Fourth Edition

CHAPTER MECHANICS OF

1 MATERIALS
Ferdinand P. Beer
E. Russell Johnston, Jr.
John T. DeWolf

Lecture Notes:
Introduction –
Concept of Stress
J. Walt Oler
Texas Tech University

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LEARNING OUTCOME

• On successfully completion of this chapter,

Student should be able to define and apply
basic concept of :

-Type of Stress
-Factor of Safety

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Contents

Review of Statics
Concept of Stress
Stress Analysis
Design
Centric & Eccentric Loading
Axial Loading: Normal Stress
Shearing Stress
Bearing Stress
Factor of Safety

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Review of Statics
• Equations of equilibrium
• For equilibrium
– balance of forces
– balance of moments
• Draw a free-body diagram to account for all forces acting on
the body
• Apply the two equations to achieve equilibrium state

∑F=0
∑ MO = 0

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10 N
FBD- REVIEW
1 Cari FBD 2 Cari FBC
10 N

3 Cari FAB 4 Cari FCD & FAB

10 N

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Mechanics is the study of forces that act on bodies and the resultant motion that
those bodies experience (statics and dynamics)
Mechanics of materials
• A branch of mechanics
• It studies the relationship of
– External loads applied to a deformable body, and
– The intensity of internal forces acting within the
body
• Are used to compute deformations of a body
• Study body’s stability when external forces are
applied to it
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Concept of stress

Concept of stress
• To obtain distribution of force acting over
a sectioned area
• Assumptions of material:
– It is continuous (uniform distribution of
matter)
– It is cohesive (all portions are connected
together)

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STRESS

Normal stress
• Intensity of internal force, or force per unit area, acting
normal to ΔA
• Symbol used for normal stress, is σ (sigma)
Units (SI system)
• Newtons per square meter (N/m2) or a pascal
lim ΔPz (1 Pa = 1 N/m2)
σz = • kPa = 103 N/m2 (kilo-pascal)
ΔA →0 ΔA • MPa = 106 N/m2 (mega-pascal)
• GPa = 109 N/m2 (giga-pascal)

• Tensile stress: normal force “pulls” or “stretches”

the area element ΔA (+if)
• Compressive stress: normal force “pushes” or
“compresses” area element ΔA (-if)
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AVERAGE NORMAL STRESS IN AXIALLY LOADED BAR

• Assumptions
• Uniform deformation: Bar
remains straight before and
after load is applied, and
cross section remains flat
or plane during
deformation
• In order for uniform
deformation, force P be
applied along centroidal
axis of cross section

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Axial Loading: Normal Stress

• The resultant of the internal forces for an axially
loaded member is normal to a section cut
perpendicular to the member axis.

• The force intensity on that section is defined as

the normal stress.
F P
  lim  ave 
A0 A A

• The normal stress at a particular point may not be

equal to the average stress but the resultant of the
stress distribution must satisfy
P   ave A   dF    dA
A

• The detailed distribution of stress is statically

indeterminate, i.e., can not be found from statics
alone.

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Review of Statics

• The structure is designed to

support a 30 kN load
• The structure consists of a
boom and rod joined by pins
(zero moment connections) at
the junctions and supports
• Perform a static analysis to
determine the internal force in
each structural member

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Stress Analysis
Can the structure safely support the 30 kN
load?
• From a statics analysis
FAB = 40 kN (compression)
FBC = 50 kN (tension)

• At any section through member BC, the

internal force is 50 kN with a force intensity
or stress of
dBC = 20 mm P 50 103 N
 BC    159 MPa
A 314 10-6 m 2

• From the material properties for steel, the

allowable stress is
 all  165 MPa
• Conclusion: the strength of member BC is
adequate

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Design
• Design of new structures requires selection of
appropriate materials and component dimensions
to meet performance requirements
• For reasons based on cost, weight, availability,
etc., the choice is made to construct the rod from
aluminum (all= 100 MPa). What is an
appropriate choice for the rod diameter?
P P 50  103 N
 all  A   500  10  6 m 2
A  all 100  106 Pa
d2
A
4

d
4A

(
4 500  10  6 m 2   2.52 102 m  25.2 mm
 

• An aluminum rod 26 mm or more in diameter is

adequate
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Centric & Eccentric Loading

• A uniform distribution of stress in a section
infers that the line of action for the resultant of
the internal forces passes through the centroid
of the section.

• A uniform distribution of stress is only

possible if the concentrated loads on the end
sections of two-force members are applied at
the section centroids. This is referred to as
centric loading.

• If a two-force member is eccentrically loaded,

then the resultant of the stress distribution in a
section must yield an axial force and a
moment.

