Franciscan University of Steubenville

Bidialectalism in a Mosaic Society:

How Allowing Dialects in the Language Arts Classroom Can Benefit Students’ Education

Cassandra Hoene

ENG 434-F: Senior Thesis

Dr. Mary Antoinette Sunyoger

December 10, 2018

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The students line up outside the classroom, buzzing with the first-day-of-school

excitement. However, the butterflies in their stomachs soon turn to pits as they see the basket that

is in the teacher’s hands. Before they enter the classroom, they must leave something important –

a part of who they are – behind. The teacher reassures them that they will receive everything

back at the end of the day, but the students are no longer eager to enter. Still, they must.

Every student drops a different item into the basket. For one girl, it is the cross necklace

that she received as a present for her confirmation, and it means the world to her. One boy leaves

his letterman jacket, the physical symbol that represents his hard work and dedication, the

promise of scholarships. For another boy, it is his pencil with which he turns ordinary lined paper

into beautifully illustrated notes in each class. One boy, a second-generation immigrant who will

be the first in his family to go to college, leaves behind the chain that his parents bought him.

One by one, the students leave these objects and articles behind and enter the classroom, stripped

of their cultures, identities, and individuality.

At the end of the line, there is a handful of students who enter the classroom without

putting a physical item into the basket. Instead, every year, they are told to leave a large part of

their identity – their dialects – at the classroom door. While this scenario seems preposterous -

of course, students do not have to leave behind the physical representation of who they are and

how they see themselves – for students who speak dialects other than standard English, this

horrifying scene is all-too-familiar. Instead of leaving behind a physical object that represents

their identities, they are asked to leave their home dialects at the door. For students all

throughout the United States, the dialect spoken at home is very closely tied to their identity; not

only as a part of a group but also their individual identity. However, when they enter the

classroom, it is understood that they will not speak. If they do, they will most likely be
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reprimanded and corrected for using incorrect grammar, even though they are simply speaking

the language that surrounds them at home. Every year, they are told that they are wrong but are

never instructed on how to speak correctly. Every year, they become more and more discouraged

and fall a little bit farther behind. In a country full of China-towns, Little Italies, and barrios,

Americans are expected to speak the same language, even though they are rarely given the tools

to do so.

For several years, educators around the country have been searching for a solution to this

problem. Choruses of “But they must speak correct English!” are met with an equal amount of

“But their dialect is part of who they are!” and no conclusion is ever reached. These two

sentiments reflect the melting pot and mosaic society theories, respectively. The “melting pot”

theory is the theory that all cultures and subcultures that exist together in a society melt together

to form one culture (Arellano). The "mosaic" theory, however, is quite different. In a mosaic

society, the subcultures remain distinct from each other but still come together to form a unified

picture (Arellano). Even as the American society makes the transition from being called a

“melting pot” to a “mosaic” society, language is the one area that is left causing problems

nationwide. Regarding language and dialect, a melting pot society would require that all

residents speak the same form of the same language. In a mosaic society, however, residents

bring aspects of their own languages and dialects and take advantage of the unique contributions

that they bring to the conversation. Recently, some researchers have proposed allowing students

to become bidialectal; instead of forcing them to only speak standard English, students are given

the opportunity to use both their home dialect and SE in the Language Arts classroom.

Unfortunately, there is little consensus as to how this can be practically applied in the

real-life classroom. However, many resources offer small pieces of the puzzle. One step is to
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offer better training and professional development in order to change teachers’ attitudes towards

alternate dialects. Another step is simply to put grammar instruction into the curriculum; how do

teachers expect their students to learn SE if the teachers do not teach it to them? Finally,

Comparative Language Teaching (CLT) and contrastive analysis are methods that are often used

in English as a Second Language (ESL) classrooms that can be easily adapted to fit a bidialectal

classroom. These pedagogies can be primarily applied to three of the language arts: writing,

speaking, and reading. By putting these pieces together, teachers can successfully form

bidialectal students and their classrooms will more accurately represent the mosaic society in

which they reside.

First, it is necessary to define several key terms. Standard English (SE), for example,

needs some clarification. SE often refers to the "language variety associated with education,

government, media, and enterprise" (Miciak et al. 824). If someone says that a sentence is

grammatically incorrect, that usually means that it breaks the rules of SE. SE is the variety of

English that is used by teachers, businessmen, and politicians. It is the dialect of English that is

expected in a classroom setting, despite the fact that it is typically not explicitly taught. In

addition, it "does not represent a clearly defined, constant identity" (824). The standard, as it

seems, is not actually standard at all. What is considered the standard in America may be

different from the standard in England; similarly, SE in 2018 is not the same as SE during the

time of the American Revolution. Because the SE has no real definition, it may adapt along with

certain long-term trends. However, SE is simply one dialect out of many that exists in the

English language. A dialect is defined as "a variety of language used by a specific group of

people and distinguished from other varieties by its grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation"

(Godley & Escher 705). One dialect other than SE is African American Vernacular English
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(AAVE), the language form that is often used by members of the black community. In addition,

all dialects should be considered equally valid to SE despite the various ways that they differ

from SE (705). Some people may think that dialects other than SE are inferior and invalid

because they confuse the term with slang. Slang is often made up by the youth in society (705)

and changes very rapidly, and in this way, it is different from a different dialect. Dialects may

evolve over time, as all language does, but a dialect is a much more established form of language

than slang. In a bidialectal classroom, students will not necessarily be permitted to use slang for

their assignments, but their home dialect. Bidialectal is a term used to describe someone who

easily switches back and forth between two different dialects of the same language (Godley and

Escher 704). The term code-switching simply refers to the skill of being able to switch between

dialects depending on the context.

