PART – A

Case 1: Collapse of Highland Tower in Ulu Klang (1993)

Introduction

This case is collected from a study conducted by Kazmi et al. (2017a) which explored the major
causes of the collapse of Highland Towers and the landslide occurred during the monsoon season
in Ulu Klang which is regarded as one of the most landslide-prone areas in Klang Valley
(Appendix 1). Besides structural and environmental causes, the study aimed to find association of
any human errors in the occurrence of landslide using fault tree analysis (FTA). Human errors
occur when the quality of design, construction and maintenance is not met the specifications.

Discussion

The Highland Tower was a residential building comprising of a total of three blocks namely, Block
1, Block 2 and Block 3 located in Taman Hillview, Ulu Klang, Selangor, Malaysia. After 15 years
of its completion, on December 11, 1993, the Block 1 of the Tower suddenly collapsed that
resulted in a death toll of 48 people (see Appendix 1). Following the incident, the remaining two
blocks were immediately evacuated. The incident and the location soon became a centre of
attraction among civil engineers, water resource engineers, land surveyors and academicians.

The landslide and the resultant collapse became an important study topic, since firstly, it was the
first major landslide in Ulu Klang area (see Appendix 2). Moreover, a number of landslides took
place until 2008 following the collapse of Highland Tower (see Appendix 3). In the case study,
Kazmi et al. (2017a) reported several major reasons of the landslide. Firstly, heavy rainfall has
been blamed as one of the major reasons that made the drainage system blocked and underneath
soil weak and erosive enough to slide away. Whereas the annual rainfall for the year 1993 was
2604 mm, the cumulative rainfall on the day of this event was about 900 mm. It is further reported
that the cumulative rainfall between September and December 11, 1993 was 35 percent of the total
annual rainfall. Thus, the landslide was partly rainfall-induced.

Secondly, another structural reason was poor drainage system of the housing area. It is reported
that the drains selected for the construction project were earth drains rather than concrete drains
that are relatively vulnerable to water pressure and allows water to penetrate into the soil at a
superior rate. Moreover, it also allows water flow in the same direction of the water source with a
number of U-turns. The maintenance of the drains was also not performed regularly that made the
drains jammed for natural water flow. Overall, the drainage system poor and inadequate to resist
the landslide and lateral slope pressure. Thirdly, inadequate safety is regarded as another major
contributing factor in the occurrence of the landslide.

Kazmi et al. (2017a) also reported several human-relevant factors liable for the landslide’s
occurrence using fault tree analysis (FTA). Firstly, the agreed drainage system on the hill slope
following Highland Towers 1993 has never been done. Secondly, slope and rubble walls behind
and in front of Block 1 were improperly designed having factor of safety less than 1.0 (indicating
unsafe against slope failure). Thirdly, the rail pile foundation used in the construction of the
building was not designed for lateral loading which became instable with the heavy rain water
passed into the foundation.

Conclusion

Besides the structural errors, the case study explored the human errors involved in the occurrence
of the landslide that resulted in the collapse of Highland Tower Block 1. It is one of the first studies
that examined the association of human errors in the disastrous event of Highland Tower collapse.
The authors recommended that it is high time for civil engineers to consider probability of failure
due to human uncertainties using human reliability analysis, besides analysing the reliability of the
construction structure.
Case 2: Landslide in Bukit Antrabangsa (2008)

Introduction

The case study is collected from a narrative study by Qasim, Harahap and Osman (2013) The
authors originally highlighted two most disastrous landslide incidents in Malaysia out of which
the landslide in Bukit Antrabangsa occurred in 2008 is relatively more recent. The study aimed at
proving that the landslide without the association of any geological or morphological reason, but
human errors. The authors have argued that rainfall is not the most prominent cause of the landslide
in Bukit Antrabangsa. Rather, human factors are associated in design, construction and
maintenance process of the pipelines and drainage system near the slope failure.

