Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
MPU-3322 CONTEMPORARY
MALAYSIAN ISSUES
LECTURE NOTES
Social Issues
Environmental Issues
Economic Issues
Political Issues
A. Drug Trafficking
Section 39B of the Dangerous Drugs Act 1952 (Revised 1980) provides mandatory death sentence for
drug trafficking offences.
a. Remove the offender from the midst of the society to protect public’s interest
To deter the offender from repeating the offence.
Without a mandatory death penaltydrug traffickers may still be able to repeat their
offense once they have completed the term of their imprisonment.
b. Serve as a deterrent to potential drug traffickers.
Death penalty severe penaltypolicymakers and legislatures anticipated that there
would be more deterrents of such crimes.
Serves as an example to prevent others from committing similar offence
Keeping alive the constant threat of punishment by passing exemplary sentences,
particularly when the offence is deemed to be on the increase.
In October 2009, ENCOD (European Coalition for Just and Effective Drug Policies), which is a
European coalition of NGO’s and individuals concerned with the global drug issue, wrote a letter of
appeal to the Malaysian government, urging the government to abolish death penalty for drug
trafficking.
1990 to 2011: the number of drug traffickers had increased from 744 to 3,845.
Drug addiction amongst youths is still rampant death penalty had not been a very successful
deterrence.
a. Financial incentives
Fuelled by the economic principle of supply and demand in a world a high demand for
illicit substances that cannot be obtained through any legal means.
Large amounts of money to be made.
b. The possibility of escaping the gallows
Enhances their courage to break the law.
Being charged under section 39B DDA does not guarantee that death penalty would be
imposed on the accused
c. The practice of corruption
Creates a breeding ground for drug trafficking as drug traffickers could buy their way into
the demand market.
Low integrity level among some of the government officialsdrug traffickers will become
bolder in their approach.
d. Demand for drugs creates a continuous need for the supply of drugs.
Night-life entertainments at pubs or discos creates a demand for party drugs that are
purported to be able help the party-goers to unwind.
Peer influence and the adventurous nature of the young people easy target to drug abuse.
B. Drug Addiction
1. Statistics: number of drugs addicts from January 2010 till February 2016
Total: 131,841
Gender
Male Female
127,797 4044
Age
19 years old and below 20-39 years old 40 years old and above
8732 93, 044 29,355
c. The federal police launched its Special Tactical Intelligence Narcotics Group (STING) in year
2014.
Through STING, the police have increased enforcement, and their intelligence network is more
efficient and collaboration with their foreign counterparts is better
Sting’s primary focus — drug-processing syndicates and drug kingpins.
d. The government and non-governmental organisations have set up prevention and rehabilitation
centres for drug addicts.
The facilities in Cure and Care Rehabilitation Centre (CCRC) and 1 Malaysian Cure and Care
Clinics (C & C) are more advanced than in some countries.
Provide educational training to drug addicts empower them to turn over a new leaf once they
are released from the centres.
b. A case in Portugal
Increasingly more countries today are changing their approach to handle the drug problem:
Australia, Denmark, Canada, and Switzerland provide safe havens or drug clinics where addicts
can receive clean drugs for free and be intoxicated under supervised conditions.
Netherlands has also legalized the sale of cannabis at sanctioned coffee shops. The number of
hard addicts in Netherlands has stabilized and the average age of addicts has risen to 38 years,
an indication that their drug policy is working.
Uruguay has recently legalized the growing and sale of marijuana. Even the US has softened
their fight against drugs.
Malaysia too is beginning to treat drug addicts more as medical patients and less as criminals.
ii) The drugs provided by these clinics are purer, unadulterated, and clean from contaminants
Drug clinics cause deaths by drug overdose and HIV infections to cease completely.
Drugs provided by the drug cartels without quality control likely to lead to drug overdose
because the users do not know what they are taking.
Updated May 2017
6
Lecture Notes/MPU-3322
Drugs sold at the streets are higher due to interest in profit making encourages drug users to
commit crimes to help pay for their addiction.
Clean and free drugs through drugs clinic lead to fewer drug-related crimes, like vehicle thefts,
muggings and burglaries committed by drug addicts as well as HIV infection due to drug use
iv) Addicts under this drug prescription treatment could function as normal
Remove the social stigma of drug users addicts under this drug prescription treatment can
remain lucid
Given drug substitution under proper supervision better control of their lives, most being able
to secure permanent jobs
Most of the addicts under this would carry on with their addiction for no more than 3 years, with
only 15% of them continuing for longer periods.
a. Definition of drug relapse usage, intake or misuse of psychoactive substances after one had
received drug addiction treatment and rehabilitation, physically and psychologically.
A. RISING CRIME
1. Crime Statistics
Decline in crime rate: according to Dang Wangi district police chief Zainol Samah, the street crime
rate in Kuala Lumpur in 2015 showed a drastic decline of 37.7 per cent, or 439 fewer cases,
compared with 2014. He said, last year only saw 675 cases of street crime, such as robberies and
thefts, compared with 1,114 cases in 2014.
Two ways to measure crime:
a) Official crime statistics (recorded crime) – which are based on the aggregate records of offender
and offences processed by the police, courts and prison agencies.
b) Unofficial crime statistics (dark figure) – which are produced from surveys outside the criminal
justice system. Not every crime is reported by the public and recorded by the police. Pemandu
gathered that about 25% of the crimes experienced by the public were not reported to the
police known as the “dark figure”.
The Crime Index may have gone down but the recent spate of vicious crimes had left some Malaysians to
doubt the report. Malaysians are alarmed with the numerous news report on crime daily -- armed robberies,
snatch theft, shooting crimes – in the daily newspapers as well as in Twitter, Facebook and blogs.
Police are stepping up efforts to tackle street crime to reverse public perception that crime is still high.
Factors on why the public has increased fear of crimes in recent years:
3. Gangsterism
Most secondary school students linked to secret societies have yet to become initiated gang members,
investigations revealed.
However, not amused by triads’ recruitment of teenagers, the federal police are calling for all
stakeholders to play their role to prevent gangsterism from corrupting Malaysian youths.
Federal police Criminal Investigation Department director Datuk Seri Mohmad Salleh said secret
societies set their eyes on students to prepare the youngsters as their future cadres. “What these triad
gangs were doing was recruiting new members to fill the low ranks, who would serve as their runners
and who they can order around. They target teenagers as these youths are vulnerable and can be easily
influenced to join their groups”
Due to their busyness, such parents also do not spend enough quality time with their children,
causing the children to feel lonely and in greater need of companionship from their peers.
c. Surrounding environment
Home environment lacks of peace and harmony youths may likely be drawn to take part in
acts of gangsterism to release stress and frustration.
Neighbourhood growing up in a neighbourhood marred by criminal activities higher tendency
to be influenced to take part in gangsterism as a way of self protection as well.
d. Influence from mass media
Some films or dramas, even cartoons portray elements of gangsterism.
May influence some young minds to see violence as a way to solve problems.
4. Snatch thefts
Purse snatching is the most frequently reported crime against expatriates and Malaysian citizens. The usual
modus operandi (MO) is one or two males on a motorbike approaching the target from the rear and
snatching a purse, handbag, or cell phone.
a. Easy targets
The most common targets women (especially old ladies) walking alone with their handbags or
purses
Youngsters with smartphones youngsters tend to be too engrossed with their smartphones,
checking things out in the smartphones, to be aware of their surroundings.
b. The convenience of the attack
These types of robberies occur at all hours, in front of witnesses, and even in upscale neighborhoods
Snatch thieves normally ride on the motorcyclecan easily speed off after snatching the desired
items from the victims.
c. Lack of CCTV (close circuit television)
Most streets in Malaysia have not been installed with CCTV unlike certain developed countries
like South Korea.
This lack emboldens the snatch thieves to strike on their victimshave the confidence that they
will be able to escape after the crime is committed.
b. Street patrols:
More street patrols by the uniformed and plain clothes personnel are needed for in hot spots
areasshould operate 24 hours a day in crime hotspots.
More frequent vehicle patrols in small lanes along major city roads which have been used by snatch
thieves as getaway routes
c. Tackle the problem of drug addicts:
Most snatch thieves are drug addicts who need to support their habit.
As long as this problem is not resolved, many drug-related crimes will continue to occur.
Drug addicts were the main perpetrators of street crimeat least 40% of the crimes since 2010.
d. Local authorities:
Should introduce initiatives and implement the guidelines under the safe city concept to provide
safety features such as constructing barriers to separate pedestrian walkways and roads.
The police have been working with KL City Hall on a “safer city” programme.
Having more lighting in back alleys and secluded areas, as well as making pedestrian walkways
inaccessible to motorcycles
e. Enhanced vigilance of the pedestrians:
Pedestrians must put into practice the guidelines provided by the MCPF and the police
To be more watchful of their surroundings when they are walking on the streets or in the car park;
to avoid walking alone in lonely streets etc.
f. Educational workshops:
Police should conduct more workshops to teach the public how to avoid being victims of street
crimes.
These programmes are also to get people to be acquainted with their local police officers.
g. Civic consciousness:
Malaysians need to practise civic consciousness in rendering help to victims, especially if the
victims have been injured due to the snatch theft.
Where possiblenab the snatch thieves and hand them over to the authorities.
To sum up, there is an urgent need for all parties -- law enforcement agencies, including local authorities
and NGOs -- to work with one mind and commitment to fight the snatch-thief scourge which is a bane
in our society.
5. Shooting Crime
a. The spate of shooting in recent years has sparked a national debate on how to combat violent crime,
how to get ahead of the criminals and how to curb the easy access to guns.
Criminals these days are becoming more brazen and brutal not afraid of the law
Spreading fear among the public.
Who are the victims? more varied and involved people of influence such as businessman,
politicians and government official.
Motive for shooting crime: may be revenge-related or rivalry between two parties.
b. In response to growing concern of the public, the Ops Cantas Khas was mounted by the Royal
Malaysian Police (PDRM) since mid-August 2013 as a serious effort of hunting down criminals to
curb crime.
B. CORRUPTION
1. Statistics
a. Malaysia has climbed up three places in the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) table for 2014.
