Reinforced Concrete Bridges PDF

DIMITAR DIMITROV
REINFORCED CONCRETE BRIDGES

Contents
Notation
Abreviations
Glossary
CHAPTER 1:Basic for the RCB design
1.1 Bridge definition
1.2 Bridge classification
1.3 Historical review of the bridges
1.4 Main parts of the beam type RCB
1.5 Codes for RCB design
1.6 General background for RCB design.
CHAPTER 2: Actions on bridges. Traffic loads on road, railway and pedestrian bridges.
Design groups and combinations.
2.1 Classification of actions
2.2 Some permanent actions on bridges
2.3 Traffic actions for road bridges according EC1
2.4 Traffic actions on railway bridges
2.5Design combinations of actions
CHAPTER 3:Carriageway, drainage, water proofing (insulation), expansion joints, safety
barriers, sidewalks.
3.1 Pavement and water proof
3.2 Drainage
3.3 Transition structures at expansion joints
3.4 Safety barriers. Sidewalks
CHAPTER 4: Appropriate systems for the main RCB structures. Special features of the
static analysis.
4.1 Statically determinate reinforced concrete bridge structures. Advantages
and disadvantages.
4.1.1 Simple span bridges
4.1.2 Simple span with cantilever bridges
4.1.3 Gerber type bridges
4.2 Statically indeterminate reinforced concrete bridge structures. Advantages
and disadvantages. Special features of the static analysis.
4.2.1 Continuous bridge beams
4.2.2 Frame bridges
4.3 Different methods for construction of the bridge systems. Division of the
bridge structure into separate precast elements. Principles for division.
Restoration to the continuity
4.4 Construction decisions for skew and curved bridge constructions
REINFORCED CONCRETE BRIDGES ASS. PROF. PHD. DIMITAR DIMITROV 2

CHAPTER 5: RCB slabs
5.1 One way RCB slabs.Static analysis and detailing.
5.1.1 Static scheme
5.1.2 Static calculation
5.1.3 Design for bending and shear at ULS
5.1.4 Detailing
5.2 Cantilever RCB slabs.Static analysis and detailing
5.2.1 Application of the cantilever RCB slabs
5.2.2 Actions
5.2.2.1 Permanent actions
5.2.2.2 Traffic actions
5.2.3 Static analysis
5.2.4 Design checks and detailing
5.3 Two way RCB slabs. Static analysis and detailing
5.3.1 Application of two way RCB slabs
5.4 RCB slabs without beams. Static analysis and detailing
5.4.1 Application of RCB slabs w/o beams. Main dimensions
CHAPTER 6: Static analysis of the bridge superstructure

6.1 Methods for static analysis of RCB
6.2 Leonhardt’s method. Application. Influence lines
6.2.1 Transversal distribution of the traffic loads
6.2.2 Influence lines and internal forces at the main longitudinal beams
6.2.3 Internal forces at the transversal beams
6.2.4 Special cases
6.2.4.1 Case with more than 8 main beams
6.2.4.2 Application for continuous beams
6.3 Method of infinitely stiff transversal beam
6.4 Method of lever arm
6.5 Finite element method (FEM).
6.6 Finite strip method(FSM)
6.7 Analysis of RCB structures without transversal beams.
CHAPTER 7: RCB box section bridges.
7.1 Application of RC box section bridges
7.2 Types of torsion for RCB structures
7.2.1 Pure torsion
7.2.2 Warping torsion
7.2.3 Equilibrium torsion
7.2.4 Compatible torsion
7.3 Section properties for torsion calculations
7.4 Static analysis of RC box section bridges
7.5 Design checks and detailing
CHAPTER 8: Design checks and detailing for RCB elements w/o prestressing
8.1 General assumptions and notations
8.2 Design at ULS of members with rectangular section subjected to bending
8.3 Design at ULS of members with T-sections subjected to bending
with axial force
8.3 Design checks for RCB elements for shear and torsion
8.5 Design checks for RCB elements for shear
8.6 Design checks for RCB elements subjected to shear and torsion
8.7 Design check for shear stresses between web and flanges of T-sections
8.8 Detailing of RCB beams.
CHAPTER 9: Prestressed RCB structure
9.1 Application of the presstressing in the RCB
9.2 Application of pre-tensioning and post-tensioning in the RCB structures
9.3 Losses of prestress.
9.3.1 Immediate losses of prestress for pre-tensioning
9.3.2 Immediate losses of prestress for post-tensioning
9.3.3 Time dependent losses of prestress for pre- and post tensioning.
9.4 Design checks for prestressed RCB beams
9.4.1 Initial prestressing force determination for simple span RCB beams.
Check for decompression
9.4.2 Normal stress check
9.4.3 Principal stress check at SLS
9.4.4 Check for bending at ULS
9.4.5 Check for shear at ULS
CHAPTER 10: Modern systems for RCB construction

10.1 Cast-in-place construction of bridges using conventional scaffolding
10.2 Cast-in-place “span by span” construction of bridges
10.3 Precast bridge construction using conventional cranes
10.4 Precast bridge construction using “truss crane”(gantry)
10.5 Cast-in-place balanced cantilever bridges
10.6 Precast balanced cantilever bridges
10.7 Incrementally launched bridges
CHAPTER 11: Design checks for elastomeric bearings
11.1 General
11.2 Design checks
11.2.1 Stress check and determination of the bearing area
11.2.2 Check for shear strain

11.2.3 Check for friction
11.2.4 Check for rotation
CHAPTER 12: Bridge substructure
12.1 Abutments
12.2 Piers
CHAPTER 13: Seismic design of RCB
Notation
Geometry
A – Cross sectional area

a(b) – the distributed contact surface area dimensions or elastomeric bearing dimensions in
plan
a0(b0) – the contact surface area dimensions at the top of the pavement
a’(b’) – dimensions of the steel plats inside the elastomeric bearing
aeff,span(supp) – effective width of a slab at span or support
Ac – Cross sectional area of concrete
Ap- Cross sectional area of prestressing reinforcement
As – Cross sectional area of reinforcement
As1 – Final required cross sectional area of reinforcement
As,min – Minimum cross sectional area of reinforcement
As,prov – Provided cross sectional area of reinforcement
As,req – Required cross sectional area of reinforcement by design
As1,Φ – Cross sectional area of one reinforcement bar
Asw – Cross sectional area of shear reinforcement
A1 –effective area of the elastomeric bearing
Ar –reduced effective area of the elastomeric bearing
CG – Center of gravity
EI – Bending stiffness
I – Second moment of area of concrete section
L – length;span
N – Total number of reinforcing bars
S – first moment of the cross section
n – Number of reinforcing bars for 1m
d – Effective depth of a cross section; Distance between main bridge beams
dg – Largest nominal maximum aggregate size
e – Eccentricity
h – Height;Overwall depth of a cross section
hf – Overall depth of a slab
i – Radius of gyration
k – Coefficient
l0 – Effective length of column

lcl – Clear span
leff – Effective span
lnom – Span between axes of the supports
lmax,cl – Maximum clear span of a slab
lmin,cl – Minimum clear span of a slab
1/r – Curvature at a section
s- Distance between reinforcing bars or stirrups
u – Perimeter of concrete cross section, having area Ac
x – Neutral axis depth
x,y,z – Coordinates
z – Lever arm of internal forces; stiffness factor
λ – Slenderness ratio
φ – creep coefficient
ρ – Reinforcement ratio for required longitudinal reinforcement
ρl – Reinforcement ratio for provided longitudinal reinforcement
ρw – Reinforcement ratio for shear reinforcement
Φ – Diameter of a reinforcing bar
Φs– Diameter of longitudinal reinforcing bar
Φw– Diameter of transverse reinforcing bar
Actions and Effects
A – Accidental action (situation)

E – Effect of action
F – Action
Fd – Design value of an action
Fk– Characteristic value of an action
Gd – Design permanentconcentrated action
Gk – Characteristic permanentconcentrated action
gd – Design permanentdistributed action
gk – Characteristic permanentdistributed action
M – Bending moment
MEd – Design value of the applied internal bending moment
N – Axial force
NEd – Design value of the applied axial force (tension or compression)
Qk–Characteristic variableconcentrated action
Qd–Design variableconcentrated action
qk–Characteristic variabledistributed action
qd–Design variabledistributed action
R – Resistance
S – Seismic action (situation)
T – Torsional moment
TEd – Design value of the applied torsional moment
TRd,max – Design value of the applied torsional moment
V- Shear force
VEd – Design value of the applied shear force
VRd,c – Design shear resistance of the member without shear reinforcement
VRd,max – Design value of the maximum shear force which can be sustained by the member,
limited by crushing of the compression struts
v – velocity
vx,d –design horizontal displacement of the elastomeric bearing along axis x
vy,d –design horizontal displacement of the elastomeric bearing along axis y
σ – normal stress
τ – shear stress
γF – Partial factor for actions F
γG – Partial factor for permanent actions G
γQ – Partial factor for variable actions Q
ψ – Factors defining representative values of variable actions
ψ0 – for characteristic values
ψ1 – for frequent values
ψ1,inf – for infrequent values
ψ2 – for quasi-permanent values
Material Characteristics
φ – Angle of internal friction

fc – Compressive strength of concrete
fcd – Design value of concrete compressive strength
fck – Characteristic compressive cylinder strength of concrete at 28 days
fcm – Mean value of concrete cylinder compressive strength
fctb – Tensile strength prior to cracking in biaxial state of stress
f ctk – Characteristic axial tensile strength of concrete
f ctm – Mean value of axial tensile strength of concrete
f ctx – Appropriate tensile strength for evaluation of cracking bending moment
f p – Tensile strength of prestressing steel
f pk – Characteristic tensile strength of prestressing steel
fp,0.1 – 0.1% proof-stress of prestressing steel
f p,0.1k – Characteristic 0.1 % proof-stress of prestressing steel
f p,0.2k – Characteristic 0.2 % proof-stress of reinforcement
f t – Tensile strength of reinforcement
f tk – Characteristic tensile strength of reinforcement
f y – Yield strength of reinforcement
f yd – Design yield strength of reinforcement
f yk – Characteristic yield strength of reinforcement

f ywd – Design yield of shear reinforcement
Abreviations
FEM=Finite Element Metod – Метод на крайните елементи
FSM=Finite Strip Method – Метод на крайните ивици
LM=LoadModel – Товарен модел
RCB=ReinforcedConcreteBridge(s) – Стоманобетонен/нни мост/мостове
ULS=UltimateLimitState(s) – Крайно/и гранично/и състояние/я
SDOF=Single Degree of Freedom – Една степен ана свобода
SLS=ServiceabilityLimitState – Експлоатационно/и гранично/и състояние/я
SW=Special Wagons - Тежки ж.п.вагони
TS=Tandem system –Двуосна група
TDC = Transversal distribution coefficient –Коефициент на напречно разпределение
UDL=UniformlyDistributedLoading – Равномерно разпределено въздействие
Glossary
Abutment = End support for the bridge beams or girders, placed where the roadway ends
and the bridge begins (See Figure 1.11) – Устой
Approach span = A span leading up to or away from the main span of a suspension or a
cable – stayed bridge (See Figure 1.8 and 1.9). Also, the first or last span of a multispan,
continuous bridge –Прилежащ отвор
Approach slab.= Cast in placeslab that provides the connection “roadway-bridge” (See
Figure 1.11) –Преходна плоча
Arch – (See Figure 1.5) – Дъга (криволинейна греда), Свод (криволинейна
повърхнина)
Balanced cantilever erection = Method for erection of frame or continuous bridges –
Уравновесено конзолно изграждане
Bearings= Devices provided at the ends of the beams to transfer reactions to abutments or
piers –Лагери
Cable-stayed bridge(See Figure 1.8) –Вантов мост
Cable stay = The element that connects the pylon and the beam or truss at cable-stayed
bridge (See Figure 1.8) – Ванта
Carriageway = The part of the road used only for the road traffic – Пътно платно
Close-endabutment – Устой от тип “подпорна стена”
Collarbeam=Thebeambelowthebearings (SeeFigure 1.11) – Подлагерна греда (Ригел
при опора от тип “рамка” или кусинет при опора от тип “стена”)
Culvert = A bridge with span less then 5m – Водосток
Curb - Бордюр
Cyclic loading (Also called repetitive loading) =Alternately applying and removing loads,
causing member to endure cyclic stresses of some minimum value to some maximum value
–Циклично въздействие
Deck (or Slab) =Flooring that supports vehicular traffic. The deck may be made of
reinforced concrete, steel or wood – Пътна плоча

Drainage basin area= The area in square kilometers that provides the design water quantity
and it passes under the bridge – Водосборна област
Drainage=The device that provides the removal of the water from the bridge surface –
Отводнител
Expansion joint = The device that allows the differential movement between adjacent
parts of the superstructure or superstructure and substructure – Деформационна
фуга
Fatigue =A fracture phenomenon resulting from a fluctuating stress cycle–Умора
Guard wall = The element of the abutment that supports the longitudinal earth pressure at
the level of the superstructure (See Figure q.1.11) – Гардбаластова стена
Grade line= The line of the roadway in vertical direction at the longitudinal profile–
Нивелета
Incrementallaunching = Method for bridge erection using longitudinal movement of
the superstructure – Тактово изтласкване
Kerb –Бордюр
Open-end abutment – Обсипан устой
Overpass (Over crossing)= A bridge whose structure is above other roadway – Надлез
Road alignment= The line of the roadway in horizontal direction (in plan) – Трасе на
пътя
Scaffolding = The temporary structure that supports the formwork and the cast in place
concrete–Скеле
Sidewalk (Footway)=The parts of the bridge for pedestrian access or the parts away from
the carriageway–Тротоар
Skew bridge =A bridge whose longitudinal axis is not perpendicular to the abutments or
piers – Кос мост
Skew =The angle between the bridge longitudinal axis and the axis of the abutments or piers
– Косота
Span = Distance between centers of bearings at supports –Отвор
Substructure =Portion of the bridge that supports the superstructure. The substructure
includes bridge bearings and every other bridge element below the bearings, such as
abutments and piers.- Долно строене
Superstructure =Generally,the portion of the bridge above the bridge bearings. The
superstructure may include only a few components, such as a reinforced concrete slab in a
slab bridge, or it may include several components, such as flooring, beams, trusses and
bracing in a truss bridge. In suspension and cable-stayed bridges, components such as
suspension cables, hangers, stays, towers(pylons), bridge deck, and the supporting structure
comprise the superstructure – Връхна конструкция
Suspension bridge (See Figure 1.9) – Висящ мост
Tresle = A bridge usually situated at urban areas at the road to the major transportation
object like airports, ports or others - Естакада
Underpass (Under crossing) = A bridge built to carry a city street or a county road under a
highwayл It may provide pedestrian access cross the highway- Подлез
Viaduct = A bridge that allows highways or railroads to pass over a valley. The valley may
contain streets, railroads, or other features. –Виадукт

CHAPTER1: Basic for the RCB bridge design
1.1 Bridge definition.
Bridge is a facility,whichcrosses an obstacle. The minimum span length of the bridge is
5m(in USAminimum 6 feet=6m). If the span length is less than 5m the facility is called
“culvert”. There are typical projects for different culvert types – pipe type, slab type and
others. Normally they are not designed.
1.2 Bridge classification.
Criteria №1- bridge function
- road bridge
- railway bridge
- pedestrian bridge
- combined bridge
Note 1:Combined is a bridge with roadway and railway traffic. There are not so
many examples of combined bridges in the world bridge practice. Two combined bridges
above DanubeRiver have been executed –near the towns Russe and Vidin.
Note 2: The typical road bridge is provided with pedestrian sidewalks. The typical
railway bridge is provided with paths for inspection. These bridges have not been considered
as combined bridges.
Criteria №2- obstacle for the bridge
- bridge over river
- overpass– see Glossary
- underpass– see Glossary
- viaduct– see Glossary
- trestle– see Glossary
Criteria №3- bridge situation
- in straight line w/o skew. The skew angle is 900.
- in straight line with skew, shortly “skew bridges” – Figure 1.1
- curved –Figure 1.2
- unspecified – Figure 1.3

Pier
Pier
Figure 1.1. Skew bridge
Abutment Abutment Abutment Abutment
ske
°
ske
90
w
w
bridge
axis
Exeption (rare case)

axi r
pie
s
Figure 1.2. Curved bridge
Pier Pier
Abutment Abutment
Figure 1.3.
Criteria №4- bridge structural system
- Beam type – definition: bridges with only vertical reaction under vertical loadsFigure
1.4
- Arch type-Figure 1.5
- Frame (Integral) type-Figure 1.6
- Combined-Figure 1.7
- Cable stayed-Figure 1.8
- Suspension-Figure 1.9
OR OR
Vertical reaction Vertical reaction

A
A-A
OR SLAB
Figure 1.4. “Beam type” bridge
A-A
OR
Figure 1.5. Arch type bridge
Bearing Bearing
OR
Abutment Pier Abutment
Integral bridge Semi Integral bridge
Figure 1.6. “Frame” type bridges

Figure 1.7. Example of combined bridge
"Harp" cable stays
Approach span Main span Approach span
"Fan" cable stays "Radial" cable stays
Figure 1.8.

