates for LT and HT. So if we have to list down, following
categories will be available in most states:

 Domestic-LT: for most individual residential connections.

 Commercial-LT: for small shops and offices. Also for hotels, guest houses,
theaters, etc.
 Industrial-LT: for very small manufacturing units (like bakery, stone cutting,
poha mills, etc).
 Domestic-HT: Bulk supply for residential colonies.
 Commercial-HT: for bigger offices, film studios, etc.
 Industrial-HT: for most heavy industries.

Many a times the categories are also differentiated depending on the connected load
and the tariffs increase if the connected load is higher.

While cost of generation, transmission and distribution are the same, but the tariffs
charged for different consumers is different. For example, if the average cost of service
is Rs 3/unit, the domestic consumer may be charged at Rs 2.5/unit while an industrial
consumer may be charged at Rs 3.5/unit. In this case, it is said that the domestic
consumers are cross-subsidized by industrial consumers. These cross subsidies have
been put in place in the country to make sure that the common man is not burdened
much with the rising electricity costs. Industries and business take the most burdens of
higher electricity costs. And thus the tariffs are different for different categories of
consumers.
Power Distribution in Cities:

Electric power is normally generated at 11-25kV in a power station. To transmit over

long distances, it is then stepped-up to 400kV, 220kV or 132kV as necessary. Power is
carried through a transmission network of high voltage lines. Usually, these lines run
into hundreds of kilometres and deliver the power into a common power pool called
the grid. The grid is connected to load centres (cities) through a sub-transmission
network of normally 33kV (or sometimes 66kV) lines. These lines terminate into a
33kV (or 66kV) substation, where the voltage is stepped-down to 11kV for power
distribution to load points through a distribution network of lines at 11kV and lower.

The power network, which generally concerns the common man, is the distribution
network of 11kV lines or feeders downstream of the 33kV substation. Each 11kV feeder
which emanates from the 33kV substation branches further into several subsidiary
11kV feeders to carry power close to the load points (localities, industrial areas, villages,
etc.,). At these load points, a transformer further reduces the voltage from 11kV to 415V
to provide the last-mile connection through 415V feeders (also called as Low Tension
(LT) feeders) to individual customers, either at 240V (as single-phase supply) or at
415V (as three-phase supply). A feeder could be either an overhead line or an
underground cable. In urban areas, owing to the density of customers, the length of an
11kV feeder is generally up to 3 km. On the other hand, in rural areas, the feeder length
is much larger (up to 20 km). A 415V feeder should normally be restricted to about 0.5-
1.0 km. Unduly long feeders lead to low voltage at the consumer end.
 GENERATORS:
Electric Generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy to electric energy.
The mechanical energy can be supplied by the prime mover which combustion engine,
steam engine, can water falling through turbine or even an electric motor or any such
mechanism that can be a source of mechanical energy. Usually this energy is obtained
from a rotating shaft that is also called the armature of the generator. The electric
energy then produced can be used for power transmission to commercial, industrial or
even domestic level. Generators supply current which usually has a frequency of 50 Hz,
which is used here.

An electric generator has two parts:

 Stator
 Rotor
The stator comprises of the stationary magnetic poles, whereas the rotating armature is
included in the rotor.

Working of an Electric Generator

Generators usually work on Faraday’s law of Electro Magnetic induction. This law
explains that by rotating an electric conductor in a magnetic field, an emf is induced,
which creates a flow of charges. When the conductor rotates in the magnetic field, a
voltage difference is created between its two ends and the flux in it changes and an emf
is induced which is proportional to the rate of change of flux (e=-N dΦ/dt) and hence
the current flows. The electric conductor rotating is called the armature of the
generator. This phenomenon is shown in the figure below:

Types Of Generators:
1. Homopolar generator : is a DC electrical generator comprising an electrically
conductive disc or cylinder rotating in a plane perpendicular to a uniform static
magnetic field. A potential difference is created between the center of the disc
and the rim (or ends of the cylinder), the electrical polarity depending on the
direction of rotation and the orientation of the field.
It is also known as a unipolar generator, acyclic generator, disk dynamo,
or Faraday disc. The voltage is typically low, on the order of a few volts in the
case of small demonstration models, but large research generators can produce
hundreds of volts, and some systems have multiple generators in series to
produce an even larger voltage.[15]They are unusual in that they can produce
tremendous electric current, some more than a million amperes, because the
homopolar generator can be made to have very low internal resistance.
2. Magnetohydrodynamic Generator: directly extracts electric power from
moving hot gases through a magnetic field, without the use of rotating
electromagnetic machinery. MHD generators were originally developed because
the output of a plasma MHD generator is a flame, well able to heat the boilers of
a steam power plant.
 3. Induction generator: Some AC motors may be used as generators, turning
mechanical energy into electric current. Induction generators operate by
mechanically turning their rotor faster than the synchronous speed, giving
negative slip. A regular AC asynchronous motor usually can be used as a
generator, without any internal modifications. Induction generators are useful in
applications such as minihydro power plants, wind turbines, or in reducing high-
pressure gas streams to lower pressure, because they can recover energy with
relatively simple controls.
To operate, an induction generator must be excited with a leading voltage; this is
usually done by connection to an electrical grid, or sometimes they are self-
excited by using phase correcting capacitors.
4. Linear electric generator: In the simplest form of linear electric generator, a
sliding magnet moves back and forth through a solenoid - a spool of copper wire.
An alternating current is induced in the loops of wire by Faraday's law of
induction each time the magnet slides through. This type of generator is used in
the Faraday flashlight. Larger linear electricity generators are used in wave
power schemes.

UPS:
An uninterruptible power supply, also uninterruptible power
source, UPS or battery/flywheel backup, is an electrical apparatus that provides
emergency power to a load when the input power source or mains power fails. A UPS
differs from an auxiliary or emergency power system or standby generator in that it will
provide near-instantaneous protection from input power interruptions, by supplying
energy stored in batteries, supercapacitors, or flywheels. The on-battery runtime of
most uninterruptible power sources is relatively short (only a few minutes) but
sufficient to start a standby power source or properly shut down the protected
equipment.
A UPS is typically used to protect hardware such as computers, data
centers, telecommunication equipment or other electrical equipment where an
unexpected power disruption could cause injuries, fatalities, serious business
disruption or data loss. UPS units range in size from units designed to protect a single
computer without a video monitor (around 200 volt-ampere rating) to large units
powering entire data centers or buildings.

Characteristics of a UPS:
UPS systems may be necessary in situations where power fluctuations or outages
frequently occur because they can provide backup power circuitry that keeps vital
systems operational in case the power supply is cut off. Under conditions involving
short fluctuations or voltage disruption, the UPS can maintain constant power to keep
loads running, and if electrical failure occurs, it activates reserve power to keep systems
operating until they can be safely shut down. In addition, these UPS systems can often
also reduce the risk posed by harmonic disruptions and line transients. An effective
UPS usually includes several of the following features:

 Regulated output voltage with low harmonic distortion unaffected by input

voltage or load changes
 An input current with reduced harmonic distortion
 A low degree of electromagnetic interference and acoustic noise
 Minimal transition times between normal and backup operations
 High levels of reliability and efficiency
 Relatively low cost, weight, and size requirements