RESEARCH TASK

BY DAVID NGUYEN
Year 12 Physics – HSC Course
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents
Einstein’s Theory of The Quantum Nature __________________________ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Solar Cells ________________________________________________________________________________________________ 8
Bibliography _____________________________________________________________________________________________ 12
EINSTEIN’S THEORY OF THE QUANTUM NATURE
OF LIGHT
Einstein’s theory of the quantum nature of light
By the end of the 19th century many scientists thought that physics was almost totally
understood, and could be explained by applying the mathematics and the laws that had
been discovered through work by renowned scientists such as Newton. Theory usually
corresponded well with experiments – except in two situations (blackbody radiation and
the cause of the photoelectric effect), which they thought would soon be resolved.

THE WORK OF MAXWELL IN PROPOSING EQUATIONS TO EXPLAIN

LIGHT AND ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
Maxwell’s theory gave a definite connection between light and electricity.
(https://newt.phys.unsw.edu.au/einsteinlight/jw/module3_Maxwell.htm), These
equations assisted in Maxwell’s two most important predictions that Electromagnetic
waves could exist with many different frequencies and all such waves would propagate
through space at the speed of light. (2003, Physics 2 2ed, Jacaranda, Milton Qld, Page 195).

THE MODEL OF LIGHT CLEARLY SUPPORTED BY HERTZ’ EXPERIMENT

Hertz discovered the photoelectric effect while investigating the nature of radio waves.
During his investigations, he noted that sparks were emitted in his detector more easily
when irradiated with UV light.

In order to validate Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism, the first task Hertz needed to
do was generate a new type of electromagnetic wave distinct from light, because in 1888
neither X-rays nor gamma radiation had been identified. Relying upon the relationship
between changing electric and magnetic fields that Maxwell had postulated, Hertz used
an induction coil (RLC Circuit) to produce a series of electric sparks, each of which
caused a rapidly varying magnetic field having a frequency much lower than that of
visible light. He designed a simple loop detector to demonstrate that the waves he had
generated really did pass through the air and caused sparks – an electromagnetic field,
just as Maxwell had proposed. This was the experiment with loop detectors where one
was not connected to a power supply and induced a spark in the other loop.

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EINSTEIN’S THEORY OF THE QUANTUM NATURE
OF LIGHT

Andriessen, M, Pentland, P, Gaut, R, McKay, B, Tacon, J, 2003, Physics 2 2ed,

Jacaranda, Milton Qld, Page 196

He then needed to demonstrate that his electromagnetic radio waves displayed the same
properties as light waves. He successfully showed that they reflect from shiny surfaces by
blocking the detector from the source, then reflecting the waves from a copper sheet to
caused sparking. Refraction was similarly verified using a triangular prism made of pitch.
By rotating the detector through 360o, producing maxima when the two sparks were
parallel, yet reduced sparking in the detector reducing to zero when the sparking gaps
were perpendicular, he successfully demonstrated they were polarized.

Finally, it was necessary to show his radio waves possessed the same velocity through air
as visible light. Although strictly it should have been a vacuum, this was sufficient. He
varied the aerials attached to his induction coil to change the frequency of the sparks,
then used interference to measure the wavelength of the resulting waves. The, 𝑉 = 𝑓𝜆
formula could then be used to show that the wave velocity was close enough to match
that of visible light. In this way hertz tested Maxwell’s theory of the connection between
electricity and light and verified it.

Page 2
EINSTEIN’S THEORY OF THE QUANTUM NATURE
OF LIGHT
DISCOVERY OF THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
The Photoelectric Effect – the liberation of electrons from the
surface of a conductor when light strikes the surface. The electrons
absorb the energy from the incident radiation (photons) and are thus
able to overcome the potential energy barrier that normally confines
them to the material via electrostatic charges
Electrons in the surface of the material absorb the energy the
photons of light when the collide. If the photon exceeds energy
required to overcome the electrostatic forces holding electrons in
place, excess energy will appear as the KE of the now emitted Andriessen, M, Pentland, P,
electrons. Gaut, R, McKay, B, Tacon, J,
2003, Physics 2 2ed,
Jacaranda, Milton Qld, Page
203
SUBSEQUENT INVESTIGATIONS OF THIS EFFECT BY
OTHERS
Other scientists discovered unexpected properties of this effect.

