BIOLOGY

PLASMA MEMBRANE FUNCTIONS MEMBRANE CARBOHYDRATES

• Protection • Attached to proteins (glycoproteins) or lipids
• Communication (glycolipids)
• Selectively allow substances in • Play a key role in cell-cell recognition
• Respond to environment – ability of a cell to distinguish neighboring
• Recognition cells from another
MEMBRANE MODELS – important in organ & tissue development
1915: Scientists analyzed isolated red blood cell – basis for rejection of foreign cells by
membranes, found them made up of immune system
proteins and lipids MEMBRANE PROVIDES A VARIETY OF CELL
10 years later: E. Gorter and F. Grendel FUNCTIONS
reasoned membranes are made of a  transport
phospholipid bilayer  enzymatic activity
1935: Hugh Davson and James Danielli  signal transduction
proposed membrane was a “sandwich”  intercellular joining
of proteins and phospholipid bilayer  cell-cell recognition
with proteins on outside of  attachment to the cytoskeleton and
phospholipids extracellular matrix (ECM)
FLUID MOSAIC MODEL Cell Membranes are made of
1972- S.J. Singer and G. Nicolson propose  PHOSPHOLIPIDS & PROTEINS
membrane is a “mosaic” of proteins and  Amphipathic – Molecules with both
phospholipids that are constantly hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions
moving and changing
FLUID- because individual phospholipids and HYDROPHILIC/HYDROPHOBIC areas determine
proteins can move around freely within the positions of molecules in cell membranes
layer, like it’s a liquid.
hydrophobic amino acids
MOSAIC- because of the pattern produced by
– stick in the lipid membrane
the scattered protein molecules when the
– anchors the protein in membrane
membrane is viewed from above.
hydrophilic amino acids
cell membrane – a phospholipid bilayer barrier – stick out in the watery fluid in or out of cell
- a collage of proteins & other molecules SEMI-PERMEABLE MEMBRANE
embedded in the fluid matrix of the lipid bilayer • Need to allow passage through the membrane
MEMBRANE PROTEINS • But need to control what gets in or out
• Proteins determine most of membrane’s – membrane needs to be semi-permeable
specific functions
PHOBIC TAILS in center determine what can pass
– cell membrane & organelle membranes
through
each have unique collections of proteins
• Membrane proteins: Diffusion - movement from [higher]  [lower]
– peripheral proteins = loosely concentration
bound to surface of membrane
Diffusion will also happen across a cell
– integral proteins = penetrate into
membrane as long as there is a difference in
lipid bilayer, often completely
concentration and the membrane will let the
crossing the membrane =
molecule pass through.
transmembrane protein
DIFFUSION OF 2 SOLUTES MEMBRANE POTENTIAL created by electrogenic
• Each substance diffuses down its own pumps (proteins that generate voltage by
concentration gradient, independent of pumping ions)
concentration gradients of other substances PROTON PUMP
FACILITATED DIFFUSION Main electrogenic pump in
• Move from HIGH to LOW concentration with plants, fungi, and bacteria
aid of membrane transport proteins Na+- K+ PUMP
– passive transport Main electrogenic pump
– no energy needed in animal cells
– facilitated = with help Electrogenic pumps can be coupled to actively
• Carrier Proteins - Grab molecule, undergo transport other substances
conformational change, flip to other side = COTRANSPORT
• Channel Proteins - Create passageway for Ex: Cells pump H+
substances to pass through out of cell then use
• May be gated or not: open in response to the diffusion of H+
chemical or electrical signals back into cell down
GATED CHANNELS its gradient to drive
• open only in presence of stimulus (signal) the uptake of
– stimulus usually different from transported sucrose into cells
molecule Na+ - K+ pump sets up MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
• ex: ion-gated channels Cells have voltage
when neurotransmitters bind to a specific  Opposite charges on opposite sides of
gated channels on a neuron, these channels cell membrane
open = allows Na+ ions to enter nerve cell  Membrane is polarized
• ex: voltage-gated channels  Negative inside; positive outside
change in electrical charge across nerve cell  Charge gradient
membrane opens Na+ & K+ channels  Stored energy (like a battery)
ACTIVE TRANSPORT - Uses energy from ATP to How does a nerve impulse travel?
move molecules against concentration gradient  Stimulus: nerve is stimulated
– Moves from [lower] → [higher]  Open Na+ channels in cell membrane
– Uses protein pumps or vesicles  Reached threshold potential
PROTON PUMP - Moves Protons (H+)  Membrane becomes very
across membrane permeable to Na+
All cells have voltages across their membranes  Na+ ions diffuse into cell
= membrane potential  Charges reverse at that point on neuron
 Cytoplasm inside cell is more negative than  Positive inside; negative outside
extracellular fluid outside  Cell becomes depolarized
 TWO FORCES drive diffusion How does the nerve re-set itself?
 Concentration gradient  Na+ / K+ pump
 Electrical force  Active transport protein in
 Ions move DOWN the electrochemical membrane
gradient o Requires ATP
• Favors the passage of cations (+) into cells  3 Na+ pumped out
 2K+ pumped in
 
