MATERIAL REMOVAL

PROCESSES
Theory of Metal
Machining
1. Overview
2. Theory of Chip Formation
3. Force Relationships
4. Power and Energy Relationship
5. Cutting Temperature
1
 Introduction
• Everyday Experience: Scraping
the ice from your windshield
– Edge angle of the ice scraper
– Force required depending on the
characteristics of ice
• Incentives: Making a ceramic
vase out of clay
– Shaping
– Removal of excess materials -
‘machining’
• Powder Metal or Cast
– Exact dimension
– Tolerance & Surface Finish

2
 Classification Turning and
Related Operations
Drilling and Related
Conventional Operations
Machining
Milling
Other Machining
Operations
Material Removal Grinding
Processes Abrasive Processes
Processes Other Abrasive
Processes
Mechanical Energy
Processes
Electrochemical
Nontraditional Processes
machining Thermal Energy
Processes
Chemical
Machining
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 Material Removal Processes
A family of shaping operations through which
undesired excess material is removed from a
starting workpart so the remaining part
become closer to the desired shape
• Categories:
– Machining – material removal by a sharp cutting
tool, e.g., turning, milling, drilling
– Abrasive processes – material removal by hard,
abrasive particles, e.g., grinding
– Nontraditional processes - various energy forms
other than sharp cutting tool to remove material

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 Machining
• A shearing process in which excess
materials is removed by cutting tools.
– A variety of work materials
– ‘Repeatable’ regular geometries
– Close tolerance (<0.025μm)
– Smooth surface finish (0.4μm)
– Waste, Expensive: Cost and Time
– Other processes such as casting, forging, and bar
drawing create the general shape
– Machining provides the final shape, dimensions,
finish, and special geometric details
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 1. Overview
Work New Surface
• Types
Feed Motion
Speed motion
– Turning - Lathe (tool) (work)

Speed motion
– Drilling – Drill press Cutting tool (Tool)

– Milling – Milling Machine

Feed Motion Drill bit
(tool)
• Peripheral
• Face
• Cutting Tool
Work
Speed motion
Speed motion
Milling Cutter Milling Cutter
New Surface
New Surface

Feed Motion (work)

Feed Motion (work)
Work material
Work
Peripheral (End) Milling Face (Slab) Milling 6
 Cutting condition
• Relative motion between tool and work
• Cutting conditions
– Cutting speed, v (m/s) – Surface speed
– Feed f (m): the lateral distance traveled by the tool
during one revolution.
– Depth of cut d (m)
• Material Removal Rate: MRR = v f d
– Roughing - removes large amounts of material, at
high feeds and depths, low speeds
– Finishing - Achieves final dimensions, tolerances,
and finish, Low feeds and depths, high cutting
speeds
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 Machine Tools
• A power-driven machine that performs a
machining operation
– Holds workpart
– Positions tool relative to work
– Provides power and controls speed, feed, and
depth.
– Pumps a Cutting fluid v

d
f 8
 2. Theory of Chip Formation
• Orthogonal Cutting Model
Rake angle: α
α
Shear angle: φ
Shear
Chip thickness ratio:
Plane Tool
to ls sin φ
r= =
tc tc ls cos(φ − α )
to φ

Work
By rearranging
ls
r cos α
tan φ =
1 − r sin α
r is always less than 1.0.
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 Shear
α
Strain in chip

B
A
D
C
sin (α ± β ) = sin α cos β ± cos α sin β
φ Using
cos(α ± β ) = cos α cos β m sin α sin β
B
A
φ
AC DC + AD φ−α
γ= = = tan (φ − α ) + cot φ
BD BD
α
sin (φ − α ) cos φ cos α D
= + =
cos(φ − α ) sin φ sin φ cos(φ − α ) C

As φ (from 10° to 35°) increase, γ (from 5 to 2) decreases. 10

 Velocity
α
Vc Vs
α 90-φ+α
φ-α Tool
90-α φ
Vc
V V φ
Vs
V Vs Vc Work
= =
⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞ sinφ
sin⎜ − φ + α ⎟ sin⎜ − α ⎟ Vs cosα V
⎝2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠ γ& = =
Δy cos(φ − α ) Δy
V V V
= s = c where Δy is the finite thickness of
cos(φ − α ) cosα sinφ
the shear plane, typically 0.03mm.
Shear Strain rate is around 103-105sec-1
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 Actual Chip Formation
(a) Discontinuous chip
•Brittle materials at low cutting speed
•High tool-chip friction and large feed and Secondary
depth Shear Zone
(b) Continuous chip
•Ductile materials with high speeds and
small feed and depth of cut
(c) Continuous chip with built-up edge
•Ductile material at low to medium speeds
(d) Serrated chip Tool
•Difficult-to-machine metals at high cutting
speeds
Effective φ

Primary Shear Zone

Work12
 The ‘Real’ Cutting Force
Cutting Forces are measured with Dynamometer.