Before examining how to teach students to be bidialectal, educators must discuss why

bidialectalism is so important for the modern student if it is at all. Throughout the United States,

many students enter the school system from a position disadvantage to their peers; they have

never been exposed to SE, but they are expected to speak this formal dialect before they have

even had the opportunity to learn it. The language that they speak at home is often seen as

inferior and the students are labeled as lazy or unintelligent (Godley and Escher 704). It is

assumed that the students are simply using incorrect grammar, when in fact, they often speak

with correct grammar; it is just the grammar of their home dialect. Although most people think

of simple differences in vocabulary when they think of dialects (for example, some regions of the

country say “soda” while others say “pop” in reference to soft drinks), dialects are much more

complicated than a mere substitution of words, as seen by the sociolinguistic definition

previously mentioned. Although different vocabulary (“soda” versus “pop”) and pronunciation
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(“cray-on” versus a simple “cran”) are large components in what differentiates one dialect from

another, sociolinguists include different grammar structures as well.

One study examined the elements of dialect that differ in a small area of England called

Teesside. Julia Snell observed small children during their play and made note of dialectal

elements that differ from SE. For example, some students used "us" to refer to just themselves,

not a group that included themselves. While this at first seems like they simply do not know the

rules of grammar due to their young age, Snell noticed a pattern. She writes: "When singular ‘us'

was used in the classroom, it was during peer-centered paired/group activities, … or in informal

side conversations (Snell 115). However, Snell also noticed that the students used the correct

word (according to SE), “me,” in more formal classroom activities or when speaking to the

teacher (115). Students used pronouns differently in some settings, but it was not random; there

was a system. This system that determines which pronoun should be used is just one way out of

many that dialects differ from each other.

Once they determine that students who are not fluent in SE are not simply lazy or

unintelligent, teachers move on to another underlying problem: Why can teachers not just teach

SE and expect their students to always use the universally accepted dialogue? Unfortunately, this

“simple solution” is not nearly as simple as it seems. For many students, the dialect in which

they speak is so much more than laziness or ignorance. Instead, it reflects their self-identity and a

large part of their home culture. In Felicia Lee’s article, she mentions many examples of students

being ridiculed by their peers for speaking in SE because it is interpreted as the student trying to

be better than his or her peers. One student reflected that when SE she uses instead of AAVE,

“They say you’re trying to be white. It’s a stereotype that white people are so proper and that
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black people are real” (Lee). For students like this one, the language that is spoken is closely tied

to the students’ identity as part of a group; in this case, the group of African Americans.

Another student, Carson, demonstrated this concept of group identity in his reflection

when he said, "Like they [whites] use more Standard English like. We choose to use more slang

because we all get it. They have to use more Standard English because they don't get it. We have

our own style. Black power, baby" (Godley and Escher 706). Where Carson talks about slang, he

considers that term as interchangeable with dialect. His reflection clearly divides the language

issue into two camps; "they" (that is, the whites who speak in SE), and "we" (the African

Americans who do not conform to the rules and regulations of SE). Carson does not see the need

to hide or fix the way he speaks; instead, he is proud of his dialect because of its connection with

his culture and identity. The people in his community understand the language that he speaks, so

in his mind, there is no need to use the formal SE. Carson's idea of a specific style associated

with AAVE is an idea that is supported by reports of other speakers of AAVE as well. This is

expressed by a teacher who says of AAVE, "Our language has more rhythmic tones… To some

people, ‘she be going' just flows, it's just a natural thing'" (Lee). Furthermore, the fact that

Carson ends his statement by saying, "Black power, baby," proves that he is proud of his

background, that the AAVE dialect gives a sense of power to his family and friends who speak

it. He is not arguing that SE is too hard to learn, nor is he giving in to laziness. He simply sees

AAVE as a part of who he is and a part of how he relates to the rest of the world.

Carson is not the only student who desires to hold on to this piece of African American

culture; many other students responded in similar ways. Godley and Escher's study about African

American students' perception of SE and AAVE revealed an "inherent link between speaking

AAVE and identifying with African American peers and families (709). Other than the color of
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their skin, the dialect that many African Americans speak is one of the main factors that brings

them together as a community. In fact, several students who participated in this study stressed

that SE is "inappropriate in social and home settings… Even the essays that argued for speaking

SE in classrooms expressed a firm belief that AAVE was the only appropriate language variety

for speaking with friends and family" (709). The culture surrounding their language is clearly

important to these students. If teachers tell their students that SE is the only legitimate form of

the language, this will likely cause an internal conflict as students weigh their options. They have

two choices: to abandon their home dialect for SE or receive bad grades in the class. This is

equal on some levels to telling a Muslim student that if she wears her hijab in class, she will fail

the class because many students consider their dialect to be just as important a piece in their

culture. It is unfair of the education system to force a minority group to make this choice.