Single - Span
Three - Span
Multi - Span
Figure 1.9. Types of suspension bridge
Criteria №5- material for construction

- reinforced concrete
- prestressed reinforced concrete
- steel
- combined – steel and reinforced concrete
- wood
- stone
- brick
Criteria №6- RCB construction
- Fully cast in situ
- Fully precast
- Precast beams and cast in situ slab
Criteria №7 – carriageway location
- Above the main bridge construction
- Below the main bridge construction-see Figure 1.7
- In the middle of the main bridge construction-Figure 1.10
A-A
Figure 1.10. Carriageway in the middle of the main structure

1.3 Historical review of the bridges
They say that the first “bridge” was a fallen tree above a river.
The ancient bridges were built mainly by stone or wood. Roman bridges have become
emblems of civilization. The typical construction form was arch. Still exist in South France
the unique aqueduct Pont-de-Guard with 3 rows of arches.
The first metal bridge was built above Severn River (now it is the border between
England and Wales) in 1779. The used material is iron. Unfortunately, this material is brittle
and is not appropriate for bridges which are subjected to repeated loads. The next bridge
construction stage is the steelbridge design and construction.
At the second half of the 19-th century started the use of the reinforcedconcrete for
building and bridge structures. The first application of prestressingwas at the end of the 19-
th century. The first attempts were without success because the engineers and the researches
did not know the nature of the prestress losses. At the first half of 20-th century started the
extensive application of the prestressed concrete.
In the Middle Ages in Bulgaria mostly stone arch bridges were built. Several bridges
still exist and have been used.
The first application of the prestressing in the Bulgarian bridge practice is at 1958.
Almost all modern bridge construction systems have been applied in the Bulgarian
bridge engineering – balanced cantilever erection and concreting, incremental launching,
“span by span” concreting and others. The span record is 180m – the spans at the Second
Danube Bridge Vidin-Calafat.
1.4 Main parts of the RCB beam type
There are two main parts of the beam type bridge structure:
- Superstructure – the part above the bearings;
- Substructure – the part below the bearings.
The parts of the superstructureare:
1. Bridge slab
2. Longitudinal main beam
3. Transversal beam
The parts 2 and 3 form the bridge beam grid. The functions of the transversal beams
are:
A.To improve (with the role of the slab) the distribution of the traffic loads among the
main beams.
B. To increase the lateral stability of the structure and the torsional (mainly) stiffness of
the structure.
The modern tendency in the field of bridge engineering is to design transversal beams
only at the supports. It is difficult the construction of the middle transversal beams. In this
case the role of the beams in the middle is carried out by the slab.
The parts of the substructureare:
1. Abutment. The main parts of the abutment are:
1.1. Abutment wall(columns)
1.2. Abutment guard wall
1.3. Wingwalls
1.4. Approach slab
1.5. Collar beam

1.6. Abutment foundation – flat or pile
2. Pier. The main parts of the pier are:
2.1. Collar beam
2.2. Wall(columns)
2.3. Foundation – flat or pile
1.5 Codes for RCB design
There are three groups of codes for RCB design:
- Codes for actions;
- Codes for design;
- Codes for seismic design.
The German code DIN 4227 was used in the past in Bulgariafor the design of
prestressed reinforced concrete bridges.
From the beginning of 2011 the bridge construction design is according the system
Eurocodes.
For seismic design of bridges is used “Regulation for seismic design of buildings and
facilities” from 2012.
The most important Eurocodes for bridge design are as follows:
1. Actions
БДС EN 1991-2 Part 2 – for traffic actions on bridges
БДС EN 1991-1-3 Part 1-3 – for snow action
БДС EN 1991-1-4 Part 1-4 – for wind actions
БДС EN 1991-1-5 Part 1-5 – for temperature action
БДС EN 1991-6 Part 1-6 – for actions during bridge execution
2. Design
БДС EN 1992-2 Part 2 – for reinforced concrete bridges
3. Seismic design
БДС EN 1998-2 Part 2 – seismic design of bridges
1.6 General background for RCB design

1.6.1 Grade line and road alignment, site plan and profiles.
The bridge engineer selects the place of the bridge according the grade line. The start
and end of the bridge depend on the height of the construction fill of the road. As a rule, the
bridge starts when the costs for the construction and maintenance of the fill are similar to the
same costs for the bridge. It is assumed that 6m height of the fill is this border. The grade
line determines the longitudinal slope of the bridge. The minimum slope for drainage is
0.5%.
The correct place of the bridge depends mainly on the road alignment and the obstacle.
The relevant construction form could be selected after detailed analysis. The modern bridge
theory and practice allow the design of large variety of bridges:
- Normal or skew;
- Curved (situated in a horizontal or vertical curve)
- Unspecified form.
The transversal profiles are required mainly for:
- Curvedbridges;
- Slope ground line. In this case it could be necessary to design the foundations at
different levels – see Figure 1.11.
slope
Ground line
Figure 1.11. Bridge foundations at different levels
1.6.2 Geotechnical investigations and report

A complete geotechnical study of a site will:
- determine the subsurface stratigraphy;
- define the physical properties of the earth materials;
- evaluate the generated data and formulate solutions to the project.
Geotechnical issues that can affect a project can be grouped as follows:
- Foundation Issues – Including the determination of the strength, stability and
deformations of the subsurface materials under the loads imposed by the structure
foundations;
- Earth Pressure Issues – Including the loads and pressure imposed by the earth
materials on the foundations and against supporting structures;
- Construction Considerations- The characteristics of materials to be excavated and the
conditions that affect deep foundation or ground improvement;
- Groundwater Issues – including occurrence, hydrostatic pressures, flow and erosion.
Site and subsurface characteristics directly affect the choice of the foundation type,
foundation construction methods and bridge cost. Subsurface and foundation conditions also
frequently directly affect the route alignment and bridge type selection.
For many projects, it is appropriate to conduct the geotechnical investigations in
phases. For the preliminary phase only historical information and a limited field exploration
may be adequate. The results or the first-phase study can then be used to develop a
preliminary geological model of the site, which is used to determine the key foundation
design issues and plan the design-phase site investigation.
1.6.3 Bridge hydraulics.
Hydrological study for the bridge design mainly deals with the properties, distribution
and circulation of the water on the land surface. The primary objective is to determine the
peak runoff discharges, water profiles and velocity distribution.
The base flood is the 100-year discharge (1% frequency). The design discharge Q2%
3
[m /sec] is the 50-year discharge (2% frequency) and is calculated according (1.1):
Q2%=42kA (1.1), where:
- k is a coefficient that depends on the type and the length L[km]of the drainage basin
area;

- A[km2] is the drainage basin area.
Many times the historical flood is so large that a structure to handle the flow becomes
uneconomical. It is the engineer’s responsibility to determine the design discharge.
The total required area that provides the water flood under the bridge ΣAj can be
determined according (1.2):
ΣAj=Q2%/vmax (1.2), where vmax is the maximum stream velocity taken from the
hydrological report.
Bridge scour (see Figure 1.12) is the result of the erosive action of flowing water,
excavating and carrying away material from the bed and banks of streams. Determining the
magnitude of the scour is complicate by the cyclic nature of the scour process. Scour should
be investigated closely in the field when designing a bridge. The engineer usually places the
top of footings at or below the potential scour depth. Therefore, the determination of the
depth of scour is very important.
The total potential scour comprises the following components:
1.Long-term degradation. The problem for the bridge engineer is to estimate the long-
term bed elevation changes that will occur during the lifetime of the bridge – as a rule 100
years.
Pier
River bed
J
Long - term degradation
Local scour
Figure1.12. Bridge scour
2.Local scour.When upstream flow is obstructed by obstruction such as piers,

abutments and embankments, flow vortices are formed at
Flow their base – see Figure 1.13. The vortex action removes bed
material from around the base of the obstruction.
Pier Vortices
Figure 1.13. Vortices caused by the pier as an obstacle

3.In considering local scour, the bridge engineer needs to look into the following
factors:
- flow velocity;
- flow depth;
- flow attack angle to the obstruction;
- obstruction width and shape – see Figure 1.14.;
- bed material characteristics.
River flow
er
Pi
NOT ALLOWED!
Figure1.14. Preferred pier shapes for minimizing the scour
The following is a summary of the best solutions for minimizing scour damage:
1. Streamlining bridge elements to minimize obstructions to the flow;
2. Founding bridge pier foundations sufficiently deep to not require prevention
measures;
3. Founding abutment foundations below the estimated local scour depth
1.6.4 Technological background
The bridge designer should be well acquainted with the following data for the design:
1. Materials for the bridge construction as follows:
- for high strength concrete – cement and aggregates;
- steel for reinforcement and/or for prestressing(tendons);
- for prestressing devices(depending on the used prestressing system in the relevant
country). The system which ismostly used in Bulgariais “Freyssinet”;
- for road surface and insulation.
2. Equipment for:
- concreting;
- reinforcement;
- prestressing (presses, anchorage);
- lifting(cranes);
- production of precast elements;
- construction of deep foundations(e.g.piles – driven piles or drilled shafts).
4. Typical bridge construction systems used at the relevant country

The bridgeengineer must select the most relevant construction system for the designed
bridge. Almost all known and applied bridge construction systems in the world have been
used in Bulgaria.
CHAPTER 2: Actions on bridges. Traffic loads on road, railway and pedestrian

bridges. Design groups and combinations.
2.1 Classification of actions

- Direct actions. They can be represented as concentrated forces or distributed loading.
For this action type one could use the words “load” and “force” simultaneously. Example –
traffic actions on road or railway bridges
- Indirect actions - They cannot be represented as “loads” or “forces”, but they
produce internal forces due to the restrain of the deformations. Example – temperature
change, shrinkage, creep, settlement of the supports.
According the nature and lasting of the actions they are as follows:
- Permanent actions (G) – self weight of the structural and non structural bridge
parts, earth pressure, hydrostatic pressure, prestressing, creep, shrinkage, settlement of the
supports and others;
- Variable actions (Q) – traffic actions on bridges, wind, temperature changes, river
flow and others;
- Accidental actions (A) – mainly collision forces on bridge supports, elastic barriers
or explosion;
- Seismic action (Ae) – actions during an earthquake
The actions are characteristic Fk and design actions Fd. The values of the (G)
characteristic actions are usually mean values. They are calculated using the geometry
dimensions of the element and the volume density of the relevant material – see 2.2.
For the ULS checks are used design actions Fd=Fk*γf, where γf is a partial safety
coefficient for actions.
2.2 Some permanent actions on bridges
Example 1: Self weight of the structural elements of the bridge:
- Slab characteristic self weight gf,k=hf*25=……… /kN/m2/
- Main beam characteristic self weight g1,k=Ac*25=……. /kN/m/
Example 2: Self weight of the non structural elements of the bridge:
- Self weight of the pavement above the bridge slab gp=0.11*22=2.42kN/m2:
- Self weight of the parapet and the elastic barrier – could be assumed 1kN/m each
Example 3: Earth pressure
For the bridges three earth pressure types are taken into account – active, passive and
in peace. The relevant coefficients are asfollows:
Ka=tg2(450-φ/2)
Kp=tg2(450+φ/2)
K0=tg(450-φ/2) , where φ is the angle of the internal friction.
This action is mostly important for bridge abutments.
2.3 Traffic actions for road bridges according EC1
The road actions in EC1-3 should be applied only for the design of road bridges with:
- individual span lengths less than 200m and with
- carriageway widths not greater than 42m.
For bridges having larger dimensions, traffic loads should be defined or agreed by the
client. Usually for span lengths exceeding 200m, the main models for characteristic
values(ex.LM1) are considered to be conservative.
The load models for road bridges defined in the Eurocodes do not describe actual loads.
They have been selected so that their effects (with dynamic amplification included)
represent the effects on the actual traffic.
The carriageway has been divided into notional lanes. The typical national lane is with
3m width. The locations of the lanes are not necessarily related to their numbering. For each
individual verification the load models on each notional lane should be applied on such a
length that the most adverse effect is obtained.
The characteristic values for the vertical loads have been used.
The load models for vertical loads represent the following traffic effects:
Load Model 1(LM1):Concentrated and uniformly distributed loads, which cover most of
the effects of the traffic of lorries and cars. This model is intended for general and local
verifications.
Load Model 2(LM2): Single axis load applied on specifictyre contact areas which cover
the dynamic effects of the normal traffic on very short structural elements. This model
should be separately considered and is only intended for local verifications.
Load Model 3(LM3): Special vehicles. This model is intended to be used only when is
required by the client.
Load Model 4(LM4): A crowd loading. This load model should be considered only when
required by the client. It is intended only for general verifications. The uniformly distributed
load is qfk=5kN/m2 for road bridges. For footbridges qfk depends on the span length.
The main load model is LM1 – see Figure 2.1. It consists of two partial systems:
- Double-axle Concentrated Loads (TS – tandem system), each axle having a weight
αQQk[kN] - see Table 2.1.Only one TS should be considered per lane. The relative distances
are 120cm at the direction of the traffic (longitudinal) and 200cm at the transversal
direction.Each TS should be located in the most adverse position in its lane. The contact
surface of each wheel is to be taken as square and of side 0.4m. For the assessment of
general effects, the TS may be assumed to travel along the axes of the notional lanes.
For span lengths greater then 10m each TS in one lane could be replaced by a one-axle
concentrated load of a weight equal to the total weight of the two axles.
- Uniformly Distributed loads. These loads are αq*9=0.8*9=7.2kN/m2 for notional lane
№1 and 2.5kN/m2 for the rest. These loads should be applied only in the unfavorable parts of
the influence lines longitudinally and transversally.

Tandem
Ql/41k Q1k
q1k
32.00
0.50*
Lane №1
2.00
Q1k=300 kN q1k=9 kN/m 2 2.00
0.50*
1.20
0.50*
Lane №2
2.00
Q1k=200 kN q1k=2,5 kN/m 2
0.50*
0.50*
0.40
Lane №3
2.00
Q1k=100 kN q1k=2,5 kN/m 2
0.50* 0.40
For w l=3,00m
Figure 2.1. Load Model LM1
Table 2.1. Basic values for LM1
Location Axle loads Qik[kN] for TS qik[kN/m2] for UDL

Notional lane Number 1 αQ*Q1k=0.8*300=240 αQ*q1k=0.8*9=7.2
Notional lane Number 2 αQ*Q2k=0.8*200=160 2.5
Notional lane Number 3 αQ*Q3k=0.8*100=80 2.5
Other lanes 0 2.5
Sidewalks 0 qfk,red=3kN/m2
The load model LM2 consists of a single axle load αQ*Qk=0.8*400=320kN (dynamic
amplification included), which should be applied at any location on the carriageway. The
contact surface of each wheel is a rectangle of sides 0.35m and 0.6m. The distance between
the wheels is 200cm -see Figure 2.2
Q1k=160 kN
Bridge longitudinal
2.00
axis direction
0.60
Q1k=160 kN
0.35
Figure 2.2. Load Model LM2

The dispersal through the pavement and deck is taken as 1H:1V(450) down to the level of
the middle plane of the slab – see Figure 2.3.
Pavement
45°
SLAB
Figure 2.3. Dispersal of concentrated loads through pavement and slabs
2.4 Traffic actions on railway bridges

For railway bridges two models of railway loading are given; one to represent normal
traffic on mainline railways(LM71) and one to represent abnormal heavy loads (LM SW).
Dynamic amplification is not included.
The load model LM71 consists of 4 equal concentrated forces Qvk=250kN/axis and UDL
qvk=80kN/m/axis – see Figure 2.4.
Qvk =250 kN 250 kN 250 kN 250 kN

qvk=80 kN/m qvk=80 kN/m
no limitation 0.80 m 1.60 m 1.60 m 1.60 m 0.80 m no limitation
Figure 2.4. Load Model LM71 and characteristic value for vertical loads
Load model LM SW (see Figure 2.5) consists of UDL:

- qvk=133kN/m for LM SW/O and a=15m and c=5.3m
- qvk=150kN/m for LM SW/2 and a=25m and c=7m
qvk kN/m qvk kN/m
a c a
Figure 2.5: Load Models SW
2.5 Design combinations of actions

Three design situations are defined as follows:
- Persistent situation (P) - situation associated with the normal bridge use;
- Transient situation (T) – short time situation (e.g. bridge repair plus snow action);
- Accidental situation (A) – situation associated with collision action or explosion
- Seismic situation(S). – situation during earthquake

Partial factors for the different actions depend on the design situation and the relevant
limit state checks. Below are given only the main partial factors used for the design of a
simple span bridge.
The action values are as follows:
- characteristic value qk– value associated with the bridge design life 100 years;
- infrequent value - value associated with 1 year return period. –he value is qk*ψ1,inf;
- frequent value – value associated with 1 week return period. The value is qk*ψ1;
- quasi-permanent value – value with 50% probability for occurrence each day. The
value is qk*ψ2;
Design combination for ULS:
- for permanent actions: self weight of structural and non structural elements–
γf=1.35(unfavorable) and γf =1(favorable);
- for traffic and other variable actions and P/T situations: γf=1.35(unfavorable) and
γf=1(favorable);
Design combination for SLS check for decompression at the beam sections
(frequent values):
- for permanent actions: self weight of structural and non structural elements – γf
=1.00;
- for traffic actions and P/T situations -frequent values. ψ1=0.75 for TS and ψ1=0.4 for
UDL;
- for the prestressed force - rinf=0.9 for post tensioning or 0.95 for pre tensioning;
Design combination for SLS check for the beam sections for infrequent values:
=1.00;
- for traffic actions and P/T situations -frequent values. ψ1,inf=0.80 for TS and ψ1,in–
=0.80 for UDL;
- for the prestressed force -rinf=0.9 for post tensioning or 0.95 for pre tensioning;
Design combination for SLS check for the beam sections for characteristic values:
=1.00;
- for traffic actions and P/T situations -frequent values. Ψ0=1 for TS and ψ0=1 for
UDL–
- for the prestressed force - γf =0.9 for post tensioning or 0.95 for pre tensioning;
Design combination for SLS check for the beam sections for the quasi-permanent
values:
=1.00;
- for traffic actions and P/T situations -frequent values. Ψ2=0 for TS and ψ2=0 for
UDL–
- for the prestressed force - rinf=0.9 for post tensioning or 0.95 for pre tensioning;
It is obvious that the quasi-permanent design combinations include only permanent
actions(including prestressing considered as a permanent action).