Re-sets charge across • Uses vesicles
membrane • Releases substances to outside
BULK TRANSPORT The Special Case of Water
• ACTIVE transport
• Requires energy (ATP) Movement of water across
• Uses vesicles the cell membrane = OSMOSIS
Osmosis is diffusion of water
• Water is very important, so we talk
Endocytosis about water separately
Phagocytosis - “Cell eating” large molecules; • Diffusion of water from high
whole cells concentration of water to low
pinocytosis - “Cell drinking” concentration of water
Fluids; – across a
Small molecules semi-permeable
receptor-mediated membrane
endocytosis - triggered by – Passive
ligand signal – Uses no energy
Aquaporins
phagocytosis - “Cell eating” • Transport proteins that move water
takes in rapidly into & out of cells
large molecules; – evidence that there were water
whole cells channels
Example in cells: TONICITY- ability of a solution to cause a cell to
WHITE BLOOD CELL ENGULFING BACTERIA using lose or gain water
Phagocytosis • Refers to the concentration of SOLUTES
pinocytosis “Cell drinking” • Is a RELATIVE term, comparing two
Takes in fluids; different solutions
Small molecules • Solute-substance that is dissolved
• Receptor-mediated Endocytosis - • Solvent- substance solute in dissolved in
Ligand-any molecule that binds to a •
receptor site What if there is a difference in
• Binding of ligands allows uptake of concentration but solute molecules
specific molecules can’t move across a membrane?
• Example in cells: Cholesterol Uptake WATER will move
• Low density lipid proteins (LDL’s) bind until concentrations
cholesterol reach equilibrium
and carry it in blood Concentration of water
• • Direction of osmosis is determined by
LDL’s act as ligands binding comparing total solute concentrations
receptors on cell surface – Hypertonic - more solute, less
and cholesterol is taken water
into cell – Hypotonic - less solute, more
• EXOCYTOSIS - Active transport (requires water
ATP)
 – Isotonic - equal solute, equal • water flows across
water membrane, at same
• Solute concentration rate in both directions
• HYPOTONIC - Lower outside • volume of cell is stable
than inside • Cell survival depends on balancing water
• ISOTONIC - Equal outside uptake & loss = OSMOREGULATION
and inside
• HYPERTONIC - Greater outside Molecules
than inside
 A group of atoms bonded together,
HYPOTONIC:
representing the smallest fundamental
Concentration outside cell is less than
unit of a chemical compound that can
inside the cell
take part in a chemical reaction.
More water enters than leaves cell so Biomolecules
cell
will swell and possibly hurt  Are molecules that make up the living
HYPERTONIC: Concentration outside organisms.
cell is greater than inside cell Major elements in Living systems
More water leaves cell than enters
so cell shrinks  C- main composition of organic
compounds
So an animal cell in  H- major source of fuel in the production
ISOTONIC conditions of energy.
stays same size
Water entering = water leaving  O- essential part of water molecule and
organic compounds.
Remember:
 N- key element in proteins
Cells try to “maintain stable internal
conditions =  P- major component of nucleic acids and
Homeostasis energy-rich compounds.
Cytolysis – cells swell and burst
 S- part of some amino acids and vitamins
Crenation – cells shrink and shrivel
Plasmolysis – cell body shrinks and pulls  Ca- major component of bones and acts
away from cell wall as biological signals in the body.
Managing water balance
• Isotonic Other elements in Living systems
– animal cell immersed in isotonic  Na & K- essential for nerve function
solution
• blood cells in blood  I-acts as thermostat to regulate body
• no net movement of temperature
water across plasma  Md(Molybdenum)- needed by plants to
membrane incorporate nitrogen into a biologically
useful substance.
  Mg- important component of bones,
teeth, and chlorophyll.
 Fe- carrier of oxygen in the blood.
Carbon is Central to the Living World
 Many of these are polymers.
 Polymers: long molecules built
by linking together small, similar
subunits (monomers)

 Carbon is a central element to life

because
most biological molecules are built
on a carbon framework.
Why is Carbon Central to Life?
 Condensation polymerization (aka as
dehydration synthesis) removes an OH
and H during synthesis of a new
molecule.