Throughout the country, students grow up immersed in one variation of the language and

are taught by their immediate community that that is how they express their ideas. When they

enter the school system, however, they are constantly told that they are not speaking or writing

with correct grammar and mechanics because they are speaking in a non-SE dialect. For many

students, this shock may have detrimental effects on their education as a whole. One study

revealed that "if low value is accorded to working-class speech in the classroom, some pupils

may become less confident in oral expression and thus reluctant to contribute to the whole class

discussion (Snell 122). Because of the assumption that non-SE dialects indicate low intelligence,

the equating of non-SE dialects and working-class speech sometimes brings about negative

consequences. Out of fear of constantly being embarrassed by the many corrections that their

teachers will make, many students will simply refuse to participate. As their participation is

reduced, they will likely receive lower grades than their peers. In order to keep participation
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levels up, it is recommended that students are encouraged to respond in whatever dialect is most

comfortable for them. As Julia Snell says in her study, "there is no reason why this ‘thinking

aloud' should be done in standard English" (122). Allowing students to express their thoughts in

an informal dialect will help create a more comfortable classroom environment.

While it is crucial to take all of this into account, it is just as important that educators

teach their students SE. In order to succeed in job interviews, college admission essays,

scholarship applications, and other professional settings, students must know and be able to

employ the rules of SE orally and in the written word. For the sake of clarity, some sort of

standard within a language is important so that when members of a community communicate

with each other, they communicate effectively. It is the educator’s responsibility to make sure

that students produce and comprehend SE in addition to their home dialects. This is incredibly

crucial for students whose parents may not speak SE. This is addressed in Richard and Jo Anne

Vacca’s textbook when they write: “Not making standard American English accessible to

students from minority backgrounds puts them at a disadvantage in competing with their

mainstream counterparts” (115). If teachers throw out the idea of teaching SE, this will

perpetuate the stereotype of minorities being uneducated. In fact, this will not only perpetuate

that idea but neglecting to teach all of the students SE will, in many cases, create a minority

population that truly is uneducated, through no fault of their own.

With this in mind, it would be a huge disservice to their students if teachers did not give

them the opportunity to become fluent in SE during their schooling years. Whether or not they

choose to employ this knowledge is up to them, but educators must give them the tools so that

they have that option. The question, then, is how? How do teachers preserve language and dialect

as an aspect of the mosaic society without sacrificing the quality of education for their students?
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Where do teachers find this balance? They encourage their students to become bidialectal, to

become fluent in both dialects and understand which one is an appropriate setting for each form.

They allow them to hold on to that part of their identity while giving them the tools to build a

successful future.

The first step may seem simple, but it is not easy to implement. At the most basic level,

teachers must change their attitudes about dialects other than SE. One of the reasons that it is so

important that students learn SE during their time in the classroom is because non-SE dialects are

often seen as indicators of someone who is uneducated, ignorant, or lazy (Godley and Escher

704). Teachers must abandon this mindset. They must stop thinking of their students’ home

dialects as a deficit and instead recognize that these alternative dialects are, in some situations,

incredible learning tools. The thought process of identifying other dialects as a hole in the

students’ education puts the future of the students’ education at risk (Miciak et al. 838). In order

to respect their students’ home dialect, teachers must recognize that non-SE dialects are not

intrinsically evil; by definition, they are legitimate forms of communication within certain

communities (Godley and Escher 705). Once the teacher has made this distinction, it will be

easier for the students to make the distinction as well.

There are aspects of other dialects and cultures that can, in fact, contribute greatly to the

education of the students in a Language Arts classroom. For example, AAVE contains several

stylistic and metaphoric features that touch on many points that are talked about in a Language

Arts classroom (Godley and Escher 705). One of these features is often called "signifying,"

which is a method of referring to family or friends that relies heavily on innuendos, metaphors,

and other figurative language techniques (Gersten 18). This does not necessarily help with the

"SE or other dialects" issue, but it deals with other major aspects of a Language Arts classroom.
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For example, if a student understands using double meanings and irony, many works of classic

literature are instantly made more accessible. Another part of the culture surrounding AAVE that

is useful in a classroom is spoken word poetry or performance poetry (Gersten 19). Spoken word

poetry is poetry that is written with the purpose of being read as a performance. For students who

create spoken word poetry, the ideas of rhyme and meter in a poetry unit are already very

familiar. Incorporating this part of the culture into the classroom allows students to not only

experiment with rhythm and meter, but also allows students to open themselves up and explore

their thoughts and ideas. In some cases, students use their created pieces of writing to express

themselves or talk about social issues that are prevalent in their communities (Gersten 19).

AAVE and the African American culture include elements that benefit the Language Arts

classroom by enhancing students' understanding and analysis of figurative language in literature.