According to the index that was prepared by anti-corruption watchdog Transparency International
(TI), Malaysia was ranked 50th out of 175 countries, while last year, it was ranked 53rd out of 177
countries. Malaysia scored 52 points in the CPI score, two more points than they did in 2013.
b. More and more Malaysians feel the level of corruption in the country has increased over the past
year, a survey by Transparency International-Malaysia (TI-M) has revealed.
c. Results of the 2017 Global Corruption Barometer, launched today, showed this perception was
shared by 60% of the 1,009 respondents polled.
d. The number has almost doubled since three years ago. A similar survey in 2013 showed that only
39% of respondents felt the level of corruption had increased. In 2014, the perception level was
just 30%.
e. In the latest survey, only 27% perceived the level of corruption to be the same as it was at the
beginning of 2016, 11% felt it had decreased, while the balance of 2% said they “didn’t know”.
f. TI-M president Akhbar Satar called for tougher measures to be implemented to curb corruption
among the high-risk service providers, which are the police and government officials.
A. RACIAL UNITY
enter into a new era of globalization, there have been some new challenges that test the unity
foundation of the country.
Vision 2020 Targeting developed status for Malaysia by the year 2020
National unity is named as a key component of a developed country
“Bangsa Malaysia” Emphasises that the people are able to:
(Malaysian Nation) identify themselves with the country
policy speak Bahasa Malaysia (the Malay language)
accept the Constitution.
National Service Aims to address racial polarisation and encourage national unity
programme By bringing youths from a variety of backgrounds together in one
setting.
1Malaysia Emphasises ethnic harmony and national unity
Values of perseverance, a culture of excellence, acceptance, loyalty,
education, humility, integrity, and meritocracy.
B. EDUCATION
Higher education institutions had their budget slashed by RM2.4 billion (US$573 million), from
RM15.78 billion (US$3.8 billion) in 2015 to RM13.37 billion (US$3.2 billion) for the year 2016.
Universiti Malaya had the most severe cut of 27.30 percent, followed by Universiti Malaysia Terengganu
at 23.76 percent and Universiti Teknologi MARA at 23.72 percent.
c) The issue of public universities of having been too dependent on government funding
Not viewed as a sustainable approach
Should instead adopt prudent and innovative use of resources
d) The need for new paradigms of operation to be developed quickly to prevent standards of service
from being affected
Diversifying university revenues, which may include collaboration with industry partners and
investments in lucrative sectors.
Finding ways to improve expenditure efficiency in public universities, such as reducing the
number of overseas trips and using internal facilities to hold events.
There are about 1,200 Chinese primary schools and about 523 Tamil schools in Malaysia. Over
650,000 children attend vernacular schools and these constitute about 95% of Chinese children and
about 55% of Indian children.
a) Vernacular schools play an important role in ensuring cultural heritage is preserved through
the generations.
The Chinese and Tamil languages in these schools don’t just function as a medium of
instruction.
They also provide a link to the community’s cultural heritage. Hence, they are instrumental
in embodying a multi-cultural 1Malaysia.
b) It is also advantageous for the country to cultivate talent with multilingual abilities and who
are from multicultural backgrounds.
These talents will allow our country to compete internationally
Generate economic benefits for the nation.
Recommendations to improve the quality and the function of vernacular schools in the Malaysian
context:
Those who did not meet the minimum grades required by the Malaysian Medical Council before
beginning medical studies may not be accepted as housemen once they graduate.
Bank Negara’s latest annual report has devoted a section to the unemployment among youths, touching
on Malaysia’s position compared to other countries, and what the possible long-term implications are
and measures that need to be taken.
The bright side of the survey is that Malaysia is not alone in facing the problem of unemployed youths.
Other countries in the region are also facing the same predicament, where a large number of youths –
those between the ages of 15 and 24 – are unemployed.
According to the survey based on 2015 numbers, when the national unemployment figure was at 3.1%,
the unemployment rate among youths was about 10.7% – three times the national average.
Thailand and Singapore have a higher ratio of youth unemployment compared to their national averages
at 4.4 times and 3.9 times, respectively.
Among the youths in the workforce, the percentage of those unemployed is higher among those with a
tertiary education compared to the ones without a tertiary education. In 2015, of the 405,000 youths
with tertiary education, 15.3% were unemployed.
Compare this to the unemployment among those without a tertiary education, where out of the 2.162
million youths without tertiary education, only 9.8% were unemployed.
According to a survey by Jobstreet, certain fresh graduates are demanding as high as RM6500 as
their starting salary.
However, in reality, in order to earn more than RM5000 in Malaysia, one need to meet several job
requirements where past working experience is an essential factor.
2. Clueless
One of the most common interview questions is “Where do you see yourself in 5 years?” The reason
why this is often asked is to gauge if the candidate understands the advertised position and whether
s/he has a future plan and knows what career path is in place for the position.
Employers enter each recruitment initiative in search of “the right person for the right job”
expectation. They care for your career goals of the job candidates to ensure that they hire those who
are always motivated, empowered and are likely to stay in the company.
When candidates are unable to clearly define what their future plan is, the outlook is that they are
not serious with their application and this might translate into an unsuccessful job application.
Our education system has been built in such way where the importance has been given to be able
to provide exact answers rather than allowing room for critical thinking skills.
Being relatively new to the workforce, one glaring short-fall in our workforce is the ability to think
not only analytically, but also critically.
Candidates who are able to portray these during interviews are more likely to be successful.
These are the kind of candidates that would be regarded as “talents” in an organization, people with
high potentials would be an asset to the organization if given the right guidance and grooming.
4. Communication skills
One of the most sought after requirement for an employee, especially for a large organization is
communication skills.
Some high potential candidates with excellent grades flop at interviews due to failure to display the
ability to communicate and articulate ideas clearly.
Communication skills here is not singularly pointed at the ability to converse fluently but also
includes body language, and the ability to convey information effectively and efficiently.
If the job candidate is late for interviews, dressed inappropriately, and poorly groomed, it not would
be sending the best of first impressions to the panel of interviewers and effectively narrowing his /
her chances of securing a job placement.
Updated May 2017
19
Lecture Notes/MPU-3322
A. ILLEGAL IMMIGRANTS
1. Definition
a. Illegal migrationa regular migration, undocumented migration or clandestine
migration.
b. Illegal immigrant a foreigner who either has illegally crossed an international political
border, or a foreigner who has entered a country legally but then overstays his or her
visa.
c. Illegal immigration immigration across national borders in a way that violates the
immigration law of the destination country.
d. The Immigration Act describes undocumented migrants consist of a person who is
unlawfully enter or remain in Malaysia.
i. Refugees and asylum seekers are equally subject to the Immigration Act as other
undocumented migrants.
ii. However, refugees and asylum seekers who are registered under the United
Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) will permissible to stay in
Malaysia.
iii. Malaysian immigration law does not provide special protection or procedures for
asylum seekers refuges or trafficked persons nor does it make special provisions
for children or women, including pregnant women.
iv. He or she is liable to being imprisoned, whipped, detained and removed.
About 30,000 illegals had been arrested from January to October in 2014 year
nationwide. In addition, more than 50,000 illegals had voluntarily surrendered under the
amnesty programme from July until October 2014.
b. Heavier penalty
On 10 November 2014, Home Minister Datuk Seri Ahmad Zahid Hamidi had called for
heavier penalties to be imposed on those who brought in illegal immigrants, including
whipping.
Updated May 2017
20
Lecture Notes/MPU-3322
Push Factors:
a. Political struggle in the source country
Authoritarian regimes in the source countries are considered as the primary reason
for illegal immigration.
Political struggles within ethnic movements, or other violent removals from power-
-combined with interstate conflict in many large parts of the world gives a
significant motivation to illegal immigration.
b. The deterioration of stability and security generates a massive displacement of
population
A large proportion try somewhat to get in the neighbouring countries illegally
Not deterred by reform and enforcement of the immigration policies in most
destination countries which have developed selective immigration and set new rules
for any kind of stay.
Pull Factors:
a. Prosperity, stability and population decline in the destination countries.
Before 21st century, Filipino and Indonesian (Kalimantan) had entered Sabah
because the stability in the state
The number of local people was not high.
b. Demand for low skill workers
Many occupations (agricultural and construction) do not require high skilled
workers
Employers in host countries continue to hire them at wages highly superior to
wages in the source countries.
a. Social destabilization
Confusion of identity because of the similarity of the faces among the illegal immigrant
and local people – eg General Election 2013, where a few Malaysian Indians were
mistaken to be illegal immigrants from Bangladesh.
The emergence illegal squatter’s settlement a negative image of Malaysia.
b. National security
Illegal immigrants have been involved and convicted for crimes ranging from petty
theft to rape and high profile robberies and murders.
Malaysian security forces have also regularly uncovered supplies of weapons in
illegal immigrant squatters distributed throughout peninsular and East Malaysia.
Conflicts from the source country may spill over to Malaysia, like in the case of the
clashes of the Myanmar immigrants
c. Contagious diseases
Close to half of foreign workers who underwent medical tests in 2014 are infected with
the contagious airborne disease tuberculosis (TB), the Malaysian Medical Association
(MMA) has said.
Those who know they are ill and cannot come in through the legal channel will choose
to come in illegally.
Focuses on the settling the issue of illegal immigrants and foreign workers.
Aims to help government to identify the number of illegal immigrants in
Malaysia for further action.
a. 6P Program
Effective: the government has managed to call the illegal immigrants to get their
permit in the right manner.
Ineffective: the dishonesty of the appointed 6P agents some had cheated dozens
of Bangladeshi workers. This happened due to the lack of monitoring of the
agents.
a. The Malaysian Anti-Corruption Commission (MACC) has revealed that corruption and
other wrongdoings by enforcement officers, including Immigration officers, at the entry
points were among the reasons for foreigners being able to enter this country illegally.
b. According to the MACC 2010 Report, there were Immigration officers who lived a
luxurious life on ill-gotten money for facilitating the entry and exit of illegals, as
uncovered at the Pulau Ketam passenger jetty.
c. The bribes were for allowing the illegals to enter the country although their passports
had false stamping or they were without any valid travel document.
B. Human Trafficking
In June 2014, the United States government has downgraded Malaysia along with three other countries
– Thailand, The Gambia and Venezuela – to Tier 3 in its annual Trafficking of Persons (TIP) Report.