 The complexity of living things is

facilitated by carbon’s linkage capacity.

 Carbon has great bonding capacity due

to its structure.

 Straight chains

 Double-bond position

 Branching  Hydrolysis breaks a covalent bond by

adding OH and H from a water molecule
 Formation of rings
Types of Biomolecules
Characteristics of Biological Molecules
• Carbohydrates
 Monomers- Subunits that serve as
• Lipids
 building blocks
• Proteins
 - a molecule that can be
• Nucleic Acids
 bonded to other identical
Carbohydrates
 molecules to form a
 Carbohydrate means “hydrated” carbon
 polymer.
 Composing elements C, H, O
 Connected by condensation reactions
(dehydration) Polymers  Hydrogen and Oxygen are in a ratio of
2:1
 Covalent bonding occurs
 Can be simple monomers like glucose
 Solubility in Water
 Can be complex polymers like cellulose


Macromolecules
Characteristics of Carbohydrates
 Large biomolecules
 Many Hydroxyl Groups (-OH)
 o Monomers: Monosaccharides Characteristics of Protein
o Polymers: Polysaccharides
o Water Soluble • Principle Elements: C, H, O, & N
o • Monomers: Amino Acids
Function of Carbohydrates
• Polymers: Polypeptides or Proteins
• Energy Metabolism
• Generally Water Soluble
• Structural Components

• Cell-to-Cell Contacts and Recognition

• Elimination of wastes (fiber)

Monosaccharides
C6H12O6

 Fructose- fruit sugar

 Galactose- milk sugar

 Glucose- blood sugar (carbohydrates)

Disaccharides

 Lactose: glucose + galactose (milk)

 Maltose: glucose + glucose (starch) Protein Bond Types

 Sucrose: glucose + fructose (table sugar) 1. Peptide bond

Glycogen 2. Hydrogen bond

 Serves as energy storage in humans, 3. Salt (ionic) bond

animals, fungi, and bacteria.
4. Disulfide bond
 It is made and stored primarily in the
cells of liver.
Lipids
Protein
 Composing elements C, H, O
 C,H,O,N and some have S
 Lipids are loosely defined as groups of
(a few might also have P due to
organic molecules that are insoluble in
Addition of P in modification process water. Their chemical formula vary
considerably.
but P is not a component of amino acids)
 Include:
 insulin:C254H377N65O76S6
 fats
  oils

 Waxes

 Phospholipids Waxes

 steroids: sex hormones and  A fourth class of lipids is the waxes, each
cholesterol of which is composed of a single fatty
acid linked to a long-chain alcohol.
 some vitamins
 Waxes have an important “sealing”
 glycolipids (lipids with
function in the living world.
carbohydrates attached)
 Almost all plant surfaces exposed to air,
Steroid Hormones
for example, have a protective covering
Progesterone: responsible for changes made largely of wax.
associated with the menstrual cycle and with
Nucleic Acids
differentiation factor for mammary glands
 Composing elements: C, H , O, P, N
Aldosterone: raises blood pressure and fluid
volume, increases Na+ uptake  Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

Testosterone: male sex hormone synthesized in  Encodes information used to

the testes, responsible for secondary male sex assemble proteins.
characteristics
 Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
Estradiol: an estrogen, principal female sex
 Reads DNA-encoded
hormone, produced in the ovary, responsible for
information to direct protein
secondary female sex characteristics
synthesis.
Cortisol: involved in stress adaptation, elevates
Characteristics of Nucleic Acids
blood pressure and Na+ uptake, numerous
effects on the immune system  Principle Elements: C, H, O, N, & P
 Monomers: Nucleotides
Saturated fats:
 Polymers: Nucleic Acids
Unsaturated fats  Generally Water Soluble

DNA
Phospholipids
Polymers made up of individual nucleotides
 A third class of lipids is the
phospholipids, each of which is Nucleotides contain
composed of two fatty acids, glycerol,
• Phosphate group
and a phosphate group.
• Five carbon sugar
 The material forming the outer
membrane of cells is largely composed • Ring shaped nitrogen base
of phospholipids.
DNA contains information for almost all cell ● Md(Molybdenum)- needed by plants to
activities incorporate nitrogen into a biologically useful
substance.