They also provide a basis for reading, analyzing, and even creating poetry, which means that

AAVE can greatly aid students in both reading and writing, two of the Language Arts. If

teachers recognize the concrete ways that other dialects can contribute to their students'

Language Arts education, they should surely stop seeing alternative dialects as only a deficit, a

sign of laziness, or an indicator of ignorance.

Another practical step is to include direct instruction of grammar in the curriculum.

Before students employ the rules of SE grammar and mechanics, they must first know those rules

(Johnson et al. 2012). One study found that students do not always know the difference between

the two dialects (Johnson et al. 2012). If a student does not know the difference between the two

dialects, then code-switching is impossible. This situation is analogous to different dress codes.

If an invitation to an event states that the dress code is business attire, but the attendee does not

know the difference between business and business casual, he is likely to come dressed
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inappropriately. If a student does not know that a certain verb structure is prohibited in SE, she

will continue to use it even in settings where SE is expected and required of her. Taking time to

actually teach these rules is necessary for student success. In a similar way, explicit feedback is

important so that the students know when a mistake has been made (Spada 277). While a good

deal of this education can come from modeling, the stakes are too high, and the rules are too

numerous to leave it all up to chance; teachers must teach grammar explicitly.

If teachers want to create bidialectal classrooms, they might face backlash from other

educators who disagree or simply misunderstand the goal of a bidialectal classroom. For

example, one teacher said, “We need to stop finding excuses for not teaching. When my students

use bad English, I tell them it is bad English and that is has nothing to do with the color of their

skin” (Lee). This teacher clearly thought that is was inappropriate and lazy teaching to not

correct her students when they do not use proper SE. This idea has the potential to be true, but

only if teachers do not take special care to ensure that they are not simply taking the easy way

out by allowing students to abandon the rules of the English language in English/Language Arts

classrooms. Incorporating grammar instruction into the classroom curriculum will prevent other

teachers from claiming that teachers advocating for bidialectal classrooms are simply lazy in

their teaching. If all of the teachers in a school are on board, or at least not critical of bidialectal

classrooms, this effort will go even further than imagined. Jeremy Miciak and his team of

researchers acknowledged this need for community support in their recommendation to the

Texas legislature for a reform in the education system. In their recommendation, they advocate

for better professional development to change teacher attitudes so that more teachers support a

bidialectal school system. Miciak et al write that there should be professional development to

“teach skills and techniques that allow teachers to understand and evaluate how they are
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instructing the [Standard English Learners] in their current classroom, along with understanding

what outcomes they are achieving” (831). They suggest four main areas that should be the focus

of bidialectal professional development: reluctance on the teachers’ parts; teachers’ beliefs; the

relationships between language, identity, and power; and practical strategies (Miciak et al 831-

832). Unfortunately, as this topic has not been fully researched and the recommendation made by

Miciak and his team is only a couple years old, the researchers did not report the efficacy of this

type of professional development, nor did they give specific examples of how to address their

four suggested topics.

In addition to helping change perceptions of what a bidialectal classroom is, grammar

instruction will also simply benefit the students by helping them learn what SE actually is. This

type of instruction has great potential to help students use the correct form of the language and, if

done correctly, will help students do this both in and out of the classroom (Rahman and Rashid

99). Grammar instruction is so important for the students that some researchers even recommend

special training for teachers so that they will be confident and prepared to teach this material in

the classroom (Rahman and Rashid 100).

Direct grammar instruction often calls to mind countless worksheets, endless drills, and

memorizing. That style of teaching, of course, is not helpful and creates a sour attitude toward

grammar and the language itself. However, if grammar lessons and activities are incorporated

into meaningful activities that include real-life examples of when a certain structure is used, how

elements of the language are commonly misused, and so on, then the students will remember the

lesson. If the sample sentences are relevant to situations and circumstances that the students

experience themselves, then this activity will stay with them. For example, students do not need

to memorize the rules of when to use or not use a comma. Instead, there should be a discussion
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on the way that the placement of a comma can change the meaning of the sentence that they are

communicating. New York Times best-selling author Lynne Truss illustrates the power of correct

comma placement in her picture book “Eats, Shoots & Leaves: Why, Commas Really Do Make a

Difference.” In the opening page, Truss writes a silly scene in which she takes a badly

punctuated sentence literally; the sentence claims that a panda “eats, shoots and leaves” (Truss).

Because the sentence does not say that the panda “eats shoots and leaves,” the panda walks into

the building, takes a bite, lets loose arrows, and then walks out (Truss). The silliness of this

imaginary situation points out the ridiculous implications that come from incorrect grammar.

Students must understand that “But you know what I mean” is not an acceptable excuse for poor

grammar. Placing the correct emphasis on grammar instruction will also help us with the

framework of the bidialectal classroom. Yes, students should identify and produce SE when it is

appropriate. However, as they advance in education or their professional field, they should

identify when it is okay to break a certain rule. Breaking specific rules in specific ways often

drives home a powerful message; however, if students do not know the rules to begin with, they

will never know the power of their words or have control over this power.