Discussion

Bukit Antrabangsa is a hilly area located in Hulu Klang, Selangor where a number of housing
development projects were being carried out. On 6th December, 2008, after 20 years of project
development, a landslide was occurred in the area at 3.30 a.m. and a landslide slope with 120m in
length, 109m in width, 15m in depth, 101,500 meter cube and a distance of 210m came over Taman
Bukit Mewah, keeping the traffic stopped at both sides of the landslide debris on the road (see
Appendix 6). The landslide resulted in a death toll of 4 persons, missing of 1 person and injury of
15 people. A number of houses have been destroyed with trees over-rooted and washed away with
the debris down to the toe of the slope (see Appendix 7). Following the disastrous event, all the
remaining construction development works were paused for several days.

No seismic records were found in the slope failure area. It indicates that the landslide was caused
not due to earthquake, rather due to some other non-geographical and non-morphological reasons.
The main reason reported behind the landslide is leaking and bursting of pipelines located near
Jalan Wangsa 11 (see Appendix 6). As pipelines were burst, water flow faced must pressure and
it resulted in weakening the soil and landslide. However, it was argued that the pipeline simply
cannot be burst. Any external pressure due to the surrounding development projects may have
created pressure on the pipes. The authors further argued that the failure area had an inadequate
drainage system. The drains were clogged and even no sign of berms drain were noticed in Bukit
Antrabangsa.
Though the month of November, 2008 faced with regular rainfall, the authors are with the view
that rainfall is the key contributing factor of the landslide in this case. Rather human errors played
significant role. For example, a case study of hillside problems in Bukit Antrabangsa carried out
one year prior to the event (in 2007) found that professionals involved in the hillside development
in the area are not alert in following the regulations and often fail to undertake good planning and
design practice. It was reported that in majority of the slop failure cases in Malaysia, human errors
were to be blamed in large extent, such as, design errors that occur due to abusing the prescriptive
method, construction errors that occur due to over or wrong side excavation and maintenance
errors that occur due irregular monitoring of clogged drainage system.

Conclusion

Civil and geotechnical engineering at the current stage is facing challenges from human
uncertainties, intrinsic natural unpredictability of soil properties, lack of data and restrictions of
models. Human errors occur in design and construction phase when engineers cannot understand
soil behaviour properly, test soil properties accurately and manage prescriptive methods poorly.
Having consistent to Kazmi et al. (2017a), the authors of this case study argued that safety factor
analysis is no more adequate, rather probabilistic techniques are most suitable option for slope
analysis and design that can be carried out using human reliability analysis. It can be inferred from
this case study that landslides in Malaysia does not always occur in monsoon season, but during
non-monsoon season as well, landslides may occur with disastrous impact.
Case 3: Landslide in Bukit Nanas Forest Reserve (2013)

Introduction

This case study is collected from an investigation report by Osman, Kasim and Yusof (2014) who
presented it in World Landslide Forum held in Beijing, China. The investigation report aimed at
exploring the possible causes of a landslide incident that occurred at the north side of Bukit Nanas
Forest Reserve on 7th May, 2013 as well as the mode and mechanism of the failure. The authors
also proposed several alternative measures to repair the failed slope.

Discussion

Bukit Nanas Forest Reserve is the only remaining tropical rainforest in Kuala Lumpur and one of
the oldest permanent forest reserves in Malaysia (see Appendix 4). On 7th May, 2013, a landslide
occurred in this forest reserve opposite the Dang Wangi LRT station. Consequently, nine cars
parked at the car park located next to the forest area were buried by the landslide debris, without
any casualties or injuries. However, the Jalan Ampang highway located at the toe of the slope was
closed for several days to traffic.