CHAPTER 3: Carriageway, drainage, water proofing (insulation), expansion joints.
Safety barriers.Sidewalks
3.1 Pavement and water proof
Contemporary road and city bridges, in general, have asphalt concrete pavement.
The asphalt concretepavementfor bridges works in unfavorable conditions. The asphalt
concrete serves as an additional protection from water penetration inside the reinforced
concrete construction. For these reasons, asphalt concrete pavement must be designed in a
suitable way and to be well-constructed.
In the past the thickness was taken to be at least 8 cm.Currently, the pavement must be
at least 2 layers dense asphalt concrete with overall depth 10 cm and water proof at least 1
cm.
Previously, asphalt concrete on bridges was the same quality as the one on soil. This
resulted in damages and destruction in the asphalt concrete pavement of many of the
bridges.Lately, asphalt concrete supplements are put on bridges, which ensure better
adhesion with the stone materials, increasedelasticity and durability of the pavement.
The function of water proof is to do not allow water to the reinforced concrete
construction. Rainwater is soft and causes corrosion of the concrete, which brings about a
change in the chemical composition of the solid concrete. The appearance of white spots is a
certain sign of corrosion. Corroded concrete becomes more porous, its strength decreases
and the reinforcement is subject to corrosion. During the maintenance of the roads in the
winter, many substances that are aggressive towards the concrete (salt, etc) have been used.
The water proof of thebridges is subject to dynamical vertical and horizontal loads from the
vehicles. Because of all the above reasons, there are more requirements to the bridge
materials and details in water proof than in buildings.
The slope of the bridge slab should follow the slope of the bridge pavement.
Theflatness and the quality of the execution of the top surface of bridge slab should
guarantee the direct placement of water proof on it. It is forbidden from the execution of the
cement screed under the water proof and protection concrete above it.
The type of the water proof should be selected during the bridge execution.For new
bridges, sheet type water proofs are preferred.
In the bridges, the following kinds of water proof are used:
- Sheet type water proof
- Plastered type water proof
The sheet typewater proofs are normally with thickness 1-5 mm and are imported in a
roll.Only one or two layers are put. In our practice, sometimes three-layer isolations are
used.
The materials for plasteredtype water proof are liquid.They are smeared on the surface
that is to be isolated.
In the past, on the water proof is placed cement screed,which is reinforcedwith mesh
ф5/15cm.Its function is toprotect the water proof during the laying of the asphalt concrete, as
well as during the repair of the pavement. During the repair of some of the bridges, it was
found out that the concrete screedhas been damagedand it causes damage on the pavement
above it.
In the cases without protective screed, a thicker asphalt concrete pavement is
recommended – 10-12 cm.

3.2 Drainage
Even the best designed and executed water proof does not offer enough guarantee to
the protection of the reinforced concrete structure. The fallen water should be drained as
quickly as possible. This could be achieved with the slopes of the carriageway and drainage
equipment.
The transversal slopes could be two-way and they are assumed at least 2%. In
horizontal curve, the slope is one-way and, depending on the radius, could reach 6%.
The bridge construction should have longitudinal slope. It is determined by the grade
line.
The diameter of the pipe for typical drainage is 150 mm. In the past, it was considered
enough for the lower end of the pipe to be 10 – 20 cm below the bridge slab. Nowadays, it is
required of the pipes to end below the lower edge of the construction.
The longitudinal distance between drainage is assumed to be no more than 10 m if the
slope is 0.5% and no more than 25 m, if the slope is above 1%. Another requirement of the
drainage is to do now absorbwater from more than 400 m2 bridge pavement surface.
3.3 Transition structures at expansion joints

The number and the place of the expansion joints depend on the static scheme of the
superstructure.
The transition structures should guarantee:
- water density;
- flatness of the surface of the pavement;
- relative displacement of the adjacent elements of the superstructure, or the elements of
the superstructure and the abutment.
The displacement of the expansion joints could be determined using methods of
structural mechanics and they depend on the structural system, stiffness and the bearings of
the superstructure.
In the past, expansion joint with copper sheet, was often used. Nowadays, it is forbidden
of the design and the execution of the copper sheet. The expansion joint should be
determined in the design as:
- closed type
- opened type
The designer should determine the dilatation (opening and closing) of the expansion
joints.
For dilatation up to 75 mm (±37.5 mm) is used expansion joint with rubber profile,
attached with steel profiles, anchored in the reinforced concrete structure.
The displacements in the expansion joints could be ensured with elastic asphalt concrete,
which allows big deformation.This execution allows displacements up to 50 mm (±25 mm).
3.4 Safety barriers. Sidewalks
The safety barriers could be:

- stiff (made of concrete or reinforced concrete)
- elastic (made of steel)

Safety barriers, made of concrete and reinforced concrete, undergo almost no
deformation and the energy of the impact is absorbed at the expense ofdeformation of the
vehicle. The simplest barrier is a kerb with 50 cm height. Its disadvantage is the low
overturning security of the kerb.
The concrete and reinforced concrete barriers are more expensive than the elastic
barriers. Maintenance costs for the stiff barriers are less then those for the elastic barriers.
Elastic barriers are easy repaired and removed.
Thesteelparapet must be with a minimumheight 1.1 m. At the expansion joints must be
ensured the dilatation of the steel parapet.
CHAPTER 4: Appropriate systems for the main RCB structures. Special features
of the static analysis.
4.1 Statically determinate reinforced concrete bridge structures. Advantages and

disadvantages.
4.1.1 Simple span bridges
The main advantages of this bridge system are as follows:
- internal forces caused by temperature action do not appear;
- internal forces caused by differential movement action do not appear;
- easy division into precast element and restoration to the unity of the bridge structure
The main disadvantages of this bridge system are as follows:
- this system is applied for relatively short spans;
- presence of expansion joints at each support;
- presence of many supports increases the price of the bridge;
- big construction height, respectively decreased clearance below the bridge.
The second disadvantage is eliminated using “temperature continuous” bridge slab – see
Figure 4.1.
EJ - expansion joint
EJ EJ
Slab
Beam Beam
Figure 4.1. Temperature continuous bridge slab
But in this case the bridge designer should calculate the bending moments caused by the
bridge beam rotation – see Figure 4.2.

Slab
Beam Beam
2
1
4.islab . 1 2.islab . 1
+
2.islab . 2 4.islab . 2
Figure 4.2. Bending moments at the transition slab caused by beam rotation
If necessary the slab span may be increased using isolation between the beam and the
slab – see Figure 4.3.
isolation
Slab
Beam Beam
Figure 4.3. Isolation between slab and beam

In this case the length of the transition slab has been increased. The adjacent bearings at
the internal supports must be fixed and movable – see Figure 4.1. Otherwise, the behavior of
the bridge structure will be similar to the continuous structure.

4.1.2 Simple span with cantilever bridges
- advantages of the simple span bridges;
- the bending moment at the span is less than the same moment for simple span(if the
spans are equal);
- the possibility for regulation of the bending moments(with changing the cantilever
length or increasing the permanent actions at the cantilever span) – see Figure 4.4.
a b
a-a
a b
balast
b-b
Mc Mc
Mspan=Mc
Figure 4.4. Simple span with cantilever
- the construction height is less than the same for the simple span bridge with the same
span;
- abutments, which are one of the most expensive bridge elements, do not exist.
- the vertical downward and upward deflection at the end of the cantilever causes cracks
at the pavement;
- consolidation of the fill at the end of the bridge.
The influence of the first disadvantage might be decreased using expansion joints.
The influence of the second disadvantage might be decreased using approach slabs.
Unfortunately, the above mentioned undesired effects cannot be completely eliminated.
For this reason, the application of this bridge system is limited. The system is replaced with
continuous beam with different spans and same bending moment’s distribution. The
disadvantage of this design decision is that the end bearings must resist compression and
tension – see Figure 4.5
Q=>R↓ Q=>R↑
R - reaction in
both direction
Figure 4.5. Continuous span bridge with different span

4.1.3 Gerber type bridges
This system has the advantages of the statically determinate systems and the continuous
beams which are mentioned below.
The places of the hinges must be carefully selected to prevent:
- total collapse of all main and hanged beams;
- tensile forces.
Example: The possibilities for three span bridge are shown at Figure 4.6. Only the first
option meets both two requirements.
1stoption
2doption Q =
RCtensile
3doption =
2 3
1
Total collapse if part 1 is destroyed
Figure 4.6. 3-span Gerber type bridge
The main disadvantage of this system is the presence of hinges and joints. This leads to
traffic discomfort. For this reason the application of this system now is very limited. Several
Gerber bridges still exist in Sofia.
4.2 Statically indeterminate reinforced concrete bridge structures. Advantages and

disadvantages. Special features of the static analysis.
4.2.1 Continuous bridge beams
This bridge system is appropriate for founding at stiff soils. The main advantages are as
follows:
- the bending moment at the span is less than the bending moment at the simple span
beam with same span length;
- the construction height is less than the same for simple span beam with same span
length;
- the clearance bellow the bridge is bigger than the same for simple span beam with
same span length;
- expansion joints at the intermediate supports are missing;

- the possibility for bending moments regulation assuming the first span shorter than
the next spans;
- the possibility for normal and shear stress regulation with increasing the depth of the
bridge structure or the web of the beams at the supports.
The main disadvantages are as follows:
- Internal forces caused by differential soil settlement appear;
- The division into separate elements is difficult;
- The design and the construction are complicated.
4.2.2 Frame bridges
This bridge system has the advantages and disadvantages of the continuous beams. Each
system, which is mentioned above, could be designed as frame system if the connection
between the superstructure and the substructure is stiff.
4.3 Different methods for construction of the bridge systems. Division of the bridge
structure into separate precast elements. Principles for division. Restoration to the
continuity
The all bridge structures, which are considered above, could be designed and constructed
as follows:
- slab or slab and beam totally cast in place;
- precast beams and cast in place slab;
- totally precast elements;
The bridge structures are long structures. So, the construction is usually divided into
separate cast in place or precast elements. The restoration of the unity and the continuity of
the bridge structure using different construction methods should be provided.
The bridge construction can be divided (see Figure 4.7) using:
- vertical longitudinal planes - see Figure 4.7a;
- horizontal longitudinal planes - see Figure 4.7b;
- vertical transversal planes see - Figure 4.7c.
a) b) c)
Figure 4.7. Division of the bridge structure
The rules for the division are as follows:

A. The division sections should be where M=0;
B. The different elements should have approximately equal size, length and weight;

C. The size, length and weight of the elements should guarantee convenient transport
and assembly;
D. If possible, the number of the connections should be minimized.
The simultaneous satisfaction of all these rules is almost impossible.
Contemporary, one of the most widely applied bridge continuous beam structure is so
called “hidden collar beam structure”. The division sections are at the support. At
construction stage the beams are simple span beams. The procedure for bridge construction
is as follows:
A. The precast beams are temporarily supported at scaffolding;
B. The abutments and the piers are completed;
C. The bearings are placed at the supports. If the bridge structure is frame structure the
connection is stiff and the pier reinforcement is anchored at the joint;
D. The formwork for the slab and for the “hidden collar beam” is placed;
E. The reinforcement for longitudinal and transversal negative and positive bending
moments and for shear is placed;
F. The slab and the “hidden collar beam” are cast-in-placed.
At the serviceability stage the bridge structure is continuous or frame structure.
4.4 Construction decisions for skew and curved bridge constructions

The skew bridges could be easily constructed with straight precast or cast in place beams
and cast in place “skew” bridge slab –see Figure 4.8.
pier
axis
Straight beams
a) Simple span b) 2-span skew continuous bridge
Figure 4.8. Skew bridges
The curved bridges (see Figure 4.9) could be constructed with:

- parallel piers;
- radial piers.

"curved"
slab
straight
beams
pier
axes
a) Parallel piers b) Radial piers
Figure 4.9. Curved bridges
The advantage of the first design decision is that the length of all precast or cast in place
beams is equal.
The advantage of the second decision is the aesthetics of the bridge.
CHAPTER 5: RCB slabs
5.1 One way RCB slabs. Static analysis and detailing.

5.1.1 Static scheme
When the ratio between the longer and the shorter span of the slab exceeds 2 then the
slab is assumed as aone way reinforced concrete slab.
We consider a strip in the short direction with unspecified width. It is assumed 1m for
simplification. This strip is continuous and is supported by the beams. For one way building
slabs, the beams have been considered as stiff beams. For bridge road slabs, the beams are
assumed as deformed in the span.
For bending moment calculation “by hand”, it is assumed a basic simple span beam
with a span L equal to the sum of the clear short span of the slab and the slab depth. The
bending moment in the middle of the span has been calculated. The bending moments in the
continuous one way slab are determined by multiplying this moment with relevant
coefficients.
For shear force calculation, it is assumed a simple span beam with a span equal to
the clear distance between the top flanges of the beams. The calculated shear forces are
assumed as final design forces.
5.1.2 Static calculation
I. Bending moments
1. Bending moment at the basic beam due to the permanent characteristic actions
Mgk=gk*L2/8 kNm/m
2. Same due to the load model LM1
2.1 Bending moment caused by UDL at the first notional line q1k=9*0.8=7.2kN/m2
MUDL=7.2*L2/8
2.2 Bending moment caused by TS1 at the first notional line
A part of the slab, which is called distribution length, is assumed to contribute for the
carrying of traffic loads. It depends on the position of the load. If it is in the middle of the
span then:

aeff,span=a+l/4
For TS1 check for interaction between the adjacent forces must be carried out. If
aeff,span<1.2m then interaction does not exist and the equivalent UDL for TS1 is
qeq=(240/2)/(b*aeff,span).
Otherwise (see Figure 5.1) qeq=(2*240/2)/[b*(aeff,span+1.2)].
If it is at the face of the support thenaeff,sup=a.
The maximum moment may be calculated using the influence line for the bending
moment in the midspan.
The value MTS1 is equal to the area of the influence line below the load multiplied with
the qeq.
b
a
1,20 m
interaction
aeff,span
a
Figure 5.1. Interaction between adjacent wheels
2.3 Same due to the load model LM2

The procedure is the same with different lengths a and aeff,span. The equivalent UDL for
LM2 is qeq=(320/2)/(b*aeff,span). The value MLM2 is equal to the area of the influence line
below the load multiplied with the qeq.

2.4 Combinations for the design actions for ULS design
I- g+LM1 MI=γg*Mgk+γq*(MUDL+MTS1)
II- g+LM2 MII=γg*Mgk+γq*MLM2
The partial safety coefficients γg=γq=1.35
Design basic bending moment is Md=max(MI;MII)
2.5 Bending moments at the continuous beam -see Figure 5.2
- bending moment at the middle of the span MEd,span=0.5Md;
- bending moment at the support MEd,sup=0.7Md.
q
g
+
Md
0,7Md
-
Menvelope
+
0,5Md
Figure 5.2. Bending moments at continuous bridge slab
II. Shear force

The design shear force is at the section at distance d/2 from the support (face of the
beam). Here d is the effective slab depth d=hf-cnom-Ф/2≈hf-4 /cm/.
The concrete cover cnom=cmin +Δcdev=20+10=30[mm]
1 Shear force caused by permanent characteristic actions
Vgk=gk*(L-d)/2
2 Shear force caused by LM1
2.1 Shear force caused by UDL at the first notional line q1k=9*0.8=7.2kN/m2
VUDL=7.2*(L-d)/2
2.2 Shear force caused by TS1
The contact surface area has been placed at the most unfavorable position according
influence line, i.e. close to section “d/2”. The concentrated vertical force Qk/2=240/2kN is
divided into several forces Qjk according the dimensions bj of the effective area Qjk=Qk*bj/b.
The forces Qjk have been divided to the respective length a,eff,j from the effective area
qjk=Qjk/aeff,j. The shear force VTS1is equal to the sum of the distributed forces qjk multiplied
by the respective values vj from the influence line “Vd”.