- If a metal surface is irradiated with electromagnetic radiation with a high enough

frequency, it emits electrons
- Unless the frequency of the light is above a certain threshold frequency, a metal
cathode emits no photoelectrons, irrespective of the intensity (brightness) of the
incoming radiation
- The actual threshold frequency is different for every metal tested, and always
constant ‘h’
- If photoelectrons are emitted they are released as soon as the illumination begins,
even if the light intensity is very low
- If photoelectrons are emitted, the size of the photocurrent depends on the
intensity of the light and KE
- The kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons depends upon the frequency of
the light and work function
- When a photons hits an electron in the metal it follows the ‘all or nothing’
principle. (If frequency of photon is less than threshold frequency the photons
energy, even when transferred to the electron will be insufficient for emission)

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EINSTEIN’S THEORY OF THE QUANTUM NATURE
OF LIGHT
PLANCK’S INSIGHT INTO BLACK BODY RADIATION
A blackbody radiation is an object that absorbs all of the radiation falling on it. It
therefore heats up, and radiates electromagnetic energy according to a defined curve,
called a blackbody curve, called a blackbody radiation curve. Experiments showed that
for each temperature there was one wavelength at which a maximum amount of energy
was released, beyond which the energy emitted at increasingly shorter wavelengths
reduced to zero, which was logical. However, the theoretical curve predicted that vast
amounts of energy should be emitted at the very shortest wavelengths, even by extremely
cold blackbodies. It did not fit experiments, but appeared to be mathematically perfect.

Classical physics predicted that as the wavelength of radiation decreased, its intensity
would increase without limit, approaching infinity at small wavelengths. This is known as
the ultraviolet catastrophe because if violated the law of conservation of energy and did
not match the experimental results.

Wu X L, Farr 2009, Physics In Focus HSC Course, McGraw-

Hill, North Ryde page 199

Wu X L, Farr 2009, Physics In Focus HSC Course,

Max Planck managed to reproduce the actual McGraw-Hill, North Ryde page 199
graph using the same mathematical theory;
however, to do so he proposed that electromagnetic radiation was not continuous, as was
the current understanding, but rather composed of tiny packets. He called these packets
quanta, stating that the energy of any particular quantum was directly proportional to its
frequency, 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓. Most scientists ridiculed this proposal; if energy were not continuous,

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EINSTEIN’S THEORY OF THE QUANTUM NATURE
OF LIGHT
a Planck proposed, it would have to be composed of particles therefore all particles
posses mass. Moreover, since blackbodies must absorb all electromagnetic radiation, and
emit radiation at all frequency, they argued that the 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 formula has to be incorrect
due to the case of electromagnetic radiation having frequencies other than these.

EINSTEIN’S QUANTUM RESOLUTION

Einstein resolved the impasse by using Planck’s quantum theory to resolve the other
outstanding query – the cause of the photoelectric effect.

Einstein proposed an explanation for the photoelectric effect and put forward the idea
that light energy came in little bundles, photons, that behaved like tiny particles with the
energy of the photon given.

Einstein called the quanta of visible light photons. He explained that each metal has a
unique, constant work function, ϕ, equating to the energy needed to release an electron
from the metal surface. Einstein proposed an explanation for the photoelectric effect and
put forward the idea that light energy came in little bundles, photons, that behaved like
tiny particles with the energy of the photon given using Planck’s quantum idea. His
explanation suggested that the kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectron would be
equal to the ‘photon energy’ minus the ‘energy required to remove the electron’ from an.
This suggested a particle property for light. As experimental evidence for Einstein’s ideas
was found, it led to a reconceptualization of light and it was now seen as being a wave-
particle duality, travelling as electromagnetic waves but with the energy existing in the
tiny, quantized bundles called ‘photons’. This incorporation of Planck’s quantum idea
provided the impetus for others to look more closely at quantum ideas which led to the
idea of the quantization of light which was derived from the quantum theory.

He then employed Planck’s quantum theory, in particular the controversial 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓

formula, stating that only three possibilities were available

1. 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 < ϕ when no electrons would be emitted, regardless of how many photons

hit the metal
2. 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 = ϕ (the threshold frequency) when electrons are released, but have zero
excess kinetic energy

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EINSTEIN’S THEORY OF THE QUANTUM NATURE
OF LIGHT
3. 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 > ϕ when electrons are released having excess kinetic energy. The extra
energy is the difference between the energy of the incoming photon and the work
function of the metal, that is, 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 – ϕ

This simple, elegant explanation fully accounted for all the properties of the photoelectric
effect, thus establishing the quantum theory as well. Einstein’s contribution was essential
to its acceptance, and opened a new branch of science.

SUBSEQUENT INVESTIGATIONS INTO Andriessen, M, Pentland, P, Gaut, R, McKay, B, Tacon, J,

2003, Physics 2 2ed, Jacaranda, Milton Qld, Page 206
VALIDITY OF HIS THEORY
Einstein made a very significant contribution to
quantum theory by taking Planck’s theories about
black body radiation and applying them to solve a
problem. He expanded on the work of Planck and
turned quantum theory into a set of ideas with
concrete principles and modelling.