Following the incident, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Energy invited Kumpulan Ikram
Sdn. Bhd. (KISB) to carry out detailed investigation works at the failure area. Additionally, Slope
Engineering Branch of the Public Work Department (PWD) was also invited as the technical
advisor in the investigation works. KISB carried out the investigation works in three phases.
Firstly, a desk study was conducted. Secondly, site investigation was performed including
exploration of surface and subsurface of the soil. Thirdly, data and stability analysis was
conducted.

As the desk study was carried out, KISB found that the intensity of monthly rainfall increased in
the area from February until April, 2013. As illustrated in the Appendix 5, whereas the monthly
rainfall for April, 2013 was recorded 503mm at peak, the cumulative rainfall intensity from 1 st
May, 2013 to the date of the slope failure was recorded 335mm. Moreover, the rainfall intensity
during the failure event was recorded 147mm. Hence, it can be concluded that heavy rainfall was
one of the major causes of the landslide. Furthermore, as the ground was observed, a number trees
were found in leaned position at the failure area. Ground level was displaced by around 60cm and
tension crack was found at the width of 20mm at the failure crack.

In the site investigation phase, KISB found that the landslide was 150m in length at the tope of the
slope and 30m in height. They also found that the landslide debris were quite wet and the failure
location was situated at the waterway of the slope. It was inferred that storm water passing on the
slope caused both rill and sheet erosion that, in turn, created a stream (waterway). The stream
reduced the strength of the soil surface and made it weaker to support forest plants and tree-roots.
This could possibly explain why trees were observed being leaned at the toe of the slope.

In the data and stability analysis phase, treatment method using soil nailing system was applied in
order to stabilize and strengthen the slope. It was found that the slope meets requirements of the
factor of safety (FoS). Following the investigation works, the authors recommended that a
retaining wall needs to be built at the toe of the slope to improve its stability and act as a barrier
for the landslide debris. Additionally, the slope surface could be covered with grass using the close
turfing method to help slop soil prevent from erosion.

Conclusion

The main reasons that contributed to the occurrence of the landslide in Bukit Nanas Forest Reserve
were heavy rainfall and soil erosion. The investigation report mainly focused on the environmental
causes involved in the landslide. Since there were no human residence or manmade structure,
human errors were beyond its scope, unlike the previous case study. The case study reveals that
landslide usually occurs during the monsoon season in Malaysia.
PART – B
Factors triggering landslides in Malaysia

Landslides are common natural disaster which occur along hillslides and steep slopes. A landslide,
also known as landslip, is a form of mass wasting which includes a wide range of ground
movements. Both environmental and physical (such as, human factors) play important role in
occurring landslides.

Environmental factors:

1. Heavy rainfall:

The main triggering factor of landslides in Malaysia is heavy rainfall which causes great damage
to human lives and property. During heavy rainfall, water moves through the soil pore space,
lubricating the slope materials to slip down and move downward under the force of gravity. The
main factor that caused slope failure at numbers site in hillside development in Malaysia is rainfall
and storm water activity. Appendix 9 shows the landslides triggering factors based on selective
Malaysia case history. The statistics indicated that rainfall is the major triggering factor to cause a
slope failure. It is well known fact that in a tropical climate with a continuous heavy and prolonged
rainfall during the two monsoons in a year, slope failures in Malaysia are not uncommon. As such,
the effect of expected intense rainfall on the slope stability should have been taken into account in
the slope design (Yeong, 2012)

2. Geographical erosion:

Geographical or natural erosion is due to forces of nature without the influence of human. During
this process, soil and rock particles are worn away by gravity or by moving transported agents
such as water, wind or ice.

3. Change in slope geometry:

Geometry change is also a significant factor to cause a slope failure. suggested that cut slope has
a high frequency of failure. This is probably due to the many uncertainties in identifying and
establishing the weak structure, subsoil variation and the adverse ground water level (Yeong,
2012).
 4. Other morphological factors:

Other morphological factors that contribute in occurring landslides can be tectonic or volcanic
uplift, glacial rebound, vegetation removal by fire or drought, wage or glacial erosion of slope toe
or lateral margins as well as deposition loading slope or its crest (Haliza & Jabil, 2017).