The report noted that there is ample evidence of forced labour and sex trafficking in Malaysia.
Malaysia's problem with migrants from other Asian nations who seek work on farms, factories and
construction sites only to be trapped and have their passports taken and wages withheld
Malaysia had made "inadequate efforts to improve its flawed victim-protection regime" and had
investigated fewer trafficking cases in 2013 than in 2012.
6. Trafficking in Malaysia
a. The overwhelming majority of trafficking victims are among the two million documented
and 1.9 million undocumented foreign workers in Malaysia from various countries
including Indonesia, Nepal, India, Thailand, China, the Philippines, Burma, Cambodia,
Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Vietnam.
b. In terms of geographical location, Malaysia has become an ideal transit point for trafficking
activities, especially to Australia, America and Japan.
c. Child trafficking - trafficked from neighbouring countries for sale to childless couples in
Malaysia. Malaysian children formed the majority of victims rescued when police smashed
37 baby-trafficking syndicates in the country between 2009 and 2012.
d. Woman trafficking - trafficked for the prostitution purpose. A significant number of young
foreign women are recruited for work in Malaysian restaurants and hotels, some of whom
migrate through the use of “Guest Relations Officer” visas, but subsequently are coerced
into Malaysia’s commercial sex trade.
e. Trafficking of domestic workers
Local NGOs estimate that for every domestic servant legally employed in Malaysia there
is one working in the country illegally and many may be trafficked.
g. Laws and regulations which protect women and children from being trafficked are:
Victim protection efforts remain inadequate in Malaysia because of the following reasons: -
Furthermore, the government treats victims of trafficking as illegal aliens and turns
them over to immigration authorities for deportation after they provide evidence to
prosecutors
The government does not make available any alternatives to repatriation for victims
who may face harm or retribution upon return to their home country.
In fact, during trial proceedings, authorities often do not make adequate efforts to
separate victims from their traffickers
Results in threats to the victims and their families if they cooperate with police and
prosecutors.
In November 2010 placing the Labor Department as an enforcement agency within the
Ministry of Human Resources.
requires foreign domestic workers and their employers to attend a compulsory half-
day seminar on workers’ rights
a portion of a domestic worker’s salary must be placed into a bank account in the
employee’s name in order to provide a record of payment.
The Malaysian Home Ministry has investigated 277 outsourcing companies that recruit
foreign workers into Malaysia
Placed 42 on a watchlist for engaging in suspicious activities.
Pull Factors
a. Globalization
Free markets, free trade, greater economic competition, and a decline in state intervention
in the economy.
Trafficking in human beings has become the third important source of revenue for criminal
syndicates after narcotics and arms.
b. Higher wages
This is one of the factors that attract people to be trafficked. Syndicates usually lure people
by promising jobs with high wages, and instead they end up as victims in an illegal business
in host countries such as in Malaysia or Thailand.
This is also influenced by the fact that the Malaysian Ringgit or Thai Baht currency are
worth more when converted into Indonesian Rupiah or Myanmar Kyat.
c. Job opportunities
Lack of job opportunities in the source countries, many trafficking victims look forward to
destination countries such as Singapore, Thailand and Malaysia, where there are many jobs
available.
Unfortunately, when they arrive they are not allowed to obtain legitimate jobs.
d. Better quality of life
Destination countries are usually more developed than the source countries
Destination countries provide not only job opportunities but also promise other benefits of
higher quality of life.
e. Geography and culture
Geographical locationthe Indonesians preferred Malaysia because it is easy to access
through the sea road and low-cost.
Similarity of culture Malaysia has been swamped with Indonesian immigrants due to the
two countries having similar cultures and religions.
Push Factors
a. Poverty
Food insecurity has been defined as the major cause of human trafficking.
Being poor, with insufficient food, make the victims exposed to the traffickers, and makes
engagement in criminal activities such as trafficking particularly tempting.
b. Lack of education
Traffickers often recruit hill tribe people, especially from mountainous areas of Myanmar,
Thailand, Laos, China and Vietnam, who have little formal education or exposure to the
modern world, especially on matters about legitimate job opportunities.
Without knowledge and qualifications for legitimate jobs, they become easy prey to
traffickers who deceive them with false promises of jobs in other countries.
In Southeast Asia, transnational organized crime, such as Chinese Triads, has been
identified as being mainly responsible for the trafficking business.
Nevertheless, there are also other smaller local syndicates involved, and the region’s
overall rapid development has led to increasing demand to supply more labour in the
destination countries.
.
d. Easy money
Young girls and women, with no specific training and skills, are easily attracted to this
illegal business because it produces 25 times more money than working in the factory.
The traffickers in turn can find it easy to lure female trafficking victims.
Spreads from one person to another Does not spread from one person to the other
Vehicles of transmission and the vectors play Dietary habits, environment and lifestyle play a role
a major role in the spread of disease. in the causation of these diseases.
1. Definition: Non communicable diseases (NCDs) are diseases which are not transmissible.
2. Non communicable diseases a clear threat not only to human health, but also to development and
economic growth of the country.
3. According to the Social Security Organisation of Malaysia in June 2013, there has been near to
35% increase in NCD diseases from year 2000 till 2012, with diabetes reigning in the rate of
increase.
4. NCDs include:
Definition: a group of diseases involving the heart, blood vessels, or the squeal of poor blood supply
due to a diseased vascular supply.
Over the past decade, CVD has become the single largest cause of death worldwide, representing
nearly 30% of all deaths and about 50% of NCD deaths (WHO, 2011a).
Risk factors of CVD:
i) Behavioural risk factors such as physical inactivity, tobacco use and unhealthy diet explain
nearly 80% of the CVD burden
ii) Hypertension remains (high blood pressure) the most important cardiovascular risk factor and
it is the main cause for stroke
i) According to Dr Azani Mohammed Daud, who is the president of the Malaysian Society of
Hypertension, “for every person diagnosed with hypertension, there are six who are not”
ii) Most patients with hypertension don’t know that they have it. Most people are unaware that
they have hypertension due to the absence of symptoms. Some people, however, have persistent
headaches and a check with their doctor usually reveals that they have high blood pressure
readings.
b. Cancer
Definition: the rapid growth and division of abnormal cells in a part of the body. These cells outlive
normal cells and have the ability to metastasize, or invade parts of the body and spread to other
organs.
Cancer is the second largest cause of death worldwide. In Malaysia, cancer is the second killer after
heart disease among the Malaysians.
Risk factors include genetic causes, behavioural causes (such as tobacco or alcohol use, physical
inactivity and dietary factors), infections, environmental and occupational carcinogens and
radiation.
Different risk factors contribute to the development of cancers in different sites. Smokeless tobacco
is largely responsible for oral cancers, whereas bacteria play a role in the development of stomach
cancer.
Five leading cancers among population of Malaysia are Breast Cancer, Colorectal Cancer,
Nasopharynx, Cervix and Lymphoma. Frequency of cancer according gender.
Cancer treatment
i) The prescribed course of treatment that oncologists administer for cancer is chemotherapy.
Just how effective chemotherapy is has been debatable.
Updated May 2017
32
Lecture Notes/MPU-3322
Numerous studies have been conducted assessing its actual effectiveness in treating cancer and
destroying cancer cells. According to Clinical Oncology (2004), overall, chemotherapy
contributes just over 2% to improved survival in cancer patients in Australia and the US.
Currently, eight years later, this conclusion has not been refuted.
Directly damage/kill cancer cells (eg by causing apoptosis) just as the chemo drugs do, but
without harming normal cells.
d. Diabetes
Definition: a metabolic disorder in which the body is unable to appropriately regulate the level of sugar,
specifically glucose, in the blood, either by poor sensitivity to the protein insulin, or due to inadequate
production of insulin by the pancreas.
Two types of diabetes could be found in Malaysia:
i) Type 1 diabetes insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM, for short).
ii) Type 2 diabetes non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM, for short). Type 2
diabetes accounts for 90-95% of all diabetes cases.
Effects of diabetes:
i) A major risk factor for other causes of death, like cardiovascular disease, kidney disease
ii) Diabetes has a high attributable burden of disability, ie diabetes can cause blindness
Diabetes in Malaysia:
i) The problem of obesity: Almost one in two Malaysians are either overweight or obese, placing
them at a high risk for diabetes.
ii) Affecting the younger age group: 20 % of Malaysians above the age of 30 are diabetic patients.
i) fear and exclusion: persons with severe mental illness should be feared and, therefore, be kept
out of most communities;
ii) authoritarianism: persons with severe mental illness are irresponsible, so life decisions should
be made by others;
iii) benevolence: persons with severe mental illness are childlike and need to be cared for.
Records with the National Mental Health Registry (NMHR) have shown that public
awareness about mental health issues is far from satisfactory.
One average it takes up to 28 months for an individual with mental health problems to
seek treatment possibly already too late the individual's thinking or decision
making capacities might have been impaired beyond the scope of treatment.
Apart from society, a person's immediate family also plays an important role in helping them
maintain good mental health by getting their mental problems treated.
The most common sign of a mental health problema sudden change in the behaviour
of a person -- a jovial person might turn into an introvert, become short-tempered, start
keeping or speaking to oneself, have a disrupted sleep pattern, lose their appetite, is
unable to carry out daily activities or starts displaying suicidal tendencies.
In need of a proper diagnosis by an expert and the right therapy are a must.
Malaysia established National Strategic Plan for Non-Communicable Diseases (NSP-NCD 2011-
2015) in 2010 the framework for strengthening NCDs prevention and control program in
Malaysia.
Aim to achieve population-wide NCD risk factor screening to detect risk factors at their earliest
stage, and uses obesity as the main entry point for NCD risk factor intervention.
In need of the support of the community for communicable disease prevention efforts.
The willingness of the rural community, in particular, to work with clinic health staff.
c. Monitoring and evaluation of NCDP-1M
6. Impacts of NCDs:
d. Economic impact
Positive impact
The increase in NCDs among Malaysians has boost up:
i) The health care industry, with the need for more hospitals and the healthcare practitioners.
Alternative health centers – Ayurvedic health centers or Traditional Chinese Medical
Centre – have also experienced an increase in their economic gain.
ii) The pharmaceutical industry, with the need for the consumption of medicine and the
creation of new drugs to combat the illness
iii) The multi-level marketing industry that focuses on health supplements
iv) The organic farming industry – farming and selling organic vegetables / fruits
v) The insurance industry, as more and more people seek to be insured against the critical
illnesses due to high cost of treatment for NCDs.