Millikan performed his experiment to analyse the

relationship between the frequencies of the
incident electromagnetic radiation and the kinetic energies of the photoelectrons
released by different metal surfaces, and plotted them. He was able to verify Einstein’s
equation for the photoelectric effect and determined a more precise value for ‘h’ by
examining the gradient of the line. This was the first time that Planck’s constant ‘h’ could
be derived experimentally

THE NEWLY EMERGING UNDERSTANDING OF THE NATURE OF LIGHT

Maxwell’s theory gave a definite connection between light and electricity. Hertz was able
to measure the speed of radio waves and show that it was equal to the speed of light.
Planck discovered black body’s and suggested the quantum theory. Einstein’s work was
of significant contribution to the establishment of the quantum theory of light and
establishing quantum physics is general. His discoveries in regard to the nature of
photons and light were pivotal in the development of the particle nature of light in the
photoelectric effect. The evidence for the description of light as waves was well

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EINSTEIN’S THEORY OF THE QUANTUM NATURE
OF LIGHT
established at the turn of the century when the photoelectric effect introduced from
evidence of a particle nature as well.

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SOLAR CELLS

Solar Cells
PURPOSE
Solar cells are devices that convert light energy into electrical energy using
semiconductors and the photoelectric effect

COMPONENTS
A solar cell consists of a joined p-type and n-type semiconductor (P.N junction)
sandwiched in between two metal contacts that are responsible for conducting electricity
In its simplest form a photocell (or photoelectric cell) is a Geissler evacuated tube with
two metal plates at opposite ends. The cathode is made of a metal that has a low work
function, ϕ, such as potassium. (A strong vacuum inside the tube prevents the metal from
reacting with the oxygen.)

FUNCTION
When UV light rays reach the P.N Junction, energy is absorbed by electrons within the
semiconductor and are freed from the n-type semiconductor and move to fill the free
holes, experiencing an attractive force at the junction, as a result of the photoelectric
effect. These electrons were once in the valence band but now have gained high enough
energy above the threshold frequency so that they migrate towards the conduction band.
After the electrons fill these holes, the p-type atoms become negative ions, and the n-type
atoms because positive ions, because the n-type lost electrons due to their migration
towards p-type forms a depletion zone (electric field) that opposes further diffusion of
electrons across the P.N Junction.

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SOLAR CELLS

Andriessen, M, Pentland, P, Gaut, R, McKay, B, Tacon, J, 2003, Physics 2 2ed,

Jacaranda, Milton Qld, Page 229

Since these electron are free to move, they can be easily accelerated by the electric field
existing naturally at the P.N junction towards the n-type semiconductor, that is against
the direction of the electric field. As a result, at the junction, called the depletion zone,
and acts as a diode, allowing electrons to move from n to p, but not the reverse
• The depletion zone – Formed due to the electric field generated at the P.N
junction when electrons migrate from n-type to p-type. This sets up an electric
field which prevents further migration of electrons across the P.N Junction

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 SOLAR CELLS

Wu X L, Farr 2009, Physics In Focus HSC Course, McGraw-Hill,

North Ryde page 219

The depletion zone becomes a potential Wu X L, Farr 2009, Physics In Focus HSC Course, McGraw-
barrier which causes separation of the n-type Hill, North Ryde page 225
and p-type semiconductor. Due to the electron’s inability to diffuse across the depletion
zone, it travels through an external circuit and thus setting up an EMF in the process.
Electrons absorb energy from the UV radiation and are thus able to overcome the
potential energy barrier that normally confines them to the material via electrostatic
charges. The metal contacts on the surface of the n-type silicon conducts the electrons
away, and through the external circuit to move them back into the p-type silicon doing
useful work along the way. This EMF acts as a source of electrical energy which is able to
light up a globe and so light energy has been directly converted into electrical energy

IMPACT OF SOLAR CELLS ON SOCIETY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Solar cells have had a significant impact positively on society and the environment
The most significant advantage is that solar cells provide energy that is a truly renewable
energy source. It can be harnessed in all areas across the world and is available every day.
Solar energy does not run out, unlike other sources of energy and it is accessible as long
as the sun is still there.
Harnessing solar energy generally does not cause pollution. It is clear that solar energy
reduces our dependence on non-renewable energy sources. Decades of research have led
to the development of solar cells which can create electricity without producing global
warming pollution. This is an important step in fighting the climate crisis.
Although solar energy can still be collected during cloudy and rainy days, the efficiency of
the solar systems drops. Solar panels are dependent on sunlight to effectively gather

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SOLAR CELLS

solar energy. Even most efficient solar cells only convert just over 20% of the suns rays to
electricity. Therefore a few cloudy, rainy days can have a noticeable effect on the energy
system. Thus it reduces the cost efficiency for individuals that decide to use solar cells.
Solar power provides the Earth with clean and renewable energy that can be harnessed
to utilize and stored for future purpose. It has significantly impacted the future as
human’s requirement for electrical energy increases as technology becomes more
advanced and thus positively impacts the environment and society of the further
generations ahead.
Overall, the positive impacts on society and the environment have a more significant
impact than the negative.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Dux College. 2017. HSC Physis Syllabus dot-point summary – From Ideas to
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