Physical / Human factors:

Human factors may include all human activities that may be linked to the occurrence of landslides,
including human errors. Kazmi et al. (2017b) reported that among 500 well-known cases of
foundation failure, 88% were due to human errors and the remaining 12% were due to
technological issues. The causes of the major accidents have also been found to be human oriented.
It is suggested that nearly 80% of accidents involve human, organizational and knowledge
uncertainties.

1. Clearing of trees and land-covering plants:

In 1991, a new housing development project, known as Bukit Antarabangsa Development Project,
commenced construction on the hilltop located behind the Highland Towers. The hill was cleared
of trees and other land-covering plants, exposing the soil to land erosion that is the leading factor
of causing landslides (Kazmi et al., 2017a).

2. Design errors:

Gue and Tan (2006) who investigate the hillside development projects in Malaysia also found that
60 percent of 49 landslide cases are due to design errors caused by inappropriate design check and
20 percent sources are by a combination of design and construction errors (Qasim, Harahap &
Osman, 2013). According to Kazmi et al. (2017b), design errors comprise of 58 percent of all the
errors recorded by JKR in 2009 (Appendix 8). Poorly designed manmade slope may be susceptible
to landslides. In one of the sectoral reports of Malaysia, among 49 major cases of landslides, 88
percent are attributed to manmade slopes (Qasim, Harahap & Osman, 2013).
 3. Construction errors:

Construction errors may include improver workmanship and supervision, poorly supervised
hillside areas, inadequate filing material and limited consideration of safety factors. According to
Kazmi et al. (2017b), design errors comprise of 7.50 percent of all the errors recorded by JKR in
2009 (Appendix 8).

4. Maintenance errors:

Maintenance errors may include improper or no monitoring and inadequate surface erosion
control, resulting to clogged drains and localized landslip. According to Kazmi et al. (2017b),
design errors comprise of 5.70 percent of all the errors recorded by JKR in 2009 (Appendix 8).

5. Accelerated erosion:

Soil erosion can be accelerated through human activities which disturb the state of equilibrium
between geological erosion and soil formation. The removal of slope surfaces through cultivation,
deforestation, overgrazing, housing development and road construction speed up the erosion.
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Osman, K., Kasim, N. & Yusof, M. A. M. (2014). Landslide investigation: a case study of the
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Landslide Forum 3. [online] June 2-6, Beijing, China. Available from:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273134971_Landslide_Investigation_A_Case_Study_o
f_the_Landslide_in_Bukit_Nanas_Forest_Reserve_Kuala_Lumpur_Malaysia
Yeong, N. K. (2012). Rainfall-induced landslides in Hulu Klang area, Malaysia. A Project
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Appendix 1
Collapse of the Block 1 of Highland Tower

Source: (Kazmi et al., 2017a)

Appendix 2
Location of Ulu Klang area near Kuala Lumpur

Source: (Kazmi et al., 2017a)

Appendix 3
Major landslides in Ulu Klang area form year 1993 to 2008

Source: (Kazmi et al., 2017a)

Appendix 4
Location of Bukit Nanas Forest
Reserve in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
(In red frame: landslide debris)
Appendix 5
Monthly rainfall in millimetre from February to 7th May, 2013 recorded at JPS Wilayah Station
(the closest rainfall station to the failure location)

Appendix 6
Location of the pipeline and surroundings
Appendix 7
(a) Landslide area in Bukit Antrabangsa (inside red spherical frame); (b) Landslide in zoomed in
image; (c) landslide debris; (d) casualties from the landslide

Source: (Longbottom, 2008)

Appendix 8
Landslide statistics of Malaysia

Source: (Kazmi et al., 2017b)

Appendix 9
Landslide triggering factors based on selective Malaysian cases

Source: (Yeong, 2012)