Now that it has been established that bidialectal classrooms are important for students’

education and sense of identity, it is crucial to discuss how educators should go about

implementing this grand idea. Although there are no teaching methods that are specifically

designed for bidialectal classrooms, there are many pedagogies for teaching English as a second

language (ESL). Since the primary goal of a bidialectal classroom is to acknowledge the

legitimacy of an alternative dialect while still teaching the ins and outs of SE, ESL strategies are

easily adapted to fit this. After all, the point of teaching ESL is not to have the learners scorn

their native tongue; it is to give them an additional tool, a second language that will open up
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more opportunities for them. This is exactly the goal for a bidialectal classroom. In fact, many

researchers agree that standard English learners (SELs) should be taught in similar ways to

students in an ESL classroom (Miciak et al. 823).

However, educators must be careful in selecting the ESL strategies to implement in their

classrooms. There are some strategies that, because of their specific focus, would not contribute

anything to bidialectalism. Grammar Translation Method (GTM) is an ESL strategy that falls

into this category. In GMT, the students often simply memorize the vocabulary and rules of

grammar, and it stops there (Natsir and Sanjaya 59). In a bidialectal classroom, it is obviously

important that the students learn the grammar and vocabulary specific to SE, but it should dive

deeper into the language as well. In GMT, “there is no authentic material … In this case, the

learners do not get familiar with the social language and when they are asked to use or realize

their knowledge to the social or daily context, they do not have the capability to do it” (Natsir

and Sanjaya 60). In a bidialectal classroom, students should make note of the current social

situation and choose a dialect accordingly. With GMT, however, since students are given no

authentic examples, it is incredibly difficult to take their knowledge of vocabulary and grammar

to the next level. Teachers should be extra careful to take this into account and always keep in

mind the goal of a bidialectal classroom. GMT may be an extremely effective method for

teaching ESL, but that does not mean that it would work well in contributing to bidialectalism. If

the ESL strategy focuses only on the correct grammar and not the usage, this will not translate

well into a bidialectal classroom.

A specific pedagogy that is effective in creating bidialectal students is Communicative

Language Teaching or CLT. CLT was created decades ago as a method of teaching ESL and

focuses on guiding students towards fluent conversation and participation in English. Activities
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that fall under the CLT umbrella still correct the form but focus more on whether the students are

able to use the language in general. If these methods are applied toward bidialectal classrooms

and paired with direct instruction and a positive attitude about bidialectalism from the teacher,

they can lead to a classroom full of students who are competent in both SE and the dialect that

they speak at home. One of the most important parts of CLT is that it still encourages students to

use their first language; instead of asking students to speak only in the target language, it pushes

them to determine when each language is appropriate and gives them the tools to effectively

code-switch depending on the context.

There are three main types of activities that support the mission of CLT. The first of these

is content-based teaching (Spada 281). In content-based teaching (CBT), "learners are expected

to learn the target language as they study mathematics and history, which are delivered via the

target language" (Spada 281). Basically, CBT is a modeling-based approach where students are

exposed to the target language (or, in this case, the target dialect) in all classroom subjects. This

would require a school-wide commitment so that students were exposed to SE in all content

areas: math, history, science, etc., rather than just the English/Language Arts classroom. If all

teachers are committed to modeling correct SE grammar and mechanics in their classrooms, it

will broaden the students' interpretation of when SE is appropriate. For example, if the teachers

who do not teach Language Arts abandon the rules of the language, students will associate SE

only with the Language Arts fields; if they are exposed to SE in all classrooms, they will have a

better understanding of the fact that SE is necessary for all professional fields. The idea of code-

switching comes in when students interact with their teachers in more informal settings; if a

student talked to their teacher in the cafeteria, at the grocery store, or other settings outside of the
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classroom, the teacher and student would be free to use whichever dialect they find the most

comfortable.

Another type of activity is called task-based teaching (TBT). This method emphasizes the

community of learners. Spada writes: "In TBT, learners engage in different tasks (oral and

written) requiring them to solve problems and/or negotiate meaning in order to achieve a

particular purpose or goal" (281). Students are given authentic opportunities to work together

and practice the dialect that they are trying to learn. This collaborative learning activity can be

tweaked to help students develop the code-switching skills because it gives them a variety of

scenarios and settings where they are required to reach their goal. For example, if students must

work together to construct an email asking for a deadline extension from their employer, SE

would be required. On the other hand, if the goal is to convince their parents to allow them to go

to a football game, students will have to decide which dialect would be the most effective. For

some students, SE would be required when talking to their parents. For other students with

different backgrounds, however, SE would be an inappropriate dialect to choose when speaking

to a parent or family member (Godley and Escher 709). Depending on the specific task at hand,

TBT allows students to concentrate on determining what is most important at that moment; is it

the correct form of the language, or is it simply to get the meaning across? Because these include

both oral and written activities, it provides the students with a well-rounded foundation that

covers more than one aspect of fluency. This type of activity should be incorporated into normal

writing and speaking activities that students would do in a Language Arts classroom; bidialectal-

focused assignments do not need to be isolated from the other goals of the class.