Molecules

● A group of atoms bonded together, Other elements in Living systems

representing the smallest fundamental unit of a
● Mg- important component of bones, teeth,
chemical compound that can take part in a
and chlorophyll.
chemical reaction.
● Fe- carrier of oxygen in the blood.

Biomolecules
Carbon is Central to the Living World
● Are molecules that make up the living
organisms. ● Carbon is a central element to life because
most biological molecules are built

on a carbon framework.
Major elements in Living systems

● C- main composition of organic compounds

● H- major source of fuel in the production of
energy.
● O- essential part of water molecule and organic
compounds.
Why is Carbon Central to Life?
● The complexity of living things is facilitated by
carbon’s linkage capacity.
● Carbon has great bonding capacity due to its
structure.

● Straight chains
Major elements in Living systems
● Double-bond position
● N- key element in proteins
● Branching
● P- major component of nucleic acids and
● Formation of rings
energy-rich compounds.

● S- part of some amino acids and vitamins

● Carbon’s outer shell has only four of the eight
● Ca- major component of bones and acts as
electrons necessary for maximum stability in
biological signals in the body.
most elements.

Other elements in Living systems

● Carbon atoms are thus able to form stable,
● Na & K- essential for nerve function covalent bonds with a wide variety of atoms,
including other carbon atoms.
● I-acts as thermostat to regulate body

temperature
Types of Biological Molecules Building up polymers

- Water Condensation polymerization (aka as

- Protein dehydration synthesis) removes an OH and H
- Lipids during synthesis of a new molecule.
- Nucleic acid
- Carbohydrates
Polymerization Diagram
Organic Compounds
Water is formed and ATP is required
● Most Biomolecules are organic

● This means they are based on Carbon and

Breaking down polymers
include hydrogen
● Hydrolysis breaks a covalent bond by adding
● Includes carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and OH and H from a water molecule
nucleic acids
Biological molecules 0
● Also includes vitamins

Hydrolysis Diagram
Monomers
● Water is required Water (H2O)
- Subunits that serve as building blocks

- a molecule that can be bonded to other

Types of Biomolecules
identical molecules to form a polymer.
- Carbohydrate
- Lipids
Characteristics of Biological Molecules - Proteins
- Nucleic acid
Monomer

• Connected by condensation reactions Carbohydrates

(dehydration) Polymers
● Carbohydrate means “hydrated” carbon
• Covalent bonding occurs • Solubility in Water
● Composing elements C, H, O

● Hydrogen and Oxygen are in a ratio of 2:1

Macromolecules
● Can be simple monomers like glucose
- Large biomolecules
- Many of these are polymers. ● Can be complex polymers like cellulose
Polymers: long molecules built by linking Biological molecules 0
together small, similar subunits (monomers)

Biological molecules 0
Characteristics of Carbohydrates
Many Hydroxyl Groups (-OH) Lactose: glucose + galactose (milk)

Monomers: Monosaccharides Maltose: glucose + glucose (starch)

Polymers: Polysaccharides Sucrose: glucose + fructose (table sugar)

Water Soluble

Importance:

Function of Carbohydrates Energy storage: sucrose is a store of energy in

sugarcane and sugar beets
• Energy Metabolism
• Structural Components Energy transport: carbohydrate is transported in
• Cell-to-Cell Contacts and Recognition plants as sucrose
• Elimination of wastes (fiber)

Groups of Carbohydrates Glycogen

- Serves as energy storage in humans,

animals, fungi, and bacteria.
carbohydrates - It is made and stored primarily in the
cells of liver.
polysaccharide
sugar
s (polymers)
Starch vs. Cellulose
monosaccharid disacchrides(di
We can digest starch (amylase) but not cellulose.
es(monomers) mers)
What difference do you see that might be the
reason behind this?
Monosaccharides(C6H12O6)

Fructose- fruit sugar

Structural Carbohydrates
Galactose- milk sugar
Chitin – arthropod exoskeleton and fungal cell
Glucose- blood sugar (carbohydrates) wall