2.3 Shear force caused by TS2
The procedure is the same as 3.2.2 with different dimension “b” with different contact
surface area and different concentrated vertical force Qk/2=320/2kN.
2.4 Combinations for the design actions for ULS design
I- g+LM1 VI=γg*Vgk+γq*(VUDL+VTS1)
II- g+LM2 VII=γg*Vgk+γq*VLM2
Design shear force is VEd=max(VI;VII)
5.1.3 Design for bending and shear at ULS
I. Bending moment calculations
The procedure for the calculation of the required area for the tensile reinforcement is
similar as the procedure at the project on “Reinforced concrete”. The differences are as
follows:
-minimum concrete grade C30/37
-minimum slab depth is 160mm
- design concrete strength is fcd=αcc*fck/γc=0.85*30/1.5=17MPa
The number of the bars for 1 linear meter is equal to the calculated area As1 divided to
the area of one bar. The steel grade is B500B with fyd=500/1.15=435MPa.
Minimum reinforcement As,min=0.26(fctm/fyk)bd=0.26*(2.9/500)bd=0.0015bd>
0.0013bd.
The minimum number of bars is 6 and the minimum diameter is 10. The maximum
number of bars for 1m is 14.
The calculation starts by determining of the reinforcement at the middle of the span.
The typical detailing is only with straight bars. The total number of the bars is equal to the
number of the bars for 1 meter multiplied by the longer span of the slab.
For the support design the procedure is repeated.
II. Shear force calculations
The procedure is the same as at the project on “Reinforced concrete” The check is
“design for maximum shear without shear reinforcement”.
VEd<VRd,c
Otherwise:
- the slab depth should be increased.
- tensile top reinforcement should be increased
- the concrete class should be increased
5.1.4 Detailing
The distribution reinforcement should be at least 20% from the bottom main
reinforcement and at least 4 bars with diameter 8mm. It is placed at the bottom and at the top
of the slab.
At the short sides of the slab at the transversal beams are designed top bars without
calculation with minimum area 30%As1. The minimum number of the bars is 6 and the
minimum diameter is 8mm.
At the free edges of the slab w/o calculation “U” bars are placed with number and
diameter as the top reinforcement. The overlapping with the top bars is 40 times bar
diameter, but at least 2hf.

5.2 Cantilever RCB slabs. Static analysis and detailing
5.2.1 Application of the cantilever RCB slabs
These slabs could be:
- a part of main bridge slab;
- a part of main bridge slab and beam structure;
- a part of main bridge box structure.
5.2.2 Actions
5.2.2.1 Permanent actions
The permanent distributed actions Gj=Aj*γj per 1 meter (see Figure 5.3) could be
determined according the relevant areas Aj and volume densities γj of the materials
(reinforced concrete, pavement or insulation). The volume density for the pavement and the
insulation is assumed 22kN/m3.
It may be assumed G=1kN/m distributed actions for the parapet and for the safety barrier.
5.2.2.2 Traffic actions
- The crowd action (LM4) is uniformly distributed 5kPa load according the EN 1991-
3 in case of missing traffic at the carriageway. At the top of the parapet uniformly distributed
horizontal load 1kN/m is applied acting at both directions. This crowd action is applied at the
sidewalk, at the space between the curb and the elastic barrier (dynamic clearance) and at the
carriageway.
- Load model LM1. For local verifications (e.g. bridge slab design) it is allowed to
place the contact surface area 40/40cm for the TS1 close to the curb – see Figure 5.3 . It is
obviously the most unfavorable situation. For UDL q1k=7.2kPa is applied. The action applied
at the sidewalk and at the space between curb and the elastic barrier (dynamic clearance) is
qfk,red=3kPa. The dispersal of the traffic actions is similar to the one way slab design – see
Figure 5.3. For the exam scale drawing for the dispersal is recommended.
curb
footing path
1aa0
Fk
wheel
32% of the
TS 2%
45°
45° pavement
top
1 2
central line Δ1 Δ Δ
Δ2
bot beam
Gj lj
2a
b2Lc
Figure 5.3. Cantilever bridge slab

- Load model LM2. For local verifications (e.g. bridge slab design) it is allowed to
place the contact surface area 35/60cm close to the curb. This load model is not acting
simultaneously with actions at the sidewalk.

I. Bending moments and shear forces caused by the permanent actions
The minimum negative bending moment and the maximum shear force at the fixed end of
the cantilever should be calculated.
Mgk=∑Gj*lj, where lj are the relevant distances from the action Gj and the fixed end.
Vgk=∑Gj
II. Bending moments and shear forces caused by the trafficactions

2. Bending moments and shear forces caused by the crowdaction LM4
It could be assumed equivalent crowd force Fk=5kPa*lc. Again, the minimum negative
bending moment and the maximum shear force at the fixed end of the cantilever are easily
calculated.
MFk=Fk*lk
VFk=Fk
2. Bending moments and shear forces caused by the trafficaction
The effective slab width for bending moment calculation aeff is equal to the distributed
contact surface area am width plus 1.5 times the distance X between the center of the area
and the fixed end – see Figure 5.4.
Plan Fixed
x end
2
Δ11 Δ
Δ1 Δ2
1 0 2
a a a
Qk
Δ1 Δ2
1
Δ 2
Δ
b0
b a m= 21 (a1+a2)
lc
Figure 5.4. One full contact surface area is placed at the cantilever slab

The effective slab width for shear force calculation aeff is equal to the distributed contact
surface area am width plus 0.5 times the distance X between the center of the area and the
fixed end.
Two cases should be considered:
A. One full contact surface area is placed at the cantilever (see Figure 5.4)
MQk=Qk*X/aeff
VQk=Qk/aeff
Where Qk=120kN for LM1 (TS1) and 160kN for LM2
B. One partial contact surface area is placed at the cantilever
The acting force only at the cantilever is Qk,1=Qk*b1/b where b1 is the distance from the
fixed end to the end of the distributed contact surface area width and b is the total distributed
contact surface area width – see Figure 5.5. The internal forces have been calculated in the
same way as in Case A but instead Qk is used Qk1.
2. Design combinations
The combinations for ULS check are as follows:
MEd=1.35(Mgk+MFk+MQk)
VEd=1.35(Vgk+VFk+VQk)
1. Check for bending
The rules for the design of rectangular section with only tension top reinforcement should
be applied.
2. Check for shear
The check for resisting the shear stresses without shear reinforcement should be
completed. The favorable contribution of the inclined force at the compressive and tensile
zone must be considered.
VEd,red=VEd-MEd(tgψtop+tgψbot)/z where ψtopandψbot are the angels of the inclination of the
top and the bottom chord respectively – see Figure 5.3.
Plan Fixed
x end
am
Q1
lc
Figure 5.5. One partial contact surface area is placed at the cantilever slab

3. Detailing
The general rules for bridge slab design are valid. In addition, the top reinforcement should
be well anchored at the adjacent span – at distance at least equal to the cantilever length.
5.3 Two way RCB slabs. Static analysis and detailing
5.3.1 Application of two way RCB slabs

The two way RCB slabs are applied in the bridge structures with enough transversal
beams. The ratio long size/short size of the slab must be less than 2. The slab depth is
assumed approximately 1/15 from the short slab span but not less than 16cm.
The internal adjacent two way slabs are usually with equal sizes and in this case the
two way slabs could be assumed fixed each other.
Contemporary the application of this type RCB slab is very limited due to the design of
the structures without transversal beams at the beam span.
The permanent action determination is typical for the bridge slabs.
The surface contact area and its dispersal are similar to the one way bridge slabs.
The bending moments caused by the permanent actions might be calculated using the
Marcus method. The slab will be case №1 (see below why). Other approach is described
bellow.
The bending moments caused by the traffic actions could be calculated using base
simplesupported slab (case№1) -see Figure 5.6a. The slab sizes are la and lb and la is the
shorter span. The design spans la and lb are the clear dimensions of the slab plus the slab
depth.
The limitations for the calculations are as follows:
 the contact surface area is only one;
 the contact surface area is situated at the middle of the slab;
 the size a is parallel to la and the size b is parallel to lb.
The bending moments Ma and Mb at the middle of the slab are calculated using the
formulas:
Ma=αQk
Mb=βQk
The coefficients α and β depend on the ratios lb/la, a/la and b/la.
In this case UDL from LM1 (maximum at notional lane 1 – q1k=7.2kN/m2) could be
considered as one “contact surface area” with dimensions 3m and la (or lb) depending on the
traffic direction – see Figure 5.6b.

a
contact UDL
surface a
q1k a
area l
/2b b b
l l
la 3m
a) b)
Figure 5.6. Two way bridge slab
If the contact surface areas are more than one the following approach is applied:
A) Equivalent UDL is calculated using the formula qeq=Qk/(ab) [kN/m2]
Qk=120kN for LM1 (TS1) and 160kN for LM2
B) The individual contact surface areas are united into several sub areas Aj(the sign could
be plus or minus). The areas Aj cover the limitations above.
C) For every single Aj is calculated notional action Qj=Aj*qeq
The design bending moments Ma and Mb at the simple supported slab are calculated using
the superposition formulas:
For TS1 and case with 4 contact surface areas – see Figure5.7:
Ma,k=α1Q1k-α2Q2k-α3Q3k+α4Q4k
Mb,k=β1Q1k-β2Q2k-β3Q3k+β4Q4k
2.00 m
b4=b3
1.20 m
b2=b1
= 1 - 2 - 3 + 4
b1
b3
a1 a2 a3=a1 a4=a2
Figure 5.7. TS1
For LM2 and case with 2 contact surface areas – see Figure 5.8:
Ma,k=α1Q1k-α2Q2k
Mb,k=β1Q1k-β2Q2k
2.00 m
b2=b1
= 1 - 2
b1
a1 a2
Figure 5.8. LM2
The bending moments Ma,g and Mb,g caused by the permanent uniformly distributed action
could be calculated using the following approach:
- the total permanent load is G=g*la*lb;
- the permanent load is considered as a “contact surface area” with dimensions la and
lb.
The design combinations for the bending moments at the simple supported slab are similar
to the design combinations for the one way slabs. They are separately determined for each
direction for the slab.
The design bending moments for every direction a and b for the simply supported slab are:
MEd=1.35(Mgk+MQk)
The design bending moments for the fixed two way slab are as follows:
- at the middle of the span Mspan=0.525MEd
- at the support - Msup=0.75MEd
The shear force calculation “by hand” is very difficult. Conservatively, it might be
assumed that the design shear force is the same as for the one way slab with design span
equal to a clear short span of the slab.

The reinforcement determination is the same as for the one way bridge slab. For each
direction effective depth should be calculated. For the higher bending moment is required
higher effective depth.
The detailing of this bridge slab type is similar to the one way slabs. The rules for the
reinforcing at each direction apply.
5.4 RCB slabs without beams. Static analysis and detailing
5.4.1 Application of RCB slabs w/o beams. Main dimensions

- the possibility for application at each road situation (skew, curve, special);
- low construction height;
- easily construction.
- heavy self weight;
- application for relatively short spans;
- significant expenses for formwork, reinforcement and concrete;
- difficult dispersal at segments.
The typical construction of this bridge system is cast-in-place erection. The slab cross
sections are as follows (see figure 5.9):
- solid slabs without voids;
- voided slabs with round or rectangular voids.
a) Solid slab b) Voided slab
Figure 5.9. Bridge slab cross sections
The ratio “slab height/span length” depends on:

- type of the cross section of the slab (solid or voided);
- structural system (simple span slab or continuous);
- type of the slab (prestressed or not).
The typical limits for this ratio are 1/18-1/25.
It is important that the self weight bending moment depends on the third degree of the
span length. So, the application of solid slab w/o voids is limited for relatively short spans.
When the ratio “span length/slab width” exceeds 5 (long and relatively narrow bridge)
the bridge structure may be assumed as a “beam”, which resists longitudinal bending, shear
and torsion. Otherwise, it may be assumed as a “slab”,which resists longitudinal and
transversal bending, shear and torsion.
The voided slabs are very effective bridge structure, especially for prestressed slabs. In
this case the slab self weight is significantly decreased without considerable stiffness
reduction.
The voided slabs with round voids have been more easily constructed than the slabs with
rectangular voids. The materials for the round voids are:
- pressed pasteboard pipes;
- steel sheet pipes;
- rubber pipes filled with air under pressure.
The pipes should be connected to the shuttering (usually water proof plywood) with rings
for stability during concreting.
The construction phases for voided slabs with rectangular voids are as follows:
- shuttering, reinforcement and concreting of the bottom slab;
- shuttering, reinforcement and concreting of the web;

- permanent shuttering, reinforcement and concreting of the top slab.
The slab cross section for continuous voided slabs is not sufficient to resist punching at
the supports. It is necessary to assume and design solid slab at the supports. See bellow for
punching design and detailing.
The solid and voided slabs could be constructed with precast elements. The most typical
sections are as follows:
- solid beam elements, connected with concrete dowels. This system is typical for
culverts – see Figure 5.10
- hollow box beams with cast-in-place slab – see Figure 5.11;
- flanged beams with connected top and bottom flanges see Figure 5.12, etc.
concrete dowels
Figure 5.10. “”Precast” solid slab
Figure 5.11. “Precast” and cast in place hollow slab
concrete dowels
Figure 5.12. “”Precast” voided slab

The internal forces, reactions and the displacements for the solid bridge slabs could be
determined using different computer programs based on FEM. The “shell” type elements are
used.
The following main recommendations could be applied:
- the local coordinate axes for the elements should follow the direction of the main
reinforcement;
- the finite elements set must be condensed at the supports;
- the concentrated loads should be distributed to the element joints;
- the triangle finite elements should be avoided;
- for the internal forces at the slab it is enough to restrain only the vertical deflection
at the supports;
- the elastomeric bearings should be modeled with springs. .
The internal forces caused by permanent actions for bridge slabs are usually 60-85%
from the maximum moment. So, it is possible to place the concentrated traffic actions at the
nearest joint without significant mistake.
The voided slabs could be modeled with bridge beam grid. At transverse direction the
top and bottom slab are exchanged with one equivalent slab with depth equal to the sum of
the top and bottom slab depths – see Figure 5.13.
Element type 1 Element type 2

hw+h'w
h'w
b'w
type 1
x b x bw
h
type 2
bw
hw
Figure 5.13.
5.4.3 Design checks

The internal forces for the bridge slabs at longitudinal direction are higher than at
transversal direction. The slab behavior is similar to one very wide “beam”, which resists
bending moments, shear and torsion.
At transversal direction the reinforcement is calculated to resist bending moments at the
cantilever parts and small transverse bending moments.
The punching shear design at the supports is decisive for the slab depth. The punching
shear resistance is considerably decreased if elastomeric bearings are used. In this case the
following measures could be applied:
- increased slab depth;
- increased concrete grade;
- design heads;
- design shear reinforcement (stirrups or bent bars).
5.4.4 Detailing
The typical approach for detailing is as follows:
- divide the slab width into several hidden “beams” – (see Figure 5.14);
- place open stirrups;
- place bottom reinforcement that resists torsion;
- place longitudinal bottom reinforcement (bottom and top reinforcement for
continuous slabs);
- place top transversal reinforcement;

- place cover stirrups.
Figure 5.14.
For voided slabs the voids have been placed between the stirrups.
For skew bridge slabs the typical approaches for detailing are as follows:
A. Rectangular reinforcing for:
- long and narrow bridges without significant skew – see Figure 5.15a;
- very wide bridges without significant skew – see Figure 5.15b.
Figure 5.15. Skew bridge slabs
B. Skew reinforcing for other cases.

CHAPTER 6: Static analysis of the bridge superstructure
6.1 Methods for static analysis of RCB

Methods for static analysis of RCB structures may be summarized in three main groups:
A. Analytical methods
These methods are usually used for calculations “by hand”. They have been applied for
structures that suit following requirements:
- the elements of the structure are struts;
- the number of the unknown quantities is small;
- the connection “supporting member-structure” is simple (hinge supports or fixed
supports).
The final results of the application of these methods are:
- the functions of the internal forces or displacements;
- the exact values of the internal forces or displacements at selected cross sections or
points.
These following methods from the structural mechanic are included in this group:
- Method of forces;
- Method of displacements;
- Mixed method;
The following analytical methods for RCB static analysis are used:
- Leonhardt-Andrae’s method;
- Method of infinitely stiff transversal beam (method of eccentric compression);
- Method of lever arm.
B. Semi analytical methods
These methods are used both for calculations “by hand” or by computer program. They
are applied for more complicated bridge structures.
The final result of the application of these methods is the functions of the unknown
internal forces or displacements for the entire structure or for each structure element.
The following semi analytical methods for RCB static analysis are used:
- Semi analytical method of finite strips (FSM);
- Method of infinite Fourrier’s rows (used for RCB structures without transversal
beams at the span of the main beam).
The FSM is suitable for bridge thin walled sections, eg. box sections.
A. Numerical methods
These methods are used only for calculations by computer program. They are effective
for very complicated bridge structures:
- Skew or
- Curved or
- Continuous or frame or
- Supported at elastomeric bearings.
These methods are always used for dynamic analysis of bridge structures (impact
actions, seismic actions).

The final result of the application of these methods is the unknown internal forces or
displacements at the joints of the grid for each structure element. The functions for the forces
or displacements remain unknown.
These methods are approximate methods.
The most widely applied method of this group is Finite Element method (FEM).
6.2 Leonhardt-Andrae’s method. Application. Influence lines
The following assumptions for the bridge structure must be valid using Leonhardt-
Andrae’s method:
- equal distance between beams;
- the bridge must be situated in a straight line;
- the bridge is without skew;
- the second moment of cross section area for the end beam and for the internal beams
are approximately equal;
- the beams are simply supported;
- the base case is with one transversal beam at the middle of the span and two
transversal beams at the supports of the beams.
The following assumptions for further simplification are assumed:
- The main beams are spring supports of the central transversal beam.
- The end transversal beams are continuous beams at stiff supports.
- The slab is infinitely stiff at its own plane.
- The slab is replaced by its contribution to the stiffness of the main and the transversal
beams
- The torsional stiffness of the main beam and of the transversal beam is neglected.
In this case it is assumed hinge connection between the main beams and the transversal
beams and only one vertical unknown force at the hinge.
The case with more than one transversal beam is reduced to a base case assuming (see
Figure 6.2):
- i=1.6 for 3 and 4 internal (w/o end beams) transversal beams. For i see formula (6.1);
- i=2 for 5,6….internal(w/o end beams) transversal beams
The static scheme of the bridge grid is shown at Figure 6.1.