The third type of teaching that is often considered a CLT method is participatory-based

teaching (PBT), and this method tailors instruction to reflect the lives of the individual students.
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PBT “is motivated by social and political factors” (Spada 281). Because of this specific

emphasis, this methodology is perfect for a bidialectal classroom. After all, the issue of

bidialectalism is closely related to the social and professional consequences of speaking in

certain dialects that have been previously discussed. Speaking in alternative dialects is often met

with negative perceptions of the speaker’s work ethic and intelligence, as mentioned earlier, and

teachers should welcome activities that allow for open discussion about the circumstances

surrounding students’ bidialectal choices. In his essay Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Paulo Freire

writes about the importance of authentic dialogue regarding important issues, especially for

oppressed groups (66). This is the framework on which PBT was built. With PBT, students enter

into an authentic conversation about issues that are important to them (Spada 281). With

activities like this, students are engaged in conversations that allow them to practice whatever

dialect is appropriate for the setting. As with other activities, it will be up to the students to

decide if SE is necessary or if their home dialect will suffice, making it perfect for a bidialectal

classroom. Just like the other CLT activities, PBT is easily incorporated into normal activities in

a Language Arts classroom with assignments to do with reading, writing, and speaking.

Another common aspect of CLT is the use of recasting. Recasting is a tactic that most

teachers already use, even if they do not have a name for it. Recasting is “the teacher’s

reformulation of a learner’s incorrect utterance while maintaining a focus on meaning” (Spada

277). In her article, Spada uses the example of a student saying, “His foots are cold.” In order to

correct this mistake in grammar, the teacher would say something like, “Yes, his feet are cold –

he stayed outside too long!" (277). The teacher acknowledges that the meaning of the student's

sentence is correct while still correcting the mistake. In a bidialectal classroom, the teacher may

recast the word "ain't" as "is not" or any number of other dialectal differences. This is beneficial
 Hoene 19

to the goal of a bidialectal classroom because it acknowledges the differences between the two

dialects while acknowledging that the home dialect is effective in communicating the idea. This

way, the importance and legitimacy of the home dialect are not diminished in the interaction, but

the student is still given the opportunity to learn how to communicate that same idea in SE. It

also provides a way for teachers to correct an error in form without interrupting the class or

humiliating the student. Recasting is simply a method of modeling that responds immediately to

mistakes that students make.

However, recasting on its own is not one-hundred-percent effective. Because of its

passive nature, students do not always recognize the mistake that the teacher is pointing out

(Spada 277). Students might not make the connection between what they said and what the

teacher says, since the whole point of recasting is that it does not draw too much attention to the

mistake. However, a modified version of recasting in which the class agrees on some sort of

signal may be more effective. For example, if a teacher recasts a sentence with “ain’t” in it, she

can tap a desk as she says “is not” in the place where the student said “ain’t." The signal can be

tapping something, holding up a hand, or any small action that is not disruptive to the class but is

a clear and agreed-upon signal. That way, when the students see the teacher tapping on her desk

as she talks, they will reflect on what was said and where the mistake was. This modified version

of recasting still holds all the benefits for a bidialectal classroom and ensures that fewer recasts

will fall through the cracks.

There is one ESL strategy that has already been tried out in a bidialectal classroom.

Contrastive analysis is a method used to teach code-switching and has proved successful for

students learning SE in the classroom (Miciak et al. 829). Usually, this method is used to

highlight the differences between two languages. In this case, however, students will use
 Hoene 20

contrastive analysis to differentiate between different dialects of the same language. This

pedagogy was found to be so successful, in fact, that Jeremy Miciak and his team of researches

made contrastive analysis a large part of their official recommendation for the state of Texas to

include in their curriculum (833). According to Miciak, et al., "the student should learn to

identify language varieties (including standard English) and choose among them based on the

communicative context" (830). This might include activities such as writing the same message in

different dialects based on given contexts and audiences; the students would examine the best

dialect to use when speaking with a peer, an employer, or another member of their community.

After students are instructed on proper SE, they will actively think about the language that they

are using and develop code-switching skills.

Activities using contrastive analysis should reach beyond the four walls of the classroom,

since the goal of bidialectalism is to equip the students with the skills to code-switch for social

and professional reasons. For this reason, activities should be culturally relevant and culturally

responsive (Miciak et al. 830). Teachers should be aware of the cultural issues that their students

face because of their dialects and the community’s perception of the dialectal differences. In

their recommendation, Miciak, et al. include open communication with the community outside

the classroom in order to provide a “tolerant environment” for language varieties other than what

is typically spoken in that area (834). If the community recognizes that SE is important and

necessary in some situations, but other dialects are just as valid in other contexts, then it will

likely be much easier for the students to learn how to code-switch. Teachers should also create a

classroom environment in which students are comfortable enough to freely discuss the

differences in the dialects as well as the implications and consequences of using particular

dialects (832). This open communication is crucial.