Negative impact
The increase in NCDs among Malaysians have affected the economic standing of the patient and
the family. NCDs treatment can be very costly. In Malaysia, it is not rare to see the patient or the
family appealing for donations through the mass media when the cost of the treatment surpasses
their financial ability.
o Increase in NCDsmore people, especially those living in the urban areas, begin to give heed
to the practice a healthier lifestyle.
o Health-related seminars are often conducted by health practitioners to equip the public with the
necessary knowledge about preventive measures and treatment options for NCDs.
o Health related information is also disseminated through the mass media.
C. Infectious Diseases
Definition: the word pandemic is derived from the Greek word, which is pan (all) and demos
(people). A global pandemic is an epidemic of some infectious disease that can and is spreading at
a rapid rate throughout the world, including Malaysia. Viruses, germs, parasites, and other virulent
disease agents can and do move much more easily than at any time in recorded history.
In the past 100 years ago, influenza, typhoid, and cholera were major killers. In recent years, other
infectious diseases have made front page news: HIV, Ebola virus, SARS, and most recently, avian
or bird flu.
In Malaysia there are five main infectious diseases that refer to dengue fever, tuberculosis, food
poisoning, hand foot and mouth disease (HFMD), and HIV/AIDS.
1. Dengue fever
a. Definition: dengue is one of the vector borne diseases and among this kind of diseases;
dengue is the highest percentage for it. Dengue fever is passed by infected female Aedes
Aegypti mosquitoes. It gets under the skin and into the blood. Dengue is caused by flavi
viruses.
b. After reporting a record dengue season in 2015 with more than 120,000 cases, Ministry of
Health has reported that nearly 6,000 cases (5,835 cases to be exact) in just the first two
weeks of 2016, including 3 deaths.
To make thing worse, there are four types of dengue virus; meaning, people can
get the disease more than once and this explain why symptoms are becoming more
severe and deads are rising with repeated infections.
2. Tuberculosis (TB)
a. The World Health Organization (WHO) has classified Malaysia as an intermediate TB-burdened
country.
b. It is one of five main infectious diseases in Malaysia.
c. Increase in TB cases in Malaysia:
2008 = 17,506
2009 = 18,102
2010 = 19,337
2011 = about 20,000 cases.
d. The symptoms of TB are:
Prolonged cough (more than two weeks)
Loss of weight and loss of appetite
Night sweats
Coughing out blood (though not a common symptom)
f. Several ways had been taken by Malaysian government in dealing with TB:
Visitors at the hospital – patients and their family members or friends – become the
recipients of this awareness.
iii) The government also encourages NGOs to conduct activities and programs to educate the
public on TB disease.
Those who employ migrant workers have to be educated regarding the
symptomalways on the alert about the health condition of their workers as their
workers may have contact with the illegal ones infected by the disease.
Periodical health screening is necessary for migrant workers to treat any early onset of
TB infection among them to halt the spread of the disease.
3. Food Poisoning
a. Milk Contamination
Cases that have taken place:
Students suffering from food poisoning after drinking milk supplied under the free milk scheme in the
school.
Milk powder has been recalled due to contamination.
School pupils suffered food poisoning after having 'nasi lemak' under the Supplementary Food
Programme (SFP) at their school canteen.
Suffered from bouts of diarrhoea and vomiting
4. Leptospirosis
The Health Ministry has cautioned people off holidaying in natural water spots to beware of cases of
leptospirosis, also known as rat urine disease.
May-June 2016: at least two people died of the disease after dips in a waterfall or pond.
An average of 27% of cases were recorded at recreational areas in 2014-2015. The disease killed 78
people in 2015.
The Health Ministry had conducted tests in 71 natural water spots nationwide in 2015 and found eight
sites to have traces of the disease.
The conditions that are favourable for maintenance and transmission of Leptospirosis are:
Leptospirosis has a very wide range of natural rodent, and non-rodent reservoir hosts especially
rats, cattle, dogs, foxes, rabbits, etc.
The animals act as carriers of the leptospires and excrete large number of leptospires in their
urine, thus responsible for the contamination of large and small water bodies as well as soil.
Flooding and drainage congestion may be risk factors for contamination of water bodies with
infected animal urine.
Water logged areas may force rodent population to abandon their burrows and contaminate the
stagnant water by their urine.
3) Animal-Human Interface
The potential for infection increases through exposure from occupational or recreational
activities without proper protection.
Poor cleanliness/sanitation in recreational areas may attract animal host such as rodent thus
increases the risk of contamination. This happened when scraps, such as food waste left behind
by visitors became food sources for rats and other wildlife, which would then end up leaving
their droppings in natural water sites.
These may be due to poor maintenance of facilities, improper disposal of waste and public
attitude/ apathy.
Several sections of the population are more susceptible to infection such as those not previously
exposed to the bacteria in their environment (naïve immunities), and those with chronic disease
and open skin wounds.
b) Prevention of Leptospirosis
Leptospirosis is spread through the urine, stool and reproductive fluids of infected animals,
especially rats.
The heavy rains only add to the risk of these contaminants flowing into puddles, soil and
other areas where people frequent.
Updated May 2017
42
Lecture Notes/MPU-3322
The bacteria enter a human’s body through cuts, abrasions or through the mouth and nose
(mucous membranes).
Since there is little we can do to stop the flooding on the streets, there are some precautions
we can take:
1. Avoid stepping in puddles of water. They not only contain rain water, but also runoff from
sewage, open fields and roads, adding to the possibility that it might contain the bacteria.
2. If walking in puddles is unavoidable, make sure to wash your shoes and feet well with
clean water once you reach your destination. Pour water and clean the area between the
toes especially well.
3. Avoid standing in a puddle for long periods of time. This will help reduce the chances of
contracting the disease.
4. Wear shoes that allow the drainage of puddle water and that can be washed. This will allow
any excess water to drain out as you walk and allow for thorough cleaning and drying after
you wash them. Washing the shoes is imperative because if you step into puddle water
filled shoes with well washed feet, the whole process is useless.
5. Once you have the opportunity, wash your feet and hands well with water and soap, making
sure you scrub well between the toes and fingers.
6. Avoid touching your face, mouth and nose with your hands. Use tissues or a handkerchief
if you have to wipe your face. This will help reduce the transmission of the bacterium from
your hands to your nose and mouth.
7. Use a hand sanitizer whenever required, especially after visiting a common toilet.
8. If you have a cut or abrasion, make sure the dressing is changed regularly and the wound
is dried regularly. If your bandage gets wet, be sure to re-dress the wound after washing
the area well and using an appropriate antibacterial solution.
9. If you have just had a pedicure, make sure you avoid rain water as much as possible for
about a day after the treatment. This is because during a pedicure there are chances of
minute abrasions that could allow the entry of the bacteria. If you have to step out, make
sure you wash your feet well with an antibacterial soap and warm water as soon as you can.
Applying an antiseptic solution to the feet after washing them is also advisable.
10. Try keeping your nails short and clean during monsoon. Long nails are known to trap a lot
of dirt and contaminants. Cutting them and cleaning them well is the best way to stay away
from communicable diseases.
11. Avoid swimming and drinking raw water from natural water bodies or ponds.
5. AIDS / HIV
a. Statistics:
In 2013, heterosexual HIV transmission accounted for half of the 3,393 new infections in Malaysia, far
ahead of other modes of transmission such as homo/bisexual contacts and unsafe drug injections, both
at 22 per cent respectively.
Some cannot look past what causes HIV/AIDS to be transmitted: unprotected sex and “dirty needles”
gives rise to the ugly spectre of stigma and discrimination that further marginalises those in the high-
risk groups including drug users and sex workers.
Shelters / foundations who are currently running programmes for people living with HIV encounter
challenges in raising sufficient funds to keep the programmes the public tends to be judgmental,
thinking that those infected with HIV/AIDS do not deserve their help.
Nowadays, the younger generation has a better understanding of HIV/AIDSled to a crop of healthcare
professionals who have no aversion to treating patients.
There is still the issue of some providers being reluctant to treat people living with HIV/AIDS, but this
number has lessened.
a. Impact on employment
Reduced attendance of workers due to infection, fear of infection, or absenteeism of
workers caring for their families.
Broader economic problems caused by reduced workforces may then initiate economic
downturn and further unemployment.
b. Impact on economy and global trade
Disease outbreaks among livestock are a major risk for the farming sector.
Sudden and drastic cuts in consumption of the affected products and reductions in its price.
Reduced animal value due to control measures such as compulsory emergency vaccination,
and business interruption costs.
A. Environmental Problems
Our environment is constantly changing. There is no denying that. However, as our environment
changes, so does the need to become increasingly aware of the problems that surround it. With a
massive influx of natural disasters, warming and cooling periods, different types of weather patterns
and much more, people need to be aware of what types of environmental problems our planet is facing.
Global warming has become an undisputed fact about our current livelihoods; our planet is warming
up and we are definitely part of the problem. However, this isn’t the only environmental problem that
we should be concerned about. All across the world, people are facing a wealth of new and challenging
environmental problems every day. Some of them are small and only affect a few ecosystems, but
others are drastically changing the landscape of what we already know.
Our planet is poised at the brink of a severe environmental crisis. Current environmental problems
make us vulnerable to disasters and tragedies, now and in the future. We are in a state of planetary
emergency, with environmental problems piling up high around us. Unless we address the various
issues prudently and seriously we are surely doomed for disaster. Current environmental problems
require urgent attention.
1. Pollution
Pollution of air, water and soil require millions of years to recoup. Industry and motor vehicle exhaust
are the number one pollutants.
Heavy metals, nitrates and plastic are toxins responsible for pollution. While water pollution is caused
by oil spill, acid rain, urban runoff; air pollution is caused by various gases and toxins released by
industries and factories and combustion of fossil fuels; soil pollution is majorly caused by industrial
waste that deprives soil from essential nutrients.
2. Global Warming
Climate changes like global warming is the result of human practices like emission of Greenhouse
gases.