B
port
1/4
R j,support
sup
A "A" "B"
Jtr
n
2/4
spa
JII
L
R j,span Rj
Rj
sup /4
port
1
1 i j n
d d d
b1
IIdstage JII (or J)

hf
beff =L/2
Jtr
Iststage i j
L
d d d
Figure 6.1. Static scheme for Leonhardt-Andrae’s method application
Jtr Jtr
2 transversal
3 transversal beams
beams
Figure 6.2.
The calculation is conducted through two stages:

- At transversal direction – transversal distribution of the traffic action is determined;
- At longitudinal direction – the internal forces are calculated.
The following scheme for the calculation must be applied:
- Determination of the influence lines “Rj” for the vertical force at the hinges;
-Loading of the influence lines with the nominal traffic action. For simplification the value
of the action is assumed equal to unity. The place of the actions must be at the most
unfavorable condition. The calculated force is called “transversal distribution coefficient”.
The influence lines for the reactions at main beam “j” at the middle of the span “Rj,span”are
straight or curved lines. The criteria is the ratio (“main beam static span length L”)/(”width
of the bridge structure” - the distance between the end beams b1). It is assumed that for
ratio L/b1≥2 (long and narrow bridges) the transversal beam could be assumed as
infinitely stiff and the influence lines are straight lines. Only two points are required for the
influence lines determination. The values depend on the number of the beams and the bridge
geometry at transverse direction.

Otherwise (ratio less than 2) the influence lines are curved lines – see Figure 6.3. The
values at the beams depend on:
- Numbern of the main beams;
- stiffness factor coefficient z, calculated using formula (6.1)
z=i*(Jtr/JII)*(0.5L/d)3 (6.1)
Here Jtr is the second moment of the transversal beam cross section including the
effective slab depth beff=L/2.
- number of the transversal beams. For the case of missing internal transversal beams
or 1 and 2 internal transversal beam i=1 at Formula (6.1). In case of missing internal beams
Jtr=(L/2)*hf3/12
span
1 j n
Rj
R jn
- "R "
j,span
R j1 + R jj
tangent line
linear distribution
Figure 6.3. Influence line for the internal forces at the span “ , ”
The sum of the values Rji for one beam must be equal to unity. At the cantilever parts of
the bridge it is assumed linear distribution of the influence line. The tangent line at the end
might be used. The intermediate values may be calculated by linear interpolation.
The influence lines for the forces at the end of the span“Rj,support are influence lines for the
reaction at the continuous beam -see Figure 6.4. For simplification it is assumed triangle
distribution of the influence line.
1 j n
"Rj,support"
+ 1
"Rj,support"
+ 1
Figure 6.4. Influence line for the internal forces at the support “ , ”
6.2.1 Transversal distribution coefficient
The influence lines are loaded using the following rules -:see Figure 6.5
- the nominal value is 1kN/m2 for UDL at first notional line and 2.5/7.2=0.35kN/m2
for the other notional lines. For the sidewalk the nominal value is 3/7.2=0.42kN/m2;
- For UDL only positive part of the influence line has been loaded. The reaction for the
beam j (called notionally TDS – transversal distribution coefficient) is
TDCj,UDL=∑(nominal values)*(area ωof the influence line below the UDL position);
Figure 6.5. TDC determination for UDL
- the nominal value is 1kN/axis for TS1 at first notional line (2*0.5kN for each wheel-
see Figure 6.6) and 160/240=0.666kN for the second notional line TS2(2*0.333kN for each
wheel) and 80/240=0.333kN for the second notional line TS2(2*0.167kN for each wheel).
- The minimum distance between the curb and the first TS1 wheel is 50cm;
- The distance between each TS wheel is 200cm;
- The minimum distance between the adjacent TS wheels is 100cm;
- The TS are applied since the reaction is increased. Otherwise, the TS is omitted!

1 kN/axis 2/3 kN/axis
0.5 0.5 1/3 1/3

50 200 100 200 3rd line (if possible)
1 j n
b1
1 2
"Rj,span"
h"R "
fj,support
Figure 6.6. TDC determination for TS
ThenTDC1,TS=∑(nominal value)*(value of the influence line ηbelow the wheel position).

6.2.2 Internal forces at the main longitudinal beams
The schedule is as follows:
1. The influence lines for the internal forces should be determined and drawn – see
Figure 6.7;
2. The transversal distribution for the each traffic load should be considered. It is
assumed constant transversal distribution for the middle one half of the bridge L/2. The
relevant TDC coefficients for the “span” and for the “support” are used;
3. The influence lines should be loaded at the most unfavorable condition.
For the TS and for span lengths greater than 10m the internal forces caused by TS can be
calculated by replacing each tandem system by a one-axle concentrated load equal to the
total weight of the two axes, i.e. 2*240=480kN.

Qk=480kN
m Beam j
L/4 L/2 L/4
"Mm"
m1 +
TDCj,TS
k1 TDCspan
j,TS
-
"Vm"
V1 +
Figure 6.7.
For TS bending moment M (or shear force V)= 480*(value from the influence line
below the force 480kN)*(value from the TDS diagram line below the force 480kN).
For UDL bending moment(or shear force)=7.2*∫(influence line diagram)*(TDC
diagram below the UDL position).
6.2.3 Internal forces at the transversal beams
The following approach for approximate determination of the internal forces at the
transversal beams has been applied:
- determination of the influence line for the internal force at the design section using
the method “general formula” – see Figure 6.8;
“Mm”=”R1”*l1+”R2”*l2-“F*lf”
“Vm”=”R1”+”R2”-“F=1”

m
1 2 3 4 5
F=1 LF m
Mm
Qm
1 2
R1 R2 L2
L1
R15
-
R13
"R1"
R12 R1m R14
R11
R24
"R2"
R21 R22 R2m R23 R25
"[1.LF]"
L1 L2
"[1]"
1 1
minM minM
Sc Sc
maxM maxM
Sc Sc
Mm1 ?1 Mm4 Mm5
"Mm"
Mm2 Mm3
Mmm
Qmmt
Qm2 Qm5
"Qm"
1
Qm4
Qm1 Qm3
Qmmd
Figure 6.8.

- longitudinal distribution of the traffic loads between transversal beams – see Figure
6.9;
- It is possible to assume triangle or parabolic distribution at longitudinal direction.
A B C D E
120
240 240
2
"Sc"
1
OR Sc= (240/2)* j
1 2
Figure 6.9. Longitudinal distribution of TS loading
- loading of the influence line at the most unfavorable condition for positive and
negative values –see Figure 6.10.
m
1 2 j
2 2
Sc Sc 3Sc 3Sc
200 100 200
"Mm"
- -
"Vm"
+
+
2 2
Sc Sc 3Sc 3Sc
200 100 200
Figure 6.10.

6.2.4 Special cases
6.2.4.1 Case with more than 8 main beams
The following approaches for simple calculations are applied:
- using the values from the table for 8 beams and neglecting the values for distant
beams;
- forming a coupled “beams” and reducing the overall number of the beams – see
Figure 6.11.
The calculated internal forces are referred for two beams.
1 2
n=16
2 coupled beams
R1n
"R1span"
R11 R1j
Figure 6.11. Reducing n=16 beams into n=8 beams
6.2.4.2 Application for continuous beams

The above considered methods might be used for continuous beam type bridges as
follows:
- determination of the influence lines for the required internal forces at the relevant
section see Figure 6.12. for “MB”;
- determination of the transversal distribution as shown for simple span beam;
- loading of the influence lines.
The distance between zero points from the bending moment diagram is assumed for each
span for stiffness coefficient calculation (see Figure 6.12.).

A L1 B L2 C L3 D
"M B"
g
L~0.8L1 L~0.6L2 L~0.8L3
Figure 6.12.
6.3 Method of infinitely stiff transversal beam.

This method belongs to the analytical group of methods. It is assumed that for long and
narrow bridges (L>2*b1) the local transversal bending of the transversal beam could be
neglected. This method is applied if at least one transversal beam is constructed. Actually,
the transversal beam is not infinitely stiff (Itr=∞). Conditionally stiffness factor z=∞.
The deformation at transversal dimension consists of two components (see Figure 6.13):
- translation;
- rotation.
Q e
c
1 j n
Q
M=Q.e
b2
b1
(translation)
bj
Rj=Q
n
+
(rotation)
Rj~ bj
Figure 6.13. Method of infinitely stiff beam

The forces for every main beam for the first component (translation) are Ri=Q/n, where n
is the number of the beam. The forces for the second (rotational) component are proportional
to the distance between the axis of the beam and the axis of the structure.
The influence lines are straight lines. The values do not depend on the stiffness of the
beams and on the bridge length. They depend only on the bridge geometry and on the
number of beams.
The values Rij could be calculated as follows:
Rij=1/n+[bibj/[2*(b12+b22…)]. (2)
For bj see Figure 6.13.
6.4 Method of lever arm
This method is applied for structures with small transversal stiffness:
- bridge structures without transversal beams at the span;
- bridge structures with big distance between main beams.
Conditionally the stiffness factor is assumed equal to z=0. In this case it is assumed
hinge connection between the transversal and the main beams at the span – see Figure 6.14.
Actually, the transversal continuous beam is divided into several simple span beams.
The influence lines are straight lines with Rii=1 for the beam “i” and Rij=0. In this case
the transversal distribution at the span and at the supports is equal and the transversal
distribution coefficient for the span and for the supports is the same.
1 j
Rj
"R span
j
"
1
"R supp
j
"

Figure 6.14. Method of lever arm
The obtained results from the application of this method are as follows:
- the internal forces for end main beams are lower than the actual internal forces;
- the internal forces for internal main beams are higher than the actual internal forces;
6.5 Finite element method (FEM)

The main advantage of FEM is that it is universal for application. The FEM application is
easy. Actually, FEM is a numerical method for solution of differential equations (ordinary or
partial). It may be applied for every process that could be described with differential
equation.
It may be applied for every simple or complicated RCB structure. The most widely
applied computer programs for static and dynamic analysis of structures which use FEM are:
- SAP 2000;
- ANSYS;
- TOWER;
- PLANET;
- SOPHISTIC;
- Others.
It is possible to make “exact” model of the structure with considering all features of the
structure (geometry, stiffness, material properties, bearings, etc.).
The results of the application of this method are the internal forces and the
displacements at the grid joints.
The main disadvantages of FEM are as follows:
- the functions of the internal forces or displacements remain unknown;
- the output results are difficult for treatment;
- as a rule, at the joints where the regularity is broken the results are not reliable.
There are three main FEM models for RCB structures:
- only with frame elements;
- only with shell elements;
- combination of frame and shell elements.
A. Model with frame elements

The RCB structure is modeled as a beam grid – see Figure 6.15. The elements are:
- main beam with the effective slab width;
- transversal beams with the effective slab width;
- slab between the transversal beams.

a)
hf
1a 1 1 1a
h1
c a a a c
l/8+b2/2 l/4 l/4 l/4 l/8+b2/2

b)
2 3 4 3 2
h2
h3
b2
b3
l/4 l/4 l/4 l/4

l/2 l/2
2
3
4
c) 1a
3
2
1a
d)
1a 1 2 4 l/4
h2
h3
hf
hf
hf
hf
b2
h1
h1
b3
b1 b1
3 l/4
hf
Figure 6.15.
The main disadvantages of this simple model are:
- the slab that connects the main and the transversal beams is replaced only by its
stiffness;
- the eccentricity between centers of gravity of the slab, transversal beams and main
beams is ignored;

- this model is appropriate only for vertical actions and not appropriate for dynamic
analysis
The actions that are not situated on the frame elements should be distributed between the
main beams using the rule “simple span beam reactions”.
B. Model with shell elements
This model is applied for RCB slender opened or closed structures.
It is appropriate for prestressed RCB. As a rule, this type RCB are with thin webs and the
web shape is similar to vertical “slab”. This model is appropriate for gravity and dynamic
calculations.
C. Model with combination of frame and shell elements
The elements of the model are:
- slab is modeled with shell elements;
- beams are modeled with frame elements;
- the slab and beam joints are connected with very stiff frame elements or “constrains”.
The axes of the frame elements connect the centers of gravity.
This model is appropriate for gravity and dynamic calculations.
6.6 Finite strip method (FSM)
This method belongs to the group of semi analytical methods. It is applied for RCB
structures with opened or closed cross section that meet the following requirements:
- the axis of the structure is straight;
- the stiffness in longitudinal direction is constant;
- the depth of the cross section elements is constant;
- at the end of the structure are placed transversal diaphragms.
The end diaphragms have stiffness, which is equal to infinity in its plane and zero outside
its plane. FSM is very effective for box beam structures.
The RCB has been divided in longitudinal direction into “finite strips” – see Figure 6.16.
The strips are simply supported at the end diaphragms and “fixed” at the longitudinal
“joints” that connect the strips. The results of this method are the functions of the
displacements and the internal forces for each finite strip.
X1 X X1
X2 Y
X2
X3 Z X3
Figure 6.16.
The main advantage is that the number of the finite “elements” (strips) is small and the
calculation process is considerably simplified. But it is obvious that FSM is not universal for
application as FEM.
6.7 Analysis of RCB structures without transversal beams.

For this type RCB FEM or FSM could be easily applied. Another method is the method of
infinite Fourier’s rows. The construction has been divided with longitudinal cross sections.
The unknown internal forces at each section are bending moment, shear force, normal force
and sliding force. – see Figure 6.17.
(j-1) (j) (j+1)
=>
Mj(x)
Vj(x)
+ T j(x)
Nj(x)
Figure 6.17.
The functions are searched into Fourier row form. The unknown four (one for each
unknown internal forces) Fourier coefficients are calculated using the following four
equations:
- differential movement and rotation at the joints is zero;
- longitudinal and transversal curvature for the joint sides is equal.
CHAPTER 7: RC box section bridges
7.1 Application of RC box section bridges

RC box section bridges are used mainly for long span continuous or frame bridges and
for bridges with significant torsional moments caused by permanent or traffic actions (e.g.
curved bridges).
The main advantages of the RC box section bridges are as follows:
- self weight of the structure is considerably reduced;
- significant bending stiffness;
- significant torsional stiffness;
- aesthetics.
The elements of the box section are top and bottom slab, cantilever slabs and web walls –
see Figure 7.1. As a rule, the top plate is with constant depth and the bottom web depth is
increased for compression resistance at the intermediate supports – see Figure 7.1.

The web walls could be vertical or inclined - see Figure 7.1. The inclined web walls have
nice view. On the other hand, in this case the bottom slab width is decreased and its depth
should be increased at the supports.
a top slab a
constant
cantilever slab
web walls
bottom slab increased

a a
Figure 7.1. Box section types
Normally, the overall height of the RC box section has been increased at the support
direction.
The most typical case is RC box section with one cell. It is easy for construction. But, in
case of very wide RCB the transversal bending is increased and the following measures have
been applied:
- design additional cell(s);
- transversal prestressing at the cantilever and top slabs
Design of additional cells leads to significant construction difficulties.
The typical bridge construction systems for RC box bridges are as follows:
- cast-in-place construction;
- balanced cantilever erection (segmental or concreting);
- concreting “span by span”;
- precast construction;
7.2 Types of torsion for RCB structures

7.2.1 Pure torsion
It is the condition of the structure where torsional moment T≠0 and all other internal
forces are equal to zero. This is not typical case for RCB structures.
7.2.2 Warping torsion
In this case at one or more sections the warping is limited. “For closed thin-walled
sections, warping torsion may normally be ignored” (EN 1992-1-1, Section 6.3.3 (1). “In
open thin walled members it may be necessary to consider warping torsion. For very slender
cross-sections the calculation should be carried out on the basis of a beam-grid model and
for other cases on the basis of truss model. In all cases the design should be carried out
according the design rules for bending and longitudinal normal force, and for shear” (EN
1992-1-1, Section 6.6.3 (2)).
7.2.3 Equilibrium torsion
This is the case where the static equilibrium of a structure depends on the torsional
resistance of elements of the structure. The typical example is torsion at the collar beam of
the abutment or pier.

7.2.4 Compatible torsion
This is the case where, in statically indeterminate structures, torsion arises from
consideration of compatibility only. If it is assumed that the structure is not dependent on the
torsional resistance for its stability, then it is normally to neglect this type of torsion. This
approachis used in the Leonhard-Andrae method.
7.3 Section properties for torsion calculations
The torsional resistance of a section may be calculated on the basis of a thin-walled
closed section, in which equilibrium is satisfied by a closed shear flow. Solid sections may
be modeled by equivalent thin-walled sections. Complex shapes, such as T-sections, may be
divided into a series of sub-sections, each of which is modeled as an equivalent thin-walled
section, and the total resistance taken as sum of the capacities of the individual elements –
see Figure 7.2.
OR => JT=max( JT1; J T2)
JT J T2
Figure 7.2.
The distribution of the acting torsional moments over the sub-sections should be in
proportion to their uncracked torsional stiffnesses. For non-solid sections the equivalent wall
thickness should not exceed the actual wall stiffness.
7.4 Static analysis of RC box section bridges
The simplest model of one RC box bridge structures is a single frame element subjected
to bending, shear and torsion. The disadvantages of this model are as follows:
- in case of wide top slab the normal stress distribution is considerably different then
the actually calculated;
- the possible transversal bending has been ignored;
- the possible contour deformation has been ignored
The FEM could be used. But in case of using shell elements the torsional stiffness of the
bridge structure has been considerably decreased then the actual overall torsional stiffness
(up to 50%).
The FSM is the most appropriate method in case of straight RCB with constant stiffness.
For local analysis and for simple consideration of the contour deformation the following
approach has been applied:
- the cross section is assumed as outside statically determinate structure -see Figure
7.3;
- the variable action has been applied and “frame” has been calculated.
=> M
Figure 7.3.

