CHAPTER 3

INELASTIC BUCKLING OF BARS

3.1. Inelastic Bending. Before beginning the discussion of inelastic

buckling, let us review the theory of bending of beams when the material
is stressed beyond the proportional limit.' The theory is based upon the
assumption that cross sections of the beam remain plane during bending,
and hence longitudinal strains are proportional to their distances from
the neutral surface. Let us assume also
that the same relation exists between stress
and strain as in the case of simple tension
and compression, represented by the stress-
strain diagram in Fig. 3-1.
Let us begin with a beam of rectangular
cross section, Fig. 3-2, and assume that the t
radius of curvature of the neutral surface
produced by the bending moments 2Cf is
equal to p. In such a case the unit elonga-
tion of a fiber a t distance y from the neutral
surface is
e = Y (a)
P
FIG. 3-1
Denoting by hl and hz the distances from
the neutral axis to the lower and upper surfaces of the beam, respectively,
we find that the elongations in the extreme fibers are

I t is seen that the elongation or contraction of any fiber is readily obtained

provided we know the position of the neutral axis and the radius of curva-
ture p. These two quantities can be found from the two equations of
For a more complete discussion of inelastic bending, see Timoshenko, "Strength
of Materials," 3d ed., part 11, chap. 9, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., Princeton,
N.J., 1956.
163
164 THEORY OF ELASTIC STABILITY

statics :

The first of these equations states that the sum of the normal forces
acting on any cross section of the beam vanishes, since these forces repre-
sent a couple. The second equation states that the moment of the same
forces with respect to the neutral axis is equal to the bending moment M.
Equation (c) is now used for determining the position of the neutral
axis. From Eq. (a) we have
y = pe dy = p d e
Substituting into Eq. (c), we obtain

Hence the position of the neutral axis is such that the integral l: u de

vanishes. To determine this position we use the curve AOB in Fig. 3-1,

which represents the tension-compression test diagram for the material

of the beam, and we denote by A the sum of the absolute values of the
maximum elongation and the maximum contraction, which is

A =el-ez= h h
!3+2=-
P P P

To solve Eq. (j), we have only to mark the length A on the horizontal axis
in Fig. 3-1 in such a way as to make the two areas, shaded in the figure,
equal. I n this manner we obtain the strains e l and e2 in the extreme
fibers. Equations (b) then give
 INELASTIC BUCKLING OF BARS 165

which determines the position of the neutral axis. Observing that the
elongat.ions e are proportional to the distance from the neutral axis, we
conclude that the curve AOB also represents the distribution of bending
stresses along the depth of the beam if h is substituted for A.
In calculating the radius of curvature p we use Eq. (d). Substituting
for y and dy their values from Eqs. ( e ) , we represent Eq. (d) in the follow-
ing form:
bp2 l: oe de = M (4
By observing that p = h / A from Eq. (g), we can write Eq. ( i ) , after a
simple transformation, as follows:

Comparing this result with the known equation

for bending of beams following Hookerslaw, we conclude that beyond the

proportional limit the curvature produced by a moment M can be
calculated from the equation
E'I=
-
P
in which E' is defined by the expression

The integral in this expression represents the moment with respect to the
vertical axis through the origin 0 of the shaded area shown in Fig. 3-1.
Since the ordinates of the curve in the figure represent stresses and the
abscissas represent strains, the integral and also E' have the dimensions of
pounds per square inch, which are the same dimensions as the modulus E.
The magnitude of E' for a given material, corresponding to a given
curve in Fig. 3-1, is a function of A or of hip. Taking several values of A
and using the curve in Fig. 3-1 as previously explained, we determine for
each value of A the corresponding extreme elongations el and €2 and from
Eq. (3-2) determine the corresponding values of E'. In this way a curve
representing E' as a function of A = hip is obtained. In Fig. 3-3 such a
curve is shown for structural steel with E = 30 X lo6 psi and the propor-
166 THEORY OF ELASTIC STABILITY

tional limit equal to 30,000 psi. I n this case, for A < 0.002, E' remains
constant and equal to E. With such a curve the moment corresponding
to any assumed curvature can be readily calculated from Eq. (3-I), and
we can plot a curve, Fig. 3-4, giving the moment M as a function of A.
For small values of A the material follows Hooke's law, and the curvature
is proportional to the bending moment M, as shown in Fig. 3-4 by the
straight line OC. Beyond the proportional limit the rate of change of
the curvature increases as the moment increases.
If the tension and compression portions of the stress-strain diagram are
the same, the neutral axis passes through the centroid of the cross section

and we obtain the following simplified expressions:

Also, within the elastic limit we have u = Ee and

so that Eq. (3-1) reduces to the usual equation for elastic bending.
If instead of a rectangle we have any other symmetrical shape of cross
section, the width b of the cross section is variable and Eqs. (c) and (d)
must be written in the following form:

/!it bu d y = l:'bu dr = 0
I!:, buy d y i:'bue dr
= p2 = M
 INELASTIC BUCKLING OF BARS 167
Take as an example the case of a T section, Fig. 3-5. If we denote by
e' the longitudinal strain a t the junction of the web and flange, Eqs. (1)
and (m) can be written in the following
form: Pb?

We see that in this case the ordinates of

the tensile test curve AOB, Fig. 3-6, in the
region corresponding to the flange of the
cross section must be magnified in the ratio
L--d
FIG.3-5
b l / b . In determining the position of the
neutral axis we proceed as in the preceding case and use the tension-
compressien test diagram, Fig. 3-6, and mark on the horizontal axis the
position of the assumed length A = hip such that the two shaded areas
become numerically equal. In this manner the strains el and e2 in the
extreme fibers are obtained. The strain e' at the junction of the web and
flange is obtained from the equation

in which c is the thickness of the flange

(Fig. 3-5). Having determined the posi-
tion of the neutral axis and observing
that the expression in the parentheses
of Eq. (0)represents the moment of the
shaded areas in Fig. 3-6 with respect to
the vertical axis through the origin 0,we
can readily calculate from Eq. (0) the
moment M corresponding to the assumed
value of A = h / p . In this manner a
curve similar to that shawn in Fig. 3-4
can be constructed for a beam of T sec-
tion. An I beam can be treated in a
FIG.3-6
similar manner.
3.2. Inelastic Bending Combined with Axial Load. In the case of
simultaneous bending and compression of a beam, such as produced by
an eccentrically applied compressive force, we can analyze the bending of
the beam by the same method as described in the preceding article Let
us consider a rectanglar beam and again denote by € 1 and el the strains
168 THEORY OF ELASTIC STABILITY

in the extreme fibers on the convex and concave sides of the beam, respec-
tively. Also, using the notation A = €1 - €2,we can determine the radius
of curvature p from Eq. (g) of the preceding article. The position of the
neutral axis is determined by the values of €1 and ez and is shifted from its
position for pure bending by an amount de-
fined by the strain €0 caused by the centrally
applied load P (see Fig. 3-7).
The force acting a t any cross section of
the beam can be reduced to a compressive
force P applied a t the centroid of the cross
e section and a.bending couple M. The val-
ues of P and M can be calculated in each
particular case from statics by using the
stress-strain diagram (Fig. 3-7). If y repre-
sents the distance from the neutral axis t o
any fiber of the beam (Fig. 3-2), the strain
a t any point is

FIG.3-7 €=€a+- Y (a)

P
Rearranging Eq. (a) we obtain y = p(e - € 0 ) and hence d y = p de. The
magnitude of the compressive force P is then

Dividing this by the cross-sectional area bh, we obtain the average com-
pressive stress

The integral in this expression represents the area under the stress-strain
diagram, that is, the shaded area of Fig. 3-7. The area corresponding to
compression is taken negative, and the area representing tension is posi-
tive. From Eq. (3-3) we can calculate the value of ez corresponding t o
any assumed value of el, provided the axial load P is known, or we can
assume both el and eZ and calculate the corresponding value of P.
The bending moment is given by the ekpression

or, since A = hlp and I = bh3/12,

,
 INELASTIC BUCKLING OF BARS 169
The integral in this expression represents the static moment of the shaded
area of the stress-strain diagram (Fig. 3-7) with respect to the vertical
axis A A . Thus the value of M can be calculated for any assumed values
of €1 and EZ. Equation (b) can be represented in the form

where

These equations have the same form as Eqs. (3-1) and (3-2) and reduce
to those equations if the compressive load vanishes (and hence eo = 0).

By varying e l and €2 in such a manner that uc remains constant, we obtain

E" as a function of A = e l - € 2 = h/p for any given value of u,. The
resulting relation can be expressed graphically as shown in Fig. 3-9,
which was plotted' for a structural steel having the stress-strain diagram
shown in Fig. 3-8. When these curves are used with Eq. (3-4), the bend-
ing moment M can be represented as a function of A for each value of
The curves in Fig. 3-9 are taken from the paper by M. RoS, Proc. 2d Intern. Congr.
Appl. Mech., Ziirich, p. 368, 1926. The curves with o, > 37,000 psi are obtained
assuming that bending occurs after yielding is produced by the compressive force.
170 THEORY OF ELASTIC STABILITY

acas shown in Fig. 3-10. (In Fig. 3-10, the intermediate curves are calcu-
lated for the same values of a, as shown in Fig. 3-9.)
The shape of the deflection curve for an eccentrically loaded bar can be
obtained by using the curves of Fig. 3-10 and applying approximate

methods of graphical or numerical integration.' For example, consider

the bar shown in Fig. 3-11, symmetrical about the middle 0, and of steel
having the stress-strain curve shown in Fig. 3-8. We begin by assuming
definite values of €1 and € 2 for the center cross section and then calculate
the corresp6nding values of P and a, from Eq. (3-3). Next, using the
' &era1 methods of integration are discussed in the paper by T. V. K4rm4nn,
Fomchungsa~b.,no. 81, Berlin, 1910.
 INELASTIC BUCKLING OF BARS 171
curves of Fig. 3-10 we find the moment M which corresponds to this
value of a,. Thus the bending moment and the compressive force for
the cross section at the center of the beam are determined, and the dis-
tance 60 = M / P locates the line of action of the compressive force (Fig.
3-llb). Next we construct an element 0-1 of the deflection curve of
small length a by using the radius p = h/A calculated for the middle of
the bar. The deflection a t the cross section 1 is approximately the same
as for a flat circular arc. Thus we have 61 = a2/2p, and the bending
moment is M I .= P(6o - al). With this moment, MI, we find from Fig.
3-10 the corresponding value of A, denoted by Al, and also calculate
pl = h/Al.l . Using this new radius, we construct the second portion 1-2
of the curve and calculate the deflection 62. Continuing these calcula-
tions, me arrive finally a t the end A of the compressed bar and determine
the deflection 6 a t this end and the eccentricity e of the load P correspond-
ing to the assumed values of e l and ez. Making such calculations for
several values of el and ez and selecting these values in each case so as to
make P always the same, we finally obtain for P the deflection 6 as a
function of the eccentricity e.
The above calculations for the deflection curve can be generalized and
expressed in dimensionless form, independent of any particular cross-
sectional dimensions b and h of the rectangular column. First, it is
apparent that the force P, producing certain deflections in a column, is
proportional to the width b of the cross section. Thus if this width is
changed, the force P must be changed in the same proportion in order to
have the deflection curve unchanged. Second, to make the results inde-
pendent of the depth h, we can make the calculations in terms of the
dimensionless ratios p/h, 6/h, and l/h instead of the quantities p, 6, and I.
1:ollowing this procedure, we begin by assuming certain values for
e l and e2 and then determine the quantity

Next, t.he average compressive stress u, is found from Eq. (3-3) and the
bendiiig moment from Eq. (3-4); that is,

The position of the line of action of the force P (Fig. 3-llb) is defined
by the distance 60, for which we have 60 = M / P = M/u,bh or, using
Eq. ( c ) ,

A better approximation is obtained if we repeat the calculation for the first inter-
+
val by taking the radius ( p p 1 ) / 2 before going to the second interval.
172 THEORY OF ELASTIC S T A B I L I ~

For the deflection 61 a t the end of the small interval a (Fig. 3-llb), we
have 61 = a2/2por
-61= - a2/h2
h 2(p/h)
Thus, when we continue in this manner, the calculations are carried out in
terms of dimensionless ratios and we finally obtain, for particular values
of u, and eccentricity ratio e/h, the deflection 6/h as a function of the
length l/h of the column. This function can be represented graphically
by a curve. Several curves of this kind, calculated1 for various values of
a, and for e / h = 0.005, are shown in Fig. 3-12. Instead of values of
l/h, values of the slenderness ratio l/r are taken as ordinates in this
figure. I t is seen that each of the curves has a certain maximum value of

T . For values of l/r below this maximum, we obtain two different

values for the deflection, such as shown in the figure by the points M
and N on the curve for u, = 42,000 psi. The point M, corresponding to
the smaller deflection, represents the deflection which actually will be
reached by a gradual increase of the load P from zero up to the final
value equal to u,bh.
To obtain the deflection corresponding to the point N , we must apply
some lateral forces to the column. If by using such forces we bring the
bent column to the shape defined by the point N, we arrive again a t a
position of equilibrium. This equilibrium is unstable, however, since
any further increase in the deflection does not require an increase of ther
1 These curves were calculated by T. V. KArmLn, op. cit., for steel having a yieldl
point stress equal to about 45,000 psi.
 INELASTIC BUCKLING OF BARS 173
load but, instead, deflection proceeds with a diminishing of the load. To
obtain, for instance, the deflection corresponding to the point Q, only
40,900 psi average compressive stress is required instead of 42,000 psi.
For each of the maximum points, such as point K, the two possible forms
of equilibrium coincide and the corresponding value of l / r is the maximum
slenderness ratio a t which the column can carry the compressive load
P = u,bh, with an eccentricity ratio equal to 0.005. Thus, by using
curves similar to those in Fig. 3-12, the relation between the slenderness of
the column and the maximum load which it can carry can be established
for any value of eccentricity.

I I , I t I , , , I , &
0 001 0.020.03004 0.05 0.06 (107Q08 0.09QIO h

The same limiting values of the compressive loads can be-obtained in

another way. It is seen in Fig. 3-12 that the points of intersection of
horizontal lines and the curves, such as points M, N, and Q , give the rela-
tion between the direct compressive stress u, and the deflection 6 for a
given slenderness ratio l / r and an assumed eccentricity e. This relation
can be represented by another curve. Several curves of this kind, calcu-
lated' for various values of the initial eccentricity and for a slenderness
ratio l / r = 75, are given in Fig. 3-13. I t is seen that for any initial
eccentricity it is necessary to increase the load a t the beginning in order
to produce an increase of deflection, while beyond a certain limit, given
by the maximum point of the curve, further deflection may proceed with
Zbid.
174 THEORY OF ELASTIC STABILITY

a diminishing of the load. Thus the maximum points of the curves in

Fig. 3-13 represent, for the given slenderness ratio and assumed eccen-
tricity, the limiting value of the load which the column can carry.
The determination of the limiting values of the load can be simplified
by assuming' that the deflection curve for the column in Fig. 3-11 is
given by the equation

Then, from the usual approximate expression for the curvature of the
deflection curve,2 we find the curvature a t the middle of the column to be

from which

For any assumed values of e l and e2 a t the middle, we next obtain the
value of the compressive force from Eq. (3-3) and the deflection 8 from
Eq. (3-6).
Next, let us assume that e l and e t are chosen in such a manner that
the compressive force P remains constant and that a t the same time
A = el - e2 is increasing. Then M and 80 = M / P (Fig. 3-11) are
increasing also. If the rate of increase of 60 is greater than the rate of
increase of 6, the assumed deflection curve can be produced only by
increasing the eccentricity e of the load (Fig. 3-11). If we have a reversed
condition, the assumed deflection curve will be a curve of equilibrium
only if we reduce the eccentricity e ; otherwise the column will continue to
deflect under the constant load P. Thus the limiting value of the eccen-
tricity e for a given value of the compressive force P is that value a t
which the rates of change of 6 and of 80 are the same. This means that

Substituting 80 = M / P and using formula (3-6), we obtain

'Such an approximate solution was proposed by M. RoS and J. Brunner. See

M. Rok loc. n'l.
2 More accurate calculations, made by E. Chwalla, Sitzbe~.Akad. Wiss., Wzen,
vol. 137, IIa, p. 469, 1928, show that in the case of comparatively small eccentricities
( e / h < *), the limiting compressive force producing failure is attained at a maximum
deflection of less than 0.5h. At such a deflection the elastic line is a flat curve, and
the usual approximate expression for the curvature can be applied with sufficient
accuracy.
 INELASTIC BUCKLING OF BARS 175
Thus, to determine the limiting value of e for the assumed value of P,
we need only to find on the corresponding curve in Fig. 3-10 a point for
which the slope is given by the right-hand side of Eq. (3-7). Knowing
the abscissa A and the moment M of this point, we easily obtain the values
of 6 0 = M / P , 6 given by Eq. (3-6), and e = 6 0 - 6. When such calcula-
tions are repeated for several values of P, the carrying capacity of the
column for a given value of e can be established.
The approximate method for determining the compressive load producing failure
can be used also in the case of a column having a certain initial curvature. Assume,
for instance, that the initial shape of the center line of the column (Fig. 3-14) is given
by the equation
7rX
y, = a cos -
1 (d) Xlp
and that, under the action of the compressive forces P, an additional
deflection
UZ
y2 = 6 cos -
I (e)

is produced. Then the change of curvature at the middle of the

beam is

Assuming that the strains in the outermost fibers at the middle of

the column are el and e2, we obtain A = el - e~ and the corresponding
change in curvature is equal to

From Eqs. (f) and (g) an equation, equivalent to Eq. (3-6), for calculation of 6 can
be obtained. The corresponding compressive force is obtained from Eq. (3-3), and
the bending moment M a t the middle from the curves in Fig. 3-10. Then the initial
deflection a, which the column should have in order that the assumed bending can be
actually produced by forces P, is obtained from the equation

In order to obtain the limiting condition a t which the load P brings the column to
failure, we must proceed in exactly the same manner as in the case of an eccentrically
loaded column and use Eq. (3-7). The results obtained in this way can be presented
in the form of curves, each of which corresponds to a given initial deflection a and
gives the values of the direct compressive stress a,, producing failure, as functions of
the slenderness ratio l / r of the column.

3.3. Inelastic Buckling of Bars. Fundamental Case. From the dis-

cussion of the preceding article (see Fig. 3-13) we see that the maximum
load which a column can carry up to complete failure increases as the
eccentricity of the applied axial load decreases. By gradually decreasing
the eccentricity we finally arrive a t the case of inelastic buckling of a
perfectly straight, centrally loaded column. To obtain the corresponding
176 THEORY OF ELASTIC STABILITY

critical stress, represented in Fig. 3-13 by point A , the Engesser-Kdrmin

theory1 has been applied.
I t is assumed in this theory that up to the critical condition the column
remains straight, and the critical load PC, is calculated as the force
required to maintain the column in a shape which is slightly deflected
from the straight form of equilibrium. In
u discussing bending stresses corresponding
to this small deflection, we observe that be-
cause of bending, there will be a small in-
crease in the total compressive stress on the
concave side of the column and a decrease
in stress on the convex side. If the curve
OBC in Fig. 3-15 represents the compres-
sion-test diagram for the material of the
column and point C corresponds to the crit-
0 ical condition, then the stress-strain relation
FIG.3-15 on the concave side of the column during
small deflections is determined by the slope
of the tangent CC', called the tangent modulus Et. On the convex side,
where the stress diminishes because of bending, the stress-strain relation
is defined by the slope of the line CC", that is, by the initial modulus of
elasticity E of the material. Then assuming that plane cross sections
of the bar remain plane during bending, we find that the small bending

stresses, superposed on the direct compressive stresses, will be distributed

along the depth of the cross section as shown in Fig. 3-16. If p denotes
the radius of curvature of the deflection curve, the maximum tensile and
compressive stresses are Ehl/p and Eth21p,respectively, and the position
of the neutral axis 0 is found from the condition that the resultants of
the tensile and compressive forces must be equal. I n the case of a rec-
tangular cross section of depth h this condition requires that

1 F. Engesser, Z. Ver. deut. Zngr., vol. 42, p. 927, 1898; T.V. Khm&n,loc. cil.
 INELASTIC BUCKLING OF BARS 177
Noting also that hl + h2 = h, we obtain

1f b is the width of the r~ctangularcross section, the bending moment

represented by the stressas shown in Fig. 3-16 is

This equation can b e made to coincide with Eq. (1-3) for the deflection
curve by introducing the quantity

which is called the reduced modulus of elasticity. With this notation we

then obtain I

From the derivation of expression (3-8) for

the reducqd modulus, it is apparent that the
C h , h2 4
Fro. 3-17
magnitude of E, depends not only on the me-
chanical properties of the material of the column but also on the shape of
the cross section.
Let us take as a second example an idealized I section, in which it is
assumed that one-half of the cross-sectional area is concentrated in each
flange and the area of the web is disregarded (Fig. 3-17). The forces in
the flanges due to bending are
Ehl-A
- Eth2 A
and --
P 2 P 2

so that -hl-= - Et
h2 E
Again using the relation hl + h2 = h, we obtain

Since the moment of the internal forces is

178 THEORY OF ELASTIC STABILITY

we obtain finally

I n a similar way, the expression for E, can be found for any other shape of
column cross section. The values of E, from Eqs. (3-8) and (3-11)
reduce to the modulus of elasticity E when El is constant and equal to E.
Returning now to Eq. (3-10) we see that it is of the same form as Eq.
(2-1) for elastic buckling, except that E, takes the place of E. Inte-
grating this equation, we obtain for the critical load for a bar with
hinged ends
r2EI
(P,Icr= l2 (3-12)

and the corresponding critical stress is

Hence we see that Euler's column formula, derived previously for

materials following Hooke's law, can also be used for inelastic materials
by substituting1 the reduced modulus E, for the modulus of elasticity E.
I n the preceding discussion it was assumed that the central compressive
force (P,),, was applied first and then maintained a t this constant value
while a small lateral deflection was given to the column. During the
testing of an actual column, the axial force increases simultaneously with
lateral deflection. I n such a case, the decrease of stress on the convex
side of the column during the initial stages of bending may be com-
pensated by the increase of direct compressive stress due to the con-
tinually increasing axial force. Thus the actual deformation may pro-
ceed without any release of stress in the fibers on the convex side, as
was assumed in Fig. 3-16, and the stress-strain relation for the entire
column is defined by the tangent modulus Et. The differential equation
of the deflection curve then becomes

and for a column with hinged ends the critical load is

and the critical stress is

n2Et
(ut)er = -
(l/r)2
These latter expressions for critical load and critical stress differ from
This theory of buckling is called the reduced modulus theory.
 INELASTIC BUCKLING OF BARS 179
Eqs. (3-12) and (3-13), since they contain the tangent modulus Et, which
is somewhat smaller than the reduced modulus E, and independent of the
shape of the cross section. From this discussion1 it follows that under a
continuously increasing load the column begins to buckle as soon as the
load reaches the value (3-15). Experimental results2 obtained in testing
solid circular rods of aluminum alloy are in satisfactory agreement with
the tangent modulus theory. These results, represented in Fig. 3-18,
show that for larger values of slenderness ratio the experimental points
lie on Euler's curve and for shorter rods they agree with the tangent
modulus curve. To construct such a curve we take several values of
v., and determine for each value the corresponding values of Et from the
compression-test diagram. Then, substituting the values of u,, and Et

into Eq. (3-16), we find the corresponding values of the slenderness ratio
l/r.
Formula? (3-14) to (3-16) evidently can be applied in calculating critical
loads in the case of perfectly elastic materials which do not follow Hooke's
law. In such a case, if a small amount of bending occurs, the bending
stresses are defined by the magnitude of the tangent modulus Et.
It was already stated that the sssumption that there is no release of stress on the
convex side of the buckled column is correct only at the yery beginning of buckling.
If we wish to investigate deflections of a column with hinged end:, beyond the value
of the load given by Eq. (3-15), we have to take into account the release of stress on
the convex side. This release of stress takes place primarily in the middle portion of
the column where the bending stresses are greatest and occurs when the deflection of
This theory, called the tangent modulus theory, was developed by F. R. Shanley,
J. Aeronaut. Sci., vol. 14, p. 261, 1947.
'See the paper by R. L. Templin, R. G. Sturm, E. C. Hartmann, and M. Holt,
Aluminum Research Laboratories, Aluminum Company of America, Pittsburgh,
1938.
180 THEORY OF ELASTIC STABILITY

the column increases beyond the small initial deflection at the onset of buckling. The
calculation of column deflections under this condition represents an involved problem,'
and we shall give here only some final results of such an investigation. The solution
can be simplified if the compression-test diagram is given by an analytic expression so
that a formula for the tangent modulus can be obtained by differentiation. In the
case of materials such as structural steel with a well-defined yield-point stress ayp, we
shall use for the tangent modulus the expression'

which gives E r = E for a = 0 and E, = 0 for a = ~ Y P . The corresponding compres-

sion-test diagrams for several values of the parameter c are shown in Fig. 3-19. Note
that c = 1 corresponds to Hooke's law; that is, a = Ee. For structural steel the
values c = 0.96 to 0.99 can be taken with good accuracy. With the use of Eq. (3-17)

for the tangent modulus, the maximum load P,,, at which the column fails was calcu-
IatedJ for an idealized I section. The results of these calculations, for various values
of the parameter c, are given in Fig. 3-20. The dotted line of this figure was used for
constructing the dotted-line curve in Fig. 3-21. In this latter figure the curves for
(a,),, and (a,),, from Eqs. (3-13) and (3-16) for two kinds of steel (ayp = 51,200 psi
and O Y P = 34,100 psi) are given also. I t is seen that the stresses calculated on the
basis of P,,. are very close to (a,),., and therefore the latter can be recommended for
practical application. Similar results were obtained also for columns of rectangular
See the papers by J. E. Duberg-and T. W. Wilder, NACA Tech. Note 2267,1951 ;
U. Miillersdorf, Der Bauingenieur, vol. 27, p. 57, 1952; A. Pfliiger, Ingr.-Arch., vol. 20,
p. 291, 1952; L. Hannes Larsson, J. Aeronaut. Sci., vol. 23, p. 867, 1056. The results
given in the following discussion are taken from the last paper.
This expression for tangent modulus was suggested by Arvo Ylinen, Teknillinen
Aikakauslehti, vol. 38, p. 9, 1948 (Finland). See also his paper in Publ. Intera.
Assoc. Bridge Structural Eng., vol. 16, p. 529, 1956.
See L. Hannes Larsson, loc, cit.
 INELASTIC BUCKLING O F BARS 181
cross section, and it can be concluded that for materials with a well-defined yield
point, such as structural steel, the change from E, to El does not result in a substantial
change in the magnitude of o;,.
When Eq. (3-17) is used for mate-
rials which do not have a definite yield
point, the stress uyp should be replaced
by Suggested values of the pa-
rameter c are c = 0.875 for pine wood
and c = 0 for concrete.

In conclusion, it is important
to observe the differences in the
typical load-deflection curves for 0.2
elastic and inelastic (or plastic)
buckling. In the case of slender o0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
bars which buckle elastically, the
ideal load-deflection curve has
*~YP
the shape shown in Fig. 2-29. If
FIG.3-20
there are inaccuracies present, the
curves have the forms shown in Fig. 4-3. However, in all cases, an in-
crease in the deflection requires an increase in the load. The phenomenon
of buckling is not sudden in character, and if the inaccuracies are reduced,
it is possible to determine PC,experimentally with good accuracy.
182 THEORY OF ELASTIC STABILITY

I n the case of inelastic buckling the phenomenon is quite different.

From the curves in Fig. 3-13, i t is apparent that when the load reaches
the critical or maximum value, there is a rapid diminishing of the load
with respect to an increase in deflection. This accounts for the sudden-
ness with which inelastic buckling occurs. I t is seen also that small
inaccuracies have considerable influence on the value of the load P,.,
which the column can carry. Furthermore, a t each value of the load
there are two positions of equilibrium corresponding to points such as
B and C in Fig. 3-13. Thus, as we approach the maximum load, an
accidental force may cause the column to jump suddenly from the stable
position B to the unstable position C . All these factors explain why
experimental results become scattered in the plastic region. I n later
portions of this book we shall find in some cases of buckling of shells that
curves similar to those in Fig. 3-13 are obtained also in the elastic region.
As soon as such conditions occur, we can expect a character of sudden-
ness in the buckling phenomenon and a wide scatter of experimental
results.
3.4. Inelastic Buckling of Bars with Other End Conditions. The
methods which were applied in the preceding article to the fundamental
case of a bar with hinged ends can be applied also to bars with other end
conditions. Columns with various end conditions were discussed for
elastic buckling in Arts. 2.1 and 2.2. Since the compressive stress in
each of these cases is constant along the length of the bar, the differential
equation of the deflection curve of the slightly buckled bar, when com-
pressed beyond the proportional limit, is of the same form as that used
within the elastic region. The only difference is that the constant
modulus E is replaced by the tangent modulus El. The mathematical
expressions for the end conditions also remain unchanged. Hence the
formulas for critical loads beyond the proportional limit will be obtained
from the formulas previously derived for elastic conditions by replacing
E by E;. The values found previously for reduced lengths also remain
unchanged.
I n the case of bars with elastically built-in ends, the problem is more
complicated and the reduced length beyond the proportional limit
depends not only on the degree of fixity a t the ends but also on the mag-
nitude of l/r. Take, as an example, the case of the rectangular frame
shown in Fig. 2-14. The critical value of the compressive forces P
within the elastic limit [see Eq. (b), Art. 2.41 is obtained from the equation
tan u - EZb
u EIll
in which
 INELASTIC BUCKLING OF BARS 183
Beyond the proportional limit the flexural rigidity of the vertical com-
pressed bars becomes EtI while the flexural rigidity of the horizontal
bars remains unchanged. Hence the factor on the right-hand side of
Eq. (a) changes with the value of u,,, and the root of this equation, which
defines the reduced length, changes also.
As an example, let us consider a square frame with I = I I . Within
the elastic limit Eq. (a) for this case is
tan
- -u - -1
U
and gives u = 2.029
so that