Global warming leads to rising temperatures of the oceans and the earth’ surface causing melting of
polar ice caps, rise in sea levels and also unnatural patterns of precipitation such as flash floods,
excessive snow or desertification.
3. Overpopulation
The population of the planet is reaching unsustainable levels as it faces shortage of resources like water,
fuel and food.
Population explosion in less developed and developing countries is straining the already scarce
resources.
Intensive agriculture practiced to produce food damages the environment through use of chemical
fertilizer, pesticides and insecticides. Overpopulation is one of the crucial current environmental
problem.
Natural resource depletion is another crucial current environmental problem. Fossil fuel consumption
results in emission of Greenhouse gases, which is responsible for global warming and climate change.
Globally, people are taking efforts to shift to renewable sources of energy like solar, wind, biogas and
geothermal energy. The cost of installing the infrastructure and maintaining these sources has
plummeted in the recent years.
5. Waste Disposal
The over consumption of resources and creation of plastics are creating a global crisis of waste disposal.
Developed countries are notorious for producing an excessive amount of waste or garbage and dumping
their waste in the oceans and, less developed countries.
Nuclear waste disposal has tremendous health hazards associated with it. Plastic, fast food, packaging
and cheap electronic wastes threaten the well beings of humans. Waste disposal is one of urgent current
environmental problem.
6. Climate Change
Climate change is yet another environmental problem that has surfaced in last couple of decades. It
occurs due to rise in global warming which occurs due to increase in temperature of atmosphere by
burning of fossil fuels and release of harmful gases by industries.
Climate change has various harmful effects but not limited to melting of polar ice, change in seasons,
occurrence of new diseases, frequent occurrence of floods and change in overall weather scenario.
7. Loss of Biodiversity
Human activity is leading to the extinction of species and habitats and loss of bio-diversity. Eco
systems, which took millions of years to perfect, are in danger when any species population is
decimating.
Balance of natural processes like pollination is crucial to the survival of the eco-system and human
activity threatens the same. Another example is the destruction of coral reefs in the various oceans,
which support the rich marine life.
8. Deforestation
Our forests are natural sinks of carbon dioxide and produce fresh oxygen as well as helps in regulating
temperature and rainfall. At present forests cover 30% of the land but every year tree cover is lost
amounting to the country of Panama due to growing population demand for more food, shelter and
cloth.
Deforestation simply means clearing of green cover and make that land available for residential,
industrial or commercial purpose.
9. Ocean Acidification
The ozone layer is an invisible layer of protection around the planet that protects us from the sun’s
harmful rays. Depletion of the crucial Ozone layer of the atmosphere is attributed to pollution caused
by Chlorine and Bromide found in Chloro-floro carbons (CFC’s).
Once these toxic gases reach the upper atmosphere, they cause a hole in the ozone layer, the biggest of
which is above the Antarctic.
The CFC’s are banned in many industries and consumer products. Ozone layer is valuable because it
prevents harmful UV radiation from reaching the earth. This is one of the most important current
environmental problem.
Acid rain occurs due to the presence of certain pollutants in the atmosphere. Acid rain can be caused
due to combustion of fossil fuels or erupting volcanoes or rotting vegetation which release sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere.
Acid rain is a known environmental problem that can have serious effect on human health, wildlife and
aquatic species.
Clean drinking water is becoming a rare commodity. Water is becoming an economic and political
issue as the human population fights for this resource.
One of the options suggested is using the process of desalinization. Industrial development is filling
our rivers seas and oceans with toxic pollutants which are a major threat to human health.
Urban sprawl refers to migration of population from high density urban areas to low density rural areas
which results in spreading of city over more and more rural land.
Urban sprawl results in land degradation, increased traffic, environmental issues and health issues. The
ever growing demand of land displaces natural environment consisting of flora and fauna instead of
being replaced.
The current environmental problems pose a lot of risk to health of humans, and animals. Dirty water is
the biggest health risk of the world and poses threat to the quality of life and public health.
Run-off to rivers carries along toxins, chemicals and disease carrying organisms. Pollutants cause
respiratory diseases like asthma and cardiac-vascular problems. High temperatures encourage the
spread of infectious diseases like dengue.
Genetic modification of food using biotechnology is called genetic engineering. Genetic modification
of food results in increased toxins and diseases as genes from an allergic plant can transfer to target
plant.
Genetically modified crops can cause serious environmental problems as an engineered gene may prove
toxic to wildlife. Another drawback is that increased use of toxins to make insect resistant plant can
cause resultant organisms to become resistant to antibiotics.
The need for change in our daily lives and the movements of our government is growing. Because so many
different factors come into play - voting, governmental issues, the desire to stick to routine - many people
don’t consider that what they do will affect future generations. If humans continue moving forward in such
a harmful way towards the future, then there will be no future to consider. Although it’s true that we cannot
physically stop our ozone layer from thinning (and scientists are still having trouble figuring out what is
causing it exactly,) there are still so many things we can do to try and put a dent in what we already know.
By raising awareness in our local community and within our families about these issues, we can help
contribute to a more environmentally conscious and friendly place for all to live.
C. Climate change
Climate change is …
a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns
the period of climate change ranges from decades to millions of years.
a change in average weather conditions, or in the distribution of weather around the average
conditions (i.e., more or fewer extreme weather events).
a. Natural Causes
b. Human Causes
Climate change can also be caused by human activities spurred by the Industrial Revolution, such
as:
Human’s endless hunger for energy ongoing burning of unlimited quantities of fossil fuels.
When fossil fuels - coal, oil and natural gas - are burnt they release CO2 (carbon dioxide) into
the atmosphere.
Results in the layer of greenhouse gas gets thicker, which is in turn making the Earth
warmer.
influence both the amount of incoming energy and the amount of outgoing energy
causing both warming and cooling effects on the climate.
A worldwide trend for American-style diets leading to a large increase in meat and dairy
consumption
More meat consumption more arable cultivation is turned over to producing feedstock for
animals that provide meat for humans.
The losses at each stage are large, and as humans globally eat more and more meat, conversion
from plants to food becomes less and less efficient, driving agricultural expansion and releasing
more greenhouse gases.
Energy wastage
Cheap and abundant fossil fuels have cemented bad energy habits, especially in rich countries.
Example: electrical appliances are left on a standby mode.
The energy waste could easily be reduced if we use our energy more efficiently.
a. Agriculture production
Changes in climate factors could decrease yields of rice, the main staple food in Malaysia, from
13% to 80% and decrease the production of industrial crops, particularly oil palm, rubber and
cocoa from 10-30%
On the contrary, population of the country is expected to increase in the next few decades
increased domestic demand of food.
As a result food crises and consequently threaten food security in the country
b. Water supply
According to National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia (Nahrim) there would be water
supply issues in the future, especially in areas with higher risk or vulnerability, such as in the Muda
watershed in Kedah and small basins like Linggi.
The unusually long spell of dry weather in February-March 2014 :-
water shortage in Negeri Sembilan was declared to be in a state of crisis
water rationing measures in Selangor.
c. Flood
d. Socio-political stability
Long dry spell water rationing exercise causing many to be dissatisfied with the local
authorities due to the inconvenience and the stress.
Severe flood many towns and villages in Kelantan, Pahang, Terengganu and Perak to be
submerged in flood water high tensions due to loss of lives, the damage of properties and
goods and the temporary loss of the source of their livelihood
The extreme climate change led to political debates affected the socio-political fabric of
the Malaysian society.
Adopt energy-saving habits. Make it a habit to turn off the lights as you leave a room.
Replace standard light bulbs with energy-efficient compact fluorescent bulbs.
Turn off your computer and unplug electronics when they are not in use.
Recycling: make recycling part of your daily routine recycle all packaging and consumer
goods that you can.
Repurpose: give used items, eg clothing and household goods, a chance at a second life by
donating them to charity or selling them at a garage sale.
In the industrialized world, consumers eat as much as 90 kilograms of meat per year
According to the study, however, reducing global meat consumption to just 90 grams a day
could help cut the methane and nitrous oxide emissions released from cows will slow the
rate of climate change.
D. Deforestation
1. Definition of Deforestation
2. Effects of Deforestation
Every tree that is cut down releases its stored carbon dioxide that it accumulates over its years
of growth.
Older trees the more carbon dioxide released damaging to the atmosphere.
Deforestation is responsible for approximately 20 percent of all greenhouse gas emissions.
c. Global warming
Trees also provide an escape from the urban heat island effect
Urban heat island effect: the temperature of cities and buildings are hotter than the surrounding
forestry and natural splendor.
Malaysia and Indonesia produce about 85 percent of the world's palm oil
Uses of palm oil cooking oil, cosmetics, soaps, bread, chocolate, industrial lubricant, even
was once considered an ideal biofuel alternative to fossil fuel
Under heavy criticism due to widespread rainforest destruction for the expansion of the
plantations.
E. Endangered Species
In Malaysia, just like elsewhere the modern world, many species of wildlife are disappearing fast,
and conservation measures are needed to prevent animals and plants from vanishing for good.
The World Conservation Union has stated that 14% of mammals in Malaysia are facing extinction
unless something is done fast to halt their decline in numbers.
Three large mammal species that fall within this category are the Sumatran Rhinoceros
(Dicerorhinus sumatrensis), the Malayan Tiger (Panthera tigris jacksoni) and the Malayan Tapir
(Tapirus indicus)..
Humans are largely responsible when animals become extinct, endangered or threatened. Here are some
reasons why animals become endangered:
a. Operasi Taring:
Recently this operation was carried out by the Department of Wildlife and National Parks
(Perhilitan) to combat online illegal wildlife trade.
As of March 2015 managed to arrest several “important players” in the illegal wildlife
trade syndicate and to seize several protected wildlife species..
Education on environmental conservation has been included in the syllabus taught in schools
and higher institutions of learning.
NGOs like the Malaysian Nature Society pioneer conservation through habitat conservation
and environmental education.
d. Collaborative efforts:
The Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) has collaborated with the Johor State
government on a project which aims to increase the population of Malaysian Tigers by as
much as 50% over the course of the next decade.
March 2015: in the ASEAN Regional Forum’s workshop, Malaysia began to set the
groundwork for an Asean push against wildlife trafficking.
e. Promoting eco-tourism:
The mountains, jungles and beaches of Malaysia have made this area of the world the most
popular destination for tourists in Southern Asia.