● modified form of cellulose

Importance: Biological molecules 0

Energy source: used as a reactant in respiration

Monomer Unit: used to form: Protein

Dimers (disaccharides) and Polymers - C,H,O,N and some S

(polysaccharides) insulin:C254H377N65O76S6

Disaccharides Characteristics of Protein

• Principle Elements: C, H, O, & N

• Monomers: Amino Acids Protein Bond Types

• Polymers: Polypeptides or Proteins • 1. Peptide bond

Generally Water Soluble
2. Hydrogen bond

3. Salt (ionic) bond

Made by Ribosomes
4. Disulfide bond
● Amino acids are JOIN together by

● PEPTIDE BONDS
Disulfide bond
● Following a sequence dictated by the DNA
• Strong, chemical side bond

• Cannot be broken by water

Characteristics of Protein
• Can be broken by chemical hair relaxers
Functional Groups of Amino Acids
• Alters the shape of the hair
• Carboxylic Acid (-COOH)

• Amine (-NH2)
Salt (Ionic) bond
• R-Groups (variable - 20 different kinds)
 Attraction of unlike charges
 Negative charge in an amino acid attracts the
positive charge in another amino acid
Amino Acid grouping
- Building blocks of protein
- Contain nitrogen
- 20 naturally occurring and encoded by
DNA Lipids

● Composing elements C, H, O
Protein Structures
● Lipids are loosely defined as groups of organic
Folding of polypetides to form Proteins molecules that are insoluble in water. Their
chemical formula vary considerably.
Shape of a proteins are important because
● Include:
- This determines how they interact with
other - fats
Molecules - oils
- Waxes
- This determines their particular function
- Phospholipids
Biological molecules 0
- steroids: sex hormones and cholesterol
- some vitamins
- glycolipids (lipids with carbohydrates
Proteins can denature attached)
Lipid structure
Most lipids are composed of a of glycerol
molecule with attached fatty acids
● Some lipids have a four ringed structure
● Eg. Cholesterol and other lipids that are
derived from cholesterol
Biological molecules 0
Steroid Hormones
Progesterone: responsible for changes
associated with the menstrual cycle and with
differentiation factor for mammary glands
Aldosterone: raises blood pressure and fluid
volume, increases Na+ uptake
Testosterone: male sex hormone synthesized in
the testes, responsible for secondary male sex
characteristics
Estradiol: an estrogen, principal female sex
hormone, produced in the ovary, responsible for
secondary female sex characteristics
Cortisol: involved in stress adaptation, elevates
blood pressure and Na+ uptake, numerous
effects on the immune system
Saturated fats:
- Their fatty acids
- have no double bonds between carbon
atoms(have maximum number of hydrogen
atoms)
- Straight structure
- Unhealthy fats usually from animal sources
- Solid at room temperature(20°C)
Unsaturated fats
Their Fatty acids have:
●Have some carbon atoms that are double
bonded(not fully hydrogenated)
●Kinked in shape
●Healthy
●From plant sources
Liquid at room temperature (20°C)
Importance; Biological Role
- Used to store energy (approx 36
kj/gram)
- acts as a shock absorber and good
insulator
- water proofing some surface
- transmission of chemical messages via
hormones
Among the most important lipids are the
triglycerides, composed of a glyceride and three
fatty acids.
Most of the fats that human beings consume are
triglycerides.
Steroids
Another important variety of lipids is the
steroids, all of which have a core of four carbon
rings.
Examples include cholesterol and such
hormones as testosterone and estrogen.
Phospholipids
A third class of lipids is the phospholipids, each Ribose (5-C) Sugar Phosphate Nitrogenous Base
of which is composed of two fatty acids, glycerol,
and a phosphate group.
DNA nucleotides
The material forming the outer membrane of
cells is largely composed of phospholipids. • Genetic Instruction Set (DNA)

• Protein Synthesis (DNA & RNA) • Energy

Metabolism (ATP)
Waxes

A fourth class of lipids is the waxes, each of which

is composed of a single fatty acid linked to a long- DNA
chain alcohol.
Polymers made up of individual
Waxes have an important “sealing” function in
the living world. nucleotides

Almost all plant surfaces exposed to air, for Nucleotides contain Phosphate group
example, have a protective covering made Five carbon sugar
largely of wax.
Ring shaped nitrogen base

DNA contains information for almost all cell

Nucleic Acids activities
Composing elements: C, H , O, P, N
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
ATP – adenosine triphosphate
Encodes information used to assemble proteins.

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

Reads DNA-encoded information to direct

protein synthesis.

Biological molecules 0

Characteristics of Nucleic Acids

Principle Elements: C, H, O, N, & P Monomers:

Nucleotides

Polymers: Nucleic Acids

Generally Water Soluble

Nucleotide Components: