Directional Drilling PDF

Directional drilling
Version 2.0.0, May 2005

Paee
References 7/3/3
Introduction and objectives 7/3/4
Resume 7/3/7
Topic 1 Vertical drilling 7/3/9

I Causes of deviation from the vertical 9
2 Mechanical behaviour of drilling assemblies 9
3 Formation effects on deviation 12
4 Deviation control in vertical holes 12
4.1 The pendulum technique 12
4.2 Packed-hole drilling assemblies 13
4.3 Other factors 14
Topic 2 Applications of directional drilling 7/3/15
Topic 3 Well planning 7/3/20

1 Reference systems and co-ordinates 20
2 Planning the well trajectory 24
3 Nudging 28
4 Proximity (anti-collision) analysis 30
Topic 4 Downhole motors 7/3/34

1 Positive displacement motors 34
2 Turbines 39
Topic 5 Deflection toots and techniques 7/3/41
1 Whipstocks 41
2 Jetting 43
3 Downhole motor and bent sub 46
Topic 6 Toot face orientation 7/3/52
I Deviated well geometry 52
2 Constructing vector triangles 53
3 Setting the toolface 55
Topic 7 Directional control with conventional rotary systems 7/3/61
1 Side force and tilt angle 61
2 Basic directional control principles 62
2.1 The fulcrum principle 62
2.2 The stabilisation (packed-hole) principle 66
2.3 The pendulum principle 68
2.4 Summary and recommended practices 69
Over /...
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3 Effect of bit type on the directional behaviour of rotary assemblies 70
4 Stiffnessofdrill collars 72
5 The effects of formation on bit trajectory 74
5.1 General 74
5.2 The relationship betweendip aangleand deviation
force 75
5.3 The effective dip angle in a deviated hole 77
5.4 Formation hardness 78
5.5 Summary 78
Topic 8 Conventional steerable drilling systems 7/3/79
1 Steerableturbines 79
2 Steerable
positive
displacement
motors 80
2.1 Double tilt assemblies 80
2.2 Adjustable single tilt assemblies 81
3 Tilt angle and stabiliser 82
3.1 Theoretical geometric dog -leg severity 82
3.2 Tilt angle 82
3.3 First string stabiliser 83
4 Kicking off 84
4.1 Bottomhole assemblies 84
4.2 Recommended guidelines 86
4.3 Length to drill in oriented mode 86
5 Tangent section drilling 87
5.1 Basic assembly design principles 87
5.2 Steerable drilling assembly for tangent section drilling 87
5.3 Operational guidelines 87
6 Drop sections 88
7 Azimuth control 89
Topic 9 Rotary steerable systems 7/3/90
1 Operating principles 90
2 The AuroTrak system 91
3 The PowerDrive systems 93
4 The Geo-Pilot system 96
Topic 10 BHA weight and weight on bit 7/3/98
1 Along - hole components of force 98
2 Required BHA weight for rotary assemblies 99
3 Running drill - pipe in compression 100
3.1 Critical buckling force 100
3.2 Summary of running drill pipe in compression 102
4 BHA requirements when the drill - pipe is not rotated 103
Appendix 1 Mathematical solutions 7/3/105
Appendix 2 Critical buckling forces 7/3/109
Questions 7/3/115
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Well Engineers Notebook, Sections C & L
IFP Drilling Data Handbook, Sections B &J
Service Companies Cementing Tables
API Bull 5C2: Bulletin on performance properties of casing, tubing, and drill pipe
API Spec 5D: Specification for drill pipe
API Spec 7 Specification for rotary drill stem elements
API RP 7G Recommended practice for drill stem design and operating limits
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Directional drilling is the science of directing a wellbore along a predetermined trajectory to
intersect a designated sub-surface target.
From its early beginnings in the 1920s when it was regarded as a "black art", directional
drilling has evolved to the point where it can truly be regarded as a science. The offshore
drilling industry is founded on directional drilling. Without the use of directional drilling
techniques, it would not be economical to produce oil from most offshore fields.
Improvements in directional drilling tools and techniques coupled with advances in produc-
tion techniques have led to a steady increase in the proportion of wells drilled directionally
rather than vertically. As the search for oil extends into ever more hostile and demanding
environments, this trend is continuing.
While studying this Parr there are some terms with which you need to be familiar concerning
the geometry of a borehole. These are inclination, azimuth, dogleg angle and dogleg severity.
They are fully defined, illustrated and explained in the "Borehole surveying" Part of this
Section,which you should referto beforecontinuing further.
After studying this Part, consulting other relevant documents and, if necessary, discussions
with your mentor, you will be able to:
• List the main causes of deviation from the vertical.
• Describe the principal mechanical forces which act on a drilling assembly.

• Explain what is meant by the "pendulum effect"-
• Describe the influences of formation anisotropy and of formation dip angle on the trajec-
tory of the drill bit.
• Explain how to design a BHA to drill a vertical hole in a formation of given hardness.
• List and explain at least six applications of directional drilling.
• Describe the general aspects involved in well planning.

• Explain the terms "measured depth", "true vertical depth", "inclination" and "azimuth",
"true North", "magnetic North" and "grid North".
• Explain why grid coordinate systems are used.
• Describe the main features of the common well patterns and list the applications and dis-
advantagesof each.
• Explain what is meant by "nudging" and why it is done.
• Calculate trajectories for basic "Build and hold" and "S type" well patterns (2-d well paths)
using radiusof curvaturecalculations.
• Describe the two basic types of downhole motor and give a simple explanation of the
operating principles of each.
• Explain what is meant by "multi-Lobe" PDM motors.
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• Quote the relationships between torque and differential pressure, and between flow rate
and RPM.
• Explain what is meant by "reactive torque" and the importance of this in directional
drilling.
• List the main advantages and disadvantages of both turbines and positive displacement
motors.
• List the main deflection tools available and state the advantages and disadvantages of each.
• Explain the basic concept of the jet deflection method.
• Explain the basic concept of using a downhole motor and bent sub as a deflection tool.
• Specify a typical motor and bent sub BILA.
• Explain what is meant by the "toolface" of a deflection tool.
• Explain what effect the reactive torque of a motor has on the tool face setting and how to
compensate for this.
• List and explain the advantages of a PDM motor over a turbine when used with a bent
sub as a deflection tool.
• Define and explain the terms "Tool Face Orientation", "High Side Tool Face", and
"Magnetic Tool Face".
• Using rules of thumb, select the required tool face settings to achieve any desired result
with a deflection tool..
• Explain the terms "dogleg" and "dogleg severity" and calculate their values in specific
cases.
• Determine tool face orientation and predict the results obtained by drilling ahead with
thecalculated TFO, usinga vectoranalysis method.
• List the main factors which affect the directional behaviour of rotary assemblies.
• Explain the Fulcrum, Stabilisation and Pendulum principles.
• List six factors which affect the rate of build of a fulcrum assembly and explain the effect
which eachhas.
• Explain the effect of varying the drilling parameters (WOB, RPM, etc) on the build rate
of a fulcrum assembly.
• Explain the effect of varying the gauge of the first string stabiliser on the directional
behaviour of a packed assembly.
• Explain the effect of varying the drilling parameters on the directional behaviour of a
packed assembly.
• List and explain the optimum design features of a pendulum assembly.
• Explain the effect of varying WOB and rotary speed on the drop rate of a pendulum
assembly.
• Design a suitable rotary BHA for any given application, including the exact placement
and gauge of all stabilisers.
• Explain the factors which affect the stiffness of drill collars.
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• Explain what is meant by the term "steerable drilling system".
• Explain the use of the offset stabiliser in steerable turbines.
• List the components of both the double tilt assembly and the adjustable kick-off assembly
and explain the function of each component.
• Explain the concept of "three-point geometry" and calculate the "Theoretical Geometric
Dogleg Severity" (TGDS) of a Navigation System.
• List the main design features of both stabilisers used with steerable motor systems and
explaintheirpurpose.
• Explain the criterion used in selecting the gauge of the first string stabiliser and select an
appropriate gauge for a given application.
• Design a suitable bottomhole assembly incorporating a steerable mud motor for any given
application.
• Explain the guidelines to be followed when kicking off with a steerable mud motor.
• Explain the guidelines to be followed for drilling a tangent section and for drilling a drop
section.
• Listand explainthe generalconsiderations
involvedin selecting
the length and total
weight (in air) of the bottomhole assembly.
• Calculate the required air weight of BHA to avoid running drill pipe in compression,
given the maximum desired WOB, the hole inclination and the mud weight.
• Explain the circumstances under which drill pipe may be run in compression.
• Explain what is meant by "critical buckling load" and calculate values of critical buckling
force for drill pipe, given the necessary data.
• Explain in general terms the effect of drill string friction on BHA weight requirements.
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This Part covers the reasons why directional drilling may be required, the geometrical design
of a well to reach a specified objective, and all the tools and techniques used in normal direc-
tional drilling, including the use of steerable systems.
The first Topic looks at how a vertical well can be maintained close to the vertical. Causes of
deviation from the vertical are considered as are the mechanical behaviour of drilling assem-
blies. Formation effects are also discussed. Methods of deviation control in vertical wells are
then outlined. Much of the material in this first section anticipates topics discussed in later
sections with reference to directional wells.
Topic 2 briefly outlines some of the many applications of directional drilling.
Topic 3 covers well planning and includes an explanation of reference systems and coordi-
nates. The discussion focusses mainly on the geometrical planning of the well path and deals
briefly with subjects such as "nudging" and collision avoidance.
In Topic 4, downhole drilling motors are described- The operating principles of both turbine
and positive displacement motors are explained. The major sub-assemblies of both types are
describedand theirfunctionsexplained;typicaloutput characteristics
are given.
Topic 5 provides a brief review of the traditional tools and methods of deflecting wellbores in
a controlled fashion. Whipstocks, the jet deflection method and the use of bent subs with
downhole motors are all described.
Topic 6 deals with the vital subject of toolface orientation, which is relevant not only to the
traditional deflection toots but also to steerable motors.
In Topic 7 the principles
used to take advantage of the naturaldirectional
tendenciesof rotary
assemblies are discussed in detail. Typical examples of rotary BHA design are given and
explained.
Topics 8 and 9 provide a detailed discussion of "steerable systems" The currently most com-
mon system - using downhole motors - is described in detail, and three examples of the
newly developed rotary steerable systems are presented
Finally, Topic 10 deals with BHA weight requirements. There is a discussion of buckling
analysis which is relevant to the subject of running drill pipe in compression. The section
explains how directional BHAs can be shortened by running drill pipe in compression, which
is consistent with the Group's anti-stick philosophy.
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INTRODUCTION
Drilling a vertical well is, in fact, a special case of drilling a directionally
deviated well.
In the normal course of drilling all wells will depart naturally from the
vertical. Whether they are spiralling or deviating away in a particular diren-
tion, this is not a problem until it can be seen that there is a risk of missing
the target that has been specified in the drilling programme. If that happens
the techniques of directing the trajectory in a chosen direction have to be
applied to ensure that the target is achieved. For that to be done it is neces-
sary to know the reasons why a drilling assembly does not just continue in a
straight line.
1 CAUSES OF DEVIATION FROM THE VERTICAL

The factors which affect the tendency of a drilling assembly to drill in a direc-
tion other than the existing axis of the well remain the same whether the
deviation is an unwanted problem, or the deviation is deliberate. There will
in general be a tendency for the inclination of the hole to increase if :
• a more flexible drilling assembly is used.

• increased weight is applied to the bit.
The formation being drilled will also exert an influence on the direction in
which the hole will tend to deviate. A homogeneous formation will have little
effect, a bedded (or unhomogeneous) formation will have some effect and alter-
nating layers of rocks having different hardnesses will have the most effect.
The direction in which the well will tend to deviate from its current track will
depend on the relative inclinations of the borehole and the formation.
2 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR OF DRILLING ASSEMBLIES
2.1 BASIC FORCES ON THE BOTTOM HOLE ASSEMBLY

The principal mechanical forces acting on the lower section of the bottom hole
assembly are shown in Figure 7.3.1, overleaf.
W1, W2 and W3 are arise from the axial forces transmitted along the drill
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collars from the upper part of the bottom hole assembly and the remainder of
the drill string.
W1 = the total weight -on-bit, which acts along the axis of the bit.
W2 = the component of W1which acts along the axis of the hole.
W3 = the component of W1, complementary and normal to W2, acting at
right angles to the hole axis.
If the BHA and the hole are co -axial then W1 = W2 and W3 = 0. In that case it
will not produce a tendency to deviate . However in practice the BHA will
bend until one or another component touches the borehole wall. In this situa-
tion the axes of borehole and bit are not coincident and W3 will have a non-
zero value producing a tendency for the inclination of the hole to change.
Since it is due to the bending of the assembly this effect is known as the
"buckling effect ". For more details of this effect see overleaf.
The forces W4, W5 and W6 are due to gravity acting on the lower part of the
BHA, below the wall contact point.
W4 = the vertical downward force, i.e. the weight of the section below the
wall contact point.
W5 = the component of the drill collar weight W4 which acts along the
axis of the assembly, and
Hole axis Well contact
contributes to the total
weight-on-bit, W1. Drill collar i /
W6 = the component of W4 normal to axis

the axis of the assembly. I/
/i Effective drill
The force W6 at the centre of gravity of string length
the part of the BHA below the wall /
contact point is equivalent to a force at
the bit plus a force at the contact point.
The force at the bit acts on the low side / we
of the hole and produces a tendency for
the inclination to decrease. Since it is I/
due to a force towards the vertical this l'
effect is known as the "pendulum effect". W W4
2.2 BENDING OF DRILL COLLARS

When weight is applied to the bit the
lower part of the drill collars will bend
to some extent under the compressive
load. The direction of the force applied at
the bit will then no longer coincide
exactly with the centre line of the hole;
as the bit drills ahead the lateral compo-
nent of the bit weight, W3, will tend to W1 Figure 7.3.1: Mechanical
deflect it. W2 forces at the bit
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The direction of W3 depends on the direction of bending of the lowest part of
the bottom hole assembly, which in turn depends on the geometry of the
system - in particular the position of the lowest two stabilisers (which act as
fulcrums). In the figure no stabiliser is present, the BHA is sagging towards
the lower side of the hole and the inclination at the lower end of the collars is
greater than that of the hole. The inclination of the hole is thus likely to
increase.
The amount of inclination change, and the position of the wall contact point,
will depend on:
• the stiffness of the drill collars, which is a function of their dimensions
and material properties
• the hole diameter
• the arrangement of stabilisers in the assembly
• the compressive load applied
Bending, and the corresponding lateral force at the bit, W3, is increased by:
• greater clearance between the drill collar assembly and the hole.
• smaller, more flexible drill collars.
• more compressive force, i.e. weight-on-bit.
As bending increases, the length of the assembly from the bit to the first point
of drill collar wall contact tends to shorten. This is called the "active drill
collar length", and in practice the position of the first stabiliser determines
this dimension. Usually not more than the bottom 50 in (150 ft.) of the
assembly is active in the absence of stabilisers; or at high inclination or with
high bit weight, it could be less than 20 in (60 ft.).
2.3 THE PENDULUM EFFECT OF GRAVITY ON THE ASSEMBLY

The effect of gravity on the drill collars below the wall contact point acts
vertically downward. Part of this force is transmitted to the bit along the axis
of the drill collars, and its complementary component, W6, acts towards the
vertical, perpendicular to the axis of the assembly. This force is transmitted to
the formation at the wall contact point and at the bit (see diagram).
This lateral force at the bit tends to reduce the inclination of the hole. Its
magnitude increases:
• when hole inclination is greater.
• when heavier drill collars are used below the contact point.
• when the active drill string length is increased.
In Figure 7.3.1 each of the above factors will tend to increase the value of the
lateral component (W6) of the drill collar weight (W4) below the wall contact
point.
2.4 CONTROL OF MECHANICAL FACTORS

By changing the make-up of an assembly and altering the drilling parameters
it is possible to vary the magnitude of the lateral forces at the bit, thus
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directly influencing the tendency of the bit to deviate from the existing path
of the hole in a vertical plane.
3 FORMATION EFFECTS ON DEVIATION

Formation characteristics add
In uniform rocks, equal chip volumes are
considerably to the complexity of
formed on each side of a bit tooth, and
deviation problems, and numerous
the bit drills straight ahead. However,
theories have been suggested to
in dipping laminated formations, larger
explain observed effects.
chip volumes are formed on one side of
One is presented in the4 box the tooth, causing the bit to be pushed
alongside laterally, with resultant deviation.
There is no completely satisfac- The magnitude of this effect varies with

tory explanation for naturally the degree of dip angle. Normally the
occurring deviation. However, direction of deviation generated is up-
theory and practice indicate that dip for angles of dip up to 45° - 60° and
uncontrolled deviation will not down-dip for high angles of formation
exceed an angle perpendicular to, dip (over 60°).
or parallel to, the formation dip.
4 DEVIATION CONTROL IN VERTICAL HOLES

The overall objective in a vertical well is to achieve the most economical cost
per unit length, consistent with keeping the inclination (among other impor-
tant factors) within acceptable limits.
This means it is necessary to select a drilling assembly that will produce an

equilibrium of the deviating forces at the bit, while allowing the maximum
weight-on-bit and therefore the optimum drilling speed.
The two methods commonly employed to control inclination in vertical holes

are:
• the pendulum technique.

• the use of packed-hole drilling assemblies.
4.1 THE PENDULUM TECHNIQUE
Factors which determine the magnitude of the force bringing the well back
towards vertical are:
• the drill collar weight below the wall contact point.

• the active drill string length.
• weight-on-bit.
The use of heavier drill collars above the bit increases the lateral corrective
force (W6). Larger collars are also stiffer and more resistant to buckling, and
their larger outside diameter allows less displacement of the assembly from
the centre line of the hole.
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The logic of this approach has been clearly demonstrated by experimental
work using extra-heavy drill collars above the bit, which are manufactured
from depleted uranium or tungsten. With these collars, higher bit weights
could be used without increasing inclination.
Raising the wall contact point by including a stabiliser at a specified distance

above the bit increases the active drill string length, and also therefore the
lateral force (W6). This will again reduce the displacement of the drill collars
from the axis of the hole, and the lateral force (W3). This approach is limited
by the possibility of buckling below the stabiliser if this is placed too high,
which would then necessitate a reduction in bit weight.
Reducing bit weight alone will cause less buckling and decrease the lateral
force W3, but less weight-on-bit will produce a lower rate of penetration and
higher cost per meter.
In 1953/1955 Woods and Lubinski published data with recommended
optimum stabiliser positions for the fastest penetration rate within given
deviation limits. For quoted hole sizes and inclinations, combined with values
for formation dip and an index which represents the severity of the formation
effect, the tables specify:
• drill collar diameter,
• position of the first stabiliser above the bit,
• allowable weight-on-bit,
all for a condition of zero lateral force, i.e. equilibrium of the forces at the bit,
and no change in inclination.
Modern developments of such research provide computer programs which

evaluate a comprehensive range of forces acting at the bit and at other points
in the assembly. In particular the magnitude of the transverse forces exerted
by the bit on the formation, perpendicular to the hole axis, can be predicted. A
positive transverse force tends to increase inclination. The value of this force,
and the tendency of the formation influence, together determine whether
existing inclination will remain constant or change. Such predictions can be
very helpful when selecting a drilling assembly, both to control inclination
and obtain the best possible progress.
Further information on this subject is given in Topic 7.
4.2 PACKED-HOLE DRILLING ASSEMBLIES

This technique seeks to prevent further deviation by preventing displacement
of the lower 120 ft/40 in of the assembly from the centre line of the hole.
Progressive application of the principle would involve:
• the use of drill collars with the largest practicable outside diameter.
• using three or more stabilisers.
• using square drill collars (the maximum development of the first two
points) having a diagonal dimension equal to 1/16" or 1/8" less than the
bit size.
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Square drill collars are effective in hard rock when natural deviating effects
are severe, but they can be difficult to trip, are liable to stick, and are difficult
to fish. They also have to be used from the beginning.
Packed-hole assemblies minimise trends to deviate from the current track,

but equally they make it difficult to correct any unwanted deviation that does
occur. In addition the decreased annular clearance and increased number of
stabilisers substantially increase swabbing risks, overpulls, and the chances
of sticking the string. Also, extra handling time is involved on the rig floor.
4.3 OTHER FACTORS

The factors already mentioned include the composition of the bottom hole
assembly, the weight on bit, and formation effects. Varying the other drilling
conditions, particularly rotary speed and bit hydraulics, may also influence
the behaviour of the assembly.
Such effects are difficult to predict or quantify, but in general terms, if more
hole is made due to increased RPM or bit hydraulics, then the same magni-
tude of directional deflection will be achieved by the bit over a longer drilled
interval. Therefore the rate of inclination change (dogleg severity) will be
reduced. Conversely, reducing the rate of penetration by using less rotary
speed or hydraulics will tend to increase the deviation rate.
When it is essential to keep the inclination of a vertical hole within tight

limits, and the techniques described are not sufficiently effective, the only
alternative remaining is to employ corrective directional drilling methods.
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The following text and sketches illustrate the most common applications of
directional drilling.
Multiple wells from offshore structures

A very common application of directional drilling techniques is in offshore
drilling. Many oil and gas deposits in the Gulf of Mexico, North Sea and other
areas are situated beyond the reach of land based rigs. To drill a large
number of vertical wells from individual platforms is obviously impractical
and would be uneconomical. The conventional approach for a large oilfield has
been to install a fixed platform on the seabed, from which many directional
wells may be drilled. The bottomhole locations of these wells can be carefully
spaced for optimum recovery.
In a conventional development, the wells cannot be drilled until the platform

has been constructed and installed in position. This may mean a delay of two
to three years before production can begin. This delay can be considerably
reduced by pre-drilling some of the wells through a subsea template while the
platform is being constructed. These wells are directionally drilled from a
semi-submersible rig or jack-up and tied back to the platform once it has been
installed.
.Vv
Figure 7.3.2: Multiple wells from offshore structures
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Controlling Vertical Wells
Directional techniques are used to straighten crooked holes. In other words,
when deviation occurs in a well which is supposed to be vertical, various tech-
niques are used to bring the well back to vertical. This was one of the earliest
applications of directional drilling.
Originalhole
Originalhole
Sitlelrack I
Sidetrack
Figure 7.3.3 : Controlling vertical wells
Sidetracking
Sidetracking out of an existing wellbore is another application of directional
drilling. This sidetracking may be done to bypass an obstruction (a "fish") in
the original wellbore, to explore the extent of the producing zone in a certain
sector of a field, or to sidetrack a dry hole to a more promising target. Wells
are also sidetracked to access more reservoir by drilling a horizontal hole
section from the existing well bore.
Originalt]
%well path
Correcle o
well path
Figure 7 .3.4 : Sidetracking
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Inaccessible locations
Directional wells are often drilled because the surface location directly above
the reservoir is inaccessible, either because of natural or man-made obstacles.
Examples include reservoirs under cities, mountains, lakes etc.
Figure 7.3.5 : Inaccessible locations
Fault Drilling
Directional wells can be used to avoid drilling a vertical well through a
steeply inclined fault plane which could slip and shear the casing.
They are also used to drain, in one well, a staggered series of small accumula-
tions trapped below a fault. This technique is known as "fault scooping".
4111111b.-
Figure 7.3.6 : Fault drilling
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Salt Dome Drilling
Directional drilling programs are sometimes used to overcome the problems of
salt dome drilling. Instead of drilling through the salt, the well is drilled at
one side of the dome and is then deviated around and underneath the over-
hanging cap.
Figure 7.3.7 : Salt dome drilling
Shoreline Drilling.
In the case where a reservoir lies offshore but quite close to land, the most
economical way to exploit the reservoir may be to drill directional wells from
a land rig on the coast.
Figure 7.3.8: Shoreline drilling
Page 7/3/18 WDLP - Directionaldrilling
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Relief Wells
Directional techniques are used to drill relief wells from a safe distance in
order to "kill" wells which are flowing out of control (blow-outs).
The relief well(s) is/are designed either to enter the reservoir close to the
blow-out well, for a so-called saturation kill with water, or to intersect the
blow-out well for a direct kill using high density drilling fluid.
Figure 7.3.9 : Relief wells
The above are only some of the many applications of directional drilling.
Although it is not a new concept, horizontal drilling is the fastest growing
branch of directional drilling, with major advances occurring in the tools and
techniques used. One application which is specific to horizontal (and almost
horizontal) wells is to drill through a shallow reservoir parallel to the bedding
plane, thus allowing one well to drain an area which would have required
several vertical or medium angle wells.
Horizontal wells also make possible the recovery of liquid hydrocarbons from
an interval between an oil-water contact and a gas-oil contact that is so thin
that it could not be produced at all from a vertical well, because of the coning
effect.
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INTRODUCTION
There are many aspects involved in planning a well and many individuals
from various companies and disciplines are involved in designing various
programs for the well (e.g. drilling fluid program, casing program, drill string
design for each section, bit program, etc.). The engineered approach to well
planning means that service contractors become equally involved in areas
such as drill string design which are vitally important in planning a deviated
well, especially horizontal or extended wells.
In this Topic we shall concentrate on those aspects of well planning which

have always been the province of directional drilling companies.
1 REFERENCE SYSTEMS AND CO-ORDINATES.

With the exception of Inertial Navigation Systems, all survey systems
measure inclination and azimuth at particular measured depths (depths
measured "along hole"). These measurements must be tied to fixed reference
systems so that the borehole course may be calculated and recorded. The
reference systems used are:
• Depth references
• Inclination references
• Azimuth references
1.1 DEPTH REFERENCES

There are two kinds of depths:
• Measured depth or the depth "along hole" (ahd) is the distance

measured along the actual course of the borehole from the surface refer-
ence point to the survey point. This depth is always measured in some
way, for example, pipe tally, wireline depth counter, or mud loggers
depth counter.
• True vertical depth (tvd) is the vertical distance from the surface refer-
ence point to a point on the borehole course. This depth is always calcu-
lated from the deviation survey data.
In most drilling operations the Rotary Table or Derrick Floor elevation is used
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as the working depth reference. The abbreviations "brt" (below rotary table)
and "bdf" (below derrick floor) are used to indicate depths measured from the
rotary table. The kelly bushing (KB) is sometimes also used as a depth refer-
ence. For floating drilling rigs the rotary table elevation is not fixed and
hence a mean rotary table elevation has to be used.
In order to compare individual wells within the same field, a common refer-
ence must be defined and always referred to. Offshore, mean sea level is
usually used, in which case the depth is called a sub-sea depth. Variations in
actual sea level from MSL can be read from tide tables or can be measured.
As an example, the drilling crew would usually refer to the depth of a casing
shoe as being 1,000 in ahbdf, whereas the field development geologist would
prefer to relate it to a formation boundary and would say that the casing is at
700 in tvss. (There is no significance in these numbers.)
1.2 INCLINATION REFERENCES

The inclination of a well is the angle (usually expressed in degrees) between
the vertical and the bore hole axis at a particular point. The vertical reference
is the direction of the local gravity vector and would be indicated by, for
example, a plumb bob.
1.3 AZIMUTH REFERENCE SYSTEMS

For directional surveying there are three azimuth reference systems:
• Magnetic North
• True (Geographic) North
• Grid North
All "magnetic type" tools initially give an azimuth (hole direction) reading
referenced to Magnetic North. However, the final calculated co-ordinates are
always referenced to either True North or Grid North.
True (Geographic) North
This is the direction of the geographic North Pole which lies on the axis of
rotation of the Earth. The direction is shown on maps by the meridians of
longitude.
Grid North
During drilling operations we are working on a curved surface (i.e., the
surface of the Earth) but when we calculate horizontal plane co-ordinates we
assume we are working on flat surface. Obviously it is not possible exactly to
represent part of the surface of a sphere on a flat well plan. Corrections have
to be applied to the measurements. There are many different projection
systems which can be used.
V 2.0.0
UTM System
As an example of a grid system, let us examine the Universal Transverse

Mercator (UTM) System. In the transverse mercator projection, the surface
of the spheroid chosen to represent the Earth is wrapped in a cylinder
which touches the spheroid along a chosen meridian. (A meridian is a
circle running around the Earth passing through both geographic North
and geographic South Poles.)
The meridians of longitude converge towards the North Pole and therefore
do not produce a rectangular grid system. The grid lines on a map form a
rectangular grid system, the Northerly direction of which is determined by
one specified meridian of longi-
TrueNØ tude. This direction is called
GN GN GN N GN GN GN Grid North. It is identical to
True North only for the central
meridian.
The relationship between True

a a North and Grid North is indi-
cated by the angles `a' in Figure
7.3.10. Convergence is the differ-
ence in angle between grid north
and true north for the location
being considered.
The reference meridians used

0 are 6° apart starting at the
Figure 7.3.10 : Azimuth references Greenwich meridian, which
means the world is divided into
60 zones. The zones are numbered 0 to 60 with zone 31 having the 0°
meridian (Greenwich) on the left and 6° East on the right. Each zone is
further divided into grid sectors - a grid sector covering 8° latitude starting
from the equator and ranging from 80° South to 80° North. The sectors are
given letters ranging from C to X (excluding I and 0).
Therefore each sector is uniquely identified by a number from 0 to 60 (zone

number) and a letter. For example, sector 31 U, shown in Figure 7.3.11, is
the Southern North Sea.
Co-ordinates in the UTM system are measured in meters. North co-ordi-

nates are measured from the equator. For the Northern hemisphere, the
equator is taken as 0.00 in North whereas for the Southern hemisphere
the equator is 10,000,000 in North (to avoid negative numbers). The East
co-ordinates for each sector are measured from a line 500,000 in west of
the central meridian for that sector. In other words, the central meridian
for each zone is arbitrarily given the co-ordinate 500,000 in East. Again,
this avoids negative numbers.
So UTM co-ordinates are always Northings and Eastings, and are always
positive numbers. See Figure 7.3.12.
V20.0
DEGW DEGE Figure 7.3.11 : UTM sector 31 U
24 18 12 6 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72
V
56 Figure 7.3.12 : UTM co-ordinates
U
48
Grid North
Central Meridian
40 0
DEGN
1U 32 550,027.0E
6253,194.ON
24
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
P 500,000m E
,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e
N
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
M To the Equator
-8
27 30 35 40
Lambert Projection.
An alternative projection system used in some parts of the world is the

conical projection or LAMBERT system, whereby a cone as opposed to a
cylinder covers the spheroid under consideration. This produces a represen-
tation with meridians as convergent lines and parallels as arcs of circles.
Further discussion of the co-ordinate systems and map projections is

beyond the scope of this text.
1.4 FIELD CO-ORDINATES

Although the co-ordinates of points on a well path could be expressed as UTM
co-ordinates, it is not the normal practice. Instead, a reference point on the
platform or rig is chosen as the local origin and given the co-ordinates 0,0. On
offshore platforms this point is usually the centre of the platform. The
Northings and Eastings of points on all the wells drilled from the platform
are referenced to this single origin. This is important for comparing positions
of wells, in particular for anti-collision analysis.
N
1.5 DIRECTION MEASUREMENTS 950 0 10
2o
Ø
^^y Ko
Survey tools measure the direction of the
wellbore on the horizontal plane with respect 41
a å
to the North reference, whether it is True or
Grid North. There are two systems used for w p AZIMUTH sE
reporting the direction: 2 g
• The azimuth system

In the azimuth system, directions are e
expressed as a clockwise angle from 0° Ø 0K! Dy[ W k
to 359.99°, with North being 0°. S

Figure 7.3.13
V 2.0.0
• The quadrant system N Figure 7.3.14
10 0 1o
20 20
In the quadrant system (Figure p
7.3.14), the directions are

expressed as angles from 0°- 90°
measured from North in the two ø W
Northern quadrants and from Wg, QUADRANT BEARINGS
South in the Southern quadrants.
Figure 7.3.15 shows how to convert

from the quadrant system to azimuth,
and vice versa, and also shows how to 0
apply the correction from Magnetic to S
True North in the two systems. The Figure 7.3.15

subjects of Magnetic Declination
N
Corrections and Grid Convergence Zo 10 0 10 20
Corrections will be dealt with in detail
later, in the Part on surveying. Ø 350 0 10 20
AZIMUTHtIUADRATURE
R CONVERSION
R
2 PLANNING THE WELL

g gE
TRAJECTORY å
°
OUTER SCALE QUADRATURE o
INNER SCALE AZIMUTH per'
One area of well planning in which
directional companies are often closely OA
OE OSTO61
involved is the planning of the well OZ
O! 0 or
trajectory. Again, this is not as simple a S
task as it might seem at first glance,

particularly on a congested multi-well platform. A number of aspects must be
carefully considered before calculating the final well path.
2.1 THE TARGET.

The target is specified by the geologist, who will not merely define a certain
point as the target but also specify the acceptable tolerance (e.g. a circle of
radius 100 feet having the exact target as its centre). A target zone should be
selected as large as possible to achieve the objective. If multiple zones are to
be penetrated, the multiple targets should be selected so that the planned
well trajectory is reasonable and can be achieved without causing excessive
drilling problems.
2.2 TYPES OF DIRECTIONAL WELL TRAJECTORIES

With the advent of steerable systems, some wells are planned and drilled with
complex paths involving 3-dimensional turns. This happens particularly in
the case of re-drills, where old wells are sidetracked and drilled to completely
new targets.
These complex well paths are, however, harder to drill and the old adage that
"the simplest method is usually the best" holds true. Therefore, most direc-
tional wells are still planned using the traditional well trajectories which
V 2.0.0
have been in use for many years. The common trajectories used for the vertical
projection are shown on this and the following pages. A mathematical treat-
ment is given in Appendix 1.
Figure 7.3.16 : Build& hold trajectory
Build and Hold
The features of this trajectory are:
• Shallow kick-off point (KOP) KJCK-OFFPOINT
• Build-up section (which may BUILD-UP SECTION

have more than one build-up
END OF BUILD
rate).
• Tangent section to TD
Its applications are: TANGENTSECTION
• Deep wells with large hori-

zontal displacements.
• Moderately deep wells with
moderate horizontal displace-
ment, where intermediate TARGET
casing is not required.
Figure 7.3.17 : S-shape trajectory
S Type Well
• Shallow KOP
KICK-OFF POINT
• Build-up section
• Tangent section BUILD-UP SECTION
• Drop-off section
END OF BUILD
There are several variations:
TANGENT SECTION
• Build, hold and drop back to
vertical START of DROP
• Build, hold, drop and hold (illus- DROP SECTION
tratedhere)
ENO of DROP
• Build, hold and continuous drop
through reservoir
HOLD
Its applications are:
• Multiple pay zones. TARGET
• To reduce final angle in reservoir

for easier completions.
• Lease or target limitations.
• For well spacing requirements on multi-well fields.
• Deep wells with a small horizontal displacement.
The disadvantages of the S-Type well are:
• Increased torque and drag.

• Increased risk of key-seating.
V 2.0.0
• It may give logging problems due to
increased maximum inclination. Figure 7.3.18 :
Deep kick-off and build trajectory
Deep Kick-off and Build
• Deep KOP
• Build-up section
• Short tangent section (optional)
Its applications are:
• Appraisal wells to assess the extent of a

newly discovered reservoir.
• Repositioning of the bottom part of the hole
or re-drilling.
• Salt dome drilling.
KICK-OFF POINT
The disadvantages of the Deep Kick-off and
Build-Type well are: BUILD-UP SECTION
• Formations are harder so the initial deflec-

tion may be more difficult to achieve. TARGET
• It is more difficult to achieve desired tool
face orientation with steerable motor assemblies due to a longer more
flexible string, more friction and more reactive torque (see Topic 5.3).
• Longer trip time for any BHA changes required.
• On multi-well platforms, only a very few wells may be given deep kick-
off points because of the small separation of the slots and the difficulty
of keeping wells vertical in firmer formation. Most wells must be given
shallow kick-off points to reduce congestion below the platform and
minimise the risk of collisions.
Catenary curve well plan

It has been suggested that an efficient well path for many directional wells
would be to plan the well as a catenary curve all the way from KOP to target;
the so-called catenary method. A catenary is the natural shape that a cable,
chain or any other line of uniform mass per unit length assumes when
suspended between two points. The similar suspension of a drill string would
also form a catenary.
Proponents of the catenary method argue that it results in a smoother drilled

wellbore, that drag and torque are reduced and that there is less chance of
key seating and differential sticking than with traditional well profiles.
However, in practice it is hard to pick BHAs which will continuously give the
required gradual rate of build, so it is in reality no easier to follow a catenary
curve well plan than a traditional well plan. Also, the catenary curve method
produces a much higher maximum inclination than would result from the
build and hold or S type patterns.
V 2.0.0
2.3 ALLOCATION OF SLOTS TO TARGETS
Even this is not always as simple as you would think. Obviously, from a direc-
tional driller's viewpoint, slots on the North East of the platform or pad
should be used for wells whose targets are in a North Easterly direction.
However, there are generally other considerations (e.g. water injection wells
may have to be grouped together for manifolding requirements). Also, as more
wells are drilled and the reservoir model is upgraded, it has been known for
targets to be changed!
The inner slots are used to drill to the innermost targets (i.e., those targets at
the smallest horizontal distances from the platform) and these wells will be
given slightly deeper kick-off points. The outer slots are used to drill to the
targets which are furthest from the platform. These wells will be given
shallow kick-off points and higher build-up rates to keep the maximum incli-
nation of the well as low as possible.
2.4 KICK-OFF POINT AND BUILD-UP RATE

The selection of both the kick-off point and the build-up rate depend on many
factors including the hole profile selected, the casing program, the drilling
fluid program, the required horizontal displacement and the maximum toler-
able inclination. Choice of kick-off point may be severely limited by the
requirement to keep the well path at a safe distance from existing wells. The
shallower the KOP and the higher the build-up rate used, the lower the
maximum inclination to reach a given target.
In practice, the well trajectory may be calculated for several choices of KOP
and build-up rate and the results compared. The optimum choice is that
which gives a safe clearance from all existing wells, keeps the maximum incli-
nation within desired limits and avoids unnecessarily high dogleg severities.
2.5 TANGENT SECTION

During the eighties, a number of extended reach drilling projects were
successfully completed. If wells are drilled at inclinations up to 80°, the area
which can be covered from a single platform is approximately 8 times that
covered if the maximum inclination of the wells is limited to 60°. However,
inclination angles over 65° may result in excessive torque and drag on the
drill string and present hole cleaning, logging, casing, cementing and produc-
tion problems. These problems can all be overcome with today's technology,
but should be avoided whenever there is an economic alternative.
Experience over the years has been that directional control problems are
aggravated when the tangent inclination is less than 15°. This is because
there is more tendency for bit walk to occur (i.e. change in azimuth) so more
time is spent keeping the well on course. To summarise, most run-of-the-mill
directional wells are still planned with inclinations in the range 15° - 60°
whenever possible.
V2.00
2.6 DROP-OFF SECTION
On S-type wells, the rate of drop off is selected mainly with regard to ease of
running casing and avoidance of completion and production problems. It is
much less critical with regard to drilling because there is less tension in the
drill pipe that is run through this deeper dogleg and less time will be spent
rotating below the dogleg.
2.7 THE HORIZONTAL PROJECTION

On many well plans, the horizontal projection is just a straight line drawn
from the wellhead position to the target. On multi-well platforms it is some-
times necessary to start the well in a different direction to avoid other wells.
Once clear of these, the well is turned to aim at the target. Of course, this is a
3-dimensional turn, but on the horizontal plan it would typically look like
Figure 7.3.19.
The path of the drilled well is plotted on the horizontal projection by plotting
total North/South co-ordinates (Northings) versus total East/West co-ordi-
nates (Eastings). These co-ordinates are calculated from surveys.
2.8 LEAD ANGLE
In the old days (pre 1985) it was normal practice to allow a "lead angle" when
kicking off a well. Since roller cone bits used with rotary assemblies tend to
"walk to the right", the wells were generally kicked off in a direction several
degrees to the left of the target direction. In extreme cases the lead angles
could be as large as 20°.
The greatly increased use of steerable motors and the widespread use of PDC
bits for rotary drilling have drastically reduced the need for wells to be given
a "lead angle". Most wells today are deliberately kicked off with no lead angle
(i.e. in the target direction).
3 NUDGING
The technique of "nudging" is used on platforms in order to "spread out"
conductors and surface casings and thereby minimise the chance of a collision
when wells are drilled. Basically, when the hole for surface casing is drilled,
some angle is built at a low rate (e.g. 1°/100') in the chosen direction.
As well as the basic reason of "spreading things out", other reasons for
"nudging" are:
• to drill from a slot located on the opposite side of the platform from the
target, when there are other wells in between
• to keep wells drilled in the same general direction as far apart as possible
• if the required horizontal displacement of a well is large compared to
the total vertical depth, then it is necessary to build angle right below
the surface conductor to avoid having to use a high rate of build later
V 2.0.0
Exploration, Inc.
(Structure Platform 5 - JRG
Field Field 5 - JRG Location North Sea
East -->
I e I
[' IEASTIviAN
"l'IICHRISTENSEN
s.. I East -->

Figure 7.3.19 : A three-dimensional turn on the horizontal plan
3.1 TECHNIQUES FOR "NUDGING"
• When the formation is suitable (soft), jetting is the best technique to use.
• The most common method is to use a mud motor of 91/2" OD or greater
with a 171/2" bit and a 11/2° bent sub. Using a 11/2° bent sub gives a low
build rate and hence a low dogleg severity as required. The hole is opened
out to the required gauge after the mud motor run.
• Occasionally the job is performed with a large mud motor and 26" bit from
the start. In this case either a 11/2°or 2° bent sub might be used.
3.2 PLANNING A NUDGE PROGRAM

The directions in which the wells are "nudged" should be chosen so as to
achieve maximum separation. The wells will not necessarily be nudged in
their target directions.
V 2.0.0
The nudges will not only be shown on the individual well plans for each well,
but also a structure plot will be drawn which will show the well positions at
the surface casing point after the nudge.
4 PROXIMITY (ANTI-COLLISION) ANALYSIS

On multi-well projects, particularly offshore, there is only a small distance
between slots. In order to eliminate the risk of collisions directly beneath the
platform, a proposed well path is compared to existing and other proposed
wells. The distances between other wells and the proposal are calculated at
frequent depth intervals in the critical section. These calculations can be
performed using the applications COMPASS or WELLPLAN
Survey uncertainty must also be computed both for the proposed well and the
critical existing wells. All the major operating companies have established
criteria for the minimum acceptable separation of wells, which are usually
linked to "cone of error" or "ellipse of uncertainty" calculations.
Three examples of well plans are shown on the following pages.
V 2.0.0
-_-
Strac-ure Platform 5 - JRG
Fleid Field 5 - JRG Location North Sea
East -->
L -ST i :N
,CHRIS TtNSEN
Figure 7.3.20: Typical directional well plan showing both vertical and horizontal projections
V 2.0.0
''Structure - -J
PleHor m 5 -JRG
- - - - WELL PROFILE G- T, ----
Figure 7.3.21 : Well plan of a complex re-drill performed with a DTU steerable motor system
Page 7/3/32 WDLP - Directional d rilling
V 2.0.0
Structure Platform 5 - JRG
EASihaAN
'CHRISTENSEN
East -->
Figure 7.3.22: Example of surface plan view of wells drilled from an offshore platform
V 2.0.0
INTRODUCTION
The idea of using a downhole motor to
directly turn the bit is not a new one.
Indeed, the first commercial motor used was
turbine driven. The first patent for a turbo-
drill existed in 1873. The USSR focused
efforts in developing downhole motors as far
back as the 1920s and has continued to use 1
motors extensively in their drilling activity.
After 1945, the West focused efforts more on
rotary drilling but the field of application for
downhole motors increased spectacularly
from about 1980 onwards.
The turbine consists of a multistage vane

type rotor and stator section, a bearing
section, a drive shaft and a bit rotating sub.
Each stage consists of a rotor and stator of Figure7.3.23
identical profile. The stators are stationary, Differences between the turbine motor
locked to the turbine body, and deflect the (left) and positive displacement motor
flow of drilling fluid onto the rotors which (right) designs
are locked to the drive shaft. The rotors are
forced to turn; the drive shaft is thus forced to turn, causing the bit sub and
the bit to rotate.
A positive displacement motor is a hydraulically driven downhole motor that

uses the Moineau principle to drive the drilling bit, independent of drill string
rotation.
1 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT MOTORS

The PDM is made up of several sections:
• The by-pass valve or dump valve (optional).

• The motor section.
• The universal joint or connecting rod section.
• The bearing section with drive sub.
Page 7/3/34 WDLP - Directional d rilling
V 2.0.0
1.1 BY-PASS VALVE
A by-pass valve allows drilling I Pump OFF
fluid to fill the drill string while Pump ON

tripping in the hole and drain
while tripping out. While the
drilling fluid is being pumped, the
valve closes so that it passes aae
I
through the motor. Most valves 000
are of a spring piston type which
closes under pressure to seal off
ports to the annulus. When there
is no downward pressure, the
spring forces the piston up so the 9
i i
Open Closed----,*
i
fluid can channel through the
Figure7.3.24:BypassValve
ports to the annulus. (Figure
7.3.24)
1.2 MOTOR SECTION
This is a reverse application of Rene Moineau's pump principle. The motor

Figure 7.3.25 : Motor details section consists of a stator and
steel rotor. The stator is made of
an elastomer compound and is
56 moulded inside the outer steel
romrl
rrar housing. The stator will always
have one more lobe than the rotor.
Hence motors will be described as
1/2, 3/4, 5/6 or 9/10 motors. The
simplest type has a helical rotor
which is continuous and round.
This is said to be a single lobe type.
Both the rotor and stator have a
certain pitch length and the ratio
of the pitch lengths is equal to the
ratio of the number of lobes on the
rotor to the number of lobes on the stator.
As drilling fluid is pumped through the motor, it fills

the cavities between the dissimilar shapes of the rotor
and stator. The rotor is forced to give way by turning or,
in other words, is displaced; hence the name positive
displacement motor. It is the rotation of the rotor shaft
which is eventually transmitted to the bit.
1.3 CONNECTING ROD ASSEMBLIES

Since the rotor is a helix, and is not supported by bearings inside the stator, it
does not rotate concentrically - rather it traces a back and forth motion. This
V 2.0.0
motion must be converted to concentric motion before being transmitted to
the bit via the drive sub. This is achieved by a connecting rod assembly. There
are several possible types.
Universal-joint
U-joint assemblies (Figure 7.3.26a) have been conventionally utilised by the
industry and are still used in most positive displacement motors presently in
the field. The assembly consists of two universal joints, each grease filled and
sealed with oil-resistant reinforced rubber sleeves which protect them from
drilling fluid contamination. A drawback of the U -joint assembly is that its
strength is critical for higher torque applications such as that encountered
with recent generations of high torque PDMs, particularly when used with
PDC bits.
Flex rod
lil Rotor
Another development in Rotor-
connecting rod assembly
technology has been the
utilisation of flexible steel Flex rod
or titanium flex rods i U-ioint
(Figure 7.3.26b ). While, in
general, flex rods are
limited by the degree of
allowable lateral bending,
they have the advantage i B
of low maintenance as
they do not require the
use of lubricants or rubber Figure 7.3.26 : Connecting rods
sleeves as with U-joints.
Their utilisation has generally been limited to low offset steerable motors or
straight motor applications. One unique approach has been to mount the flex
rod inside the hollow rotor of a short, high torque steerable PDM rather than
connecting it to the bottom of the rotor. By connecting a long flex rod to the
inside of the top end of the rotor and extending the flex rod through the rotor
to connect to the top of the drive sub assembly, the overall rate of bend of the
flex rod is decreased due to its increased length.
1.4 BEARING SECTION

A typical positive displacement motor utilises three sets of bearings attached
to the drive shaft. These are two sets of radial bearings ("upper" and "lower")
with one set of axial thrust bearings.
The axial thrust bearing section supports the on and off bottom loading and
hydraulic thrust. It consists of a series of ball bearings stacked one on top of
the other, each set being contained in its own race (or groove). The number of
axial thrust bearings will vary, depending on the size of the tool.
V 2 .0.0
The upper and lower radial
bearings are lined with elas-
tomers, or with tungsten
carbide inserts. The function
of these bearings is to support Inner rin
the concentrically rotating
drive shaft against lateral Axial pressure
Tungsten- carbide
bearin
loads. The inherent design of bearing inserts
the upper radial bearing

limits the amount of fluid flow
diverted to the annulus to cool Lower radial
and lubricate the bearing bearing housin
package. This diversion of flow

is typically 2 - 10%, depending
on motor and bit pressure Rotating drive
drop. The major portion of the su
drilling fluid is collected by

Radial bearing assembly
ports in the drive shaft and
exits through the bit. In some Figure 7.3.27 : Bearing sections
motors, diamond bearings are
being used and may need up to 20% of the flow to be diverted, depending
upon conditions. Figure 7.3.27 illustrates typical bearing sections found in
PDMs.
1.5 TYPES OF POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT MOTORS
PDMs come in various configurations. As has been mentioned previously, the

stator will have one more lobe than the rotor. The first types of PDMs, and the
simplest, are 1/2 motors. These generally give medium to low torque output
and medium to high speed. Torque output is directly proportional to pressure
drop across the motor. The 1/2 motors have good applications in performance
drilling with a PDC, diamond, or TSP-type bits. Some shorter models are used
for directional purposes.
Multi-lobe motors have high torque output and relatively slow speed. They
therefore have good applications with roller cone bits and for coring. These
motors are also suitable for use with PDC bits, especially the large cutter
types which require a good torque output to be efficient. Being fairly short,
they also have good directional applications with bent subs as a deflection
device. Multi-lobe motors may be constructed with a hollow rotor plus a seat
at the top into which either a nozzle or blank can be placed. A nozzle enables
high pumping rates to be accommodated by allowing some of the drilling fluid
to by-pass the motor section while the entire flow still passes through the bit.
Figure 7.3.28 is an illustration of a multi-lobe (5/6) positive displacement

motor.
V2.00
1.6 CHARACTERISTICS
Bypass valve
Torque is directly proportional to the motor
differential pressure. This makes the tool very
Rotor
simple to operate. RPM is directly proportional
to flow rate, though somewhat affected by Stator
torque output.
P6XQ
Hydraulic power input = kW
Hydraulic power input = P X Q HP

1,714 Universal
joint
Where : P = the pressure drop across
the motor (kPa / psi)
Q = the flow rate (m3/min /
gals/min)
TxN Bearing
Mechanical power output =
5,252 assembly
Where : T = the torque (Nm / lbs-ft)

Drive sub
N = the bit speed (rpm)
Mechanical power output Bit
Efficiency =
Hydraulic power input
1.7 OBSERVATIONS
Figure 7.3.28 : Navi-Drill Mach 1C
• Motor stall will be obvious due to an increase
of surface pressure. Motor stalling is best avoided as it erodes the elas-
tomer of the stator and shortens the service life of the motor.
• LCM can be pumped safely, though care should be taken that the material
is added slowly and evenly dispersed, and the system is not slugged.
• Sand content in the drilling fluid should be kept to a minimum.
• Temperature limits are normally around 270°F, 130°C, but higher tempera-
ture stators have been developed.
• Pressure drop through the tool while working is typically in the range of
50 - 800 psi.
• Allowable wear on axial bearings is of the order of 1- 8mm , depending
upon tool size.
• The tool should be flushed out with water prior to laying down.
• In general, drilling fluids of a low aniline point may damage the rubber
stator. As a rule, the oil in oil based muds should have an aniline point of
at least 150°F (60°C). Usually, this is related to the aromatic content which
should be equal to or less than 10%. Contact the local supplier if there is
any doubt.
• If a by-pass nozzle is fitted to a multi-lobe rotor, then it must be sized very
V 2.0.0
carefully to allow the motor section to develop the necessary power. Any
subsequent variation from the flow for which the nozzle was designed will
compromise the motor's performance.
1.8 MOTOR ORIENTATIOWCONTROL
All directional wells require steering during initial kick-offs, correction runs,
sidetracks, and re-drills. This is discussed in subsequent Topics.
2 TURBINES
The turbine is made up of several sections:
• The drive stages or motor section.

• The axial thrust bearing assembly and radial bearings.
• The bit drive sub.
The drive stages, or motor section, consists of a series of stator and rotor discs
of a bladed design. One stator and one rotor together form a stage. Turbines
will be referred to as 90 stage, 250 stage, etc. The number of stages will deter-
mine the torque generated. Each stage, theoretically, applies an equal amount
of torque to the control shaft and it is the sum of those torques which will be
output to the bit.
The drive sub is simply the bit connection and bearing shaft. The radial
bearings support the shaft during lateral loading. The thrust bearings support
the downwards hydraulic thrust
from drilling fluid being pumped
through the tool and the upward
thrust of weight being applied to
the bit. Theoretically, the correct
a-, T bine section
amount of weight on bit should be -
applied to equalise the hydraulic

thrust and thereby unload the
bearings and prolong their life.
2.1 DRIVE SECTION

Seal
This consists of a series of bladed Bearing and

seal section
Radial
stators, fixed to the outer tool
housing and bladed rotors fixed to I
I/ Thrust
the central rotating shaft. v
bearings
Drilling fluid flow is deflected at i

Radial
bearings
a pre-determined angle off the Seal
stator blades to hit the rotor

blades and cause the shaft to
rotate. The angle of the blades
will affect the torque and speed
output of the turbine. (Figure
7.3.29)
Figure 7 .3.29: Turbine details
V 2.0.0
2.2 BEARING SECTION
Usually, thrust bearings are made up of rubber discs (Figure 7.3.29) which are
non-rotating, being fixed to the outer housing of the tool, and rotating steel
discs attached to the central rotating shaft. Long bearing sections known as
cartridges are used for long life in tangent or straight hole drilling sections.
These are changeable on the rig. If the bearings wear past the maximum
point, considerable damage can be inflicted as the steel rotors will crash into
the steel stators below.
2.3 DIRECTIONAL TURBINE

This is a short tool which has a set number of stages and its bearing section
entirely within one housing. That is, it is not a sectional tool and will be typi-
cally less than 30 ft (9 m) long. It is designed for short runs to kick off or
correct a directional well, using a bent sub as the deflection device. Steerable
turbodrills do exist and will be discussed later.
2.4 CHARACTERISTICS
• Torque and RPM are inversely proportional (i.e., as RPM increases, torque
decreases and vice versa).
• RPM is directly proportional to flow rate (at a constant torque).
• Torque is a function of flow rate, drilling fluid density, blade angle and the
number of stages, and is affected by varying weight on bit.
• Optimum power output takes place when thrust bearings are balanced.
• Changing the flow rate causes the characteristic curve to shift.
• Off bottom, the turbine RPM will reach "runaway speed" and torque is
zero.
• On bottom, and just at stall, the turbine achieves maximum torque and
RPM is zero.
• Optimum performance is at half the stall torque and at half the runaway
speed, the turbine then achieves maximum horsepower.
• A stabilised turbine used in tangent sections will normally cause the hole
to "walk" to the left.
2.5 OBSERVATIONS
• There is minimal surface indication of a turbine stalling.
• Turbines do not readily allow the pumping of LCM.
• Sand content of the drilling fluid should be kept to a minimum.
• Due to minimal rubber components, the turbine is able to operate in high
temperature wells.
• Pressure drop through the tool is typically high and can be anything from
500 psi to over 2,000 psi.
• Turbines do not require a by-pass valve.
• Usually, the maximum allowable bearing wear is of the order of 4 mm.
V 2.0.0
INTRODUCTION
Deflection tools are those which are used to force the bit to drill along a
different trajectory from that which could be obtained by taking advantage of
the normal deviating tendencies of a "straight" drilling assembly. What they
all have in common is that they must be oriented in a specifically chosen
direction. Methods of doing this are described in the following Topic.
There are two basic methods of forcing the BHA to deviate from its natural
trajectory. One is simply to push the bit sideways by means of a whipstock
which is external to the string. The others use equipment included in the
string. Normally this is equipment which causes the bit to rotate about an
axis which is at an angle to the axis of the main part of the assembly. It
follows that, in order for this to be effective it, the string cannot be rotated (at
least until the required trajectory has been achieved). In other words, it
involves the use of the downhole motors described in the previous Topic.
A different, little used, method of using equipment internal to the string is to

wash away the formation preferentially in a given direction by using an
asymmetric arrangement of nozzles in the bit.
A recent development has been a combination of the two basic methods

involving pushing the bit sideways by means of equipment installed in the
BHA. This has the advantage that it can be activated at will when required,
and left inactivated when the trajectory being followed corresponds to what is
desired. This system is not described in the present Topic but in Topic 9 -
Rotary steerable systems.
1 WHIPSTOCKS
The whipstock was the main deflection tool from 1930-1950. Its use then
declined as directional drilling techniques improved, but is being used
increasingly again in multilateral applications. Whipstocks are now also used
in coiled tubing drilling for re-entry work. There are three types of whipstock:
1.1 STANDARD REMOVABLE WHIPSTOCK

The standard removable whipstock is used mainly to kick off wells, but is also
used for sidetracking. It consists of a long inverted steel wedge which is
concave on one side to hold and guide a whipstock drilling assembly. It is also
V200
provided with a chisel point at the bottom to prevent
the tool from turning, and a heavy collar at the top to
withdraw the tool from the hole. This whipstock is used
with a drilling assembly consisting of a bit, a spiral
stabiliser, and an orientation sub, rigidly attached to
the whipstock by means of a shear pin.
The whipstock assembly is lowered to the bottom of the

hole and orientated. Weight is applied to set the whip-
stock and shear the pin. The bit is then drilled down
and forced to deflect to one side by the whipstock. A 12
to 16 foot (4-5 m) "rat hole" is drilled below the toe of
the whipstock. The assembly is then pulled out of hole,
taking the whipstock with it. A hole opener run is
made to open the rat hole out to full gauge. The hole
opener assembly is then tripped out and a rapid angle
build assembly run in hole to "follow up" the initial
deflection. This whole procedure may have to be
repeated several times in the kick-off.
Figure7.3.30 It is obvious that the major disadvantage of the

The standard removable standard whipstock is the number of "trips" involved
whipstock which uses a lot of rig time. The other important disad-
vantage is that the whipstock produces a sudden, sharp
deflection - in other words, a severe dogleg - which may give rise to subse-
quent problems with the hole. The advantages are that it is a fairly simple
piece of equipment which requires relatively little maintenance and has no
temperature limitations.
1.2 CIRCULATING WHIPSTOCK

The "circulating whipstock" is run, set and drilled like the standard whip-
stock. However, in this case the drilling fluid initially flows through a passage
to the bottom of the whipstock which permits more efficient cleaning of the
bottom of the hole and ensures a clean seat for the tool. It is most efficient for
washing out bottom hole fills.
1.3 PERMANENT CASING WHIPSTOCK

The "permanent casing whipstock" (Figure 7.3.31) is designed to remain
permanently in the well. It is used where a "window" is to be cut in casing for
a sidetrack. The casing whipstock is set using a permanent packer. The
special stinger at the base of the whipstock slips into the packer assembly. A
stainless steel key within the packer locks the whipstock's anchor-seal and
prohibits any circular movement of the whipstock during drilling.
The normal procedure is to set the packer and then measure its orientation.
After this, the starting mill is pinned to the casing whipstock and the whole
assembly run slowly in hole and seated in the packer.
V 2.0.0
After the whipstock has been "seated" in the packer,
the pin is sheared and circulation and rotation
begun. The starting mill is used to make an initial
cut through the casing and mill approximately 2 ft
(50-60 cm) of casing. The lug that held the starting
mill to the whipstock must also be milled off.
Starting mill
This assembly is tripped out and the mill changed. A
tungsten carbide or diamond speed mill is used to cut
the rest of the window. Once the window has been
cut, approximately 5 ft (150-160 cm) of formation is
Shear pin
cut before pulling out of hole. Next, a taper mill is
run with a watermelon mill immediately above it. <LI Wear pad
This is done to "clean" the top and the bottom of the or lug
window. Finally, another trip is made to change over
to the drilling assembly which is used to drill ahead.
The advantage of using a casing whipstock, instead

of the normal method of milling a relatively long
section of casing, setting a cement plug and side-
tracking through it is that window milling usuall Y
takes less time. The main disadvantage is that it Casing
gives a sharp dogleg, and so the casing whipstock is © Whipstock
not recommended if there is a considerable distance
to drill below the sidetrack, i.e. if several trips in and
Whipstock
out through the window may be required. This is a anchor
because problems can occur when trying to pull assembly
stabilisers, etc. back into the casing through the
- Whipstock
window. On the other hand, if there is only a short packer
distance to be drilled below the sidetrack point, then
Aligningkey
the casing whipstock is well worth considering.
In recent years, improvements in the design of casing 4'to8'

whipstock systems have eliminated the need for so pup joint
many trips in and out of hole. Bull plug
2 JETTING Figure
7.3.31:
The permanent casing
Jetting (or badgering) is a technique used to deviate whipstock
wellbores in soft formation. The technique was devel-
oped in the mid 1950s and superseded the use of whipstocks as the primary
deflection technique.
Although jetting has subsequently been supplanted by downhole motor deflec-

tion assemblies (as the primary deflection method) it is still used frequently
and offers several advantages which make it the preferred method in some
situations.
A special jet bit (like the one shown in the figure overleaf) may be used, but it
V 2.0.0
is also common practice to use a
standard soft formation tricone bit,
with one very large nozzle and two
u1
small nozzles.
2.1 REQUIREMENTS FOR

JETTING
• The formations must be soft
enough to be eroded by the J
drilling fluid emerging from the
large jet nozzle. As a rough rule of
thumb, if formations cannot be
drilled at penetration rates of
greater than 80 ft/hr using Largejet
normal drilling parameters, they
Figure 7.3 .32 : A jetting bit
are not suitable for jetting.
Jetting is most effective in soft,
sandy formations, and of course effectiveness is reduced as depth
increases, since the formations become more compacted. In the Gulf of
Mexico, the maximum depth for effective jetting is approximately 2500
feet.
• Adequate rig hydraulic horsepower must be available. For jetting to be
successful there must be adequate hydraulic energy available at the bit to
erode the formation. A rule of thumb for jetting is that drilling fluid
velocity through the large jet should be 500 ft/sec or greater.
2.2 JETTING ASSEMBLIES
A typical jetting assembly used to drill a 121/4" pilot hole is:
• 121/4" jet bit

• extension sub
• 121/4" stabiliser
• UBHO sub
• 3x8"DC
• 121/4" stabiliser
• DC
• HWDP as required.
This is essentially a strong angle build rotary assembly (see Topic 8) with a
suitable bit for jetting. The upper stabiliser is optional and is often omitted.
2.3 NOZZLING THE BIT

There are three alternatives:
a) Use a specialised jet bit with a large extended nozzle in place of one of
the cones.
Page 7/3/44 WDLP Directional drilling
V 2.0.0
b) Fit one large and two small nozzles in a conventional tri-cone bit.
c) Blank off one nozzle of a conventional bit to divert the flow through the
other two.
Flow through two jets may be desirable in large hole sizes (e.g. 171/2") because
of the large washout required to deflect the bit and near bit stabiliser. Both
(a) and (b) work well in most hole sizes which are commonly jet drilled. (b) is
the most common option because it uses standard bits and nozzles and results
in a bit dressed in such a way as to be suitable for both jetting and drilling.
A 121/4" bit dressed for jetting would typically have the main nozzle size 26/32"
or 28/32" and the other two nozzles 10/32" or 8/32".
2.4 PROCEDURE FOR JETTING

1. The assembly is run to bottom, a survey is taken and the large jet nozzle
(the "toolface") is orientated in the required direction.
2. Maximum circulation is established (e.g. 800 gpm [3,000 1/min] in 121/4"
hole) and a controlled washing away of the formation opposite the large jet
is effected, with the kelly in the rotary table and the table locked.
3. The drill string may be spudded up and down periodically, but not rotated,
until several feet of hole have been made and the bit and near bit
stabiliser have been forced into the washed out pocket. The technique is to
lift the string 5 to 10 feet (2-3 m) off bottom and then let it fall, catching it
with the brake so that the stretch of the string causes it to spud on bottom
rather than using the full weight of the string. Another technique which
may improve the effectiveness of jetting involves turning the rotary table a
few degrees (15°) right and left while jetting.
4. Having jetted 3 to 8 feet (1-3 m) of hole, the exact distance depending on
required build rate and previous results, drilling is begun. The circulation
rate is now reduced to about 50% of that used for jetting. Hole cleaning
considerations are ignored while drilling the next 10 feet (3 m) or so. High
weight on bit (40-45 Klb / 18-22 tons) and low rotary speed (60-70 RPM)
should be used to bend
the assembly and force it
to follow through the _--
trend established while 4
jetting. Progress may be
difficult at first because of
interference between the
stabiliser and the irregu-
larly shaped jetted hole.
5. After approximately 10
feet (3 m) of hole has been
drilled, the pump rate can
be increased to perhaps
60% - 70% of the rate Figure 7.3.33 : Jetting
originally used while
V 2.0.0
jetting. High WOB and low RPM should be maintained. The hole is drilled
down to the next survey point.
6. A survey is taken to evaluate progress. If the dogleg is too severe the
section should be reamed and another survey taken.
7. At the start of a kick-off, jetting is repeated every single until about 3° of
angle has been built. After that, it is normal to jet every "double". After
drilling each section, the jet nozzle has to be re-orientated to the desired
tool face setting before jetting again. The operation is repeated until suffi-
cient angle has been built and the well is heading in the desired direction.
The principle is that, during the initial spudding and washing process, a
pocket is produced in the formation opposite the jet nozzle. When high WOB
is then applied and the drill string rotated, the bit and near bit stabiliser
work their way into the pocket (the path of least resistance). The collars above
the near-bit stabiliser bend and contact the low side of the hole. This causes a
bending moment about the near-bit stabiliser which acts as a pivot or
fulcrum, and the bit is pushed harder into the pocket (i.e. the direction in
which the large jet nozzle was originally orientated).
2.5 ADVANTAGES OF THE JETTING TECHNIQUE

• It is a simple and cheap method of deflecting well bores in soft formations.
No special equipment is needed except, perhaps, a jet bit.
• The dogleg severity can be partly controlled from surface by varying the
number of feet "jetted" each time.
• The survey tool is not far behind the bit, so survey depths are not much
less than the corresponding bit depths.
• Orientation of tool face is fairly easy.
• The same assembly can be used for normal rotary drilling as an angle
build assembly.
2.6 DISADVANTAGES OF THE JETTING TECHNIQUE

• The technique only works in soft formation and so usually only at shallow
depths. For this reason, jetting is mainly used to kick wells off at shallow
depths.
• In jetting, high dogleg severities are often produced. Deviation is produced
in a series of sudden changes, rather than a smooth continuous change.
For this reason, it is normal practice to jet drill an undergauge hole and
then open it out to full gauge, which smooths off the worst of the doglegs.
3 DOWNHOLE MOTOR AND BENT SUB

A common method of deflecting wellbores is to use a downhole motor and a
bent sub. As illustrated in Figure 7.3.34, the bent sub is placed directly above
the motor and it is the bent sub which makes this a deflection assembly. Its
lower thread (on the pin) is inclined 1°- 3° from the axis of the sub body.
The bent sub acts as the pivot of a lever and the bit is pushed sideways as
V 2.0.0
well as downwards. This sideways
component of force at the bit gives
the motor a tendency to drill a
curved path, provided there is no
rotation of the drill string. The Bent sub
degree of curvature (dogleg severity)
depends on the bent sub angle and
the OD of the motor, bent sub and
drill collars in relation to the
diameter of the hole. It also depends
on the length of the motor.
A downhole motor and bent sub

assembly may be used for kicking off Motor
wells, for correction runs or for side-
tracking.
Notice the absence of any stabilisers

in the lower part of this assembly.
Usually there would be no stabilisers
for at least 90 feet (30 m) above the
bent sub. In fact, it is not uncommon
for the entire BHA to be "slick" when
a motor and bent sub is used for
- Bit
kicking off at shallow depths. 0
3.1 REACTIVE TORQUE
Reactive torque is a factor in the use Figure 7.3.34: Downholemotor and bent sub
of both types of downhole motor. It is assembly
created by the pressure of the drilling
fluid pushing on the stator. The stator is locked to the body of the motor, so
the effect of this force is to twist the motor and, hence, the whole BHA anti-
clockwise. As the weight-on-bit is increased, the drilling torque created by the
motor increases. The reactive torque increases in direct proportion. Thus a
reasonable, although simplistic, way to view this is that the clockwise drilling
torque generated at the bit is the "action" and the counter-clockwise torque on
the motor housing is the "reaction". The reactive torque at the motor is equal
to the drilling torque.
Reactive torque causes a problem for directional drillers when they are using
a motor and bent sub to deflect the well-bore. The twisting of the BHA
caused by reactive torque changes the facing of the bent sub (i.e. the tool face
orientation). If they are obtaining tool face orientation from single shot
surveys, the directional driller has to estimate how much turn to the left they
will get due to reactive torque. He initially sets the tool face that number of
degrees round to the right of the desired tool face, so that the reactive torque
will bring it back to the setting required while drilling.
Drill string design will affect the extent of "drill string twist." This concept is
V 2.0.0
important to understand because it can directly affect the tool face orientation
of the downhole motor. This twisting of the drill string becomes more critical
at greater depths, especially when using smaller OD drillpipe in a high torque
environment.
When drilling is in progress, every endeavour must be made to keep the

drilling parameters constant and, hence, obtain constant reactive torque and
a steady tool face setting.
Factors affecting reactive torque

The reactive torque which the motor generates will be in direct proportion to
the differential pressure across the motor. This in turn is influenced by:
• Motor characteristics
• Bit characteristics
• Formation drillability
• Weight on bit
The estimation of reactive torque has always been a problem for the direc-
tional driller. Several charts and rules of thumb have evolved to give a first
estimate in the absence of data . One such rule is that the reactive torque will
produce a rotation of the order of 10-20° / 1000 feet measured depth (30-
60°/1,000 m). The lower end of the range may be used for low torque motors
and the higher end for high torque motors.
The use of MWD

The problem of reactive torque disappears if MWD tools are used because the
orientation of the BHA can be measured, with a surface read-out, under
drilling conditions (see Topic 5).
3.2 RUNNING PROCEDURES

The motor is first inspected and then tested using standard procedures.
Before drilling can begin with a motor and bent sub assembly, the bent sub
(toolface) must be orientated in the desired direction.
• The pipe is worked until string torque is eliminated. Best results are
obtained by using a moderately fast up and down pipe movement. It is
recommended that the bit be kept a minimum of 5 feet from the bottom of
the hole.
• Make a reference mark on the kelly bushings, lock the rotary table and
take a survey to determine tool face orientation.
• Turn the pipe to achieve the desired tool face orientation. This orientation
should include an allowance for the anticipated left-hand reactive torque.
When orienting, turn the pipe to the right unless the turn is less than 90°
left of the present setting. Work the string up and down so that the turn
reaches the bottomhole assembly.
• Lock the rotary table before beginning to drill.
V 2.0.0
3.3 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT MOTORS VERSUS TURBINES
FOR USE WITH A BENT SUB
For directional work with a bent sub, positive displacement motors offer
several advantages over turbines. When drilling with a PDM, the directional
driller can use the pump pressure gauge as a weight indicator. If the pump
pressure is constant, the differential pressure across the PDM is constant, so
the torque and WOB are constant. It is also much easier to tell if a PDM has
stalled because there will be an immediate large increase in surface pressure.
PDMs give a longer bit life than turbines because of the slower rotational
speed. They can tolerate LCM whereas turbines cannot (or only a very limited
amount). Finally, instead of using a bent sub, a PDM with a small bend at the
adjustable housing can be used. As this bend is nearer to the bit, a smaller
angle of bend will have the same effect as a larger bent sub angle. This
reduces the problem of the bit riding the side of the hole while tripping in and
out.
A major advantage of turbines is that they can operate at higher tempera-

tures than PDMs.
3.4 ADVANTAGES OF A DOWNHOLE MOTOR AND BENT SUB

AS A DEFLECTION TOOL
• It drills a smooth, continuous curve.
• Dogleg severity is more predictable than with other deflection tools.
• It can be used in most formations.
• As there is no rotation from surface, it is possible to use a wireline
"steering tool" for surveying and orientation while drilling. Alternatively, a
Measurement While Drilling system can be utilised, which would be the
normal choice nowadays.
3.5 DISADVANTAGES OF DOWNHOLE MOTOR AND BENT SUB

AS A DEFLECTION TOOL
• Reactive torque changes the tool face when drilling commences. It may
also be difficult to keep a steady tool face because the assemblies used are
often "slick" (no stabilisers) - stabilisers have an "anchoring" tendency..
• The motors themselves are expensive and require maintenance. Of course,
this is more than offset by the savings due to good hole condition and the
greater degree of control which motors give.
3.6 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT MOTORS WITH KICK-OFF SUBS (BENT

HOUSING)
An alternative to using a bent sub is to use a PDM with a single bend in the
universal joint housing, described either as a kick-off sub or a bent housing by
different manufacturers. Historically, these "single tilt" motors were used for
difficult deviation jobs such as sidetracking over a short section of hole into
hard formation. Since the bend is closer to the bit than when a bent sub is used,
a smaller tilt angle can be used while still giving a strong deviation tendency.
V2.00
A further development of the single tilt motor was the double tilt motor in
which there are two bends in the housing (in the same plane). The effect of
this is to tilt the axis of rotation of the lower section with the bit, but keep the
bit closer to the axis of the hole.
Both single and double tilt motors have been used as steerable motors. If the
drill string is rotated so that the body of the motor rotates, then a fairly
straight path is drilled, whereas if the tilt (tool face) is orientated in a desired
direction and there is no drill string rotation, then the motor will drill a
controlled curve. This subject is more fully discussed in Topic 8.
After having been tried, double tilt motors are being phased out again in
favour of the single tilt versions as they slide better and give better control of
the desired inclination change.
3.7 TURBINES WITH A BENT HOUSING
Currently some operators are using a steerable turbine design which incorpo-
rates a bent housing close to the bit. It has been demonstrated that they can
sustain a dog-leg capability of up to 8°/100 ft. Incorporation of a stalling
pressure indicator has also been achieved with these new designs.
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Deliberately left blank
V 2.0.0
INTRODUCTION
The "Toolface" of a deflection tool or steerable motor system, is the part which
is oriented in a particular direction to make a desired deflection of the
wellbore. There are two basic ways of expressing toolface orientation:
• Magnetic or Gyro Toolface: this is the toolface orientation measured as a

direction on the horizontal plane. If measured by a "magnetic" type survey
tool, this is called a magnetic toolface; whereas if it is measured by a gyro-
scopic survey device, it is called a gyro toolface. Toolface orientation is only
measured and expressed in this way at low inclinations, say less than 5°
typically.
• High Side Toolface: this is the toolface orientation measured from the high
side of the hole in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the hole.
It must also be pointed out that the term toolface is commonly used by direc-
tional drillers and surveyors as a shortened version of "toolface orientation".
A magnetic or gyro toolface reading can be converted to a high side toolface

reading using the formula:
High side toolface = mag/gyro toolface - hole azimuth
(A negative answer means the angle is measured anti-clockwise or left of high

side). The above formula is based on the fact that the high side direction is
the azimuth of the borehole.
In the remainder of this Topic, methods for selecting the required toolface
orientation are discussed. These methods are also used to predict the changes
in inclination and azimuth which result from drilling ahead with that toolface
setting.
1 DEVIATED-WELL GEOMETRY
Before discussing the orientation of deviation tools further it is important
that you can visualise the significance of the values of azimuth and inclina-
tion in deviated wells. This is shown in Figure 7.3.35.
The inclination at any survey point, S, is the angle I between the tangent to
the well bore and the vertical.
V 2.0.0
By projecting this
tangent on to a
horizontal plane S
(as shown in the
figure ), the Tangentto well bore
azimuth (A) can path at survey point
Azimuth at
be measured N survey point (A)
relative to north
(true, magnetic or W E
grid).
S
In practice,
changes in inclina-
tion and azimuth Figure 7.3.35 Deviated well geometry
usually occur
simultaneously and it is necessary to consider the situation in three dimen-
sions in order to define the change in course of the well between two survey
points Si and S2.
If the inclination and azimuth at each survey point are known, vector
diagrams can be constructed enabling:
• the position of S2 to be calculated relative to S1.

• the actual angular change in the path of the well to be calculated, i.e.
the value of the dogleg.
In practice this may be done using a computer program based on sine and
cosine rules or by constructing vector triangles.
2 CONSTRUCTING VECTOR TRIANGLES

Vector triangles may be constructed as shown below.
A change in downhole orientation is achieved between survey point Sl and

survey point S2 according to the following data:
Survey point Sl = 1026 m (3365 ft.) AH

Inclination It = 8°
Azimuth Al = 95° Mag.
Survey point S2 = 1056 m (3466 ft.) AH
Inclination 12 = 6°
Azimuth A2 = 87°Mag.
Find the dogleg between the survey points, and the toolface-setting angle
employed.
V200
Construct the vector triangles as follows:
Draw N-S & E-W axes

N
W E
Draw in the azimuth directions - Al (initial) and A2 (required)

N
A2
Make the lengths Il and I2 proportional to the initial

inclination and the required inclination
Scale 1cm : 1°
N
A2
Complete the vector triangle

N Toolface
Az (=87°)
(6) 12(=6°)
w (i
(8) li (=8°)
Ai (=95°)
S
Figure 7.3.36
Measure these angles with a protractor and ruler. You may then confirm them
using a computer. You should have found that the toolface-setting angle was
158° (a) and the dogleg was 2.1° ((3).
We will now move on to look at the ways in which these vector triangles may
be practically applied.
V 2.0.0
3 SETTING THE TOOLFACE
Toolface Setting for Inclination Change only

To change inclination while maintaining a constant azimuth, the toolface
must be set at 0° or 180°. Setting the toolface at 0° increases the inclination;
setting it at 180° decreases the inclination. This is shown in the following
example.
Given the following data:
Existing inclination Il = 12°

Existing azimuth Al = 93°
Tool dogleg potential = 3°/100 ft
What will be the effect over an interval of 100 ft of:
1. Setting the toolface at 0°


Draw the vector representing the initial inclination and azimuth
Scale 1cm = 2°
1,=12°
A, 93°mag
Construct an arc representing the dogleg radius with the toolface set at 0°
Continue Il until it meets this are. Measure the new inclination, I2
With a toolface setting of 0° the new inclination is 15°.

Figure 7.3.37a
V200
Draw the vector representing the initial inclination and azimuth

1,=12°
A,
Construct an are representing the dogleg radius with

a toolface setting of 180°
Dogleg radius 3°
Measure the new inclination 12where I, meets this are.
With a toolface setting of 180° the new inclination is 9°.
Figure 7.3.37b
Toolface Setting for Azimuth Change only

If the inclination of the well is to be kept constant, the vector diagram is an
isosceles triangle.
To maintain a constant inclination with a tool of given dogleg potential the

resultant azimuth change can be determined as shown in the example
overleaf. You should note that there is only one toolface-setting angle possible
when a change in azimuth is required.
You are given the following data:
Existing inclination Il 8°
Required inclination 12 8°
Existing azimuth Al 117° Mag
Tool dogleg potential 3.5°/100 ft
Assuming that a left-hand change in azimuth is required over a 100 ft
interval, what will be the new azimuth of the bore-hole (A2) ? Estimate the
toolface setting required.
V 2.0.0
Draw vector I1 representing the initial Scale. 0 .75 cm=1
inclination and azimuth A , - 117 Mag
'= 8
Construct an arc representing the tool

dogleg potential for a left hand change
Tool dogleg
I radius 3.5
Ai
Construct an are representing the

required inclination, I2, such that
thisintersects
the dogleg are.
12-8
Construct the vector triangle
TooIface
/setting angle
Azimuth than e AA
A
Read off the azimuth

DA = 25.3°
change (AA) and toolface
a=102.7°
setting angle (a).
For a left hand toolface setting:

Determine the new A2 = Al-AA
borehole azimuth (A2) Note: for a right hand
A2 = 117°- 25.3° = 91.7° Mag
toolface setting
A2 = Al+AA
For a left hand toolface setting: and toolface setting
Determine the toolface toolface setting azimuth = Al-a
setting azimuth = 117°-102.7°
= 14.3° Mag
Figure 7.3.38
The new bore-hole azimuth is thus 91.7° Mag. This is achieved with a
toolface setting angle of 102.7° left side (azimuth = 14.3° Mag).
WDLP Directional drilling Page 7/3/57
V 2.0.0
You require an azimuth change of 20.16° (left) over an interval of 100 ft. What
toolface-setting angle would be required to achieve this change given the
following data?
Required inclination = 10°

Existing inclination = 10°
Existing azimuth = 198° Mag
Tool dogleg potential = 3.5°/100 ft
Scale2 = 1cm
Your vector diagram Tooldagleg

potential = 3.5
should have looked like
Figure 7.3.39. \z `
Azimuth
11 = 10 Al
Figure 7.3.39
From your computer program or the vector diagram you should have the
following results:
Toolface-setting angle = 100.1°

Toolface-setting azimuth = 198° - 100.1°
= 97.9°Mag
Note that 20.16° is the maximum azimuth change possible without changing
the inclination.
Toolface Setting for Combined Inclination and Azimuth Change

Tools may be set for combined inclination and azimuth change. A variety of
combinations of azimuth and inclination change is possible depending on the
toolface-setting angle.
When setting tools for combined inclination and azimuth change there are
always two possible toolface settings. The setting you choose depends on the
required inclination. However, as you increase the azimuthal change, the
capacity to change the inclination is reduced (See below).
Consider the following worked example which is illustrated in Figure 7.3.40

overleaf.
You want to change the azimuth of the well over an interval of 100 ft in accor-
dance with the data below:
Existing inclination = 17°

Existing azimuth = 93° Mag
Tool dogleg potential = 3.5°/100 ft
Azimuth change (SA) = 10.5° right
What toolface setting is required and what will be the new inclination ?
V 2.0.0
Draw vector I1 representing the Scale 1 cm =3°
initial inclination and azimuth
AI= 93'mag
Constructthe dogleg arc fora A1=93'mag

right hand change
Tool dogleg radius 3.5
Construct a line representing the Azimuth change 10.5

right
new azimuth (A2) as shown
AA
Complete the vector triangles (in Toolfacesetting= 128

I,= 17 Azimuth = 221
this case there are two) and read
off the required data AA A,
12=15
A2
Toolfoce setting = 72.7

II=17 Azimuth = 22 1
a
s
A,
12= 18.4
A2
Figure 7.3.40
Toolface Setting for Maximum Azimuth Change

To find the toolface setting for maximum azimuth change the line repre-
senting the new incli- A2
nation and azimuth is
constructed tangen- Tool setting angle
tially to the dogleg arc N
as illustrated in ' oglegarc
Figure 7.3.41. AA Azimuth
at
ll survey point, Al
A deviation tool is
commonly run in Figure 7.3.41
order to achieve the
maximum possible azimuth correction. In these circumstances a small
decrease in inclination may also be expected. However, this effect is only
significant at low angles of inclination.
V 2.0.0
Effect of Inclination on Potential Azimuth Change
For a given dogleg potential the maximum Table2.4.1

azimuth change rapidly decreases as incli-
nation increases. The effect of inclination Inclination Azimuth change
on azimuth change for a dogleg angle of 3° (
is illustrated in the table alongside and in are sin{ = 36.9°
Figure 7.3.42. 5°
Over a wide range of inclination its effect

arc sin 3 -17.5°
on potential azimuth change is more conve- 100 110
niently shown on a graph - see Figure
7.3.43, also for a dogleg angle of 3°. 3
arc sini151 = 11.5°
15° J
Figure 7.3.42
The effect of inclination on potential
azimuth change (constantdogleg of 3)
Inclination
5 10 15
3 3 3
Azimuth change = 36.9 I Azimuth change = 17.5 U Azimuth change = 1 1 5
Figure 7.3.43
You can see that there is a Potentialfor azimuth change with
big advantage in main- Potentia increasing inclination (dogleg = 3)
taining a low angle of incli- azimuth
change
nation. It allows greater
30
azimuthal changes in course
direction to be made for a
given tool dogleg potential.
However you should
remember that inclination 20
angles below 15° also allow
the bore hole to "wander"
more easily.
10
10 20 30 åo
Inclination
V 2.0.0
INTRODUCTION
An important aspect of a directional driller's job is to design rotary BHAs
which will drill the planned trajectory. In this Topic we shall concentrate on
the basic principles used in directional control when drilling with rotary
assemblies, and the typical assemblies used for each section. The effect of
drilling parameters such as weight-on-bit will be considered as will the effect
of formation anisotropy.
Historically, it has always been possible to control the angle (inclination) of

directional wells during rotary drilling by correct design of the assembly and
use of suitable drilling parameters. However, the control of hole direction has
traditionally been poor. Roller cone bits usually walk to the right, and direc-
tional control was formerly limited to using well-stabilised assemblies to
reduce this tendency, or initially to aim off to the left to allow for it
The normal procedure has been to drill as much of a directional well as
possible using a conventional rotary asssembly designed according to the
principles explained in the Topic, and to use orientable turbines/Moineau
motors to initiate major changes of angle and/or direction and for fine-tuning.
However, as mentioned in the Introduction to Topic 5, recent technical
advances have enabled rotary steerable systems to be developed that are now
coming into use. These are described in Topic 9. Their advantage is that as
long as the bit lasts the same assembly can be kept in the hole and used both
for straight and curved sections. Even so, the principles described here still
need to be applied so that the natural tendency of the string will help rather
than hinder the maintenance of the required trajectory.
1 SIDE FORCE AND TILT ANGLE

Directional trends are accepted to be related to the direction of the resultant
force at the bit. It has also been shown that the bit tilt angle (i.e. the angle
between the bit axis and the hole axis) influences the direction of drilling.
This is because a drill bit is designed to drill parallel to its axis. In rotary
assemblies where there is a near bit stabiliser, the bit tilt angle is small and
the magnitude of the side force at the bit is the key factor.
V200
Factors which affect the
directional behaviour of
rotary assemblies are:
• Gauge and place-
ment of stabilisers.
• Diameter and
length of drill
collars.
Hole gaug
• Weight -on-bit.
• Rotary speed. Side forc
at bit
• Bit type. i
C:nl.. f ..--- ..1
anisotropy and dip

angle of the bedding
planes. Hole axis Formation
, anisotropy
• Formation
hardness.
Figure 7.3.44 : Bit forces and tilt angle
• Flow rate
• Rate of penetration.
Of course, some of the above factors are interrelated.
2 BASIC DIRECTIONAL CONTROL PRINCIPLES

• The Fulcrum Principle is used to build angle (i.e. increase borehole
inclination)
• The Stabilisation Principle is used to hold (maintain) angle and direction.
• The Pendulum Principle is used to reduce the inclination (or to prevent a
vertical well from deviating).
We shall now consider each of these principles in turn and look at typical
assemblies which are used.
2.1 THE FULCRUM PRINCIPLE

An assembly with a full gauge near-bit stabiliser, followed by 40'-120' (12-36
m) of drill collars before the first string stabiliser, or no string stabiliser at all,
will build angle when WOB is applied.
As illustrated in Figure 7.3.45, the collars above the near-bit stabiliser bend,
partly due to their own weight and partly because of applied weight-on-bit.
The near-bit stabiliser acts as the pivot, or fulcrum, of a lever and the bit is
pushed to the high side of the hole. The bit therefore drills a path which is
gradually curving upwards (i.e. the assembly builds angle).
The rate of build will be INCREASED by the following:

• An increase in the distance from the near-bit stabiliser to the first
string stabiliser.
V 2.0.0
• Increase in hole inclination.
• Reduction of drill collar diameter.
• Increase in weight on bit.
• Reduction in rotary speed.
• Reduction in flow rate (in soft formations).
Distance from the near-bit stabiliser to the first string stabiliser

The distance from the
near-bit stabiliser to the
first string stabiliser is the
main design feature of a
fulcrum assembly affecting '07 Weight
the build rate. The build
rate increases as this
distance is increased
because a lon g er fulcrum
section will bend more
which will increase the
fulcrum effect and the side
force on high side. There is
a limit, however. Once the
upper stabiliser is more Componentof
force
th an 120 ft (36 m ) fr om on high side
the near-bit stabiliser Full gauge
(depending on hole size, near-bit stabilizer
collar OD , etc.), the collars Force
are contacting the low side
of the hole and any further
Figure 7.3.45 : The fulcrum principle
increase in this distance
will have no additional effect on build rate.
Increase in hole inclination
The rate of build of a fulcrum assembly increases as the inclination increases

because there is a larger component of the collars own weight causing them to
bend. A simplified picture of the mechanics involved predicts that the rate of
build should increase in direct proportion to the sine of the inclination. In
reality, the situation and the actual response are more complicated. To take an
example, a strong build assembly which built at a rate of 1.5° per 100ft/30 in
when the inclination was only 15° might build at 4° per 100ft/30 in when the
inclination was 60°.
WDLP - Directionaldrilling Page 7/3/63
V 2.0.0
Drill collar diameter
As will be discussed later in this Topic (sub-Topic 4), the stiffness of a drill
collar is proportional to the fourth power of the diameter. So a small reduction
in the OD of the drill collars used in the fulcrum section considerably
increases their flexibility and hence the rate of build. However, it is not
common practice to pick drill collar diameter according to build rate require-
ments. Usually, standard collar sizes for the given hole size are used.
Weight-on-Bit
Increasing the weight on bit will bend the drill collars behind the near-bit
stabiliser more, so the rate of build will increase.
Rotary Speed
A higher rotary speed will tend to "straighten" the drill collars and hence
reduce the rate of build. For this reason, low rotary speeds (70 - 100 RPM) are
generally used with fulcrum assemblies.
Flow Rate
In soft formations, a high flow rate can lead to washing out the formation
ahead of the bit which reduces the build tendency.
Typical build assemblies

Four typical Build Assemblies are illustrated on the opposite page (for clarity
only one set of units is shown - in this case oilfield units) :
Figure 7.3.46 shows a 90' Build Assembly:

171/2" bit / 171/2" NB stab / 3 X 91/2" x 30' DCs / 171/2" stab / 91/2" x 30' DCs
as needed/ etc. This assembly will build angle rapidly, typically at 2.0° -
3.5°/100', depending on the inclination and the drilling parameters.
Figure 7.3.47. shows a 60' Build Assembly

171/2" bit / 171/2" NB stab / 2 x 91/2" x 30'DCs / 171/2" stab / 91/2" x 30' DCs
as needed / etc. This assembly will build angle at the rate of 1.5° -
Figure 7.3.48 shows a Gradual Angle Build Assembly

171/2" bit / 171/2" NB stab / 91/2" x 12' DC / 91/2" x 30' DC / 171/2" stab /
91/2" X 30'DCs as needed / etc. This assembly will build typically at 0.5° -
Figure 7.3.49 shows a Gradual Angle Build Assembly

121/4" bit / 121/4" NB stab / 8" x 30' DC / 121/4" stab / 8" x 30' DCs as needed
/ etc. This assembly would be used in the tangent section when it is neces-
sary to build angle gradually. It would build typically at 0.5° - 1.0°/100'.
V2_00
Figure 7.3.46 Figure 7.3.47
Rapid angle build Medium angle build
assembly - 171/2" assembly - 171/2'
Full gauge string stabilizer Full gauge string stabilizer
Drill collar
Drill collar
Full gauge string stabilizer
Y Full gauge string stabilizer
Drill collar
Drill collar Drill collar
S Full gauge near bit stabilizer
I Full gauge near bit stabilizer
17-1/2" Bit
17-1/2" Bit

Gradual angle build Gradual angle build
assembly - 171/2' assembly - 121/4"
Fullgaugestringstabilizer
Drill collar
Slightly under gauge string sl
Drill collar
Drill collar
S Undergaugestringstabilizer
Short drill collar Drill collar
i Full gauge near bit stabilizer
17-1/2" Bit
S Full gauge near bit stabilizer
Bit
V 2.0.0
2.2 *THE STABILISATION PRINCIPLE (PACKED HOLE PRINCIPLE)
This principle is that if there
are three stabilisers in quick
succession behind the bit sepa-
rated by short, stiff drill collar
sections, then the three
2 I II stabilisers will resist going
round a curve and force the bit
I to drill a reasonably straight
path. The first of the three
2 2 s t a blh
> isers s on ld b e zmine d'i-
ately behind the bit (a near-bit
stabiliser) and should be full
gauge.
Assemblies which utilise this

principle are calledpacked
1 hole assemblies and are used
to drill the tangent sections of
1
directional wells, maintaining
angle and direction. High
rotary speed (120 to 160+
RPM) will assist the tendency
to drill straight.
Figure 7.3.50 : The packed hole principle Note that it is important that
the stabilisers used should
have blades that wrap in a clockwise direction. The contact area of the blades
and the area left open for fluid flow are also important design parameters.
Four different packed hole assemblies are illustrated on the opposite page:
Figure 7.3.51: This assembly will give a very slight build or drop rate of 0.1° -
0.5°/100' depending on various factors such as formation characteristics,
WOB, RPM, bit type, etc.
Figure 7.3.52: This assembly should hold angle or drop very slightly depending
on the exact gauge of the first string stabiliser and hole inclination.
Figure 7.3.53: The use of two short collars increases the distance between the
near-bit and the first string stabiliser. This assembly should hold angle in
most applications.
Figure 7.3.54: The tandem stabilisers make this assembly very rigid. In the
past it was more common to use tandem stabilisers to control the bit walk of
roller cone bits. Presently, its use is limited to areas where extreme bit walk is
common. Rotation of an assembly such as this will generate high rotary
torque. Generally, as the number of stabilisers in the BHA increases, so does
the possibility of hole sticking.
V 2.0.0
Drill collar Full gauge string stabilizer
5 Full gauge string stabilizer

Drill collar

Drill collar
Drill collar
N Full gauge string stabilizer

S
Under gauge string stabilizer
Short drill collar Short drill collar
Full gauge near bit stabilizer Full gauge near bit stabilizer
Bit Bit
Drill collar
Drill collar
Drill collar
I Full gauge string stabilizer
10' short drill collar

Drill collar

10' short drill collar
Full gauge near bit stabilizer Full gauge near bit stabilizer
Bit Bit

V2.00
2.3 THE PENDULUM PRINCIPLE
This was the first directional control principle to be formulated and was origi-
nally analysed for slick assemblies drilling straight holes. We shall concen-
trate on pendulum assemblies used in deviated wells.
The portion of the assembly from the bit to the first string
stabiliser hangs like a pendulum and, because of its own
weight, presses the bit to the low side of the hole. The
major design feature of a pendulum assembly is that
there is either no near-bit stabiliser or an under-
gauge near- bit stabiliser. In most cases where
a pendulum assembly is used, the main
factor causing deviation is the compo-
nent of force at the bit acting on the
low side of the hole. The length of
collars from the bit to the first
string stabiliser (the
Figure 7.3 .55
The pendulum principle pendulum") must not be
allowed to bend too
Boa
much towards the low
FORCE side of the hole.
If the collars make contact with low side as shown in Figure 7.3.56, then the
effective length of the pendulum and the side force on low side are both
reduced. The situation depicted in this figure is also undesirable because the
bit axis has been tilted upwards in relation to the hole axis which will reduce
the dropping tendency. (In itself, this would produce a build tendency).
Careful selection of drilling parameters is required to

prevent this. High rotary speed (120 to 160+) helps
keep the pendulum straight to avoid the above situ-
ation. Initially, low weight-on-bit should be used
also, again to avoid bending the pendulum
towards the low side of the hole. Once the
dropping trend has been established,
moderate weight can be used to achieve a Ar--Tangency point
respectable penetration rate.
Some elementary texts on directional

drilling depict the pendulum effect as
shown in Figure 7.3.57. The impli-
cation is that part of the dropping w
tendency is produced by a Effective length
downward tilting of the bit of pendulum
axis. It is interesting to note '
that if this picture were true WOB Figure 7.3.56
then the dropping Reduction of pendulum
force
V 2.0.0
Figure 7.3.57: One possible interpretation of the
pendulum effect
tendency would be increased by

increasing WOB and reducing rotary
speed, the precise opposite of what was
recommended in the previous paragraph.
The example in Figure 7.3.57 is possible

for certain lengths of pendulum when
there is no near-bit stabiliser and only
one string stabiliser. The collars above
the upper stabiliser are sagging towards
the low side of the hole causing a fulcrum
effect about the string stabiliser and
tilting the upper portion of the pendulum
towards the high side of the hole as
shown. Some experienced directional
drillers recount instances of pendulum
Hole
Axis assemblies dropping faster with high
-*-Bit axis
WOB and low rotary speed.
It must be emphasised, however, that this is not what would normally occur.
The gauge of the bit is effectively a point of support, so that for most
pendulum assemblies, especially longer pendulums, the pendulum section is
most likely to bend towards the low side of the hole as described previously.
2.4 SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDED PRACTICES.
The safest approach to designing and using a pendulum assembly is to

concentrate on producing a side force at the bit on the low side of the hole.
This is best achieved by running an assembly where the pendulum portion
will be as stiff and straight as possible. It is also desirable that the section
immediately above the first string stabiliser is also stiff and straight and so a
second string stabiliser within 30 ft (9 m) of the first is recommended.
• Omit the near-bit stabiliser when azimuth control is not a concern or

when drilling with a PDC bit. When drilling with a roller cone bit, use
an under-gauge near-bit stabiliser if azimuth control is a consideration.
Typically, the near-bit stabiliser needs to be 1/4" to 1/2" undergauge in
order to produce a dropping tendency.
• The assembly should have two string stabilisers with the second
stabiliser not more than 30 ft (9 m) above the first.
• Initially use a low WOB until the dropping tendency is established,
then gradually increase bit weight until an acceptable penetration rate
isachieved.
• Use a high rotary speed, depending on bit type.
• If possible, do not plan drop sections in hard formation.
V 2.0.0
Four different pendulum assemblies are illustrated on the opposite page:
Figure 7.3.58 shows a 30 ft (9 m) pendulum assembly. The rate of drop

depends on the wellbore inclination and the diameter and weight of the
bottom drill collar, as well as the drilling parameters. At 45° inclination, this
assembly would typically drop at 1.5° - 2.0° per 100'/30 m.
Figure 7.3.59 shows a 30 ft (9 m) pendulum assembly with under-gauge near
bit stabiliser. This will give a slightly lower rate of drop than the previous
BHA, but should reduce bit walk and thereby give better azimuth control.
Figure 7.3.60 shows a gradual angle drop assembly. This short pendulum
hook-up would give a more gradual drop rate approximately 1° per 100' /30 m
depending on inclination, etc.
Figure 7.3.61 shows a 60 ft (18 m) pendulum assembly used to drill vertical

wells. This is too strong a dropping assembly to use on directional wells,
except perhaps low angle wells. It is commonly used to drill vertical wells
through soft to medium hard formations.
3 EFFECT OF BIT TYPE ON THE DIRECTIONAL BEHAVIOUR OF

ROTARY ASSEMBLIES
ROLLER CONE BITS

When rotary drilling with roller cone bits, the type of bit used makes very
little difference to whether an assembly builds, holds or drops angle; as
already discussed, this is determined by the configuration of stabilisers and
collars and by varying the drilling parameters.
However, the type of bit used has a significant influence on walk rates.
Conventional tri-cone rock bits cause right-hand walk in normal rotary
drilling. Generally speaking, long tooth bits drilling soft to medium hardness
formation give a greater right walk tendency than short tooth bits drilling a
hard formation. This is mainly because soft formation bits have a larger cone
offset and hence cut rock by a gouging/scraping action.
PDC BITS
During the eighties it became common practice to use PDC bits for rotary
drilling, with low WOB and fast rotary speed. When rotary drilling with PDC
bits, it has been found that almost no walk occurs (the assemblies hold their
direction). It has also been found that the control of the inclination angle is
affected by PDC bits, particularly when an angle drop assembly is used.
The gauge length of a PDC bit may significantly affect the rate of build in a
rotary assembly. A PDC with a short gauge length may result in a build rate
greater than that would be expected with a tri-cone bit. On the other hand, a
longer gauge stabilises the bit, thereby tending to reduce the rate of build.
The low WOB typically used with PDC bits may also reduce the build rate, as
collar flexure decreases with decreasing WOB. When used with packed
V200
Drill collar
Drill collar
Drill collar
Drill collar

N Full gauge string stabilizer
Drill collar
Drill collar
Under gauge string stabilizer
Bit Bit
Drill collar

Drill collar
Drill collar
Drill collar
Short drill collar (10' to 15')
Bit Bit
V 2.0.0
assemblies in tangent section drilling, longer gauged PDC bits seem to aid in
maintaining inclination and direction due to the increased stabilisation at the
bit.
When used with angle drop assemblies, PDC bits may reduce the drop rate
previously obtained with a tricone bit. Generally, the longer the gauge length
of the PDC bit, the lower the rate of drop obtained because the bit gauge acts
similar to a full gauge near-bit stabiliser. Short gauge length PDCs can be
used effectively for dropping angle. When such a suitable PDC bit is used in
a rotary pendulum assembly, the low WOB and high RPM, typical to most
PDC bit applications, should assist in dropping angle.
4 STIFFNESS OF DRILL COLLARS

As stated earlier, the behaviour of Figure 7.3.62
bottom-hole assemblies, particularly
fulcrum and pendulum assemblies, is
affected considerably by the stiffness of
the drill collars used in the lowest
portion of the BHA. It is generally
accepted that drill collars may be consid-
ered as thick walled cylinders. Their
stiffness depends on the axial moment of i
inertia and the modulus of elasticity of
the steel. (See Figure 7.3.62)
ID
The axial moment of inertia, I, is given
OD
by
I= (OD4 - ID4)
64
The weight per unit length, W, is calculated from
W = 4 p(OD2 - ID') where p is the density of the steel.
Notice that the stiffness is proportional to the difference between the fourth
powers of the diameters whereas collar weight is proportional to the difference
between their squares. This means that the inside diameter has a much more
significant effect on collar weight than on the stiffness.
Table 2.4.2 : Properties of steel drill collars
The relative weights
Collar Moment of Inertia Mass/unit length and inertia of some
Ins mm in4 cm4 lbs/ft kg/m common drill collar
sizes are listed in the
OD ID OD ID
table alongside.
4.75 2.25 121 57.2 24 1,000 47 70
It is interesting to
6.5 2.81 165 71.4 85 3,500 93 135
notice that the moment
8.0 2.81 203 71.4 200 8,200 151 234 of inertia of a 91/2"
9.5 3 241 76.2 400 16,400 217 321 collar is double that of
V 2.0.0
an 8" collar, which in turn is more than double that of a 61/2" collar.
The component of weight/unit length tending to bend the drill collars and
contributing to the lateral forces at the bit and stabilisers is WX
WX=WxBFxsinO
where: W = weight/unit length of the drill collar in air,

BF = buoyancy factor of the drilling fluid (Well Engineers
Notebook, Section A)
0 = inclination of the wellbore
all in consistent units
The accompanying table gives the modulus of elasticity and density of various
metals which can be used to manufacture drill collars.
The main thing

ItlUIC . . fl, upeI tie ui UIIICI ei IL IIICItiIJ UJCU Ul ULa
to notice is that
most types of Modulus of Elasticity Density

Metal
steel and monel (106 psi) (106 kg/cm2) (lbs/ft3) kg/l
which are Steel (low
29.0 2.04 491 7.87
actually used in carbon)
drill collars have Stainless steel 28.0 1.97 501 8.03
about the same
modulus of elas- K Monel 26.0 1.83 529 8.47
ticity and
Aluminium 10.6 0.75 170 2.72
density. So in
practice the Tungsten 51.5 3.62 1205 19.30
stiffness of a
drill collar
depends almost entirely on its outside diameter and is proportional to the
fourth power of the OD. However, aluminium drill collars would be more
limber than steel drill collars of the same dimensions whereas tungsten
collars would be much stiffer.
In general, it is recommended that standard drill collar diameters should be

used for each hole size. However, it is important that directional drillers
understand the effect of changing the drill collar OD.
Effects of changing drill collar OD.

With a fulcrum (build) assembly, reducing collar OD will dramatically
increase the build tendency because the collars will be more limber and will
bend more. Another factor here is the clearance between the outside of the
drill collars and the wall of the hole. The greater the clearance, the more the
collars can bend before they contact the low side of the hole. Once the collars
contact the low side of the hole, further increases in WOB will have only a
marginal effect on build rate by moving the contact point down the hole.
With a packed assembly, reducing collar OD may give a slight build tendency
V20.0
because the collars can bend more.
With a pendulum assembly, it is best that the pendulum portion be as stiff as

possible so it is preferable to use large diameter collars if possible. Reducing
collar OD increases the likelihood that the collars will bend towards the low
side of the hole which will reduce the pendulum effect and the rate of drop
obtained. Also, of course, reducing the collar OD reduces the weight of the
bottom collars which reduces the pendulum force and the rate of drop.
5 THE EFFECTS OF FORMATION ON BIT TRAJECTORY
5.1 GENERAL
In some cases, the nature and hardness of the rock being drilled can have a
pronounced influence on directional tendencies, although in many cases the
importance of formation effects is exaggerated. Of fundamental importance is
whether the rock is isotropic or anisotropic. An isotropic rock is one which
has the same properties, or behaves in the same way, no matter which direc-
tion you approach it from. Most sandstones are isotropic. Conversely,
anisotropic rocks such as shales do not have the same properties in all direc-
tions.
Most oilfield drilling (although not all) is done in sedimentary formations.

Due to the nature of their deposition, sedimentary rocks have layers or
bedding planes and most sedimentary rocks show some degree of anisotropy.
Experience from drilling into dipping (tilted) formations has shown that the
drill bit is forced towards a preferential direction related to the dip angle and
direction of the bedding. The trends are most prevalent in low angle medium
to hard drilling, notably in formations with pronounced structure.
A number of explanations and models have been proposed over the years to
explain these effects. In their early work on the pendulum theory, Lubinski
and Woods proposed a variable drillability model which related an index of
the rock strength when attacked perpendicular to the bedding planes to the
rock strength when attacked parallel to the formation beds. They produced
tables of anisotropy indices and formation classes which could be used as a
guide in selecting pendulum length, drill collar size or weight on bit.
Another theory proposes that as the bit drills into hard layers, the hard layer
will fracture perpendicular to the dip. This creates a miniature whipstock
which guides the bit to drill into the dip.
Another explanation, proposed by McLamore and others, is that of preferen-

tial chip formation. This considers the mode of chip formation at a single
tooth. Anisotropic formations have preferential planes of failure. As it impacts
the formation, the bit tooth sets up a compressive stress in a direction perpen-
dicular to the face of the tooth. Shear failure will occur more readily along the
bedding planes in a sedimentary rock. When the bit is drilling an anisotropic
rock, large chips will be cut rapidly on one side of the bit and small chips will
be cut out more slowly on the other side. Unequal chip volumes will therefore
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be generated on each side of a bit tooth as shown below.
Figure 7.3.63
4Q
V,lurnes
1) o UNEQUALchip
Bedding plane
0
ca
The forces between the bit tooth and the rock will be greater on the right side
of the tooth in the diagram. Therefore there will be a resultant force on the
bit acting to the left. This is Fd, the deviation force. It follows that the devia-
tion force depends on the angle of dip.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE ANGLE OF DIP AND DEVIATION

FORCE.
Based on the preferential chip formation theory explained above, the graph
shown below in Figure 7.3.64 has been derived from experimental work.
The effective angle of dip is the angle at which the bit strikes the bedding
planes. The graph predicts that when the effective angle of dip is less than
45° the direction of the deviation force is up-dip, but when the effective dip
angle is greater than 45° the direction of the deviation force is down-dip. The
Figure 7.3.64 Maximum deviation force as a
5000 function of formation dip
a 1000
v
a
2500
500
0 0
15 30 45 60 75
2500 500
1000
5000
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Figure 7.3.65 : Meaning of up-dip Up dip
and down-dip
OOOOIV
Down dip
meaning of up-dip and down-dip is illustrated in Figure 7.3.65. In practice, it

has sometimes been observed that an up-dip tendency is observed at dip
angles as high as 60°.
Experience of unwanted deviation in vertical wells over many years has borne
out the predictions of the graph shown in Figure 7.3.64. Drilling through
alternately hard and soft formations with low dip angles, using a well
stabilised bit and weights high enough to cause collar flexure, usually results
in a course perpendicular to the bedding planes.
Figure 7.3.66 illustrates the Figure 7.3.66

Up-dip deviation
ten d ency of the b it to
deviatein the up-dipdirec-
tion when the formation dip
angle is low. Dog leg angle
The formation attitudes
will have a similar effect on
directional tendencies. For
dip angles less than 45°, if
the direction is due up-dip
then the bit will tend to
maintain direction but
build angle. But if the
borehole direction is left of up-dip, the bit tends to walk to the right; whereas
if the direction is right of up-dip the bit tends to walk to the left. Both these
phenomena are in reality just special cases of the up-dip tendency.
When the formation dip angle is greater than 60°, the usual tendency of the
bit is to drill parallel to the bedding plane, i.e. down-dip as shown in Figure
7.3.67.
For cases where the dip angle is greater than 60°, if the hole direction (Figure
7.3.67) is right of down-dip direction then the bit tends to walk to the left. If
the hole direction is left of down-dip direction, then the bit tends to walk to
the right. Again, these are simply special cases of the down-dip tendency.
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There will be no deflection Figure 7.3.67 :
of the bit caused by the Down-dip deviation
formation at 0° or 90° dip.
This is because the bit is
cutting into a structure that
is essentially uniform and is
constantly cutting into the
same layers at the same
time or constantly drilling
between layers.
5.3 EFFECTIVE ANGLE OF DIP IN A DEVIATED HOLE

In a directional well, the effective angle of dip is the angle at which the bit
strikes the bedding planes.
Figure 7.3.68
30°
Hole inclination = 30°
Real dip angle = 35°
Effective dip angle = 30° + 35° = 65°;
35
There will be a down-dip deviation force.
Figure 7.3.69
Effective angle of dip equals real dip angle (35°).
35° There will be an up -dip deviation force.
Figure 7.3.70
35°
Real dip angle = 35°
Effective dip angle = 0°
35°
There will be no deviation force.
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5.4 FORMATION HARDNESS
The preceding discussion has concentrated on the effects of rock anisotropy
and changes in hardness between layers on directional response. There are a
few general points concerning the effect of rock hardness on directional
behaviour which should be mentioned.
In very soft formations, the formation may be eroded by the drilling mud
exiting from the bit nozzles and an overgauge hole created. This can make it
hard to build angle, even with a strong build assembly. If this problem is
anticipated then fairly large nozzles should be fitted in the bit. If it occurs
while drilling, then the pump rate should be reduced and prior to making
each connection, increase the flow rate to clean the hole with the bit one joint
off bottom. Hole washing or enlargement in soft formations may also cause
packed assemblies to give a dropping tendency at high inclinations. This may
be counteracted by increasing WOB and reducing flow rate. If anticipated
beforehand, a possible solution would be to run a mild build assembly.
BHAs tend to respond more closely to their theoretical behaviour in harder
formations. This is mainly because the hole is more likely to be the correct
gauge. In medium to hard formations, building assemblies are more respon-
sive as maximum bit weight may be applied to produce the required build.
The main directional problem encountered in hard formations is getting a
pendulum assembly to drop angle. Generally speaking, the harder the forma-
tion, the longer it takes a dropping assembly to respond. There may also be a
conflict between the need to reduce weight on bit to get the dropping trend
established and the need for high weight on bit to maintain an acceptable
penetration rate. Where possible, it is best to avoid planning a drop section in
hard formation. When a drop section must be drilled in hard formation, either
large diameter, heavy collars should be used or a steerable PD motor.
5.5 SUMMARY OF FORMATION EFFECTS

It should be emphasised that in many formations, the properties of the rocks
have only a minor effect on the directional response of the BHA.
In soft to medium soft formations and in isotropic formations, the rock has
little influence on directional response and the BHA should follow its theoret-
ical behaviour.
In medium to hard sedimentary rocks which have an appreciable degree of
anisotropy, directional tendencies can be significantly affected by formation
attitudes and in particular by the effective dip angle of the bedding planes. If
the effective dip angle is less than 45° - 60°, then the bit tends to drill up-dip.
If the effective dip angle is greater than 60°, then the bit tends to drill down
dip. When the effective dip angle is approximately 0°, the bit has no tendency
to deviate from a straight path.
Unwanted deviation tendencies caused by formation effects can best be

reduced by packed assemblies. The use of a full gauge near-bit stabiliser defi-
nitely reduces bit walk. In cases where strong formation effects have been
observed on previous wells in the same area, the design of the assembly
should be suitably modified to compensate for the anticipated effect.
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® • å
INTRODUCTION
In directional drilling with conventional rotating assemblies, extra round
trips are sometimes necessary to change the BHA for directional control. Also,
bit performance may be reduced by conventional deflection techniques.
Several methods exist for continuously controlled directional drilling using

"steerable downhole motors". These methods are based on tilting the axis of
the bit with respect to the axis of the hole and/or creating a side force at the
bit. If the drill string, and hence the body of the motor, is rotated from surface,
then the bit will tend to drill straight ahead. However, if the drill string is not
rotated from surface then the bit will drill a curved path determined by the
orientation of the side force or the tilt of the bit axis.
A steerable turbine exists which has been used successfully in the North Sea
and elsewhere, however most steerable systems presently being used are
based on a positive displacement motor and use the principle of tilting the
axis of the bit with respect to the axis of the hole. The advantages of steer-
able drilling systems are that:
• They virtually eliminate trips made for directional assembly changes,

thereby saving rig time.
• They permit more complex well paths to be drilled.
• They allow the drilled well to be kept close to the plan at all times.
• Smaller directional targets can be hit.
1 STEERABLE TURBINES
Early steerable turbines used the side
forcemethod by having an eccentric
stabiliser at the lower end of the
bearing section, i.e. at the bottom end 1/8" Offset
of the turbine body, quite close to the
bit. One blade is larger in surface
area and is offset by 1/8" as shown in
Figure 7.3.71,. When the drill string is
rotated, the offset stabiliser has no
effect on the well path. When it is Figure 7.3 .71 : Excentric stabiliser

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desired to deflect the well path, the toolface (the point opposite the centre of
the offset blade) is orientated using an MWD tool. Drilling continues with no
rotation from surface and the turbine drills a curved path. These are now
obsolete. Modern steerable turbines incorporate a bent housing close to the
bit.
Steerable turbines have been used to perform various types of deflection
including kick-offs. Their most successful application has been tangent section
drilling, performing correction runs as required to keep the well on course.
2 STEERABLE POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT MOTORS

The tilt in a steerable PDM is created by incorporating a bent U-joint housing
in the assembly. The system can include either a single tilt or a double tilt.
The advantage of single tilt motors is that they are usually rig-floor
adjustable, enabling the tilt angle to be set at any value between zero and
some maximum.
The advantage of double tilt motors is that they have a small bit offset that
facilitates rotating the string when oriented drilling is not required.
2.1 DOUBLE TILT ASSEMBLIES

A double-tilted steerable drilling system consists of the following compo-
nents, upwards from the bit:
• a suitable drilling bit Figure 6.2.72

• an upper bearing housing with Steerable double tilt
mud motor
stabiliser
• a double tilted U -joint housing Underdaude integralbladestringstabilizer
• A motor section
Standardbypass valve
• a by-pass valve
• An undergauge string stabiliser Standard motor section
(Novi-Drill Mach 1 or Mach 2)
• A survey system, usually MWD.
The double tilt steerable motor assembly
is shown in Figure 7.3.72, and the
Double-tilted
geometry of the system, compared with a U-joint
housing
single tilt system is shown in Figure

7.3.73.
Standard bearing assembly
with underdaude integral stabilize
The concept of the double tilt is that by
having the two tilts in the same plane
but opposed (at 1800) to each other, the
bit offset is minimised. This bit offset is
the distance (in millimetres or inches)
from the centre of the bit to the axis of Bit
the motor section (extrapolated down to

Bit offset-/-
the bit). A small bit offset facilitates -il l.4-- Bit angle
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rotating the string Figure 7.3.73 : The double-tilted universal joint housing
when oriented drilling
is not required.
The double tilted DTU<

Ot 2- 0 = .75°
universal joint Ot
DTUS= .75 Bit offset= 1 .1
housing:
Bit offset = .60"
• is slightly longer
than a straight
housing and
universal joint.
• is available in
various tilt angles
and is identified by
the tilt angle,
which is the mathe-
matical resultant Bit offset Bit offset
angle computed DTU4
from the two
opposing tilt angles.
• is available in various diameters ranging from 43/4" to 111/4". Each
diameter has three standard tilt angles designed to provide approximately
2°, 3° and 4° per 100 ft/30 m theoretical dogleg rates.
As mentioned in Topic 5 the double tilted universal joint housing was devel-
oped from the single tilt housing. However after a period when it was used it
has now been phased out again as most operators prefer the single tilt
housing.
2.2 ADJUSTABLE SINGLE TILT ASSEMBLIES
(Sometimes called adjustable kick-off housings)
The advantages of single-tilt adjustable motors are that they:
• incorporate a rig site-adjustable bent housing which can be set to

achieve maximum build rates in the medium radius range (8°/30m -
20°/30m), varying with tool size and stabiliser configuration,
• allow a single motor to be used for a variety of build rates on the same
well
• require fewer tools to be transported to and from the rig, a particular
advantage for remote locations.
The variable tilt angle is possible because the internal connections of the
housing feature a tilted pin thread which screws into a tilted box thread. The
relative position of the two tilted angles determines the tilt angle of the tool
and the position of the High Side. This is rig floor adjustable between 0° and
up to 2-3/4° - the maximum angle varies between tools.
V20.0
The addition of an alignment bent sub, with a 2° tilt angle, above the motor
section allows the tool to achieve build rates up to 24°/100 ft. This is the
Double Adjustable Motor.
3 TILT ANGLE AND STABILISER Figure 7.3.74 : TGDS
3.1 THEORETICAL GEOMETRIC A Firststringstabiliserf

DOGLEG SEVERITY
An essential concept when
designing and operating directional Li
drilling assemblies is that of the DTU4
Theoretical Geometric Dogleg
Severity (TGDS). It is defined by Motor/UBH
three points on a drilled arc: stabiliser
Az-
• The bit
• The motor stabiliser or Upper
Bearing Housing Stabiliser
(UBHS).
• The first string stabiliser above the
motor.
TGDS = a x (2 x characteristic length/L) degrees per characteristic length
Where : a = the tilt angle in degrees

L = the length between the bit and the string stabiliser
= Li + L2 (in consistent units)
Note: This equation for calculating TGDS is based on a system which
contains full gauge stabilisers.
3.2 TILT ANGLE

The proper tilt angle and steerable motor deflection technique is usually
dependent on the directional requirements and characteristics of the well
plan.
For kicking off or sidetracking, a high tilt steerable motor is recommended.

The tilt angle selected should produce a greater dogleg severity in the
oriented mode than the rate of change specified in the well plan. By getting
higher dogleg severities than specified, the directional driller can "get ahead"
of the well plan build requirements and begin utilising the practice of drilling
intervals of oriented and rotary modes. The directional driller can reduce a
high build up rate increasing the percentage of footage drilled in the rotary
mode. Typically, the rate of penetration will increase greatly when switching
from the oriented mode to the rotary mode. As a rule of thumb, the tilt angle
selected should theoretically produce a minimum of 1.25 times the maximum
dogleg severity required for the well plan. Directional drillers must keep in
mind that the TGDS (Theoretical Geometric Dogleg Severity) assumes that
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tool face orientation is constant. In practice this is difficult to do, especially in
high torque applications. As a result of a constantly changing tool face orien-
tation, the actual rate of change could be less than expected.
When a choice is available, a tool with a higher dogleg capability can increase
overall efficiency by reducing oriented drilling requirements.
When tangent section or straight hole drilling, a lower tilted tool may be more
desirable to reduce bit wear and increase ROP. However, this depends on the
extent to which orientation may be necessary and the anticipated ease of
oriented drilling.
3.3 FIRST STRING STABILISER.

It is normal practice to run a string stabiliser either directly above the motor
or with a pony drill collar between the motor and the stabiliser. Reasons for
using this include:
• It defines the third point of contact in the steerable drilling assembly.

• It produces a predictable directional response.
• It centralises the drill string.
Placement
Most commonly it is run directly above the motor. According to the 3-point
geometry, increasing "U" by moving the first string stabiliser higher in the
BHA reduces the Theoretical Geometric Dogleg Severity. This does not always
work in practice. It has been found that moving the stabiliser higher can
make it harder to get away from vertical in a kick-off. However, once some
inclination has been achieved, the rate of build is often greater than the
TGDS. For flat turns or for dropping angle, increasing "L" does reduce the
dogleg rate as theory predicts.
Size and design

The diameter of the first string stabiliser must not be greater than the
diameter of the UBHS and is usually less. It should have preferably the same
physical design as the UBHS.
First string stabiliser size - oriented mode

If the first string stabiliser diameter is decreased to less than the UBHS and
an upward toolface orientation is present, then the oriented dogleg rate is
increased. This is true for both single and double tilted systems.
Figure 7.3.75 : Assembly for increased dogleg rate

lp
e
Al
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If the first string stabiliser diameter is decreased to less than the UBHS and
a downward toolface orientation is present, then the oriented dogleg rate is
reduced.
Figure 7.3.76 : Assembly for decreased dogleg rate
In either of the above cases, the more undergauge the first string stabiliser,
the greater the effect. Again, the same basic effect is seen with both the single
and double tilted systems.
First string stabiliser size - rotary mode

Field results have shown that an undergauge
Table 2.4.4 : String stabiliser size for
first string stabiliser is required to produce a
maintaining angle
holding tendency when a steerable drilling
assembly is run in the rotary mode. First string stabiliser
Hole size
gauge diameter
The required first string stabiliser gauge 8112n 8" 83j8n
diameter is a function of formation trends
and hole inclination. 9 7/8n 9 1/8" -
95/8"
Table 2.4.4 can be used as a general guide- 121/4' 113/4' - 12"

line for determining the required diameter of 143/4' 141/8" - 141/2"
the first string stabiliser such that inclina-
tion is maintained. 171/2" 16" - 17"
The second table can be used as a general guideline for determining first
string stabiliser changes in diameter to
p roduce a si g nificant chan g e (minimum of Inure c.4 . 3 : auuiy siduwser site iur
chan ging an g le
0 .2 5 ° per 10~30 m) i n rotary inc l ination
F lrs t s t'ring s tbl'
a iser
reaction. Hole Size
gauge diameter reduction
81/2" 1/811
4 KICKING OFF
121/4" 1/4"
4.1 BOTTOMHOLE ASSEMBLIES
171/2" 3i8"
During kick-off operations, two basic factors
will determine general steerable drilling
assembly design:
• Build up rate required.

• Expected length of run.
Four examples of BHAs are presented on the following two pages , two for
171/2" holes and two for 121/4". Note that crossovers have not been mentioned
although they have to be used wherever appropriate.
V 2.0.0
The following example assembly for a 171/2" hole is designed to have a rotary
hold tendency.
171/2" Bit
111/4" Steerable mud motor
171/4" UBHS
161/2" First String Stabiliser
Float Sub
91/2" MWD tool
91/2" Drill Collar
161/2" Stabiliser
2 x 91/2" Drill Collars
2 x 8" Drill Collars (increase or decrease if required)
Jars
8" Drill Collar
HWDP
The following example assembly for a 171/2" hole is designed to have a

considerable rotary build tendency. A good estimate would be 2°/100'.
171/2" Bit
171/4" UBHS
16" FirstStringStabiliser
Float Sub
91/2" MWD tool
91/2" Drill Collar
161/2" Stabiliser
2 X 91/2" Drill Collars
2 x 8" Drill Collars (increase or decrease if required)
Jars
8" Drill Collar
HWDP
hold tendency.
121/4" Bit
121/8" UBHS
12" FirstStringStabiliser
8" MWD tool
8" Drill Collar
12" Stabiliser
2 x 8" Drill Collar
Jars
8" Drill Collar
HWDP
V 2.0.0
build tendency.
121/4" Bit
121/8" UBHS
11" First String Stabiliser
8"MWD tool
8" Drill Collar
113/4" Stabiliser
2 x 8" Drill Collars
Jars
8" Drill Collar
HWDP
4.2 RECOMMENDED GUIDELINES

• When beginning a kick-off, it is recommended to have the first string
stabiliser in open hole and not up in the casing to prevent hanging up or
any other anomalous assembly reactions.
• Be aware of the fact that when using a steerable motor assembly in
vertical or near vertical holes, the actual dogleg may be less than the
TGDS calculated.
• Initially, in a kick-off, the directional driller should observe the actual
oriented dogleg severity of the steerable assembly for a interval of at least
60 feet. Constant monitoring of the actual oriented dogleg severity is
necessary to plan subsequent oriented/rotary drilling intervals.
• Minimising rotary speed will slightly increase the fulcrum effect. This
practice can reduce oriented drilling intervals and further optimise the
system.
• During the initial stage of a kick-off from vertical, stabiliser hang-up can
occur. This problem may exist until the wellbore is inclined and/or the first
string stabiliser enters the curved, oriented hole.
• Consider beginning the kick-off early; this can reduce oriented drilling
requirements and the maximum inclination of the well path.
4.3 LENGTH TO DRILL IN ORIENTED MODE

An estimate of the proportion of the footage which will have to be drilled in
oriented mode can be determined by the following formula.
(DL - DLR) x 100

% foota g e oriented =
DLO - DLR
where : DL = required dogleg (°/unit length)

DLO = actual dogleg when oriented (°/unit length)
DLR = actual dogleg when rotary drilling (°/unit length)
V200
Example:
Planned build-up rate = 2.5°/30 m

Build-up rate obtained when oriented = 3.5°/30 in
Build-up rate obtained during rotary drilling = 0.5°/30 in
(2-5-0 5)x 100 =
% footage oriented = 67%
35-05
5 TANGENT SECTION DRILLING

Tangent or hold sections can prove to be very economical using steerable
drilling assemblies, although their performance will not usually match that of
straight motor drilling. Long sections of hole can be drilled faster than with
conventional rotary assemblies, and corrections can be performed, if required,
to keep the well on course.
5.1 BASIC ASSEMBLY DESIGN PRINCIPLES:

• An undergauge first string stabiliser is required to maintain inclination
when rotary drilling with steerable drilling assemblies.
• The assembly chosen should be capable of producing an acceptable
dogleg rate to allow for shorter corrective oriented intervals.
• Decreasing the diameter of the first string stabiliser versus increasing
"L" is preferred because TGDS is affected less. This practice also limits
the number of variables to one, the OD of the first string stabiliser.
5.2 STEERABLE DRILLING ASSEMBLY FOR TANGENT SECTION

DRILLING
A typical BHA for drilling a 121/4" hole tangent section is:
121/4" Bit
121/x" UBHS
113/4" String stabiliser
8"MWD tool
8" Drill Collar
113/4" Stabiliser
3 x 8" Drill Collars
Jars
8" Drill Collars as required
HWDP as required
5.3 OPERATIONAL GUIDELINES

• After observing the steerable assembly directional tendencies over a rotary
drilled interval of at least 200' (30 m) , a plan for drilling long distances
between orientations should be established. This plan should minimise the
V 2.0.0
number of orientation tool-sets and maximise penetration rate.
• Oriented drilling intervals should be minimised. Oriented drilling in a
tangent or hold section is performed to correct the present well path and to
compensate for anticipated trends.
• Never let the drilled well path get too far from the planned trajectory.
Temper this with the fact that "drilling on the line" can be significantly
more expensive than allowing small deviations. As surveys are obtained,
calculate and plot the position on both horizontal and vertical plans. At all
times there must be a feasible course to drill from the current location to
the intended target.
6 DROP SECTIONS
When a drop section is to be drilled, the gauge of the first string stabiliser can
be increased to produce more of a dropping tendency in the rotary mode. The
recommended diameter, however, is no larger than the UBHS. Increasing the
diameter of this stabiliser can also increase hole drag and stabiliser hang up.
Typical rotary drop rates are seldom much higher than 1°/100', with 0.5°to
0.75°/100' commonly produced when the angle is less than 20°. If higher drop
rates are required. then oriented drilling will be mandatory.
The following is a general design for a drop assembly while rotary drilling.
121/4" Bit
91/2" Steerable mud motor (slick)
121/8" First String Stabiliser
8" MWD tool
8" Drill Collar
12" Stabiliser
Etc.
The following guidelines should be considered when drilling drop sections.
• Except in stringent circumstances, the drilled well path can be posi-

tioned "ahead" of the planned path. This will usually reduce the
oriented drilling requirements.
• In hard-to-drill or problem formations, oriented toolsets should be
minimised or avoided.
• Actual dogleg rate when drilling oriented to drop inclination is usually
less than the TGDS.
• The steerable drilling assembly should be designed such that the TGDS
is at least 125% of the required drop rate.
• Stabilisers should be selected such that rotary drilling either assists in
achieving the desired dog-leg, or produces a neutral tendency.
V 2.0.0
7 AZIMUTH CONTROL
Rotary Mode
• Rotary drilling with steerable drilling assemblies usually exhibits an
azimuth hold tendency.
• The dip and strike of the formation will affect the tendency of the steerable
drilling assembly to walk.
• The conventional directional concept of increasing rotary RPM to stiffen an
assembly is applicable with steerable drilling assemblies.
Oriented Mode
• Changes in azimuth are most efficiently performed in oriented mode.
• Due to the stabilisation of the steerable motor, the toolface can be orien-
tated for maximum turn without dropping inclination (a typical problem
with motor and bent sub assemblies in soft formations).
• A reduction in TGDS can be expected when oriented for a turn due to the
effect of the undergauge first string stabiliser.
V 2.0.0
INTRODUCTION
Rotary steerable systems bring a number of significant benefits to the direc-
tional drilling process in comparison with the use of conventional bent
housing positive displacement motors. In short these are:
• Continuous rotation while steering means less friction between wellbore

and pipe, resulting in better weight transfer to the bit. This in turn
gives higher penetration rates both directly and by allowing the use of
more aggressive bits. It also facilitates the drilling of extended reach
wells.
• Compared with rotated bent housings these systems produce smoother,
"in-gauge", non-spiralled borehole, which further reduces friction and
results in easier casing, wireline, and completion operations as well as
simpler tripping operations.
• Constant steering over the full drilling cycle instead of short periods of
sliding results in a less tortuous well profile and again reduces friction,
with the same benefits accruing.
• Constantly rotating pipe means improved cuttings removal, reducing
the need for wiper trips, and reducing the chances of stuck pipe.
Since their introduction in the mid nineties, rotary steerable drilling systems
have delivered significant gains in drilling efficiency. In addition to this
fundamental benefit, they have also enabled ever more challenging wells to be
drilled with a wide range of other benefits ranging from reduced HS&E
exposure to improved hydrocarbon recovery, as well as improved hole
cleaning.
In this Topic three different rotary steerable drilling systems will be

discussed, the Power Drive(s) developed by Schlumberger, the AutoTrak
system developed by Baker Hughes Inteq and the Geo-Pilot from Halliburton.
1 OPERATING PRINCIPLES
There are two operating principles that are often referred to when discussing
rotary steerable systems - namely "Push the Bit" or "Point the Bit".
V2.00
1.1 THE " PUSH THE BIT" OPERATING PRINCIPLE:
A pure "push the bit" rotary steerable system steers simply by applying a side
load to the bit - usually using pads close to the bit to apply this load. This
forces the bit's outer cutting structure and gauge to cut sideways into the
formation to drill a curved hole in that direction. Systems employing this
principle are restricted to very short gauge bits (typically less than 2" gauge
length) where the gauge is set with an active cutting structure. While these
systems are agile, permitting a quick and precise response to any required
changes in wellbore deviation, the short gauge bits used by these systems
may drill a "spiralled hole" when high side-loading is applied.
1.2 THE " POINT THE BIT " OPERATING PRINCIPLE:
A pure "point the bit" rotary steerable system steers by precisely pointing
(tilting) the bit in exactly the direction the wellpath needs to be steered. In
doing so, the drill bit's face is pointing perfectly in the direction to be drilled
and there is no side loading on the bit. The advantage of this operating prin-
ciple is that longer gauge bits can be used to avoid hole spiralling.
Unfortunately, these systems are slower to respond to required trajectory
changes and the overall dogleg severity capability is typically lower than that
of a "push the bit" system.
2 THE AUTOTRAK SYSTEM.

The AutoTrak system uses a non-rotating sleeve, positioned close to the bit.
The sleeve utilises three independent hydraulic and control systems. The
hydraulic pistons can push the bit to one side of the hole resulting in a
change in inclination and/or direction of the wellbore. See Figures 7.3.77 and
7.3.78
3 independent
hydraulic units &
control systems
Highest rotary
No rototing speed I
mud oil seals specification of
any rotary
$teeroble
Figure7.3.78:
The pistons of the AutoTrok tool
The AutoTrak system consists
Figure 7.3.77 : The AutoTrak tool
of a "Hybrid" operating system
whereby the bit is either
pushed in one direction or pointed in a certain direction. The AutoTrak Rotary
Closed Loop System (RCLS, Figure 7.3.79) determines which operating mode
is required for the wellbore's immediate requirement. When initiating a
V 2.0.0
change to a wellbore trajectory (e.g.
I odhe, ending a tangent, starting a 3-D turn
Erats etc.) the bit is immediately pushed to the
side. Once a few feet of the new curvature
is drilled, the steering mechanism is then
used to bend the bottom hole assembly
into the new curvature and effectively
point the bit in the direction to be
steered.
The Rotary Closed Loop System (RCLS)

Figure 7.3.79 : The rotary closed loop system
incorporates an automatic drilling mode
in which the inclination is measured continuously (at 5 seconds intervals) by
a near bit sensor. These measurements are fed into the tool's downhole logic
system, which compares the near-bit inclination trends to the Target
Inclination programmed into the system's downhole memory within a small
fraction of a degree. If the inclination trends are of greater value than the
Target Inclination the tool automatically steers down to drop inclination and
vice versa. When required by the well plan, the Target Inclination value is
reset by downlinking to the tool from surface.
Figure 7.3.8 shows a BHA with the bit, the non-rotating sleeve (2), a rotating
stabiliser (Ll) and the electronic control unit (1).
L2 4 Lt
ØM~
3 2
V Constant
- Steer Vector
L1
1 /
S ••••• 2
BHA bent into curved hole
Bit "pointing " in '•r 3 by steering vector
direction of steer
The autoilk ryste operates using a ' hybrid- of oper ing pane, pe, nmu ltaneuvisly delivering
the best of bh øt,blhhed estems - consisteit, reliable steea bility and superior hole quality
Figure 7 .3.80: The AutoTrak BHA
The AutoTrak steerable system can be integrated with LWD systems such as
Gamma Ray, Neutron Density, Calliper etc. With many of these measure-
ments being at the bit and without a long conventional downhole motor
assembly a much reduced BHA length is achieved. Additionally with forma-
tion measurements being much closer to the bit, improved geosteering capa-
bility is achieved.
In addition to the AutoTrak system, BHI market a vertical drilling system

called VertiTrak.
V 2.0.0
3 POWERDRIVE SYSTEMS
Schlumberger provides three types of rotary steerable system with different
principles of operation, and different generations of tools exist within some of
these groups. The division of systems is as follows:
• PowerDrive Xtra, PowerDrive X5
• PowerV - vertical drilling system
• PowerDrive Xceed
In addition to the above a fourth service is available that combines
PowerDrive technology with an integrated motor power section.
• PowerDrive vorteX - PowerDrive + integrated motor power section.
All these tools have one feature in common that is unique in the market place
today. They are designed such that all external components exposed to the
annulus are fully rotating at the same speed as the drillstring (or motor bit
box should a power section be incorporated above the rotary steerable i.e.
PowerDrive vortex configuration). The advantages of a fully rotating system
versus those that utilise external stationary components can be summarised
as follows...
• Less friction with the borehole wall
• More efficient cuttings removal
• Less chance of becoming mechanically or differentially stuck
• Less chance of drilling spiral hole
• Reduced interference through casing shoes, windows, and across whip-
stocks
• More transparency to the drilling operation e.g. more compatible with
reaming operations.
3.1 POWERDRIVE XTRA, POWERDRIVE X5 - PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
These systems consist of four main components.
FlexJoint Stabiåer ControlUnt Biasiat
Figure 7.3.81 : The Powerdrive XTRAand X5 assembly
1) The Bias Unit consists of an internal rotary valve controlling the hydraulic
actuation of three externally mounted pads.
2) The Control Unit is a geostationary electronics package mounted within
the collar.
3) A Stabiliser acts as a third point of borehole wall contact for directional
control. Selecting the option of string, integral blade, or sleeve type
stabilisers allows the position and size to be varied to fine tune the behav-
iour in different environments.
4) An optional Flex Joint can be used to increase the dogleg capability of the
system.
V20.0
The Control Unit, mounted inside a Control Collar derives power from the
flow of drilling fluid across an impeller. It houses the control electronics and
directional instrumentation required to control the tools behaviour, and is
able to hold itself stationary inside the rotating collar . Attached to the
downhole end of the Control Unit is a control shaft . This runs down into the
Bias Unit.
Next pad to act, as
When the Control Unit is stationary, so too Resultant collar
rotates
past
stationary
valve
is the control shaft. A valve on the end of Direction
this rod seats over three ports that rotate
along with the rest of the Bias Unit. As the
ports pass underneath the stationary valve
drilling fluid is diverted into them . The w. f_N .'\>11
fluid then activates each of the three p ads
in turn such that they always push out at
the same relative position in the borehole.
The action of the pads on the same point of
the borehole wall forces the bit in the
opposite direction. The amount of time Current pad acting
that the Control Unit is held stationary against the formation
over a given period of time determines the Figure 7.3.82 : The Power Drive Bias unit
dogleg capability of the tool.
Communication to the tool to change steering direction and strength is

achieved by executing combinations of flow rate changes at the surface.
PowerDrive Xtra Features

• Rated to 125°C
• Dogleg capability up to 8°/100ft
• Real-time link to MWD available for Near Bit Inclination and Azimuth,
and tool status information.
• Stabiliser size and placement options i.e. stabilised control collars
• Max RPM 220
PowerDrive X5 Features
• As above, but rated to 150°C
• Azimuthal Gamma Ray for Near Bit data in four quadrants
• Cruise Control providing automatic inclination hold i.e. downhole closed
loop functionality
• Ruggedised and simplified Bias Unit and Control Unit design.
3.2 POWERV - PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
PowerV operates on the same principle as PowerDrive Xtra and PowerDrive
X5. However, it is designed to drill vertical holes only. It maintains vertical
hole by automatically correcting for any deviation from vertical.
The system is fully rotating, even when performing corrections. As well as

conferring the usual benefits of rotary steerable drilling, the system has the
V 2.0.0
following advantages...
• More weight on bit can be applied without fear of building angle.

• The need for time consuming sliding intervals, or correction runs, is
removed.
• No interaction from surface is needed to maintain vertical drilling.
• The system can be run stand alone i.e. without MWD systems
PowerV Features
• 150°C rating
• Automatic closed loop vertical drilling
• Can be run below a motor power section (PowerDrive vorteX configura-
tion).
3.3 POWERDRIVE XCEED - PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
PowerDrive Xceed operates on a point the bit principle. It comprises three
internal modules and a collar. Unlike PowerDrive all internal, as well as
external parts rotate at the same speed as the drillstring.
Sensor package Motor rotation CCW
& control system @ collar speed
- _.. r
- i-
Power generating Collar rotation CW Motor

turbine
Figure 7.3.83 : The PowerDrive XCeed assembly
• The collar has two threaded shoulders for the mounting of variable size
sleeve stabilisers. Along with the bit these provide the three points of
contact that determine directional response.
• The Power Generation Module uses PowerPulse MWD technology to
generate tool power from the flow of drilling fluid over a turbine.
• The electronics contain an MWD type directional package and control
systems for the tools operation.
• The steering section orients an offset bit shaft to provide a toolface offset
at the bit that determines the direction in which the hole is drilled.
In the steering section the bit shaft is connected to an electric motor slightly
off centre from the tool axis. This results in an offset at the bit box, and thus
at the bit itself. To hold a given toolface the motor is rotated at exactly the
same speed as the collar, but in the opposite direction. The net result is that
the bit shaft offset remains stationary relative to the borehole. PowerDrive
Xceed will then drill in this direction. The amount of time that the offset
position is held constant over a given period of time determines the dogleg
capability of the tool.
Drillstring RPM, torque, and weight are transmitted through the collar, and
into the bitshaft just above the bit box by a universal joint arrangement. The
internal components of the tool are thus protected from the forces generated
V20.0
by the drilling process.
Communication to the tool to change steering direction and strength is

achieved by executing combinations of flow rate changes at the surface.
PowerDrive Xceed's method of operation results in it being very well suited to

certain applications. These are...
• High dogleg capability in unconsolidated or interbedded formations.

• Open hole sidetracking.
• Drilling & steering with a bi-centre bit.
• Drilling in tough or abrasive environments.
PowerDrive Xceed Features
• Rated to 150°C
• Max RPM 350
• Dogleg capability up to 8°/100ft
• Real-time link to MWD for Near Bit Inclination and Azimuth, and tool
status information.
• Stabiliser size options
• Cruise Control providing automatic inclination and azimuth hold i.e.
downhole closed loop functionality
3.4 POWERDRIVE VORTEX
PowerDrive vorteX combines an integrated motor power section with
PowerDrive systems. Combining these two technologies results in higher,
more consistent bit RPM, and smoother power delivery. The following benefits
to the drilling process can be realised...
• Increased penetration rates

• Reduced stick-slip
• Reduced casing and drillstring wear
• Rotary steerable usage on power limited rigs
4 GEO-PILOT SYSTEM.
The Geo-Pilot rotary steerable system from Halliburton also uses "point the
bit" technology. The design concept involves deflection of a flexible shaft
between the bit and the drill string. A
high-side reference housing contains a
compact and rugged computer
controlled bias unit (eccentric rings) to
cuemrm
øeos
impart a controlled deflection to this
shaft element, allowing for continu-
ously variable - both in toolface and
,'y
effective bend angle - steering . The "'°°""'
concept is shown in the Figure.
The Geo-Pilot system is designed for

use with extended gauge PDC bits
Figure 7.3.84: Principle of Geopilot operation
which aim to minimise the non-
V 2.0.0
constructive bit behaviours caused by short gauge bits -
i.e. hole spiralling. The extended gauge bits used with
Geo-Pilot are box up bits (see Figure 7.3.85) and are
usually provided by Halliburton DBS as part of the
overall package.
Figure 7.3.85 :
Bit for use with Geopilot
V 2.0.0
E
INTRODUCTION
An important consideration in designing the bottom-hole assembly is the total
number of drill collars and heavy weight drill pipe required to provide the
desired weight on bit. In drilling vertical wells, it has long been standard
practice to avoid running ordinary drill pipe in compression. (This was
recommended by Lubinski in 1950). This is achieved by making sure that the
buoyed weight of drill collars and heavy weight pipe exceeds the maximum
weight on bit. This practice was also adopted on low-angle directional wells.
In directional wells it has to be remembered that, since gravity acts vertically

downwards, only the along-hole component of the weight of BHA elements
contributes to the weight on bit. The problem this creates is that if high WOB
is required when drilling a high-angle well, then a long and expensive BHA
would be needed in order to avoid having any drill pipe in compression. It is,
however, common practice to use about the same BHA weight as would be
used on a low-angle well and run the drill pipe in compression. Analysis of
drill pipe buckling in inclined holes by a number of researchers, notably
Dawson and Paslay, has shown that drill pipe can tolerate significant levels of
compression in small-diameter high-angle holes because of the support
provided by the low side of the hole. Drill pipe is commonly run in compres-
sion in drilling horizontal wells, without apparently causing damage to the
pipe.
Additional information about the design of bottom-hole assemblies in deviated

wells is given in the Part dealing with drill string design.
1 ALONG-HOLE COMPONENTS OF FORCE

Consider a short element of a BHA which has a weight W. Its effective weight
in drilling fluid= W x BF, where BF = the buoyancy factor of the drilling fluid.
The component of the weight acting axially along the element = W x BF x

cosO, where 0 is the borehole inclination (assuming that the BHA and
borehole are coaxial).
Note: In this chapter, 0 is used for inclination and I is used for axial moment
of inertia.
V 2.0.0
If the BHA is not rotated, the friction force, Ff, acting up the borehole on the
BHA element is given by Ffr = µN, where t is the coefficient of friction and N
is the normal reaction force between the BHA element and the bore hole wall.
Figure 7.3.86: Forces on the BHA If this normal reaction is due
only to the weight of the BHA
Borehole
-axis element itself, then
N= W x BF x sin o and hence

Ffr=µxWxBF xsin 0
The net contribution to the
WOB from this BHA element
N=W(BF)sinØ istherefore
Force = W (BF) cos e Buoyed weight = W(BF)
Wbit=WxBFx( cos 0 - µsino)
2 REQUIRED BHA WEIGHT FOR ROTARY ASSEMBLIES

When two contacting surfaces are in relative motion, the direction of the force
of sliding friction on each surface acts along the line of relative motion and in
the opposite direction to its motion. Therefore, when a BHA is rotated, the
friction forces mainly act circumferentially to oppose rotation (torque) with
only a very small component acting along the borehole (drag).
Measurements of downhole WOB by MWD tools confirm that when the BHA
is rotated there is only a small reduction in weight on bit due to drag. This
can be allowed for simplistically by using a safety factor.
Neglecting drag, and extending the discussion above to the whole BHA,
W elt = WBHAx BF x cos 0
Where : WBIIA= the total air weight of the BHA

Wbit= the weight on bit
Therefore, if no drill pipe is to be run in compression,
maximum WOB x
Required weight of BHA (in air) = safety factor
BF x cos o
Example
Drilling 171/2" hole with a roller cone bit, we want to use 45,000 lbs WOB in
the tangent section at 30° inclination. What air weight of BHA is required to
avoid running any drill pipe in compression? The drilling fluid density is
10ppg. Use a 10% safety margin.
45, 000 x 1.1

Required BHA weight =
0.848 x cos 30°
= 67,400 approximately
V 2.0.0
Suppose we have 180' of 91/2" tubulars weighing 220 lbs per foot, a 91/2"
MWD tool weighing 3,400 lbs and 90' of 8" tubulars weighing 154 lbs per foot.
How many joints of 5" HWDP would be required?
Total weight of DC section = (180 x 220) + 3,400 + (90 x 154) lbs

= 56,860 lbs
Required air weight of HWDP = 67,500 lbs - 56,860 lbs
=10,640 lbs
Weight of 1 joint of HWDP =1,480 lbs
10,640
N umber o f jo ints of HWDP required =
1,480
= 7.2
Therefore a minimum of 8 joints of HWDP are required.
It must be emphasised that the Safety Factor in the preceding example is to

compensate for loss of weight due to friction while drilling in the deviated
section of the well.
3 RUNNING DRILL PIPE IN COMPRESSION

Consider the following example.
We are drilling a 121/4" tangent section in hard formation using an insert bit.
We want to use 50,000 lbs WOB. The hole inclination is 60° and the drilling
fluid density is 11 ppg.
What air weight of BHA is required if we are to avoid running any drill pipe
in compression ? Use a 15% safety margin.
50,000 x 1.15
Required BHA weight = lbs
0.832 x cos60°
=138,200 lbs
This is roughly the weight of ten stands of 8" drill collars, or alternatively, six
stands of 8" collars plus 44 joints of HWDP ! This is just not practical ! It
would be a long, stiff and expensive BHA.
3.1 CRITICAL BUCKLING FORCE

Dawson and Paslay developed the following equation for critical buckling
force in drill pipe. Where: E is Young 's modulus.
I is the axial moment of inertia.
EIW sin 0 W is the buoyed weight per unit length.
F -2 1
r 0 is borehole inclination.
r is the radial clearance between the pipe
(tool joint ) and the borehole wall.
Note that consideration must be given to the possibility
of an oversize hole when calculating 'r'.
V 2.0.0
If the compressive load reaches the value Fei, then sinusoidal buckling occurs.
The sinusoidal buckling equation given above can be used to develop graphs
and tables of values such as those in Appendix 2. If the compressive load at a
given inclination lies below the graph, then the drill pipe will not buckle.
The reason that pipe in an inclined hole is so resistant to buckling is that the
hole is supporting and constraining the pipe throughout its length. The low
side of the hole forms a trough that resists even a slight displacement of the
pipe from its initial straight configuration. It follows that this equation is not
applicable for vertical holes, for which other equations are available.
Note that, intuitively, it may seem that the "radial clearance" in the above
equation would be that between the drill-pipe and the hole rather than
between the tool joint and the hole. However in practice it appears that a
better correlation with theory is obtained if the radial clearance of the tool-
joint is used.
Calculating critical buckling force

A set of graphs and tables is presented in Appendix 2 . These are for specific
sets of conditions. The following example illustrates how to calculate the
critical buckling load for other conditions.
Suppose we have 41/2" drill pipe with a nominal weight of 16.6 lbs/ft in 81/2"
hole at 50° inclination with a drilling fluid density of 14 ppg.
Young's modulus, E, for steel is 29 x 106 psi
I 64 (OD° -ID 4)
The ID of the drill pipe is 3.826". This information can be found in API RP7G.
I= 64 4.5°-3.8264= 9.61ins4
The approximate weights for different sizes of drill pipe can also be found in
API RP7G . In this case it is 17.98 lbs/ft.
In the equation, W is the buoyed weight in lbs/inch.
The air weight = 17.98 lbs/ft = 1.498 lbs/in and the buoyancy factor for 14ppg
drilling fluid = 0.786.
.•. W = 1.498x 0.786 = 1.178 lbs/ in
sin 50 ° = 0.766
Radial clearance = Y2(Hole OD - Tool joint OD)
= Y2 (8.5" - 6.375")
= 1.06"
V 2.0.0
The values obtained above may now be substituted in our equation for the
critical buckling force.
29x106 x9.61x1.178x0.7661bs
=2
1.06
= 30,800 lbs
Calculating BHA weight with drill pipe in compression

The conclusion of the previous paragraph is that on high-angle wells in small
hole sizes, a fraction of the weight on bit can safely be provided by having
drill pipe in compression. It is suggested that 90% of the critical buckling
force be used as the maximum contribution to the weight on bit from ordinary
drill pipe.
Denoting the total air weight of the BHA by WHHA, the weight on bit by W HIT
and the critical buckling load by F« , we have:
WH[TxSF=(WHHA xBFxcos0)+0.9Fcr
(WR,TxSF)-0.9F«
WHHn=
BFxcosO
Continuing the example at the beginning of this sub-Topic 3, let us recalcu-

late the weight of the BHA required assuming some drill pipe is to be run in
compression.
Suppose we are using 5" drill pipe; referring to the table for 5" drill pipe in
121/4" hole in Appendix 2, we see that the critical buckling load at 60° inclina-
tion is 29,300 lbs. Our equation then gives:
WHHA
BHA lbs
0.832 x 0.5
= 74,800 lbs approximately
Thus a total air weight of 74,800 lbs is required. This is much more feasible
than the value of 138,000 lbs previously calculated.
The graphs and tables in Appendix 2 are for the particular drilling fluid
density of 10.68 ppg. However, variations in drilling fluid density have only a
minor effect on the value of critical buckling load and so the graphs could be
used for drilling fluid densities of up to 14 ppg without introducing a signifi-
cant error. For drilling fluid densities above 14 ppg, the value of critical
buckling load should be re-calculated.
3.2 SUMMARY OF RUNNING DRILL PIPE IN COMPRESSION

• When drilling vertical wells, ordinary drill pipe must NEVER be run in
compression in any hole size. Therefore sufficient BHA weight must be used
to provide all the desired weight on bit with an appropriate safety margin.
V 2.0.0
• Given that the clearance is in the denominator of the Dawson & Paslay
equation, the critical buckling force will decrease as the hole size increases,
even in high angle holes. In hole sizes of say 16" or more the drill-pipe
should only be run in compression in exceptional cases.
• In smaller hole sizes on high-angle wells (over 45°), drill pipe may be run
in compression to contribute to the weight on bit provided the maximum
compressive load is less than the critical buckling force. This critical
buckling force is the minimum compressive force which will cause sinu-
soidal buckling of the drill pipe.
• A safety margin of at least 10% should be used in the calculation to allow
for some drag (friction) in the hole. However, axial drag is not a major
factor when assemblies are rotated.
The preceding discussion concerned rotary assemblies. However, it would also
apply to steerable motor systems used in the rotary mode. Provided the steer-
able system was to be used mainly in the rotary mode, with only minimal
oriented drilling anticipated, then the required BHA weight could be calcu-
lated on the same basis. If a significant amount of oriented drilling was
likely, then the following Sub-Topic is applicable.
4 BHA REQUIREMENTS WHEN THE DRILL STRING IS NOT

ROTATED
As stated earlier, when the drill string is rotated the along-hole component of
sliding friction (drag) is small and may be allowed for simply by using a
safety factor in BHA weight calculations. Drill string friction for rotary
assemblies will mainly affect torque values. When the drill string is not
rotated, as when a steerable motor system is used in the oriented mode, axial
drag can become very significant and drill string friction may be evaluated
taking in more factors by using computer simulation (WellPlan) .
In practice, BHA weight for steerable assemblies on typical directional wells

is not a problem for two reasons.
• The WOB is usually fairly low, especially when a PDC bit is used.
• When the drill string is not rotated the drill pipe is not subjected to the
cyclical stresses which occur during rotary drilling. Therefore, sinu-
soidal buckling can be tolerated when there is no rotation of the drill
string. Helical buckling must, however, be avoided.
Helical buckling occurs at 1.41 Far, where FeC is the compressive force at
which sinusoidal buckling occurs.
Therefore, if BHA weight requirements are evaluated as for rotary drilling,

the results will be valid for steerable systems in the oriented mode except for
unusual well paths which create exceptionally high values of axial drag.
The standard practice of minimising BHA length and weight for steerable
assemblies has not created any noticeable increase in the incidence of drill
string failure, even when long sections are drilled in the oriented mode.
V 2.0.0
V 2.0.0
BUILD AND HOLD CONFIGURATION
The following information is required:

• Surface (slot) coordinates
• TVD of the kick-off point
(VDI)
• Build-up rate
• Target coordinates VD,
• TVD of target
A R
KOP
In the solution which follows for
the vertical projection, the well VD2
is assumed to be vertical to the e

kick-off point (KOP). The
B
following values will be calcu-
lated:
• Measured depth at end of
VD,
build section.
• Horizontal displacement at
end of build section (HI).
• Vertical depth at end of c D TTarots
H
build section (VD2 ).
• Inclination of tangent Rz
section (a).
• Total measured depth of Figure 7.3.87 : Cross section through a "build and
hold" type well
the target.
• Horizontal displacement of target (H2).
First the horizontal displacement of the target is calculated from the two sets
of horizontal plane coordinates:
2 - where: NS = Northing of slot
Hz = (NT - Ns) +(ET Es
EØ =Easting of slot
NT =Northing of target
ET =Easting of target
These Northings and Eastings must all be measured from the platform or rig
reference point.
V 2.0.0
Referring to Figure 7.3.78, the build-up section is assumed to be on an are of
a circle of radius R. Let the build-up rate be BUR degrees per 100 ft.
Then
BUR 360
100 2 7tR
36,000 _ 18,000
R
2Ic(BUR) Ir(BUR)
DT=H,-R
OD = VD3 - VD,
VD1 and VD3 are known values
DT
Angle 0 = arctan
OD
OT = OD2+ DT2
Al R
BC7T = arccos
OT
B(D=B(7T- __
Ø//
a = 90°-B(D
BT = OT'-R'
BC = BTcosa
CT = BTsina
We can now calculate all the required values:
Measured depth at end of build = VD, +

BUR
Vertical depth at end of build = VD, + R sin a
Horizontal displacement at end of build, H, = R(] - cos a)
Alternatively, H, = H2 -CT
100a
Total measured depth to target = VD, + + BT
BUR
Note :
The above solution assumes that the radius of curvature of the build-up
section is less than the horizontal displacement of the target; that,
however, need not be the case. The trainee is invited to sketch a new
trajectory and work through the logic of the solution on the assumption
that the R corresponding to the chosen build-up rate is greater than the
horizontal displacement of the target.
V 2.0.0
S-TYPE WELL Figure 7.3.88 : Cross section through
an S-type well
The following information is
required:
Surface (slot) coordinates.
s
Target coordinates.
TVD of target.
Va, A R, 0
TVD of kick-off point.
Build-up rate.
R,
Drop-off rate. voi

B
TVD at the end of the
drop-off section. F
. Final inclination through

the target.
vo3
The well is assumed to be vna

P
vertical to KOP. The following E
values are calculated:

• Measured depth at end of VD,
-I--- Target
T
build. f-"-I Hr
• TVD at end of build (VD2). H,
H4
• Horizontal displacement at
end of build (111).
• Inclination of tangent section (a).
• Measured depth at start of drop.
• TVD at start of drop (VD3).
• Horizontal displacement at start of drop (H2).
• Measured depth at end of drop.
• Horizontal displacement at end of drop (H3).
• Total measured depth to target.
• Horizontal displacement of target (H4).
Let BUR be the build-up rate in degrees per 100 ft. and DOR be the drop-off
rate in degrees per 100 ft.
As before, the horizontal displacement of the target, H4, is determined from

slot and target coordinates.
The radius of the build-up curve is calculated, as before, by:

_ 18,000
Ri
rt(BUR)
Similarly , the radius of curvature of the drop section is calculated by
18,000
R -
71(DOR)
WDLP - Directional drilling Page 7131107
V 2 .0.0
Now referring to Figure 7.3.79, OF is constructed parallel to BC, therefore:
a=0+0
Angles /3,H4,VD4 and VD; are known quantities
x=H4-R,-R,cos/3-(VD5-VD4)tanf
OP = VD4+R,sin/3-VD,
EF=R,+R,
OE = VW -+ X2 (in triangle OPE)
OF OE' - EF'
Then we have:
R, +R2
B = arctanL
OF
x
Ø = arctan -
OP
Hence the inclination of the tangent section can be calculated since a = 0+ Ø
We can now calculate all the required values:
100 a
MD at end of build = VD 1 +
BUR
VD at end of build (VD2) = VD1+R1sina
Horizontal displacement at end of build = R1(1-cos(x)
MD at start of drop = VD,+ BUR +OF (BC = OF)
VD at start of drop (VD3) = VD2 + OF cos a (BC = OF)

Horizontal displacement at start of drop (H2) = Hl + BC sin a
MD at end of drop = VD 1 + 100a + BC + 100(a -

BUR DOR
VD at end of drop, V4, was given
Horizontal displacement at end of drop, H, = H2+ R, (cosf3 - cos a)
100a 100(a-P) + VD; - VD4

Total measured depth = VD, + + BC +
BUR DOR cost
Final note: An S well which drops back to vertical is simply a special case of
the above.
V20.0
Lt, ..q;, i!•
The tables and graphs on the following four pages give the critical buckling
forces for specific values of hole inclination when using 5" S135 drillpipe and
5" Hevi-wate drill-pipe in 121/4" and 81/2" holes, with a drilling fluid density
of 10.68 lbs/gal (1.28 kg/1). These are common combinations of hole size and
drillpipe, and the drilling fluid density is of the order of magnitude of what
will commonly be required. They provide therefore a quick approximation to
the critical buckling forces which will be applicable when drilling many
conventional wells in normally pressured formations.
For critical cases, or for different conditions, an exact value should be calcu-
lated as explained in Topic 10.3.
These tables and graphs have been made by applying the equations given in
Topic 10.3, and using the dimensions of new drill-pipe.
The lines plotted on the graphs do not start from 0° (where the equation
would indicate a zero critical buckling force) because the equation is not valid
for vertical wells. In that case, where a different equation applies. Fer will
have a small but non-zero value. The graphs have (arbitrarily) been plotted
from 2° to illustrate how sensitive the critical buckling force is to the inclina-
tion in this range.
In practice it is irrelevant whether Fcr is zero or small in vertical wells,

because both emphasise the point that drill-pipe should only be run in
compression in significantly deviated wells.
V 2.00
Critical buckling forces (Fer)
for new 5" 19.5 lbs/ft S135 drill -pipe in 121/4" hole
Drill pipe O.D. 5 inch 127 mm

Drill pipe I.D. 4.21 inch 106.9 mm
Drill pipe weight* 22.60 lbs/ft 33.6 Kg/m
Tool joint O.D. (NC50) 6.625 inch 168.3 mm
Hole diameter 12.25 inch 311.15 mm
Drilling fluid density 10.68 ppg 1.28 Kg/I
* Taken from API RP7G (August 1991)
Inclination 2 5 10 15 20 25 30
Fer (KN) 26.20 41.4 58.4 71.3 81.9 91.1 99.1
Fer (Ribs) 5.90 9.3 13.1 16.0 18.4 20.5 22.3
Inclination 35 40 45 50 55 60
Fer (KN)) 106.1 112.3 117.8 122.6 126.8 130.4
Fer (Klbs) 23.9 25.3 26.5 27.6 28.5 29.3
Inclination 65 70 75 80 85 90
Fcr (KN)) 133.4 135.8 137.7 139.0 139.8 140.1
FeC(Klbs) 30.0 30.5 31.0 31.3 31.4 31.5
Figure 7.3.89
140
120
KN
C
80
Y
U
U
40
Klbs
20
0
0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90`
Inclination
Page 7/ 3/1 10 WDLP - Directionaldrilling
V 2.0.0
Critical buckling forces (Far)
for new 5" Hevi-wate drill-pipe in 121/4" hole

Drilling fluid density 10.68 ppg 1.28 Kg/I
Inclination 2 5 10 15 20 25 30
FaC(KN) 50.60 79.9 112.8 137.7 158.3 176.0 191.4
FaC(Klbs) 11.40 18.0 25.4 31.0 35.6 39.6 43.0

Inclination 35 40 45 50 55 60
Fer (KN)) 205.0 217.1 227.7 237.0 245.0 251.9
Fer (Klbs) 46.1 48.8 51.2 53.3 55.1 56.6
Inclination 65 70 75 80 85 90
Fer (KN)) 257.7 262.4 266.1 268.7 270.2 270.7
Fer (Klbs) 57.9 59.0 59.8 60.4 60.8 60.9
Figure 7.3.90
280
240
200
N
KN
cm
c 160
K16s
40
0
0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90°
Inclination
V 2.0.0
Critical buckling forces (Fcr)
for new 5" 19.5 lbs /ft S135 drill -pipe in 81/2"hole

Drilling fluid density 10.68 ppg 1.28 Kg/1
Inclination 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Fcr (KN) 0 71.6 101.1 123.4 141.9 157.7 171.6
Fcr (Klbs) 0 16.1 22.7 27.8 31.9 35.5 38.6
Inclination 35 40 45 50 55 60
Fcr (1(N)) 183.8 194.5 204.0 212.4 219.6 225.8
Fer (Klbs) 41.3 43.7 45.9 47.7 49.4 50.8
Inclination 65 70 75 80 85 90
Fer (KN)) 231.0 235.2 238.5 240.8 242.2 242.7
Fer (Klbs) 51.9 52.9 53.6 54.1 54.4 54.6
Figure 7.3.91
240
200
KN
160
U
0
rn
120
V
a
m 80
U Klbs
40
0
0° 100 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90°
Inclination
Page 7/3/1 12 WDLP - Directional drilling
V 2.0.0
Critical buckling forces (Fcr)
for new 5" Hevi -wate drill -pipe in 81/2" hole

TooljointO.D.(NC50) 6.50inch 165.1mm
Drilling fluid density 10.68 ppg 1.28 Kg/l
Inclination 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Fcr (KN) 0 135.5 191.3 233.5 268.5 298.4 324.6
Fcr (Klbs) 0 30.5 43.0 52.5 60.4 67.1 73.0
Inclination 35 40 45 50 55 60
Fcr (KN)) 347.7 368.0 386.0 401.8 415.5 427.2
Fcr (Klbs) 78.2 82.7 86.8 90.3 93.4 96.0

Inclination 65 70 75 80 85 90
Fcr (KN)) 437.0 445.0 451.2 455.5 458.2 459.0
Fcr (Klbs) 98.2 100.0 101.4 102.4 103.0 103.2
Figure 7.3.92
480
440
400
360
320
KN
rn 280
c
240
ø 200
U
160
120
Klbs
80
40
0
0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90°
Inclination
V2.00
V2.00
Candidate (print name) Received Name (print) Signature & date
by mentor:
1) List six applications of directional drilling.
2) For the three applications above which you consider most important,
give a brief explanation of each.
3) Convert the following quadrant bearings into azimuth.
Quadrant Azimuth Quadrant Azimuth

bearing bearing
S641/2°E I N35°E
S883/4°W N66.5°W
S22.25°E 1 N35.5°W
S89°E N711/2°E
S25.5°W I N33/4°W
S11.5°E S45°E I
V 2.0.0
4) The drawing below is a schematic of a "build and hold" type well. The
design data (VD1, VD3, H2 and BUR) are given. Fill in the values of the
derived data (VD2, H1, MD1 , MD2 and W.
VD1 R
4,200 a
BUR=2°/100
P
VD2
"' MD1
ATVD i a=
VD3 MD2
0---•0•-------------- -
7,600
H2
1,030
V 2.0.0
5) The drawing below is a schematic of an "S" type well. The design data
(VD1, VD4, VD5, H3, BUR and DOR) are given . Fill in the values of the
derived data (VD2, VD3, Hl, H2 MD1, MD2, MD3, MD4 and W.
VD, R,
1,200 a
VD2
1 a= °
1 1
1
VD3
1 ------- MD2
1
1
1
Pry DOR = 1.5°/100
VD4
MD3
8,000 I
VD5
10,000
a1-_i ------------ MD4 I
0I H2
I H3
2,405.95
WDLP - Directional drilling Page 7/3/1 17
V 2.0.0
6) An exploration land well is to be drilled to a target 1,002m North and
569m West of the wellhead position, at a depth of 3,300m below the
reference level, which is mean sea level. The target is the top surface of
the flank of an anticline in which a horizontal reflector can be seen -
possibly a hydrocarbon/water contact.
It is required to set intermediate casing 20m vertically above the target

formation and to penetrate at least 300m vertically into it in order to
verify, and ascertain the depth of, the hydrocarbon/water contact.
The operational area is hilly and a drilling location has been

constructed by cutting and filling to a level of 320m above msl. The
derrick floor elevation is 10m above ground level.
It has been decided to kick off 10m below surface casing set at 990m bdf
and use a build-up rate of 8°/100m until a point is reached where a
straight tangent section will pass through the target.
What will be the inclination of the tangent section ?
How much intermediate casing will be required ?
Hydrocarbons were indeed found, and and an OWC was crossed at

3,990.7m ahbdf.
What is the depth of the OWC below sea level ?
7) After drilling the above well it was found that, although hydrocarbons
had been confirmed, the structure was more complex than had been
anticipated, consisting of a series of stacked anticlines with successively
deeper crests being displaced towards azimuth 330°.
It was decided that the most economical method of further appraising

the structure would be to plug back the exploration well, recover the
upper section of the intermediate casing, set a cement plug in the shoe of
the surface casing and kick off from the same depth as before, and in the
same direction, but to use a build up rate of 12°/100m in order to stay
above the previous hole. The plan was to penetrate the crest of the
uppermost anticline at such an angle that the well would penetrate the
crests of the successive anticlines until reaching a total depth 100 in
below the OWC found in the original well.
The project geologist produced a cross-section through the well along

azimuth 330° showing that the uppermost crest was at a distance of
1200m from the rig at a depth of 3,200m below reference level. A line
drawn on the cross-section joining the crests had an inclination of 10°.
It was again planned to set casing just above the uppermost objective
formation; it was therefore decided that the end of the drop section
should be 100 in vertically above that formation. A drop-off rate of
8°/100m was chosen.
V 2.0.0
What will be the inclination of the tangent section ?
What will be the measured depths

• at the end of the build-up section ?
• at the end of the tangent section ?
• at the end of the drop-off section ?
• when the uppermost objective is penetrated ?
It is planned to carry out a production test through a

string of production casing run to 5m (ah) above TD.
How much will be required
8) What is a "lead angle"and why is it used.
9) Explain briefly what "nudging" means, and state the fundamental reason
for the use of the technique.
10) What type of motor is a Moineau motor ?
11) In a Moineau motor, what is the relationship between the number of

lobes of the rotor and the stator ?
12) Which of the two types of mud motor is most tolerant to lost circulation
material in the mud, and why ?
V 2.0.0
13) Which of the two types of mud motor is most suitable for high tempera-
ture applications, and why ?
14) Give the typical ranges of operating pressure drop through the two
different types of mud motor.
PDM Motor Turbine
15) What are the values of torque and speed of a turbine which is operating
optimally ?
Torque Speed
16) State one advantage and two disadvantages of a standard removable

whipstock as a deflection tool.
17) Describe the circumstances in which a casing whipstock is used.
18) What nozzle sizes would you fit in a 121/4" tri- cone bit you intended to
use for jetting ?
19) Specify a possible BHA you would use to jet drill a 121/4" pilot hole
starting from vertical.
Page 7/ 3/120 WDLP- Directionaldrilling
V 2.0.0
20) You are going to perform a kick-off in 171/2" hole with a mud motor and
bent sub. The required build-up rate is 2.5°/100'. Specify the BRA you
would use.
21) Explain what is meant by the reactive torque of downhole motors, and
why it causes problems for directional drillers.
22) List three advantages of a motor plus bent sub as a deflection tool.
23) What alternative tool can be used for kicking off instead of a motor plus
bent sub.
V 2.0.0
24) A 91/2" motor with a 21/4° bent sub is being used to kick off a well in
171/2" hole.
• A dogleg severity of about 3°/30m has been obtained consistently.

• The latest survey result is: 12.0° inclination, 327° azimuth.
We want to build 2° and get some left turn over the next 30m. What tool
face setting should be used and what result should be obtained ?
Tool face orientation =
New inclination =
New hole azimuth =
25) A steerable motor system is being used in 171/2" hole.
• The latest survey shows a 28.5° inclination, 140° azimuth.

• The expected dogleg severity is 3°/30m.
We require to correct the azimuth to the right. Determine the tool face
setting required for a maximum right turn and predict the result of
drilling 18m with that setting.
New inclination
New hole azimuth =
26) We are drilling with a steerable motor system in 121/4" hole.
• The predicted dogleg severity with this drilling system is 3.6°/30m.

• The latest survey is 44.2° inclination, 194.5° azimuth.
We need to turn left while maintaining inclination constant and have

decided to drill the next two singles oriented. Find the required tool face
orientation and the expected results after drilling 18m.
New inclination =
New hole azimuth =
Page 7/ 3/122 WDLP - Directionaldrilling
V 2.0.0
27) We are drilling 171/2" hole with a steerable motor system which gives a
theoretical dogleg severity of 4.0°/30m. The latest survey is 48.4° inclina-
tion, 77.5° azimuth.
We want to turn (azimuth) 2° to the right and build angle over an 18m
course length. Determine the required tool face orientation and the
expected results.
Tool face orientation
New inclination
New hole azimuth =
28) Using the following data, determine the tool setting required for
maximum azimuth change:
• The existing inclination is 17°
• The existing azimuth is 117° Mag
• The tool dogleg potential is 3.5°/100 ft.
If a change in azimuth of 23° is required over an interval of 100 ft, could

this be attained with the above tool setting ?
What inclination would be obtained over a 100 ft interval when the tool
is set for maximum azimuth change ?
New inclination =
29) A well has been kicked off by jetting and the angle built to 15° approx.
The hole has been opened to 171/2" diameter. It is now planned to run a
conventional angle-build rotary BHA to increase the inclination to 62°,
which is the planned inclination angle of the tangent section. The build
up section will all be in 171/2" hole. The planned build-up rate is
3.0°/100'; the well is "on the line" on the vertical plan.
Design a suitable rotary BHA using a soft formation tri-cone bit and
incorporating an MWD tool. Specify on the description the actual gauge
of stabilisers to be used and suggest possible drilling parameters.
WOB: RPM:

V 2.0.0
30) Write down a packed assembly which could be used to hold angle in the
tangent section of a directional well. Assume that the inclination angle
is in the range 45° - 50° and that the 121/4" hole section is being drilled.
Indicate on the description the gauge of all stabilisers.
State whether a PDC or roller cone bit is to be used and suggest possible
drilling parameters, assuming you are drilling medium hardness forma-
tion.
Type of bit: WOB: RPM:
31) The tangent section of a directional well has just been drilled. The well
plan requires that the angle be dropped from 50° to 25° at the rate of
1.5°/100'. In fact, the well is slightly below the line and the actual incli-
nation angle at the end of the tangent section was 47°.
Suggest a suitable angle drop assembly which might be used and
indicate suitable drilling parameters. (The drop section is in 121/4" hole
and 8" collars are to be used). State whether a PDC or roller cone bit is
to be used.
Type of bit: WOB: RPM:
32) Describe how the placement of the first string stabiliser affects the
response of an NDS assembly.
33) List five recommendations that will help reduce stabiliser and string
drag when drilling in the oriented mode with an NDS assembly.
V 2.0.0
34) It is planned to drill a well as follows:
• Drill 22" to 1,500' and set 185/8" casing.
• Drill 171/2" vertically to the kick off point at 2,500'
• Drill ahead, building angle at 2°/100' until an inclination of 35° is
reached.
• Drill the tangent section to the 133/s" casing setting point at 7,000'.
• Drill 121/4" to the kick-off point at 8,000.
• Drill ahead dropping angle at 1°/100' until an inclination of 20° is
reached at 9,500'.
• Drill ahead, holding 20°, to the 95/s" casing setting point at 11,000'.
• Drill 81/2" to TD at 11,000'.
Design two NDS assemblies, one for drilling the whole of the 171/2"
section using rock bits, the other for the whole of the 121/4" section using
PDC bits.
In the following 2 questions assume that no drill pipe is to be run in

compression and ignore drag in the calculation.
35) Find the air weight needed to get the desired weight on the bit in the
following cases.
Desired Mud Hole Safety Air

WOB Weight Angle margin weight (lbs)
40,000 lbs 13 ppg 20° 10% 1
40,000 Ibs 16 ppg 20° 10%
40,000 lbs 13 ppg 48° 10%
40,000 lbs 13 ppg 20° 15%
20,000 lbs 13 ppg 20° 10%
V 2.0.0
36) Find the number of joints needed to get the air weight in the following
cases.
a. 62,000 lbs air weight required.

6 x 7" OD x 2" ID DCs are available.
How many joints of 4.5" Hevi-Wate are needed ?
b. 62,000 lbs air weight needed.

30 joints of 4.5" Hevi-Wate are to be used.
How many 71/4" OD x 21/2" ID DCs are needed ?
c. 35,000 lbs air weight needed.

2 x 71/2" OD x 2" ID DCs plus 3 x 6" OD x 21/2" ID DCs are available
How many joints of 31/2" Hevi-Wate are needed ?
37) Calculate the critical buckling load for the drill pipe in the following
cases.
a. Hole size = 81/2"
Drill-pipe = 41/2" grade E with an approximate weight of 18.37 lb/ft
Drilling fluid density = 11.5 ppg
What is the critical buckling load ?
b. Hole size= 6"
Drill-pipe = 31/2"high strength with an approximate weight of 14.7 lb/ft
Drilling fluid density = 11 ppg
What is the critical buckling load ?
In the following questions , assume that drill pipe may be run in

compression but that the compressive force must not exceed 90% of
the critical buckling force.
In all cases assume that 5" S135 drill -pipe is being used.
Use the graphs in Appendix 2 to find the critical buckling load.
38) Desired maximum WOB = 50,000 lbs;

Drilling fluid density = 12ppg;
Hole size = 121/4".
Use a safety factor of 10%.
What is the air weight required ?
Page 7/ 3/126 WDLP-Directional drilling
V 2.0.0
Borehole inclination = 45°;
Hole size = 121/4".

Hole size= 81/2".
Suppose you have 200' of 61/2" tubulars (including stabilisers, etc)

weighing 96 lbs/foot.
How many joints of 5" HWDP are required?

Hole size = 121/4".
Suppose you have 100' of 8" tubulars weighing 150lbs/foot

and 93' of 61/2" tubulars weighing 99 lbs/foot.
How many joints of 5" HWDP are required ?

V 2.0.0
V 2.0.0

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Directional drilling

Version 2.0.0, May 2005

Topic 1 Vertical drilling 7/3/9

Topic 3 Well planning 7/3/20

Topic 4 Downhole motors 7/3/34

WDLP - Directional drilling Page 7/3/1

Appendix 2 Critical buckling forces 7/3/109

Page 7/3/2 WDLP - Directional drilling

Service Companies Cementing Tables

API Spec 5D: Specification for drill pipe

API Spec 7 Specification for rotary drill stem elements

WDLP - Directional drilling Page 7/3/3

• Describe the principal mechanical forces which act on a drilling assembly.

• List and explain at least six applications of directional drilling.

• Describe the general aspects involved in well planning.

• Explain why grid coordinate systems are used.

• Explain what is meant by "nudging" and why it is done.

Page 7/3/4 WDLP - Directional drilling

• Explain the factors which affect the stiffness of drill collars.

WDLP - Directional drilling Page 7/3/5

• Explain the use of the offset stabiliser in steerable turbines.

Page 7 /3/6 WDLP - Directional drilling

Topic 2 briefly outlines some of the many applications of directional drilling.

WDLP - Directional drilling Page 7/3/7

1 CAUSES OF DEVIATION FROM THE VERTICAL

• a more flexible drilling assembly is used.

2 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR OF DRILLING ASSEMBLIES

2.1 BASIC FORCES ON THE BOTTOM HOLE ASSEMBLY

WDLP - Directional drilling Page 7/3/9

W6 = the component of W4 normal to axis

2.2 BENDING OF DRILL COLLARS

Page 7/3/10 WDLP - Directional drilling

2.3 THE PENDULUM EFFECT OF GRAVITY ON THE ASSEMBLY

2.4 CONTROL OF MECHANICAL FACTORS

WDLP - Directional drilling Page 713111

3 FORMATION EFFECTS ON DEVIATION

There is no completely satisfac- The magnitude of this effect varies with

4 DEVIATION CONTROL IN VERTICAL HOLES

This means it is necessary to select a drilling assembly that will produce an

The two methods commonly employed to control inclination in vertical holes

• the pendulum technique.

4.1 THE PENDULUM TECHNIQUE

• the drill collar weight below the wall contact point.

Page 7 /3/12 WDLP - Directional drilling

Raising the wall contact point by including a stabiliser at a specified distance

Modern developments of such research provide computer programs which

Further information on this subject is given in Topic 7.

4.2 PACKED-HOLE DRILLING ASSEMBLIES

WDLP - Directional drilling Page 7/3/13

Packed-hole assemblies minimise trends to deviate from the current track,

4.3 OTHER FACTORS

When it is essential to keep the inclination of a vertical hole within tight

Page 7/3/14 WDLP - Directional drilling

Multiple wells from offshore structures

In a conventional development, the wells cannot be drilled until the platform

Figure 7.3.2: Multiple wells from offshore structures

WDLP - Directional drilling Page 7/3/15

Figure 7.3.3 : Controlling vertical wells

Figure 7 .3.4 : Sidetracking

Page 7/3/16 WDLP - Directional drilling

Figure 7.3.5 : Inaccessible locations

Figure 7.3.6 : Fault drilling

WDLP- Directionaldrilling Page 7/3/17