On a financial level important for Malaysia to look after its natural habitats or the eco-
tourists will have no reason to want to go there.
A. Pollution
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse
change.
Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat or light. Pollutants,
the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring
contaminants.
Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution.
Has caused thousands of acres of forest land to be ploughed up and the habitat of thousands, maybe
even millions of wildlife has been destroyed.
Many wildlife flees or migrate to escape the dangers and activities of man.
Cause an imbalance in their ecosystem, making some areas too densely populated with predators
and not enough food to go around.
Many of these pesticides contain non biological ingredients and can cause abnormal changes /
mutation in any wildlife that comes across it.
Affecting insects to which the pesticides are aimed as well as the animals or human who feed on
the plants.
Pesticides pollute the earth, making it useless as well as poisonous after all the nutrients have been
sapped out from it.
c. Dumping site
Malaysia a dumping site to the millions of tons of rubbish thrown every week due to the sharp
increase in the population.
Rapid development, population increase and changes in consumption pattern directly (and
indirectly) resulted in the generation of enormous amount of waste, ranging from biodegradable to
synthetic waste.
This situation has been and will be reducing our environmental capacity to sustain life.
c. Industrial Activities
Many industrial zones have been set up in mostly forestland and uninhabited areas.
Effects:
i. trees have been cut down to accommodate towards the building of large industrial factories.
ii. oxygen supply is decreased
iii. the factories are spewing out poisonous gases in the course of its production.
Personal ownership of cars due to the competitive prices of locally made cars and their
affordable financing scheme.
Effect: an increasing amount of cars on the road, especially in the city areas congested with
human population excess poisonous gases and heat are emitted daily.
a. Industrial activities
Malaysia is fast becoming an industrial country many of her rivers have become polluted
due to the many wastes that have been poured out into her rivers.
Example: the paper making industry requires chemicals, often poisonous in its production.
The rivers are used as an outlet for the chemicals to drain away, in turn harming the waters and
the lives that revolve around them.
The soil runs into the rivers and soon the rivers become murky and shut out all the sunlight
from reaching the aquatic life in the rivers and streams.
The “red” dust covers very large surrounding areas that affect the habitats, including
residential and agricultural neighborhoods of the Bauxite exploitation site very harmful
to the growth of the agricultural products and reduces the productivity of these trees.
b. Water Pollution
It requires an estimated area equivalent to the bauxite site to dump the red sludge.
When the toxic red sludge is dumped on the ground:
i) The toxic chemicals will be percolated to the underground water table along with
rainwater
ii) Contaminate the main water source of the area.
c. Fishery Pollution
The fishing industry will also be damaged due to the poisonous chemicals from the red
sludge
The red sludge can cause the genetic distortion of fish in the ocean affecting the health
and lives of the people consuming the fish.
B. Natural Disaster
1. Definition:
A major adverse event resulting from natural processes of the Earth
Examples include floods, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis, and other geologic
processes.
2. Effects:
Loss of life
Property damage economic damage
b. Landslides in Malaysia are regular natural disasters in Malaysia which happen at the
hillsides.
c. Flash flood is a rapid flooding of geomorphic low-lying areas. It may be caused by heavy
rain associated with a severe thunderstorm, hurricane or tropical storm followed by poor
drainage systems.
Depending on the severity of the flood, some victims suffer heavy damage and loss of
property and items and would need to loan money from friends, relatives or even the
bank to recover from their loss.
The debts will bring them in the vicious cycle of poverty as on top of financial loss
suffered, flood victims have to be burdened with the payment of debts.
C. Sustainability
Malaysia’s position is unique in the global map of sustainable development. We always find
ourselves at the centre of attention on sustainability because of the country’s rich natural
endowments which is located in the tropical belt.
Malaysia hosts a portion of the important tropical rainforest belt. It has a uniquely rich diversity
of flora and fauna with more than 25,000 plant species. Malaysia’s rainforests are a source of
timber and other products — such as rattan and medicinal plants — that support the livelihoods
of numerous communities. They are a reservoir of biodiversity and they increasingly attract
tourists.
Exceptional species diversity and richness Malaysia is recognised as one of the world’s 12
mega-diverse countries where special attention is needed to arrest habitat loss.
The National Policy on Biological Diversity seeks to conserve Malaysia's biological diversity and to ensure
that its components are utilised in a sustainable manner for the continued progress and socio-economic
development of the nation.
Goal 1: to empower and harness the The Federal and State governments will play the leading
commitment of all stakeholders to role, at the same time engaging all other agencies,
join hands including the academia, will also be engaged in this
to conserve our biodiversity mission.
Civil society is expected to play an even greater role in
biodiversity conservation in the future.
Goal 2: To significantly reduce Future national and state development policies and
pressure on biodiversity programmes to have biodiversity conservation embedded
in them.
Updated May 2017
62
Lecture Notes/MPU-3322
Goal 3: To safeguard our key Threatened plant and animal species, especially those
ecosystems, species and genetic that are in immediate danger of extinction, require
diversity species management plans as the basis for their
conservation.
To conserve viable, representative examples of all of its
natural habitats.
Goal 4: To ensure that benefits The goal is to work towards institutionalising a national
arising from the regulatory framework.
utilisation of biological diversity To work with relevant stakeholders to protect the
are shared in a fair and knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous
equitable manner peoples and local communities.
Goal 5: To improve the capacity, Biodiversity is our shared heritage - it is also our shared
knowledge and skills of all responsibility.
stakeholders to conserve All stakeholders should have the appropriate level of
biodiversity knowledge about biodiversity so that everyone can better
understand the threats, as well as being able to better
plan and design environmental interventions.
A. Introduction
Income inequality metrics or income distribution metrics are used by social scientists to measure
the distribution of income, and economic inequality among the participants in a particular economy,
such as that of a specific country or of the world in general.
Income distribution has always been a central concern of economic theory and economic policy.
Modern economists have also addressed this issue, but have been more concerned with the
distribution of income across individuals and households.
The Gini coefficient (also known as the Gini index or Gini ratio) is a measure of statistical
dispersion intended to represent the income distribution of a nation's residents. Gini coefficient is
commonly used as a measure of inequality of income or wealth. The range of the Gini index is
between 0 and 1 (0% and 100%), where 0 indicates perfect equality and 1 (100%) indicates
maximum inequality.
1. Growing opportunity
Updated May 2017
64
Lecture Notes/MPU-3322
The lower income earner group would be more driven to advance themselves, to improve their
standard of living, through education or other types of skills learning.
Without the prospect of substantial rewards little incentive to take risks and invest in new
business opportunities
When the productivity level of businesses or any other industries is higher due to positively
driven workers, businesses or any other industries will grow.
To accommodate the growth of the business, some companies may set up new branches in less
developed areas and thereby provide job opportunities to the people there.
When there is increased economic activities in the less developed areas, this in turn will
encourage the growth of other small-medium enterprises (SME), eg grocery shops, book stores
etc.
Someone works harder or has better skills or talents receives a higher wage.
The promise of a higher wage is essential to encourage extra effort or exemplary performance
at work so that the rewarded ones are continually motivated to pursue excellence in service and
productivity.
Rewarding hard work and excellent performance a driving factor to other workers to avoid
passivity or poor work ethics at work.
If an entrepreneur successfully sets up a business create jobs and provide incomes for other
workers.
Income inequality promotes professionalism, innovation and creativity at work.
There will then be a boost to productivity leading to a higher national output – so in the end,
everyone can benefit.
1. Economic growth
There is evidence from a broad panel of recent academic studies shows that there is a nonlinear
relation between income inequality and the rate of growth and investment.
Very high inequality slows growth
Moderate inequality encourages growth.
2. Education
Greater income inequality and greater poverty inhibit access to schooling and investment in
human capital.
High income inequality the poor would live in a vicious cycle of poverty as the poverty
stricken parents would be too hard pressed financially to invest in the education of their
children.
Moreover, some parents may have to use up the time meant for study revision, by asking their
children to help out in adult job tasks (eg helping to man the stall, plantation work etc).
Therefore, the children may end up neglecting their studies.
Richer, better-educated people live longer than poorer, less-educated people more able to
understand and use health information and have better access to healthier food and better
healthcare system.
The poorer, less-educated people suffer from malnutrition, poorer living conditions that expose
them to more diseases.
4. Political Instability
High inequality threatens a country’s political stability because more people are dissatisfied
with their economic status
Harder to reach political consensus among population groups with higher and lower incomes.
Effects of political instability:
i. increases the risks of investing in a country and so significantly undermines its development
potential.
ii. failure to build national consensus
iii. may result in violent conflicts
5. Social Ills
Example: mental illness, violence, imprisonment, lack of trust, teenage births, obesity, drug
abuse, and poor educational performance of schoolchildren
High inequality reverberates through societies on multiple levels, correlating with, if not
causing, more crime, less happiness, poorer mental and physical health, less racial harmony,
and less civic and political participation.
6. Sustainable Development
High inequality limits the use of important market instruments such as changes in prices and
fines.
Example: higher rates for electricity and hot water might promote energy efficiency, but in the
face of serious inequality, governments introducing even slightly higher rates risk causing
extreme deprivation among the poorest citizens
7. Ethnic Relations
High income inequality can lead to ethnic tensions that may lead to larger issues of racial
conflicts and eruption of riots between/among ethnics in the country.
Strained ethnic relations that eventually led to a national crisis have taken place in Germany,
Indonesia and Malaysia.
1. 1957-1970
a. After independence in 1957, the ruling Alliance government continued the laissez-faire economy
policy of the colonial government. The laissez-faire approach resulted in rapid economic growth.
b. From 1957 to 1970, income inequality became worse among the people. The rich appeared to
benefit the most from the rapid economic growth at the expense of the poor (middle and lower-
income groups):
About half the population was living under poverty; The poor amongst the Indian population
fared the worst
Active government intervention in the economy to help the Malay was not implemented the
majority of Malay still in poverty.
Significant imbalance in terms of wealth (equity) ownership between the Malays and the
Chinese. By 1970 the Malays owned only about 2.4% of the ownership of share capital, while
the Chinese owned 27.2%.
Inter-ethnic inequality in terms of employment and occupation, which reflected the differences
in skills, education and experiences of each ethnic group.
i. By 1970, about 2/3 of those employed in primary sector were Malays. Three-quarter of
the Malays were agricultural workers mostly involved in small, subsistence farming and
fishing activities.
ii. The non-Malays on the other hand, were largely employed in the secondary and tertiary
sectors. On the other hand, the non-Malays were associated with mining, manufacturing
Updated May 2017
67
Lecture Notes/MPU-3322
and construction, a high productivity sector. The professional, technical, sales and
managerial jobs were predominantly held by Chinese.
a. The overall inequality rose between 1970 and 1976 and then fell at the end of the NEP period.
b. Before the 1990s, the inequality improved tremendously due to commendable government policies
that include the promotion of export-oriented industrialisation, education, and training, and the
restructuring of equity ownership and assistance in asset accumulation.
c. However, post-1990s, there is little change in inequality due to the difference in the growth rates
of incomes of the rural and urban areas, inflows of migrant workers, and impediments to the process
of internal migration.
a. The median monthly household income for Malaysians in 2014 increased by 11.7 per cent annually
to RM4,585 from RM3,626 in 2012. For the mean monthly household income for Malaysians, it
increased 10.3 per cent per annum to RM6,141 in 2014 from RM5,000 in 2012, it said. (Department
of Statistics Malaysia)
b. Although this is an improvement, there are still gaps between income levels among ethnic groups,
people in urban and rural areas. Example: the urban-rural income gap widened from 2009 to 2012.
Nonetheless, there has been an improving trend in Malaysia for the income inequality from 2009
to 2012.
c. However, Malaysia’ s Gini coefficient (an index that measures the degree of inequality in income
distribution) is still high compared with other countries such as Thailand at 0.4, Indonesia (0.37)
and India (0.33). Despite the improvement, Malaysia's Gini index has remained stagnant at 0.4
since the late 1980s.
The Poverty Line Income (PLI) measures the capacity of households to meet the minimum requirement for
food and non-food consumption.
Poverty alleviation has always been a concern in Malaysia's development strategies. Malaysia has been
applauded by international organizations for its success stories in poverty eradication. The incident of
poverty had decreased from 1950 till 2012:
The unique socio cultural of Malaysia has led to the dimensions of poverty being investigated based on
ethnic groups and strata.
Bumiputeras, were the group with the highest poverty incidence, with 64.8 percent in 1970 but down to 2.2
percent in 2012 (EPU, 2013). The other two major ethnic groups, the Chinese and Indians had a low and
moderate poverty incidence with 26 and 39.2 percent in 1970 to 0.3 and 1.8 percent in 2012 (EPU, 2013).
Poverty incidence was also higher in the rural area as compared to the urban area with 58.7 and 21.3 percent
in 1970 to 3.4 and 1.0 percent in 2012. Despite the remarkable dropped in poverty incidence there were still
some pockets of poverty and many of them were elderly.
The following are important issues which need attention as the country faces a new category of new poor:
Contraction in employment opportunities drastically affects the urban poor, the near poor, migrant
workers.
A high prevalence of unemployment and retrenchment are also acknowledged by relevant
authorities.
Huge demand for knowledgeable and skilled human resources in capital intensive and high value
added activities.
2. Ethnic Issues
The educational achievements of Bumiputera and rural students in disciplines which are very much
fundamental to the economy was considerably lower than the urban and non Bumiputera students.
If the policy makers do not create promising arrangements lead to fragmentations, factions
worsen the turmoil between ethnic groups.
Therefore, the National Economic Plan 2010 (NEP) poverty eradication mainly focussed on Malay
rural population, and the policies and initiatives turned ethnically motivated.
Poverty Line Income Issues are constantly discussed by absolute and relative terms
Views on relative poverty have been changing over time.
An ambiguity in the redefinition of relative poverty makes comparisons difficult between
different periods of time.
A. Urban Poverty
Although urban poverty in Malaysia is not a serious phenomenon, it is far harsher and extreme than rural
poverty.
Most of the time, the father is the sole breadwinner as the mother needs to be at home to take care
of the children, especially when the children are still young.
Therefore, the family become more hard-pressed financially due to the increased needs in the
family, yet there is only one source of income.
Since 1971 the government has implemented various policies to eradicate poverty and restructure society.
Focus
1. Economic Policies
The Malays in the traditional agricultural sector where per capita income was the lowest and
poverty was the highest.
The Chinese in mining, manufacturing and construction where per capita income was recorded
as much higher.
The NEP was introduced to attain national unity via the dual aims of:
Eradicating poverty among all Malaysians
Restructuring Malaysian society so that the identification of race with economic functions and
geographical location is reduced and eventually eliminated
The Raising Living Standards of Low-Income Households National Key Results Area (LIH NKRA)
has been a core part of the Government Transformation Programme (GTP) since 2010.
Focus: implementing initiatives that drove straight into the heart of poverty. One of the key
programmes that led to this achievement was the 1Azam.
The implementation of 1 Azam:
Objective: Strike a balance between providing direct aid and economic opportunities to its
participants to ensure that they become financially self-sustaining
Strategies: Provide economic activity programmes to guide the poor and extreme poor on ways
to increase their income and break away from the vicious cycle of poverty.
Four areas of assistance:
Job placements (Azam Kerja)
Creating small business enterprises (Azam Niaga)
Creating small service providers (Azam Khidmat)
Creating opportunities in agriculture (Azam Tani)
Achievement: Extreme poverty has reduced to 1.7 per cent in 2012. Pockets of extreme poor that
continue to exist are made up of indigenous communities and specific target groups.
Target group: The LIH NKRA initiatives in GTP 2.0 (2013-2015) are designed to reach out to these
groups (indigenous communities and specific target groups), in particular those who have yet to receive
assistance from the government.
Objective: economic empowerment of individuals and communities through basic facilities and the
right environment.
Strategies: greater cooperation from NGOs and corporations to leverage on the expertise of these groups
in delivering services and aid. Corporations who intend to give back to society can do so through
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) programmes.
a) Agriculture development:
Implemented as IADP's (Integrated Agricultural Development Programmes) to improve
productivity and incomes of farmers.
Involves a package of physical and economic infrastructures, social amenities, technology,
imputs and agricultural support services.
e) Rural Industrialisation
Involves the expansion of agricultural resources-based industries as well as rural
handicrafts.
Aim: to create employment and supplement rural incomes.
ii) FELDA
To overcome the problem of landlessness and to reduce chronic rural poverty.
FELDA also provides technical, processing, marketing and other forms of support.
FELDA schemes were equipped with roads, water supply, irrigation and drainage works,
transportation, clinics, schools and other basic amenities.
iii) Padi and Rice Marketing Board (PRMB), National Rice Board (LPN), Federal Agriculture
Marketing Authority (FAMA) and Muda Agricultural Development Authority (MADA)
To serve and assist rice farmers in the country.
Among the assistance are to provide irrigation scheme, training, introduce new technologies
Also provides guaranteed minimum price for the purchase price of the paddy, subsidy scheme like
fertilizer, seeds, credits, and pesticides.
a. Develop appropriate education and training programmes to raise the supply of trained manpower
and direct incentives as well as administrative measures to boost their participation in the modern
sector.
b. Create more Bumiputera professionals.
c. Increase educated rural labor into higher income occupations in the urban industrial and service
sectors by implementing university enrolment quotas, scholarships and other educational
subsidies.
CHAPTER 11 : ECONOMIC ISSUES -- RISING COST OF LIVING AND RAISING THE LIVING
STANDARD
1980s and 1990s -- a steady growth rate of more than 7% on average in Malaysia, with a relatively low
inflation rate. Since 2011 -- inflation has been steadily rising year on year.
Economists are predicting that 2015 will be a difficult year for Malaysians.
Payment of GST (Goods & Service Tax) on goods and services purchased. GST is proposed to replace
the current consumption tax i.e. the sales tax and service tax (SST). The introduction of GST is part of
the Government's tax reform programmed to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of the existing
taxation system.
Droughts and floods: bad crops and shortage of essential produce such as wheat and sugar. Example:
countries like Russia, Canada, and Australia, major exporters of wheat, had less to export, which drives
up the global price of the commodity.
Effect: When these exporting countries announce their lower production levels, and consequently lower
exports, it also causes panic buying in the market, forcing the prices up further.
Since the last quarter of 2014, petrol price had been plunging down causing the Malaysian ringgit
weakened in comparison to US Dollar.
The Malaysian ringgit fell by the most among emerging Asian peers on fears that sliding oil prices may
hurt the country's current account surplus and widen the fiscal deficit as it is a net oil exporter.
Effect: price hike across many household items as fuel and sugar are essential commodities used in
most household items.
d. Saddled by loans
A major concern about the implementation of the GST is the resulting price effects on consumers.
The prices of other categories of goods and services in the CPI basket such as education, health,
recreation and culture, food and non-alcoholic beverages and food away from home are expected to
increase slightly between 0.67% to 2.21%.
A rapid increase in property prices over the past four to five years with the excessive speculation in the
property market driving property prices to an artificially high level.
Preponderance towards luxury properties like terrace houses, semi-detached homes and bungalows.
Housing developers from the private sector focus more on bigger and comfortable homes, using better
quality construction materials.
Some merchants have chosen to put personal gains above the suffering of their own kinsmen by
committing the sin of opportunistic profiteering.
Although there has an increase in the price of petrol and sugar due to the removal of subsidies and
although GST has been implemented since April 2015, the price hike has been above the estimated
percentage of increase due to some merchants resorting to excessive profiteering (increasing prices of
goods and services to gain extra profit).
B. WEAKENING OF RINGGIT
Malaysia’s ringgit has slid past 4.0 against US dollar in the worst currency crash seen for the first
time in 17 years.
Heightened by worsening global outlook, devaluation of China’s yuan, political scandals linked to
the Prime Minister, plus the falling crude oil prices, the four horsemen of the apocalypse have
assembled for the ringgit’s troubled days ahead.
The main culprit however, is the decreasing oil prices which destabilises the oil-exporting
economy. The continuous ringgit slide is alarmingly disquieting.
How would the decrease of ringgit’s value affect you as a consumer? Are we the generation bound
to experience the comeback of ringgit meltdown during 1997-1998 Asian financial crisis?
If you have mixed feelings about Goods and Service Tax (GST) imposed on the things you love, a weak
ringgit will worsen your buying mood.
Prepare to tighten your belt as the increased cost of imported goods will be reflected on the price tags.
The cost of imported components utilised by domestic producers will also contribute to the impact.
This results in us expressing great disdain over the price hike of imported fresh goods (vegetables,
fruits, etc.).
2. Inflation
When the ringgit experiences depreciation, the cost of imported goods will increase as mentioned
earlier.
The use of raw materials from foreign markets will also contribute to inflation caused by imported
goods.
As a result, domestic producers are forced to sell their goods on a higher price to sustain the increased
cost of operation.
For instance, automobile companies which utilise imported components in their vehicles would feel the
impact of weak ringgit and market the finished vehicles on a higher price to the end consumers.
The poor exchange rate for ringgit equates to a lesser value it carries when you convert it to foreign
currencies.
You should revise your plans to study or travel abroad as the expenses in your budget is expected to
increase on a consequential proportion. Until the Malaysia’s ringgit has fully recovered, join the Cuti-
cuti Malaysia bandwagon for cheaper travel.
When the price of goods and services increase, but your income is not, what do you have left? Answer:
A diminished purchasing power.
You have likely felt the pinch after the implementation of GST. With the weakening of the ringgit, the
prices of goods and services are expected to increase further.
The increased cost of goods does not permit you to spend freely like you used to. As a result, there are
lesser things you can buy with your money as your purchasing power is reduced.
The ringgit’s depreciation is mostly caused by external factors. Followed by the strengthening of US
dollar, ringgit is unlikely to fare well against greenback in the present.
The falling crude oil prices are beyond the control of the Malaysian government as well. If the
plummeting value of ringgit persists and threaten the economy, we may expect the government to
impose capital controls to protect the economy.
The 1997-1998 Asian financial crisis forced the former Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad to fix the
ringgit at 3.80 to the dollar as a form of capital control to prevent the country’s economy from going
downhill.
1. Exports growth
A weak ringgit can act as a stimulus to the Malaysian businesses as it has now become more affordable
for foreign markets to purchase Malaysian-made goods.
The increment of demand for the domestic products will likely generate more profits for the certain
businesses such as the manufacturing sector.
Export-oriented businesses which market its goods to international markets will find the weak ringgit
beneficial as they enjoy higher sales volume.
As a whole, the increment in exports for some economic sectors will be observed.
2. Tourism boost
Foreign tourists will benefit from a weaker ringgit as it grants them a higher purchasing power to
splurge like a shopaholic.
Updated May 2017
78
Lecture Notes/MPU-3322
Singaporeans who enjoy a quick getaway to Malaysia would likely be the prime benefiters as ringgit
falls to an all-time new low trading around 2.90 to the Sing dollar. If you are a foreigner reading this,
there is no better time to visit Malaysia as the weak ringgit gives you more value for your money.
The falling ringgit makes investment in Malaysia more welcoming. As such, investors will take
advantage of this and strike while the iron is hot.
A weak ringgit will encourage foreigners to invest through foreign direct investment (FDI) and foreign
investment portfolio as it is cheaper to operate and buy stocks and bonds in Malaysia respectively.
While the effects of capital flow generated by foreign investment portfolio is not immediately felt by
the citizens, FDI can generate employment opportunities in the market as multinational companies build
new facilities to conduct businesses in the country.
The depreciation of ringgit is boon and bane for the country. Currency fluctuation is a naturally occurring
process of the economy. In a state of perpetual flux, the economy is not immune to global trends triggered
by a chain of events elsewhere in the world. Our country is not immune to this phenomenon; however, this
is a challenge we can overcome. While surely things will get better in time, it may be wise to assess your
current financial security.
A. Définition
5. Simply put, one in every ten skilled Malaysians born in Malaysia choose to leave the country,
which is twice the world average. While the numbers are similar to Singapore and Hong Kong,
they are actually incomparable to Malaysia because that is a typical situation for small and open
economies. Malaysia is suffering the loss of skilled brain drain, especially for technology-based
jobs.
The World Bank identified in their Monitor Report the factors of the Malaysian brain drain.
1. The main cause is attributed to the less attractive salary and benefits offered in the country.
This difference is especially noticeable in the high-skill technology sector.
In a survey conducted by JobStreet’s survey, among the top reasons for the brain drain was the
large gap between expected and offered salaries.
2. A sensitive, yet substantial cause of the Malaysian Brain Drain is the perceived social injustice in
the country.
Some Malaysian emigrants in the brain-drain issue were dissatisfied with the extra assistance
determined by Article 153 of the Constitution.
Foreign observers recognize this as a major cause of brain drain.
3. The limited access to high-quality education also remains to be a significant cause of brain drain.
Enrollment into affordable public tertiary education institutions is very limited and based on
racial quotas while private universities are costly and is not anywhere near the standards of
universities in developed countries.
Primary and secondary education, although free, is of substandard quality uncommonly
supported by long hours of outside tutoring for those who can afford it.
4. The close proximity of Singapore and its substantially more developed environment also
encourages the Malaysian diaspora to migrate there.
The proximity allows them to keep in touch with family left behind in Malaysia
The extensive network of Malaysians already living there make it easier for them to make the
move.
The World Bank states that brain drain could cause a vicious circle that may trap a country into
an undesirable equilibrium with low levels of human capital and large technology gap
Could contribute to rich countries becoming richer and poor countries becoming poorer.
(World Bank, April 2011).
2. A large diaspora of skilled workers who have graduated from institutions of higher education
Updated May 2017
81
Lecture Notes/MPU-3322
The economy has witnessed a large diaspora of skilled workers in comparison to the overall
population, and receives a sizeable number of immigrants from neighbouring countries,
Causes the erosion of an economy’s skill base and dampens innovation
With human capital the bedrock of any high-income economy, Malaysia will need to develop,
attract and retain talent.
Malaysia needs talent, but talent seems to be leaving.
5. Affecting SMEs (Small-Medium Enterprises) in attracting local talents to work in the country
The Malaysian government has identified productivity and inclusiveness as the key factors to solve
emigration and have established the Government Transformation Programme (GTP) and Economic
Transformation Programme (ETP) to tackle the issue from these perspectives.
Under the GTP, the government is hoping to address the issue of non-inclusiveness for non-
Bumiputeras.
Through it, the Prime Minister, Datuk Seri Najib Razak has launched the 1Malaysia campaign,
which encourages Malaysians to no longer identify their culture by race but by nationality.
2. Talent Corporation
The government is also currently working with Talent Corporation to attract, nurture and retain
talent required for a high-income economy.
Talent Corporation Malaysia Berhad (TalentCorp) was set up to strengthen public - private sector
collaboration in widening and deepening the talent pool in Malaysia
It has introduced the Returning Expert Program (REP) to encourage Malaysians currently working
abroad to return home by providing incentives like a flat tax rate of 15%, tax exemption for all
personal effects brought home and permanent resident status for spouse and children.
The Otak-Otak Program (Otak-Otak) was established by four young professionals who returned
from abroad to pursue a career in Malaysia
Otak-Otak is an internship programme that focuses on bridging the gap between industry
professionals and students.
Otak-Otak builds a community of students and established professionals working together to give
back to each other and to the nation, much like an alumni network.
A. Introduction
Malaya became independent from colonization in 1957. In 1963, Malaysia was formed and Tunku Abdul
Rahman became the first Prime Minister of the country. Before and after independence, political parties
had played a vital role in reclaiming the sovereignty of the country and in developing Malaysia to its height
of success today.
d. Street protests
The major events happened in terms of contentious politics at the mass society level were
two major street protests that took place in November 2007, less than five months prior to
the 12 GE.
i. Bersih rally
The Election Commission must resign, as it has failed in its responsibility and has lost
the confidence of the public.
The electoral process must be cleaned before the 13th General Elections.
Invite international observers to observe the 13th General Elections.
ii. Hindraf
An estimated 30,000 ethnic Indians organized as the Hindu Rights Action Force (HIN-
DRAF), an Indian nongovernmental organization, marched peacefully on the streets of
Kuala Lumpur in November 25th 2007 to protest the ruling BN coalition’s neglect of the
Tamil-speaking Hindu working class.
1. In days leading to GE 13, 2013, both BN and PR have outlined their political manifesto to woo
voters:
a. Barisan Nasional promised to:
To sum up BN’s political manifesto, Najib promised to develop “a country where the weak are protected,
those in want assisted, the strong protect, the young are loved, the elderly valued, those in need are attended
to, and those with potential given opportunities to bloom."
2. The results of the GE13 showed BN winning with a majority seat in the national parliament. With
a record 84.5 per cent voter turnout, the final results gave the BN 133 and the opposition PR
coalition 89 out of 222 parliamentary seats, while at the state level, the BN coalition won 275, and
the opposition garnered 230 out of 505 seats. The BN retained majority in the national parliament,
and retook the state of Kedah from PAS. In the rest of the states, the status quo was maintained.
3. The ruling Barisan Nasional (BN) coalition under the leadership of the Prime Minister Najib Razak,
formed the government with a majority of seats and 47.38% of the popular vote while the Pakatan
Rakyat (PR) coalition led by Anwar Ibrahim formed the bulk of the opposition in Parliament after
winning 50.87% of the popular vote.
F. Pakatan Harapan
1. Malaysia is expected to be a developed nation in the near future. Malaysia is a very complex society
due to the existence of a diverse population – Malay and other Bumiputera, Chinese and Indians –
making Malaysia a plural society composed of different ethnics, cultures, customs, and languages.
2. Ethnic-politics, religious-politics, Malay and non-Malay politics, racism-politics appear to be
lingering around in arena of Malaysian politics today.
3. Since the12th general election, Malaysia's political landscape has been changing. In fact, political
and social changes have already been taking place in the past decades in the age of social media
and amidst the instant-information society.
4. Ethnic politics in Malaysia is moving toward a new plateau where cross-ethnic line voting may be
a more common trend. The young generation is expected to play a bigger role in the Malaysian
politics landscape for the coming 14th GE.
5. ‘Alternative’ forms of media are also expected take centre-stage in the dissemination of political
information. Blogs, YouTube, Facebook and Twitter as well as a host of other independent news
portals are becoming increasingly popular.