• The stress distributions in eccentrically loaded

members cannot be uniform or symmetric.
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STRESS

• Shear stress
• Intensity of force, or force per unit area,
acting tangent to ΔA
• Symbol used for normal stress is τ (tau)
Units (SI system)
• Newtons per square meter (N/m2) or a pascal
lim ΔPx (1 Pa = 1 N/m2)
τzx = • kPa = 103 N/m2 (kilo-pascal)
ΔA →0 ΔA • MPa = 106 N/m2 (mega-pascal)
• GPa = 109 N/m2 (giga-pascal)

lim ΔPy
τzy =
ΔA →0 ΔA

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Shearing Stress
• Forces P and P’ are applied transversely to the
member AB.
• Corresponding internal forces act in the plane
of section C and are called shearing forces.
• The resultant of the internal shear force
distribution is defined as the shear of the section
and is equal to the load P.
• The corresponding average shear stress is,
P
 ave 
A
• Shear stress distribution varies from zero at the
member surfaces to maximum values that may be
much larger than the average value.
• The shear stress distribution cannot be assumed to
be uniform.
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Shearing Stress Examples

Single Shear Double Shear

P F
P F
 ave    ave  
A A A 2A

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Bearing Stress in Connections

• Bolts, rivets, and pins create

stresses on the points of contact
or bearing surfaces of the
members they connect.

• The resultant of the force

distribution on the surface is
equal and opposite to the force
exerted on the pin.

• Corresponding average force

intensity is called the bearing
stress,
P P
b  
A td

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Example

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Stress Analysis & Design Example

From a statics analysis:
FAB = 40 kN (compression)
FBC = 50 kN (tension)

Determine:
- maximum normal stresses
in AB and BC, and
- the shearing stress and
bearing stress at each
pinned connection

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Rod & Boom Normal Stresses

The rod is in tension with an axial force of 50 kN.

At the rod center, the average normal stress in the circular

cross-section (A = 314x10-6m2) is BC = +159 MPa.

At the flattened rod ends, the smallest cross-sectional

area occurs at the pin centerline,
A  (20 mm(40 mm  25 mm  300 10  6 m 2

P 50 103 N
 BC,end    167 MPa
A 300 10  6 m 2

The boom is in compression with an axial force of 40 kN

and average normal stress of –26.7 MPa.

The minimum area sections at the boom ends are

unstressed since the boom is in compression.

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Pin Shearing Stresses

The cross-sectional area for pins at A, B,
and C,
2
 25 mm  6 2
A  r  
2
  491 10 m
 2 

The force on the pin at C is equal to the

force exerted by the rod BC,
P 50 103 N
 C , ave    6 2
 102 MPa
A 491  10 m

The pin at A is in double shear with a total

force equal to the force exerted by the
boom AB,
P 20 kN
 A, ave    6 2
 40.7 MPa
A 491 10 m

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Pin Shearing Stresses

Divide the pin at B into sections to determine
the section with the largest shear force,
PE  15 kN
PG  25 kN (largest)

Evaluate the corresponding average shearing

stress,
PG 25 kN
 B,ave    50.9 MPa
A 491106 m2

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Pin Bearing Stresses

To determine the bearing stress at A in the boom AB, we

have t = 30 mm and d = 25 mm,
P 40 kN
b    53.3 MPa
td (30 mm(25 mm

To determine the bearing stress at A in the bracket, we

have t = 2(25 mm) = 50 mm and d = 25 mm,
P 40 kN
b    32.0 MPa
td (50 mm(25 mm

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Stress in Two Force Members

• Axial forces on a two force

member result in only normal
stresses on a plane cut
perpendicular to the member axis.

• Transverse forces on bolts and

pins result in only shear stresses
on the plane perpendicular to bolt
or pin axis.

• Will show that either axial or

transverse forces may produce both
normal and shear stresses with respect
to a plane other than one cut
perpendicular to the member axis.

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Stress on an Oblique Plane

Pass a section through the member forming an
angle q with the normal plane.

From equilibrium conditions, the distributed

forces (stresses) on the plane must be
equivalent to the force P.
Resolve P into components normal(axial) and
tangential (transverse) to the oblique section,
F  P cosq V  P sinq

The average normal and shear stresses on

the oblique plane are
F P cosq P
   cos2 q
Aq A0 A0
cosq
V P sin q P
   sin q cosq
Aq A0 A0
cosq
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Maximum Stresses
Normal and shearing stresses on an oblique
plane
P P
 cos2 q  sin q cosq
A0 A0

The maximum normal stress occurs when the

reference plane is perpendicular to the member
axis,
P
m    0
A0

The maximum shear stress occurs for a plane at

+ 45o with respect to the axis,
P P
m  sin 45 cos 45  
A0 2 A0

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State of Stress
Stress components are defined for the planes
cut parallel to the x, y and z axes. For
equilibrium, equal and opposite stresses are
exerted on the hidden planes.
The combination of forces generated by the
stresses must satisfy the conditions for
equilibrium:
 Fx   Fy   Fz  0
Mx  My  Mz  0
Consider the moments about the z axis:
M z  0  ( xy Aa  ( yx Aa
 xy   yx

similarly,  yz   zy and  yz   zy

It follows that only 6 components of stress are

required to define the complete state of stress
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Factor of Safety

Structural members or machines Factor of safety considerations:

must be designed such that the • uncertainty in material properties
working stresses are less than the • uncertainty of loadings
ultimate strength of the material. • uncertainty of analyses
• number of loading cycles
FS  Factor of safety • types of failure
 fail  • maintenance requirements and
FS   fail
 acting  acting deterioration effects
• importance of member to structures
integrity
• risk to life and property
• influence on machine functionτ
 fail   yield atau  ultimate atau  allowable

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Review Lecture 1

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