and the reduced length is L = 0.7741. Beyond the proportional limit,

Eq. (a) for the square frame becomes
tan
- = u- - Et
u E
where u=;J$=&Ji
Since Et is smaller than E, the root of this equation determining the
critical load is larger and the corresponding reduced length is smaller
.than that obtained above for elastic conditions. Taking a series of
values for a,, and the corresponding values of Et, we can calculate from
Eq. (6) the corresponding values of l / r and can represent by a curve the
relation between the value of u., and the slenderness ratio d/r. In this
way it can be shown that the reduced length in this case varies from
L = 0.7741 when Et = E to L = 0.51 when Et = 0 . This result should
be expected, since, with an increase of no,, Et and the flexural rigidity of
the vertical bars decrease while the flexural rigidity of the horizontal
bars remains unchanged. Thus the relative fixity a t the ends of the
vertical bars is increasing, and when ue, approaches the yield-point
stress, the end conditions approach those of a bar with rigidly built-in
ends, for which case L = 0.51.
We have similar conditions in the case of continuous compressed bars
on elastic supports and bars on elastic foundations. Beyond the propor-
tional limit the relative rigidity of the supports and foundation is larger
than within the elastic limit and the reduced length is smaller than that
calculated before (see Arts. 2.5, 2.6, 2.10) on the basis of Hooke's law.
In the case of prismatic bars compressed by forces distributed along
the length, the compressive stress is not constant along the length of the
bar. Therefore in the case of buckling beyond the prop~rtionallimit,
184 THEORY OF ELASTIC STABILITY

the tangent modulus Et also is not constant for the entire length, so that a
bar with variable flexural rigidity is obtained. As an example, consider
the column shown in Fig. 2-38. If a compressive stress beyond the pro-
portional limit is produced a t the lower end of the bar, the stress in the
upper portion of the bar continues to be within the elastic limit. For
calculating the critical load in this case, it will be necessary to consider
the lower portion of the bar as a portion with a variable flexural rigidity
EtI while the upper portion has a constant flexural rigidity E I . Thus,
the problem of calculating the critical load beyond the proportional limit
becomes very complicated in this case. For an approximate calculation
of the critical load, we can use the same formula as was obtained for
elastic conditions [see Eq. (2-43)] and substitute for E the tangent modulus
Et, calculated for the lower end of the bar. This will be eauivalent to the
assumption that beyond the proportional limit the bar continues to
possess a constant flexural rigidity and that this rigidity is the same as
that a t the lower end of the bar which is subjected to the highest com-
pressive stress. Quite naturally, such an assumption results in too low a
value for the critical load, and in using it we shall always be on the safe
side.
A similar problem is also found in the case of bars of .variable cross
section. If the compressive stress varies along the length of the bar, an
accurate calculation of the critical load beyond the proportional limit
requires the introduction of the tangent modulus Et for the inelastically
compressed portions of the bar. If El is constant along these portions,
as in the case shown in Fig. 2-38, the accurate calculation of the critical
load can be accomplished without much difficulty. But the problem
becomes more complicated if Et is variable. We shall always be on the
safe side if in such cases we use formulas derived for elastic conditions and
substitute in them for E the tangent modulus Et calculated for the cross
section with the maximum compressive stress.
I n the case of built-up columns the critical load beyond the propor-
tional limit can be calculated also by introducing Et instead of E. Take
the case shown in Fig. 2-57. Under the action of an axial load the chords
of the column will be uniformly compressed while the battens are
unstressed. Hence in calculating the critical load beyond the propor-
tional limit, we can use formula (2-64). It will be necessary to substitute
Et for E only in those terms relating to the chords and to keep E and G in
those terms relating to the battens. Thus, if compression of the column
exceeds the proportional limit, the battens become relatively more rigid
and the properties of the built-up column approach those of a solid
column.