7.5 Design checks and detailing
The effects of bending, shear and torsion for both hollow and solid members may be
superimposed. The webs are constructed applying the rules for the walls.
CHAPTER 8: Design checks and detailing for RCB elements w/o prestressing
8.1 General assumptions and notations

The general assumptions are:
- plane sections remain plane;
- the tensile strength of the concrete is ignored;
- the strain in bonded reinforcement, whether in tension or compression, is the same as
that in the surrounding concrete;
- the stresses in the concrete in compression are given by the design stress-strain
relationship;
- the stresses in the reinforcing steel are given by the design stress-strain relationship;
- the maximum strains are 3.5‰for the concrete and 25‰ for the steel;
- in case of centric compression the maximum strains is 2‰ for the concrete (1.75‰ in
case of bilinear stress-strain relation)
The general notations are:
- εc is the maximum compressive strain at the concrete fiber;
- εs1 is the maximum strain at the level of the center of gravity of the tensile
reinforcement;
- εs2 is the maximum strain at the level of the center of gravity of the compressive
reinforcement;
- d is the effective depth of the section;
- x is the depth of the neutral axis of the section;
- 0.8x is the depth of the equivalent rectangular block;
- z is the lever arm of the internal forces (z=d-0.4x);
- As1 and As2 is the reinforcement cross section area at the tensile or compressive zones
respectively
The ultimate moment resistance of a section can be determined using so called “strain
compatibility method” by either algebraic or iterative approaches. An iterative approach is
possible using the following steps:
1. Guess a neutral axis depth and calculate the strains in the tension and compression
reinforcement by assuming a linear strain distribution and a strain of εcu2=3.5‰ at the
extreme fiber of the concrete in compression;
2. Calculate from the stress-strain idealizations the steel stresses appropriate to the
calculated steel strains;
3. Calculate from the stress-strain idealizations the concrete stresses appropriate to the
strains associated with the assumed neutral axis depth;
4. Calculate the tensile and compressive forces at the section. If these are not equal, then
adjust the neutral axis depth and return to step 1;
5. When the forces are equal then take moments about a common point in the section to
determine the ultimate moment resistance.
An algebraic approach is described at the next point.
As a rule the bridge reinforced concrete sections are detailed in several rows. In this case
for first assumption it might be assumed d=h-10cm.
First step is to find the damage type – brittle (damage of the concrete) or plastic (damage
of the steel). The approach is conducted in several steps:
1. Assume simultaneously damage of the steel and the concrete - εcu=3.5‰(point B)
and εud=25‰(point A) . Using similar triangles depth of the neutral axis x=0.123d;
2. The depth of the equivalent rectangular block is 0.8x=0.098d. The lever arm is z=d-
0.098d/2=0.951d.
3. The compressive force is Fc=fcd*(0.098d)*b;
4. The moment of resistance at this case is MAB=Fc*z=fcd*(0.098d)*b*0.951d=0.093bd2.
5. If MEd is less then MABthen the case is “damage of the steel”. Because 0.951d≤z≤d then
the assumption z=0.951d is conservative and the “mistake” will be less then 5%.
6. If MEd exceeds MABthen the case is “damage of the concrete”. The moment MEd cannot
be resisted. It is necessary to calculate new x using the equation:
MEd=MRd=Fc*z= 0.8x*fcd*b*(d-0.4x)
The roots that are not real, negative and the root x≥d shall be neglected. The root
x1≥0.123d is assumed.
Check for brittle failure x1≤xlim=0.45d. Otherwise compressive reinforcement is required.
7. In case of only tensile reinforcement strain of the reinforcement is εs1=(3.5‰)(d-x)/x
If εs1≥εyd=fyd/Es then σs1=fyd and the reinforcement area
As1=Fs/fyd Fc=Fs=0.8x*fcd*b
If εs1<εyd=fyd/Es then σs1<=fyd but this is not practical because the tensile reinforcement is
working with low stress.
If compressive reinforcement is required the schedule is as follows:

1. Determination of the moment of resistance if x=xlim=0.45d
Ms1=0.8xlim*b*fcd(d-0.4xlim)=0.2952*b*fcd*d
2. Required compressive reinforcement shall be determined for the moment
ΔM=MEd-Ms1
3. The compressive force at the reinforcement is Fs2=ΔM/(d-d2). Deformation εs2 at the
level of the compressive reinforcement is εs2=(3.5‰)(d-xlim)/xlim.
4. See point 7 above. As2=Fs2/σs2
5. The force at the tensile reinforcement is Fs1=Fc+Fs2 and As1=Fs1/fyd
8.3 Design at ULS of members with T-sections subjected to bending
There are two approaches for the design of T-sections subjected to bending:
1. Assume lever arm z=d-hf/2. The web contribution is neglected. Then Fs1=MEd/z
The compressive chord (slab) is working almost in uniform compression and the strain is
limited to 2‰ (1.75‰ in case of bilinear stress-strain relation)at the center of the slab.
2. Using convenient Tables.
8.4 Design at ULS of members with rectangular section subjected to bending with
axial force
For the RCB is actual the case “bending with axial compressive force”, e.g. bridge pier
walls or columns. Because there are a lot of combinations for the bridge actions the design is
conducted using interaction diagrams.
In practice computer programs will be required to use “strain compatibility method”, e.g.
program “GALA REINFORCEMENT”.
8.5 Design checks for RCB elements for shear
The design of RCB members for shear is usually carried out as a check after the flexural
design and therefore basic section sizes and properties should already be chosen. For flanged
beams with thin webs the maximum shear resistance achievable VRD,max, may, however, need
to be considered at the initial sizing stage to ensure that the web thickness is great enough. It
may also beneficial to increase the section sizes and reduce the shear reinforcement content
for economical and build ability reasons.
In case of sections with changing depth EC2 allows to take account of the vertical
components of the inclined tension and compression chord forces in the shear design of
members with shear reinforcement. These components are added to the shear resistance
based on the links.
Truss model has been applied at ULS for the shear reinforcement design and check for
the compressive struts.
For members not requiring design shear reinforcement VEd≤ VRd,c
VRd,c=0.12k(100ρlfck+0.15σcp)1/3 bd, but minimum
Vmin=(0.035k3/2 fck½+0.15σcp)bd
In this case minimum shear reinforcement is provided with
ρmin==0.10(fck)½:/fyk
ρ=Asw/(bs)
For members requiring design shear reinforcement VEd≥VRd,c
Asw/bs=VEd/(0.9dfydcotθ)
The angle θ=22-450 is assumed by the designer.
The maximum resistance of the compressive struts is:
VRd,max= αcwbwzν1 fcd/(cotθ+tanθ)
8.6 Design checks for RCB elements subjected to shear and torsion
The torsional resistance of sections may be calculated on the basis of a thin-walled
closed section even if the section is solid.
The crushing limit for combined shear and torsion is calculated assuming the same value
of the compressive strut angle for both effects
TEd/TRd,max+VEd/VRd.max ≤1
Where TRd,max= αcwbw(2Akteff)zν1 fcd/(cotθ+tanθ)
The required longitudinal reinforcement for torsion is:
Asl/uk=(TEdcotθ)/(2Ak fyd)
The required transversal reinforcement for torsion is:
Ast/st=(TEdtanθ)/(2Ak fyd)
This reinforcement has been added to the shear reinforcement.
8.7 Design check for shear stresses between web and flanges of T-sections
Longitudinal shear in flanges is checked using a truss model. The check covers the
crushing resistance of the compressive struts and the tensile strength of the transverse
reinforcement.
For the details see the course on “Reinforced concrete” .
For the angle θ is assumed cotθ=2.
If additional transverse reinforcement is required then it is added to the slab
reinforcement.
8.8 Detailing of RCB beams.

 Concrete cover and distance between longitudinal bars
The minimum concrete cover for slabs and beams is 20+10=30mm for slabs and
20+15=35mm for beams. The minimum clear distance between bars and rows of bars must
be at least:
- 20mm;
- maximum bar diameter;
- dg+5, where dg is the largest nominal maximum aggregate size in milimeters.
For wide beams with top reinforcement the distance between the bars at the middle of the
cross section is assumed at least 15 cm for easy concreting.
 Anchorage of the reinforcement
As given at the course on “Reinforced concrete” .See the formulas for the anchorage
length.
 Splicing of the reinforcement
The lap length l0 for tensile reinforcement depends on:
- anchorage length;
- ratio “spliced reinforcement area/ overall reinforcement area”
According EC2 the distance between the adjacent lap lengths should be at least 0.3*l0.
 Minimum mandrel diameter to avoid damage to reinforcement
The minimum mandrel diameter depends on the bar diameter. The required values should
be specified at the drawings.
 Detailing of shear reinforcement
The minimum diameter of the stirrups is 10mm. The minimum distance between stirrups is
10cm. The maximum distance is 3/4d where d is the effective depth of the beam.
CHAPTER 9: Prestressed RCB structure

9.1 Principle of the prestressing
The main aim of the prestressing is to create compressive stresses at these parts of the
sections where tensile stresses appear under permanent and traffic actions. The results of the
application of the prestressing in the RCB structures are as follows:

- the stiffness of the prestressed elements is considerably higher then the stiffness of
the cracked reinforced elements with same cross section dimensions;
- the deflections of the prestressed elements are considerably lower then the same for
the cracked reinforced elements with same cross section dimensions;
- the cross section dimensions for the prestressed elements could be decreased,
respectively the clearance under the bridge would be increased;
- the durability of the prestressed concrete elements has been increased;
- as a rule, the vertical component of the prestressing force is favourable for the
principal stress check and stirrups might not be necessary by calculation;
- favourable vertical prestressing might be used for additional stiffness increasing and
decreasing principal stresses;
- prestressing is favourable for fatigue checks when the stresses are only with negative
sign (compressive stresses)
The disadvantages of the prestressing are as follows:
- the construction is more difficult;
- the requirements for the construction quality and control are considerably higher than
for reinforced concrete construction w/o prestressing;
- the anchorage devices are expensive
9.2 Application of pre-tensioning and post-tensioning in the RCB structures

Both ways of prestressing have been used in the Bulgarian bridge construction practice.
The systems “Stobet” and “Freissinet” are applied. Both systems are used for cast-in-place
and for precast bridge elements and for different reinforced concrete bridge construction
systems.
The prestressing tendon for “Stobet” system consists of group of ropes. The nominal
diameter of the ropes is 12 or 15mm. Three types of this system have been used –
“Stobet”100, 200 and 300, where these values are the prestressing forces in tones for
onetendon. The prestressing force for one rope is maximum 180kN.
The prestressing tendon for “Freisssinet” system consists of group of :
Type 1.Round smooth bars. Two types of tendons have been used – 24d5 or 12d7mm.
Type2.Group of wires – for “C” type system NC15 with N wires with nominal diameter
16.0mm. – see Figure 9.1 with N=19.

Figure 9.1.
The schedule of the construction of prestressed concrete precast elements is as follows:
 For pre-tensioned elements (see Figure 9.2) - tensioning and anchorage of the
tendons(ropes) at the end blocks, shuttering (at one side for easier construction), reinforcing,
closing the formwork, concreting, release the tendons when enough concrete strength has
been reached. The prestressing force is transferred to the concrete by bond and friction
(effect of Hoyer). The main advantages of this system are the simplicity of the construction
and lack of anchorage devices.
Figure 9.2.
Only straight prestressing tendons have been used in the bridge construction practice in
our country. In the world practice straight and inclined tendons are used. The inclination has
been constructed using deviators – see Figure 9.3.
Figure 9.3.
The main disadvantages for this system are the appearance of unbalanced tensilestresses
(see Figure 9.4) at the top of the beam near the supports and lack of vertical component of
the prestressing force, respectively the admissible principal stresses might be increased.
Figure 9.4.
The effects of first disadvantage are minimized using top prestressing tendons and/or
isolation of some tendons using rubber or plastic pipes – see Figure 9.5
Figure 9.5.
 For post-tensioned elements: shuttering (at one side for easier construction),
reinforcing, placing the ducts, closing the formwork, concreting, tensioning and anchorage
of the tendons, cement mortar injection. The prestressing force is transferred to the concrete
by anchorage devices. The main advantage of this system is the possibility for the
construction of the tendons in most convenient way according internal force diagrams. The
main disadvantages are the difficult construction and the use of expensive anchorage
devices.
9.3 Losses of prestress

9.3.1 Immediate losses of prestress for pre-tensioning
 Losses due to wedge draw-in of the anchorage devices
 Losses due to relaxation of the pretensioning tendons during the period which
elapses between the tensioning of the tendons and prestressing of the concrete
 Losses due to thermal effects in case of heat curing – these losses could be neglected
 Losses at the transfer of prestress to concrete - loss due to elastic deformation of
concrete as the result of the action of pre-tensioned tendons when they are released from the
anchorage
9.3.2 Immediate losses of prestress for post-tensioning
 Losses due to the instantaneous deformation of concrete
The effect of these losses is the different initial prestressing force at each tendon. The
prestressing force for the last prestressed tendons is the highest. In this case, the first tendons
should be prestressed with higher force value.
 Losses due to friction
The losses due to friction in post-tension may be estimated from the formula
  (  kx )

∆ P  ( x)  P max 1  e  (9.1)
where θ is the sum of the angular displacements over a distance x (irrespective of

direction or sign), μ is the coefficient of friction between the tendon and its duct, k is the
unintentional angular displacement for internal tendons (per unit length) and x is the distance
along the tendon from the point where the prestressing force is equal to Pmax (the force at the
active end during tensioning).
The value μ depends on the surface characteristics of the tendons and the duct, on the
presence of rust, on the elongation of the tendon and on the tendon profile.
The value k depends on the quality of workmanship, on the type of duct or sheath
employed and on the degree of vibration used in placing of concrete.
The effect of these losses may be decreased if two active ends have been used and if the
influence of the above considered unfavorable factors is minimized.
Contemporary post-tensioningwithout bond between tendons and concrete (without
cement grout injection) is used in the world bridge construction practice. In this case,
tendons have been covered with corrosion protection layer. The advantage of this type of
prestressing is the possibility for additional prestressing during the use of the bridge, if
necessary.
 Losses at anchorage due to the wedge draw-in of the anchorage devices during the
operation of anchoring after tensioning and due to the deformation of the anchorage itself.

9.3.3 Time dependent losses of prestress for pre- and post tensioning.
They may be calculated by considering the following two reductions of the stress:
- due to the reduction of the strain caused by the deformation of concrete due to creep
and shrinkage under the permanent loads;
- due to the relaxation under tension.
The losses could be calculated using formula (9.2)
Ep
 cs E p  0.8  pr E  (t , t0 ) c,QP

cm
P c sr  Ap  p ,c s r  Ap (9.2)
E p Ap  Ac 2 
1 1  z cp  1  0.8 (t , t0 
Ecm Ac  Ic 
These losses could be assumed 15%.
9.4 Design checks for prestressed RCB beams.

9.4.1 Initial prestressing force determination for simple span RCB beams. Check
for decompression
There are two main ways for prestressing of simple span bridge beams:
- only straight prestressing tendons at the bottom of the beam;
- combination of straight, curved and straight and curved tendons.
The required prestressing force is determined according the bending moments at the
middle of the span.
The normal stresses at the cross section of the beam at each stage are as follows:
First stage (construction stage), noted with (I)
 Beam self weight (g1) -bending;
 Prestressing (P) – eccentric compression;
 Slab self weight (g2) – bending.
Second stage (serviceability stage), noted with (II)
 Pavement self weight (g3) – bending;
 Traffic loads (q) – bending.
There are three prestressing force values:
- Pmax – prestressing force which the press transfers to the tendons;
- Pm0 – prestressing force at the end of prestressing process (after immediate losses of
prestress);
- P∞ - prestressing force after time t=∞ (after time depending losses – creep, shrinkage
and slow relaxation).
The required prestressing force is calculated for SLS check, called “’decompression” -
only compressive stresses 100mm away from each tendon. As some of the tendons are
within 100 mm of the concrete surface, the decompression must be checked at the extreme
fiber – bottom of the beam. According EC2-2 decompression should be checked in the
frequent load combination.
The stresses could be calculated for the overall section because tensile stresses do not
appear for this combination. The sum of the stresses for the bottom fiber is:
σb=(Mg1+Mg2)/SbI- P∞/AI- (P∞*e) )/SbI+ (Mg3+ψ1Mq))/SbII ≤0

The smallest value P∞ is the solution of the equation. The first assumption for the point
of application of the prestressing force is the center of the bottom flange.
e=ycI-Hbf/2
The prestressing force Pm0 is called “initial prestressing force”. This force is the
transferred force to the concrete cross section. The first assumption for the time dependent
losses might be 15%. In this case P∞=0.85Pmo.
The required cross section area of the prestressing tendons is Asp=Pmo/σmo.
The prestessing system is “Freissinnet”. This is a system for post tensioning.
Example: Steel grade is Y1770-S7. For this steel grade:
- fp,0.1k=1520MPa is the steel yielding (conditional) stress limit;
- fpk=1770 MPa is the characteristic steel strength.
The stress σm0 depends on these stresses. It is taken the minimum value between
0.85fp,0.1k=0.85*1520=1292MPa and 0.75fpk=0.75*1770=1327.5MPa
Wires with a1=150 mm2 area are used for this prestressing system.
There are two main possibilities for the cable arrangement:
1. 3C15 – three wires with total area A1=3a1=450 mm2 and d=45mm duct diameter
2. 4C15 – four wires with total area A1=4a1=600mm2and d=50mm duct diameter
The number of the cables is Nc=Asp/A1
The rules for the tendon arrangement at the bottom flange are:
1. Minimum concrete cover for the ducts – d+15mm;
2. Minimum clear distance between the ducts – d mm;
3. “Chess” shape arrangement is not allowed.
The actual initial prestressing force is Pm0=Nc*A1*σm0. The exact center of gravity of the
pretressing tendons should be determined. The center of gravity is the application point for
the prestressing forces.
9.4.2 Normal stress check
Because of the decompression for frequent combination at SLS it is allowed to
calculate the stresses using the section properties for the overall concrete cross section
using the formulas:
σi=±Mj/Si
σi=-P/A±P*e/Si where
i=b (bottom of the beam), t (top of the beam), ts (top of the slab);
j=type of the action;
The first moments of the concrete cross section area Si must be for the relevant stage (I -
construction or II – serviceability). The section properties for the construction stage (I) apply
for the action g1,g2,Pmo and P∞ and the same for the serviceability stage (II) apply for the
actions g3 and traffic actions.
Two limits for the prestressing force have been defined at EC2:
1. Upper limit Psup=rsup*P
2. Lower limit Psup=rinf*P,
Where:
- rsup=1.10 and rinf=0.9 for post tensioning.
- rsup=1.05 and rinf=0.95 for pre tensioning.

The design stress combinations are:
1. Construction stage – beam self weight (g1) plus initial prestressing force
Pm0*1.10(1.05), because prestressing force is unfavorable at this stage.
2. Serviceability stage
At this stage prestressing action is favorable and P∞ is multiplied with 0.9(0.95).
Design combinations are as follows:
Characteristic combination
g1+g2+P∞*0.9+g3+1*TS+1*UDL
Non frequent combination
g1+g2+P∞*0.9+g3+0.8*TS+0.8*UDL
Frequent combination
g1+g2+ P∞*0.9+g3+0.75*TS+0.40*UDL
Quasi permanent combination
g1+g2+ P∞*0.9+g3+0*TS+0*UDL
The stresses should not exceed the admissible stress limits as follows:
1. Construction stage
Maximum compressive stress (at the bottom extreme fiber) – 0.6fck=0.6*35=21MPa
Maximum tensile compressive stress (at the top extreme fiber) – fctm=3.2MPa
2. Serviceability stage
2.1 Decompression for the frequent combination – tension 100 mm away from each
tendon is not allowed!
2.2 Maximum tensile stress at the non frequent combination (at the bottom extreme
fiber) – fctm=3.2MPa
2.3 Maximum compressive stress at the characteristic combination (at the top
extreme fiber) – 0.6fck=0.6*35=21MPa
2.4 Maximum compressive stress at the quasi static combinations (at the top extreme
fiber) – 0.45fck=0.45*35=15.75MPa
If some of the stresses do not meet these requirements the following measures apply:
- increasing the prestressing force (adding cable);
- rearrangement of the cables;
- changing the beam cross section (increasing beam height);
- increasing the concrete grade.
9.4.3 Principal stress check at SLS

This check is conducted for the frequent combination.Because of the decompression
the shear stresses and the principal stresses can be calculated using formulas for elastic
materials and for overall cross section.
2
  
1       2 (9.3)
2 2
VSi
i  (9.4)
dJ

The shear stresses are calculated for the relevant stages – construction stage (I) and
serviceability stage (II). The respective section properties should be applied. The shear
stresses at the following levels should be calculated:
- top end of the bottom flange;
- bottom end of the web;
- center of gravity of the beam section;
- middle level between the two centers of gravity;
- center of gravity of the slab and beam section;
- top end of web;
- bottom end of the top flange;
- top end of the beam;
- bottom end of the slab
The second moments of area above or below each level about centroidal axis must be
calculated. The second moments for the level at centroidal axis and for the areas above and
below it must be equal. Otherwise, the center of gravity of the beam section or center of
gravity of the slab and beam section is not correctly calculated.
The shear force VI at first stage includes:
- beam self weight shear force Vg1;
- slab self weight shear forceVg2;
- vertical components of the prestressing forces for each prestressing tendons (with
negative sign)
These components should be calculated using the formula for each tendon parabola at
each section. The prestresssing force for each tendon is assumed to be equal and is calculated
as follows:
P1=P∞/Nc, where Nc is the number of cables
The total shear force at first stage VI could be positive or negative.
The shear force VII at second stage includes:
- pavement self weight shear force;
- traffic action shear force
The normal stress at each level is calculated using linear interpolation. The normal stress
at the bottom of the slab is σ = M(II)/Stb(II), where M(II)=Mg3+Mq.
The maximum principal stress should be less than the design concrete tensile strength
fctk,0.05.
For concrete grade C35/45 fct,0.05=2.20MPa.
Otherwise the following measures are applied:
- increasing normal stresses (adding cable);
- changing cable layout;
- increasing web depth or/and beam height
9.4.4 Check for bending at ULS

This check shall be provided:
-for section in the middle in case of simple span beam;
-for the section with maximum moment at the span and the section with minimum
moment at the support for continuous beam.
The check is MEd≤MRd.
The bending moment MEd is taken from the bending moment calculations for ULS.
The moment of resistanceMRd is calculated according the defined damage criteria for
damage of the concrete or damage of the steel – see general assumptions below.
The following general equilibrium equations must be satisfied:
MRd=Fc*z=Fsp*z
Fc=Fsp
The design assumptions for the calculation are as follows:
1. The cross sections remain plain during the application of the actions;
2. The appearance of the cracks at the tensile zone is possible. The concrete at the
tensile zone is ignored;
3. The strain in bonded reinforcement is the same as the strain in the concrete at the
same level;
4. The stress-strain relation for concrete is linear and parabolicwith εc2=2‰(point A)or
bilinear with εc3=1.75‰. For both diagrams εcu2= εcu3=3.5‰ (point B)
5. The stresses in the prestressed steel are given by the stress-strain relationship. Two
bilinear relationships are given. It is used the relationship with horizontal top branch;
6. The criterions for “damage” of the concrete are:
6.1“Maximum compressive concrete strain is 3.5‰” (maximum value from the stress-
strain relation);
6.2“Compressive concrete strain at the level of the center of the slabis εc2=2‰(or
εc3=1.75‰);
7. The criterion for “damage” of the steel is “the maximum tensile strain caused by all
permanent and traffic actions and prestressing after losses is 20‰”. The strain caused by
prestressing force after time depending losses P∞ is determined using Hook law as follows
εsp=P∞/(Ap*Esp) .
For wires Esp=195000MPa.
The neutral axis depth x should be determined to satisfy the equilibrium equation Fc=Fsp
Two methods have been used:
1. Strain compatibility method;
2. Iteration method – described bellow
The first assumption is “damage” of the concrete (εc=3.5‰) at the extreme compressive
fiber (top of slab)and steel simultaneously - εsp=20‰-εsp. Using similar triangles the stress
εcfat the center of gravity of the slab is calculated. If εcf≥εc2=2‰(or εc3=1.75‰) then it is
assumed εcf= εc2=2‰ (or εc3=1.75‰) and the strain εc at the top of the slab is adjusted.
Then theneutral axis depth x1 is
x1=d*εc/( εc+ εsp) , where d is the effective depth.
Without significant mistake equivalent rectangular block with 0.8x1 is determined. If
0.8x1 ≤hf then Fc=(0.8x1)*fcd*beff. Here fcd is for the slab concrete grade.
If 0.8x1≥ hf then the beam top flange and the beam concrete grade should be taken into
account.
The force at the steel is determined according εsp.The strain at yielding
isεpd=fpd/Esp=(1520/1.15)/195000=6.78‰Ifεsp≥εpd then σsp=fpd=1520/1.15=1321.7MPa.
Fsp=σsp*Asp

If Fc=Fsp then the moment resistance could be calculated taking moment according any
point at the cross section. The most convenient point is the top of the slab. The moment
resistance is
MRd=Fsp*d-∑(Fcj*acj)
If Fc ≥ Fsp (typical case) then new neutral axis depth x2≤x1 is assumed and the design
steps from the first iteration are repeated until Fc=Fsp. Obviously this is the case “damage of
the steel”.
If Fc≤ Fsp then new neutral axis depth x3≥x1 is assumed and the design steps from the
first iteration are repeated until Fc=Fsp. Obviously this is the case “damage of the concrete”.
If MEd≥MRd then the following measures apply:
1. Cross section dimensions must be increased;
2. Prestressing force (if possible) must be increased;
3. The slab concrete grade must be increased.
9.4.5 Check for shear at ULS

Truss model has been applied at ULS for the shear reinforcement design and check for
the compressive struts.
The design shear forces for simple span bridge at the relevant stages at ULS are as
follows:
- construction stage VEd, I=1.35(Vg1+Vg2)-0.9VP∞;
- serviceability stage VEd,II=1.35(Vg3+VLM1)
The relevant effective depths d1 and d2 should be used.The checks are as follows:
1. Maximum resistance of the compressive struts is VRd,max=
αcwbw,nomzjν1 fcd/(cotθ+tanθ)where αcwtakes into account the favorable contribution of the
prestressing and is assumed equal to
1+σcp/fcd if 0≤σcp ≤0.25fcd
1.25 if 0.25fcd ≤σcp ≤0.5fcd
2.5(1-σcp/fcd) if 0.5fcd≤σcp ≤fcd
bw,nom=bw-0.5∑ф for post tensioning with bonded prestresed reinforcement, where ф is
the diameter of the duct
zj=0.9dj is the lever arm for the relevant section.
ν1=0.6(1-fck/250) takes into account the reduced compressive strength of the compressive
struts subjected to tension
Angle θ=300-450 for prestressed members. The minimum resistance is if the angle is 300.
In this case cotθ + tanθ= 1.732+0.577=2.309
If VEd≥VRd,max then the following measures apply:
- increasing concrete grade;
- increasing cross section dimensions
2. For members not requiring design shear reinforcement VEd≤ VRd,cwhere
VRd,c=0.12k(100ρlfck+0.15σcp)1/3 bwd
The determination of VRd,c isdifficult because ρl depends on both reinforcements –
prestressed and not prestressed. So the check is VEd≤Vmin
Vmin=(0.035k3/2 fck½+0.15σcp)bwd
In this case minimum shear reinforcement is provided with

ρmin==0.10(fck) ½:fyk=0.00118
ρ=Asw/(bws)
For members requiring design shear reinforcement VEd≥Vmin
Asw/bws=VEd/(0.9dfydcotθ) and angle θ=300
Asw=n*As1 where n=2 is the number of the stirrup legs and As1 is the cross section of one
leg.
CHAPTER 10: Modern systems for RCB construction
10.1 Cast-in-place construction of bridges using conventional scaffolding

Scaffolding (falsework,am.) may be defined as a temporary framework on which the
permanent structure is supported during its construction. As a rule the scaffolding is
associated with the construction of bridge superstructures. It is also important to note the
difference between “formwork” and “scaffolding”. Formwork is used to retain plastic
concrete in its desired shape until it has hardened. It is designed to resist the fluid pressure of
plastic concrete and additional pressure generated by vibrators. Because formwork does not
carry the dead load of the concrete, it can be removed as soon as the concrete hardens.
Scaffolding does carry the dead load of concrete, and therefore it has to remain in place until
the concrete becomes self-supporting.
In case of conventional scaffolding system the various elements are erected
individually to form the completed system.
10.2 Cast-in-place “span by span” construction of bridges

In span-by-span bridge construction method, construction starts at one end and
proceeds continuously to the other end. Generally, this method is used where access to the
ground level is restricted either by physical constrains or by environmental concerns. The
construction joints are placed at the points of contra flexure. Conventional scaffolding
supported at the ground level could be applied. Otherwise, form travelers are used. They are
supported either on the bridge piers or on the edge of previously erected span and the next
pier – see Figure 10.1.
completed part concreting
completed part concreting
Figure 10.1.
The connection between adjacent segments is completed using prestressing -see Figure
10.2.
a) 6
1 2
b)
1 2
7 8
6 Connecting device
7 Tendons stessed after concreting of part 1
8 Tendons stessed after concreting of part 2
Figure 10.2.
10.3 Precast bridge construction using conventional cranes

Conventional cranes have been used in case of relatively light precast elements and
easy access to the place for construction.

The crane position for maximum hoisting capacity should be at the middle of the span
– see Figure 10.3.
1 2
1 Fill for 1st stage erection
2 Fill for 2nd stage erection
Figure 10.3.
10.4 Precast bridge construction using “truss crane”(gantry)

“Truss crane” is used in cases of:
- long and heavy precast elements;
- very high piers;
- overwater bridges
Truss crane consists of two connected parallel space diagonal trusses. It is self-moved
equipment. The truss can move longitudinally and transversally. For overturning stability the
length of the truss crane should be at least equal to the sum of two bridge span lengths – see
Figure 10.4.

L > l1 + l2 l1 l2
a) A
A 1 2
b) B
A 1 2
c) A
A 1 2
Figure 10.4.
Truss cranes were used for the construction of the viaducts at “Hemus” and “Trakia”
motorways.
10.5 Cast-in-place balanced cantilever bridges

Balanced cantilever segmental construction has been recognized as one of the most
efficient methods for building bridges without the need for scaffolding. This method has
great advantages over other forms of construction in urban areas where temporary
scaffolding would disrupt traffic and services below, in deep valleys and over waterways.
Construction commences from the permanent piers and proceeds in a “balanced”
manner to midspan – see Figure 10.5. A final closure joint connects cantilevers (so called
“birds”) from adjacent piers. The structure is hence self-supporting at all stages.

0
a)
3 2 1 3
0 1 2
b)
6 5 4 3 2 5 6
1 0 1 2 3 4
c)
8 7
6 5 4 3 2 5 6
1 0 1 2 3 4
d)
Figure 10.5.
The most common methods are as follows:

- monolithic connection to the pier;
- permanent or temporary double bearings and vertical temporary post-tensioning – see
Figure 10.6
The “birds” are usually constructed in 3- to 6-m-long segments. The adjacent segments
are connected using prestressing.

1
1 Temporary bearings
2 Temporary prestressed tendons
Figure 10.6.
The cast-in-place technique is preferred for long and irregular span lengths with few
repetitions.
10.6 Precast balanced cantilever bridges

The first attempts to use balanced cantilever construction were made in 1929 in Brazil.
Precast segments were used by Eugene Freyssinet for construction of six bridges over Marne
River in France (1946 to 1950).
The features of this method that provide significant advantages over the cast-in-place
method are listed as follows:
- casting the superstructure segments may be started at the beginning of the project and
at the same time as the construction of the substructure;
- rate of erection is usually 10 to 15 times the production achieved by the cast-in-place
method. The time required for placing reinforcement and tendons, and most importantly, the
waiting time for curing of the concrete is eliminated from the critical path;
- segments are produced in an assembly-line factory environment, providing consistent
rates of production and allowing superior quality control. The concrete of segments is
matured, and hence the effects of shrinkage and creep are minimized
The joints between segments are either left dry using dowels or made of a very thin
layer of epoxy cement grout.

10.7 Incrementally launched bridges
The incremental launching technique has been used since its introduction by Fritz
Leonhardt in 1961 for the RioCaroniBridge in Venezuela. The method entails casting the
superstructure, or a portion thereof, at a stationary location behind one of the abutments. The
completed or partially completed structure is then jacked into place horizontally, i.e., pushed
along bridge alignment – see Figure 10.7.
1 2
S
1 2
S
1 2 3
A A
S
Figure 10.7.
Subsequent segments can then be cast onto the already completed portion and in turn
pushed onto the piers. Because all of the casting operations are concentrated at a location
easily accessible from the ground, concrete quality of the same level expected from a
precasting yard can be achieved. The procedure has the advantage that it obviates the need
for scaffolding.
There are two peculiarities associated with the technique, which must be appreciatedby
the designer. The first is that the alignment must be straight or, if it involves curves, the
curvature must be constant. The second is that during launching, every section of the girder
will be subjected to both the maximum and minimum moments and the leading cantilever
portion will be subjected to higher moments.
The techniques for reducing launching bending moments are as follows:
- using a light but stiff structural-steel launching nose attached to the leading
cantilever;

- for longer spans (longer than 100m), the steel nose is not as effective and temporary
piers are the solution.
CHAPTER 11: Design checks for elastomeric bearings

11.1 General
An elastomeric bearing is made of elastomer (either natural or synthetic rubber). It
accommodates both translational and rotational movements through the deformation of the
elastomer. Elastomer is flexible in shear but very stiff against volumetric change. Under
compressive load, the elastomer expands laterally. To sustain large load without excessive
deflection, reinforcement is used to restrain lateral bulging of the elastomer. So, plain (w/o
reinforcement) or reinforced elastomeric bearings are used – see Figure .11.1.
Rectangular or round elestomeric bearings have been used.
2.5
tb
ts
tr
a' (b') (D') 4
a (b) (D)
Figure 11.1.
11.2 Design checks

11.2.1 Stress check and determination of the bearing area
The area of the bearing is determined according maximum bearing stress:
σmax=Rmax/Ar<=σadm (11.1},where
 Rmax is the maximum bearing reaction caused by all permanent actions Rg and by
traffic actions Rq.
 Ar=A1(1-vx,d/a’-vy,d/b’) is the reduced effective area of the bearing;
 a’ and b’ are the dimensions of the steel plates and A1=a’*b’ is the effective area –
see Figure 11.1;
 vx,d and xy,d are the design displacements along axes x and y respectively.
The transversal distribution and the most unfavorable location of the traffic actions
must be considered. The admissible stress for the rubber is given by the manufacturer and
is appr.10MPa (1kN/cm2). The initial minimum stress against sliding of the bearing
σmin=Rg/Ab must be at least 3MPa.
It is recommended for better stress distribution ratio b/a<1.5 between the bearing
dimensions.
11.2.2 Check for shear strain
It is assumed that only elastomeric layers are flexible in shear – see Figure 11.2. The
overall thickness of the layers is Hr.
Vd
H
=> Hr= tr
steel plates
Figure 11.2.
The shear strain is caused by:

- lateral deformation of the bearing caused by the vertical reaction;
- horizontal displacement caused by temperature, braking force, shrinkage or seismic
action;
- rotation of the bearing caused by bending.
The shear strain is controlled by the maximum allowable horizontal displacement. It is
provided by the manufacturer.
The check is performed for unloaded and for loaded bridge. For unloaded bridge the
displacement Δ is caused by temperature difference and shrinkage.
11.2.3 Check for friction

The check is H<T, where H is the horizontal force for the bearing and T is the friction
force at the contact surface (bearing area) between the bearing and the base. The friction
force T depends on the compressive stresses at the surface and on the friction coefficientμ.
The check is performed for unloaded and for loaded bridge.
For unloaded bridge the design combination is “permanent actions + temperature +
shrinkage”. The friction force is Tmin=Rg*μ and horizontal force is Ht+s=tgθ*A*G, where
- tgθ =vd/Hr – see Figure 11.2.;
- A=a*b is the total bearing area
- G is the shear modulus given by the manufacturer (appr.0.9MPa).
For loaded bridge H=Ht+s + Hb,1and T=Tmin + Tq, where Tq=Rq*μ.
Here Hb,1 is the part of the braking force resisted by the bearing. Example: For simple
span bridge assuming equal stiffness of the bearings Hb,1=Hb/nB , where nBis the number of
the bearings in the span.
If H>T then :
- outer steel plates bonded to elastomer apply;
- the bearing is anchored to the superstructure and to the substructure

11.2.4 Check for rotation
`The check is Δφ<Δg+q, where Δφ is the displacement of the outer face of the bearing
cause by maximum rotation and Δg+q is the vertical displacement of the bearing caused by
the corresponding reactions – see Figure 11.3.
CL of the bearing
superstructure
Rg+q
Δ
Δ g+q
Figure 11.3.
The displacement Δφ=a/2*tgφ≈a/2*φ, where a is the dimension of the bearing at

longitudinal direction. The rotation φ is calculated using the methods of structural
mechanics. The displacement Δg+qis calculated according the Hoock’s law using equivalent
modulus for elasticity of the reinforced elastomer.
If Δφ>Δg+q then the number of the elastomeric layers must be increased.
CHAPTER 12: Bridge substructure
12.1 Abutments
As a component of a bridge, the abutment provides the vertical support to the bridge
superstructure at the bridge ends, connects the bridge with the approach roadway and retains
the roadway base materials from the bridge spans. According the design solution, the
abutment may be a part from lateral force resisting system.
Unlike the bridge abutment, the earth-retaining structures are mainly designed for
sustaining lateral earth pressures.
From the view of the relation between the bridge abutment and roadway or water flow
that the bridge overcrosses, bridge abutments can be divided into two categories: open-end
abutment, and close-end abutment.
For the open-end abutment, there are slopes between the bridge abutment face and the
edge of the roadway or river canal that the bridge over crosses. These slopes provide a wide
open area for the traffic flows or water flows under the bridge. It imposes much less impact
on the environment and the traffic flows under the bridge than a closed-end abutment. Also,
future widening of the roadway or water flow canal under the bridge by designing a new
retaining wall is easier. However, the existence of slopes usually requires longer bridge
spans and some extra earthwork. This may result in an increase in the bridge construction
cost.
The closed-end abutment is usually constructed close to the edge of the roadways or
water canals. Because of the vertical clearance requirements high abutment walls must be
constructed. It is very difficult, or it is not possible, to do the future widening to the

roadways and water flow under the bridge. Also, the high abutment walls and larger backfill
volume often result in higher abutment construction costs and more settlement of road
approaches than for the open-end abutment.
Generally, the open-end abutments are more economical, adaptable, and attractive than
the closed-end abutments. However, bridges with closed-end abutments have been widely
constructed in urban areas and for railway bridges because of the right-of-way restriction and
the large scale of the live load for trains, which usually results in shorter bridge spans.
Based on the connections between the abutment stem and the bridge superstructure, the
abutments can be grouped in two categories:
- monolithic abutment (integral bridges);
- seat-type abutment
The monolithic abutment is monolithically constructed with the superstructure. There is
no relative displacement allowed between the bridge superstructure and abutment. All the
superstructure forces at the bridge ends are transferred to the abutment stem and then to the
abutment backfill soil and footings. The advantages of this type of abutment are its initial
lower construction cost and its immediate engagement of backfill soil that absorbs the
energy when the bridge is subjected to transitional movement. However, the passive soil
pressure induced by the backfill soil could result in difficult-to-design abutment stem. In the
practice this type of abutment is mainly constructed for short span bridges.
The seat-type abutment is constructed separately from the bridge superstructure. The
superstructure seats on the abutment stem through bearings or other devices. This type of
abutment allows the bridge designer to control the superstructure forces that are to be
transferred to the abutment stem and backfill soil. By adjusting the devices between the
bridge superstructure and abutment the bridge displacement can be controlled.
Abutment wingwalls act as a retaining structure to prevent the abutment backfill soil and
roadway soil from sliding transversely. The wingwall types are as follows:
- cantilever wingwall;
- continuous support wingwall
A wingwall design is similar to the retaining wall design. However, live-load surcharge
needs to be considered in the design.
12.2 Piers
Piers provide vertical supports for spans at intermediate points and perform two main
functions:
- transferring superstructure vertical actions to the foundations;
- resisting horizontal actions acting on the bridge
Pieris usually used a general term for any type of substructure located between
horizontal spans and foundations. However, it is used also particularly for a solid wall in
order to distinguish it from columns and bents. From a structural point of view, a column is
a member that resists the lateral force mainly by flexure action whereas a pier is a member
that resists the lateral force mainly by a shear mechanism. A pier that consists of multiple
columns is called a bent.
There are several ways of defining pier types. One is by its connectivity to the
superstructure: monolithic or cantilevered. Another is by its sectional shape: solid or hollow;
round, rectangular, octagonal, etc. It can also be distinguished by its framing configuration:
single or multiple column bent; hammerhead or pier wall. Selection of the type of piers for a
bridge should be based on functional, structural and geometry requirements. Aesthetics is

also a very important factor of selection since modern highway bridges are part of a city’s
landscape.
Solid wall piers are designed at water crossings since they can be constructed to
proportions that are both slender and streamlined. These features lend themselves well for
providing minimal resistance to flood flows -see Figure 12.1a
Hammerhead piers are often used in urban areas where space limitation is a concern –
see Figure 12.1b. They are aesthetically appealing.
A column bent pier consists of a cap beam and supporting columns forming a frame. The
columns can be either circular or rectangular in cross section. They are the most popular
forms of piers in the modern highway system.
a) solid wall pier b) hammerhead pier
Figure 12.1. Pier types
The distribution of the horizontal actions (seismic action, breaking action, etc.) depends
on the stiffness of the piers. For long bridges, it is preferred to design movable bearings at
the abutments – see Figure 12.2. The superstructure is assumed infinitely stiff in horizontal
direction. Stiffness is defined as a horizontal force for unit displacement.
For monolithic connection between pier and superstructure the stiffness of pier (i):
Ki=12EJi/(Li3)
For hinge connection between pier and superstructure the stiffness of pier (i):
Ki=3EJi/(Li3)
It is obvious that for short piers hinge connection should be designed.
EJi = const
Li
Figure 12.2.
CHAPTER 13: Seismic design of RCB

Schedule of the topic:
1. General. Comparison between seismic behavior of buildings and bridges
2. Earthquake damages to RCB
3. Dynamic analysis
3.1 Division of the RCB on separate oscillation units
3.2 Model with single- degree –of- freedom (SDOF)
3.3 Multimode spectral analysis
4. Capacity design approach
13.1 General. Comparison between seismic behavior of buildings and bridges

The seismic design of RCB in our country is based on the aseismic code from 2012.
For seisimic bridge design EC 8-2 has been applied simultaneously.
The differences between the seismic behavior of buildings and bridges are as follows:
A. Criterion: place of the elements of the lateral force resisting system
The diaphragms and frames at the building structureare placed according the
architectural planes at the most convenient places. Usually the distance between them is
small (less than 6m) and the behavior (vibration) of all elements is the same. As a rule, the
behavior of the structure at the two main directions is the same.
The abutments and piers resist seismic actions for the bridges. They are placed according
the obstacle, the type of the structure, soil conditions and other factors. The distance between
them (span length) could be significant (e.g., in case of prestressed bridge structure).
B. Criterion: Structure sizes and shape

The sizes of the buildings are relatively small. The distance between the elements of the
lateral force resisting system is much less then the length of the seismic wave.
For long bridges (L>600m) and for long span bridges (L1>250m), it is possible
oscillation of the adjacent piers at opposite direction. This might cause unseating of the
bridge superstructure.
C. Criterion: Places of the concentrated weight
For the buildings these places are the slabs between floors. For the bridges these places
are at the level of the superstructure. In this case for simple bridges modes with SDOF could
be applied.
D. Criterion : Foundation
The footings for the building structure are isolated or continuous footings or foundation
mat. As a rule they are placed on same level and the soil conditions are constant.
The footings for bridge structure are placed sometimes on different levels and the soil
conditions for the adjacent footings are different. Pile foundations are common design
solution.
E. Criterion : Hinges and bearings
As a rule hinges and bearings do not exist at the buildings. Hinges and bearings are
typical for bridges and they change the behavior of the structure during earthquake.
F: Criterion : Prestressing
Prestressing has been rarely applied for buildings. It is typical for bridges and in this
case the bridge structure behavior is almost elastic. The possibility for energy dissipation is
reduced.
13.2 Earthquake damages to RCB

Even when the cause of a particular collapse is well understood, it is difficult to
generalize about the causes of bridge damage. In past earthquakes, the nature and extent of
damage that each bridge suffered have varied with the characteristics of the ground motion at

the particular site and the construction details of the particular bridge. No two earthquakes
or bridge sites are identical.
Despite this, one can learn from past earthquake damages, because many types of
damage occur repeatedly. Be being aware of typical vulnerabilities that bridges have
experienced, it is possible to gain insight into structural behavior and to identify potential
weakness in existing or new bridges. Historically, observed damage has provided the
impetus for many improvements in earthquake engineering codes and practice.
The typical damages are as follows:
A. Unseating at expansion joints. Earthquake ground shaking, or transient or
permanent ground deformations resulting from the earthquake, can cause superstructure
movements that cause the supported span to unseat. Unseating is especially a problem with
the shorter seats that were common in older constructions.
B. Damage to superstructures. As a rule, superstructures tend to remain essentially
elastic during earthquakes. So, superstructure damage is unlikely to be the primary cause of
collapse of a span. The most commonform of damage to superstructures is due to pounding
of adjacent segments at the expansion joints.
C. Damage to bearings. Failure of the bearings can cause redistribution of internal
forces, which may overload either the superstructure or the substructure.
D. Damage to columns. Column failures are often the primary cause of bridge collapse.
Most damage to columns can be attributed to inadequate detailing, which limits the ability of
the column to deform in elastically. In reinforced concrete columns, the detailing
inadequacies can provide flexural, shear, splice, or anchorage failures, or, as is often the
case, a failure that combines several mechanisms.
E. Damage to abutments.The typical damage is occurred in seat abutments due to
pounding of backwalls by the superstructure. Other cause is the increased passive earth
pressure during the lateral displacement against soil.
13.3 Dynamic analysis

13.3.1 Division of the RCB into separate oscillation units
The division of the RCB structures into separate units (see Figure 13.1) depends on:
- type of the bridge;
- expansion joints;
- bearings
O R
I II III I II I II
Figure 13.1. Division of the bridge into oscillation units

In general, according EC-8 the bridges are two types – common or special. Common
bridges are straight, without significant differences in span length and stiffness of the piers.
They are with less than 6 spans. Other bridges are special bridges. Common bridges could be
divided into simple units and model with SDOF might be applied. Special bridges are
analyzed with multimode spectra analysis.
13.3.2 Model with single- degree –of- freedom (SDOF)

Single-mode spectral analysis is based on the assumption that earthquake design actions
for structures respond predominantly in the first mode of vibration. This method is most
suitable to regular linear elastic analysis of the forces and displacements of the bridge. It is
not applicable for irregular bridges because higher modes of vibration significantly affect the
distribution of the forces and resulting displacements. This method can be applied to both
continuous and non-continuous bridge superstructures in either the longitudinal or transverse
direction.
The period of first mode of vibration is T=2π* M / K , where M=Q/g is the mass of the
bridge superstructure and part of the substructure (usually 50%), g=9.81m/sec2and K is the
sum of the stiffness of the piers.
13.3.3 Multimode spectral analysis

This method is appropriate for structures with irregular geometry, mass, or stiffness.
These irregularities induce coupling in three orthogonal directions within each mode of
vibration. Also, for these bridges, several modes of vibration contribute to the complete
response of the structure. A multimode spectral analysis is done by modeling the bridge
structure consisting of three-dimensional frame elements with structural mass lumped at
various locations to represent the vibration modes of the components. Usually, five elements
per span are enough to represent the first three modes of vibration.
The maximum response cannot be computed by adding the maximum response of each
mode because different modes attain their maximum values at different times. Two
commonly used methods are square root of sum of squares (SRSS) and the complete
quadratic combination (CQC).
For structures with closely spaced dominant mode shapes, the CQC method is precise
whereas SRSS estimates inaccurate results. The SRSS method is suitable for estimating the
total maximum response for structures with well-spaced modes.
13.3.4 Capacity design approach
The so-called “capacity design” has become a widely accepted approach in modern
structural bridge design. The main objective of this approach is to ensure the safety of the
bridge during LARGE earthquake attack. For ordinary bridges, it is assumed that the
performance for LOWER-LEVEL earthquake is automatically satisfied. The procedure of
the capacity design involves the following steps:
1. Choose the desirable mechanisms that can dissipate the most energy and identify
plastic hinge locations – commonly considered in columns;
2. Proportion bridge structure for design loads and detail plastic hinge for ductility;
3. Design and detail to prevent undesirable failure patterns, such as shear failure or joint
failure.

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DIMITAR DIMITROV

REINFORCED CONCRETE BRIDGES

REINFORCED CONCRETE BRIDGES ASS. PROF. PHD. DIMITAR DIMITROV 2

CHAPTER 6: Static analysis of the bridge superstructure

CHAPTER 10: Modern systems for RCB construction

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A – Cross sectional area

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Actions and Effects

A – Accidental action (situation)

φ – Angle of internal friction

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Figure 1.1. Skew bridge

Abutment Abutment Abutment Abutment

Exeption (rare case)

Figure 1.2. Curved bridge

Vertical reaction Vertical reaction

Figure 1.4. “Beam type” bridge

Figure 1.5. Arch type bridge

Abutment Pier Abutment

Integral bridge Semi Integral bridge

Figure 1.6. “Frame” type bridges

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"Harp" cable stays

Approach span Main span Approach span

"Fan" cable stays "Radial" cable stays

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Figure 1.9. Types of suspension bridge

Criteria №5- material for construction

Figure 1.10. Carriageway in the middle of the main structure

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1.6 General background for RCB design

Figure 1.11. Bridge foundations at different levels

1.6.2 Geotechnical investigations and report

REINFORCED CONCRETE BRIDGES ASS. PROF. PHD. DIMITAR DIMITROV 17

Figure1.12. Bridge scour

2.Local scour.When upstream flow is obstructed by obstruction such as piers,

Figure 1.13. Vortices caused by the pier as an obstacle

Figure1.14. Preferred pier shapes for minimizing the scour

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CHAPTER 2: Actions on bridges. Traffic loads on road, railway and pedestrian

2.1 Classification of actions

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Figure 2.1. Load Model LM1

Table 2.1. Basic values for LM1

Location Axle loads Qik[kN] for TS qik[kN/m2] for UDL

Figure 2.2. Load Model LM2

Figure 2.3. Dispersal of concentrated loads through pavement and slabs

2.4 Traffic actions on railway bridges

Qvk =250 kN 250 kN 250 kN 250 kN

no limitation 0.80 m 1.60 m 1.60 m 1.60 m 0.80 m no limitation

Load model LM SW (see Figure 2.5) consists of UDL:

qvk kN/m qvk kN/m

Figure 2.5: Load Models SW

2.5 Design combinations of actions

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3.3 Transition structures at expansion joints