 Hoene 21

Methods like CLT and contrastive analysis are helpful in creating a bidialectal

classroom, but they must be applied in context. If the goal is to create a bidialectal Language

Arts classroom, teachers must be careful not to forget the Language Arts aspect. CLT and

contrastive analysis are easily incorporated into activities for writing and speaking, two of the

Language Arts. Students in a bidialectal classroom should still do the same type of writing and

presentation assignments that students in traditional classrooms do; however, in a bidialectal

classroom, the students will simply have the freedom to determine which dialect would be the

most appropriate for each assignment. If students successfully develop these code-switching

skills, they should know that in a small group discussion, they are welcome to use their home

dialect. For a formal essay, however, they will know that SE is the appropriate dialect to use.

Another large part of the Language Arts classroom is the literature that is read and

analyzed. Unfortunately, much of the literature that is read in the classroom is full of language

that is drastically different from the language that is spoken today. This is especially true for

students who speak in a dialect other than SE. Nathaniel Hawthorne’s writing, for example, does

not quite match the style of SE today, but it is miles away from the AAVE that many modern

readers speak. This discrepancy does not exist only in classic novels; it is prevalent even in the

picture books in early elementary grades. One teacher wrote about this issue in regard to her

first-grade class.

Back in 2011, Jennifer McCreight noticed that most of the books that she used in her

classroom did not reflect the AAVE that many of her students used. In her article, she writes

about two books with near-identical plots that had entirely different effects on her students. She

explained that books like Peter’s Chair by Ezra Jack Keats is a good book in that its characters

are African Americans facing everyday problems. However, she said that it is “an example of a
 Hoene 22

melting pot book, meaning that its characters are African American, but display no distinctive

traits that would lead the reader to conclude that they are from this cultural group” (38).

According to McCreight’s analysis, it seems that the only way that students would know that the

characters in Peter’s Chair are African American is by looking at their illustrations. While it is

admirable of Keats to attempt to include the African American community in his book, his book

fails to include a crucial part of the culture that he strives to portray: their dialect. On the other

hand, McCreight also uses She Come Bringing Me That Little Baby Girl by Eloise Greenfield.

McCreight explains that Greenfield used her experiences as an African American to create a

book that represents the cultural and linguistic differences of the African American community

(39).

When McCreight brought these two books into the classroom, her students reacted in

interesting ways. The reading of these two books led to a discussion of other book characters

who speak like Peter and Kevin, the respective protagonists in the two books, where students

recognized that the characters were speaking in different forms (42). McCreight even says that

“one student coined these dialects ‘White’ and ‘Black’ talk, and the rest of the group nodded

their agreement in the use of this apparently common terminology” (43). Early on in the

discussion, her first-grade students were voicing their ideas that the African Americans in the

classroom spoke differently from many of the Caucasian students. The discussion continued in a

fruitful manner as students examined the differences of the dialects and where they see each

dialect being used in the community. McCreight says that in the end, the discussion “served as a

way to validate one another’s home lives” (44). This validation is the goal of a bidialectal

classroom; students recognized that just because they may speak in different forms than their

peers does not mean that any student is better or worse than his peers. McCreight concludes her
 Hoene 23

article by saying, “Throughout all of this, I clearly saw that my students needed – they craved –

exposure to texts that mirrored their own culture and the culture of their families and friends”

(45). The literature in classrooms should be inclusive of all cultures, especially in a bidialectal

classroom. Not only does this provide characters and stories to whom students relate on a very

personal level, but it also shows other students the validity of dialects other than SE.

Although there is not much research on using dialectal books in higher grades, books like

this should be introduced into all levels of education. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, for

example, is written entirely in different dialects. Mark Twain addresses this directly in one of his

notes at the beginning of his book. He writes: “In this book a number of dialects are used, to wit:

the Missouri Negro dialect; the extremist form of the back-woods Southwestern dialect; the

ordinary ‘Pike County’ dialect; and four modified varieties of the last” (10). Both the dialogue

and narration of this novel are written in dialects other than SE. Twain’s novel does not present

one dialect for each race; there are multiple dialects that differ based on region instead of race,

displaying even more diversity. Langston Hughes’ Jesse B. Semple stories are also written in

AAVE rather than SE. Books and stories like these should be included in the curriculum to

reinforce the idea that SE is not the only valid dialect. If the only literature that students read in

class are the stiff writing of the Declaration of Independence or the romantic prose of Ralph

Waldo Emerson, the reading part of the Language Arts classroom will not back up the writing

and speaking activities in the bidialectal classroom. However, reading the literature that is

written in SE is also important; this provides an additional avenue of modeling for students to

learn proper SE. In addition, including the traditional works exposes students to the canon of

great literature that is celebrated and valued in society. Literature written in different dialects
 Hoene 24

should not replace the classic literature that students read every year. Instead, it should

supplement the canon.

The idea of creating a bidialectal classroom is certainly a lofty goal; after all, Language

Arts teachers already have so much to teach if they want merely to meet the minimum standards.

However, bidialectal activities are easily worked into normal Language Arts activities. Teachers

can implement bidialectalism by choosing pieces of literature that are written in non-SE dialects

in addition to the typical canon of literature. In addition, Comparative Language Teaching and

contrastive analysis offer a variety of methods and activities that promote the development of

code-switching skills. These pedagogies put a special emphasis on the power of language so that

students are taught how to wield this power. CLT activities include methods of modeling by

other teachers, group activities, and discussions about current issues. Contrastive analysis asks

students to explicitly point out the differences between different dialects. Literature that is

written in or includes dialects other than English also helps students validate their home dialects.

Of course, none of this does any good without also teaching students how to speak in SE. For the

sake of being successful in professional settings, students must be taught SE through direct

instruction. Schools should provide professional development training for teachers so that they

know how to build a bidialectal classroom. When educators teach their students SE and validate

their home dialects, students develop code-switching skills that allow them to have control over

the words that they use and the power that these words contain. Most of all, a bidialectal

classroom allows students to hold on to pieces of their culture, community, and identity without

sacrificing the quality of education that they receive.

In a bidialectal classroom, students who grow up speaking non-SE dialects no longer

have to leave their culture in the hallway outside of the classroom. Their dialectal differences are
 Hoene 25

encouraged and used as resources as they navigate Language Arts classrooms. When teachers

ask them to use SE, they are no longer asking them to stifle a part of who they are. Rather,

teachers are simply giving their students another tool to be successful. In a bidialectal classroom,

citizens and residents of the United States can finally add language to the list of ways that they

celebrate the mosaic society in which they live.

 Hoene 26

Teaching Implication

In education classes, professors lecture about differentiated instruction and meeting the

individual needs of our students. What they rarely mention, however, is the importance of

including dialectal differences in this methodology. We are supposed to cater to the needs of

kinesthetic and visual learners and make accommodations for our students who have learning

disabilities or students whose first language is not English. However, no one addresses the issues

of dialects other than SE. By leaving this out of our teacher education programs and our

classrooms, we do a huge disservice to a huge demographic of our students.

Teachers should seriously consider implementing a bidialectal policy in their classrooms.

One of the first steps in this is simply having a conversation at the beginning of each year in

which you make clear your expectations. What type of assignments will require SE? For which

kinds of assignments will students be allowed to use their home dialect? Are there certain slang

words that will be accepted? Are there slang words that will never be accepted? These are just a

few questions that should be discussed with students. It is crucial that the expectations are made

clear. In addition, expectations should remain consistent from class to class and year to year.

This discussion is especially important for groups who look down on SE. As previously

mentioned, some students receive negative feedback from their peers when they attempt to speak

SE, and this causes a conflict within the student. They must decide between fitting in with their

community and earning good grades. As part of the beginning-of-the-year discussion, this issue

should be addressed. We should not under any circumstances tolerate students teasing or

bullying others for trying to learn and practice SE. We need to remind our students that the point

of teaching SE is not to convince our students to abandon their home dialect but to give them an

additional tool to increase their successes later in life. It is up to them to decide whether or not to
 Hoene 27

use this powerful tool. However, it is our jobs as educators to equip our students with these tools.

The classroom should be a warm and welcome environment, and this will not be achieved if all

students are not on board. SE is often seen as a threat against our students’ cultures, and a

bidialectal classroom should stray away from that mindset.

Teachers should also be sure that a bidialectal classroom does not turn into a lazy

classroom. The goal is not to allow students to get away with being lazy. Rather, the goal is to

better teach them about the powerful tool that language is and to help them wield this power.

Students can employ the rules and regulations of SE in order to become successful in their

careers. However, they can still appreciate the form of language that their family and immediate

community speak. In order to reach this balance, we must be sure to teach our students SE. SE is

the form of the language that colleges require for admissions, that employers require of their

employees. It is often seen as the mark of someone who is educated, so people expect to hear it

from doctors, lawyers, business owners, and other professionals. We should not even come close

to serving our students well if we neglected to teach them this form of the language. It is our duty

to educate our students, and we must not fail in this regard.

There are many activities that teachers can use to create a bidialectal classroom. Many of

these activities are normal Language Arts activities. For example, a creative writing assignment

is easily made to fit the goals of a bidialectal classroom. If we ask students to write a short story,

we can remind them to pay extra attention to what kind of language their characters are using.

The narration should remain in SE, but the dialog should be authentic for the characters and their

backgrounds. If the characters grew up in Harlem, then they will most likely speak in AAVE. If

their characters grew up speaking English and Spanish, then their dialog consists of "Spanglish,"

the mixture of the two languages. Whether the characters grew up in New York or the deep
 Hoene 28

South should be obvious by the dialect that they use. Through an activity like this, students will

have to think carefully about the words that they write and what effect they will have on the

reader. If they enter into this type of mindset for a short story, they will have a better idea of

what it looks like to choose every word carefully. Every word and sentence will be formed with

the setting and circumstances in mind so that students will be used to making the conscious

decisions of which dialect to use at which time.

A bidialectal classroom will help form our students’ education as while still allowing

them to hold on to their culture and pieces of their identity. This balance is extremely important,

and teachers should strongly consider implementing a bidialectal policy into their classrooms.
 Hoene 29

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