Normal
Ft

Shear σ Fr
Fn •Area: A=bh
where b=chip width
Ft
h=chip thickness
•Temperature (500-1000oC)
R • Pressure (1000-3000 MPa)
Sticking Zone Sliding Zone

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 3. Force Relationships

α
Tool Tool
F
φ R
Fs β
Fc
R’ N
Work Ft Work
Fn R”

F: Friction Force Fs: Shear Force Fc: Cutting Force

N: Normal Force Fn: Normal Force Ft: Thrust Force
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 Force Diagram
Fs
Fc φ F = Fc sin α + Ft cos α
β−α N = Fc cos α − Ft sin α
Fn Fs = Fc cos φ − Ft sin φ
Ft Fn = Fc sin φ + Ft cos φ

F Fs
R=
sin φ cos(φ + β − α )
β
α =
τ s to w
sin φ cos(φ + β − α )
α Fs cos(β − α )
N Fc =
sin φ cos(φ + β − α )
Fs sin (β − α )
Ft =
sin φ cos(φ + β − α ) 15
 Cutting Force
cos(β − α )
⎡
• Cutting Force: Fc = bhτ s ⎢
φ (φ + β − α )
⎤
⎥ = K c bh [
K c N / mm 2 ]
⎣ sin cos ⎦
⎡ cos(β − α ) ⎤
• Thrust Force: Ft = bhτ s ⎢sin ⎥ = K t bh
⎣ sin φ cos(φ + β − α ) ⎦
τ s bh Fc = R cos(β − α )
Fs = R cos(φ + β − α ) = Fc cos φ − Ft sin φ =
sin φ Ft = R sin(β − α )
Fn = R sin (φ + β − α ) = Fc sin φ + Ft cos φ
Kc and Kt must be calibrated α
through machining experiments.
tc b
Tool
d
to φ h
Fc f
R F Work 16
t Top View
 Chatter Analysis
• Mechanical vibration
k c
Free Vibration: m&x& + cx& + kx = 0
Forced Vibration: m&x& + cx& + kx = Fo sin ωt
Assume x(t ) = X sin (wt + φ ) cx&
F kx
Or using complex harmonic functions
m&x& + cx& + kx = Fo e jα e jωt
Φ (w ) F
Assume x(t ) = Xe j (ωt +φ ) x(t )

(k − ω m + jωc )Xe
2
2 jφ
e jωt
= F (t ) = Fo e e
jα jωt

1
Magnitude ratio: Φ (w) =
X 1 1
=
Fo k
(1 − r ) 2 2
+ (2ζr )2
φ 1 r
− 2ζr
Phase: φ = tan −1 +α 0
1− r 2

where r = ω ζ = c 2 km -90
ωn
k 17
and ωn = -180 r
m
 The Merchant Equation
Fs
• Shear stress: τ =
As
to w
• Shear Plane Area: As =
sin φ
Fc cos φ − Ft sin φ
• Shear stress: τ =
to w sin φ
• Merchant’s Assumption: Shear plane angle will
form to minimize energy
• After differentiating τ w.r.t φ, Merchant’s
Equation:
α β
φ = 45 + −
2 2
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 Implication of Merchant’s
α β
Eq.
φ = 45 + −
2 2
• An increase in rake angle causes the shear plane angle
to increase.
• A decrease in friction angle cause the shear plane angle
to increase.
• The analysis from orthogonal cutting can be used in a
typical turning if the feed is small relative to depth of cut.
Effect of shear plane angle φ :
(a) higher φ with a resulting Tool
lower shear plane area; Tool
(a) smaller φ with a resulting
larger shear plane area.

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Turning vs. Orthogonal
Feed f Uncut Chip thickness to

Depth d Width of cut w

Cutting speed v Cutting speed v

Cutting force Fc Cutting force Fc

Feed force Ff Thrust force Ft

α
d
tc
Tool

to φ
f
Fc Ft Work
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 4. Power & Energy Relation
Pc = FcV
• Power (energy per unit time)
FcV
HPc =
33,000
P
hpc =
33,000 P in ft-lb/min
Pc hpc
• Horse power Pg = or hp g =
E E
with mechanical efficiency E=90%
• Unit Power Pu = Pc
MRR
Pc Fc v Fc
• Specific energy U = Pu = = =
MRR vto w t o w
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 Size Effect & Energy Distribution
0.01 0.04 (in)
1.6
100
1.4 Tool
Correction Factor

Proportion of Energy
1.2
Work
1.0

0.8 50

0.6
Chip
0.4
0
0.125 0.25 0.5 1.0 1 2 3
Chip thickness before cut (mm)
Cutting Speed (m/s)

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Specific Energy for various work
materials (to=0.25mm)
Materials Brinell Specific Energy (U)
Hardness N·m/mm3 In-lb/in3 Hp/in3/min
Carbon Steel 150-200 1.6 240,000 0.6
200-250 2.2 320,000 0.8
251-300 2.8 400,000 1.0
Alloy Steels 200-250 2.2 320,000 0.8
251-300 2.8 400,000 1.0
301-350 3.6 520,000 1.3
351-400 4.2 640,000 1.6
Cast iron 125-175 1.1 160,000 0.4
175-250 1.6 240,000 0.6
Stainless steel 150-200 2.8 400,000 1.0
Aluminum 50-100 0.7 100,000 0.25
Aluminum Alloys 100-150 0.8 120,000 0.3
Magnesium Alloys 50-100 0.4 60,000 0.15
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 Problem 21.30
A lathe performs a turning operation on a work piece of 6in diameter. The shear strength of the
work=40,000lb/in2. The rake angle of the tool =10o. The machine settings are: rotational
speed=500rev/min, feed=0.0075in/rev. and depth=0.075in. The chip thickness after the cut
is 0.015in. Determine: (a) the horsepower required (b) the unit horsepower for this material,
(c) the unit horsepower with the correction factor (1 for to=0.01in.) Use the orthogonal model.
(a) To get HP, Fc and v are needed
t o 0.0075
r= = = 0.5
t 0.015
r cos α ⎛ 0.5 cos10 ⎞
tan φ = ; φ = arctan⎜ ⎟ = 28.3
o
1 − r sin α ⎝ 1 − 0.5 sin 10 ⎠
α β ⎛ 10 ⎞ (b) HPu
φ = 45 + ; β = 2⎜ 45 + − 28.3 ⎟ = 43.4 o
−
2 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ MRR = vfd = 785(0.0075)(0.075) = 5.3 in 3 min
t w 0.0075 ⋅ 0.075 HP 2
As = o = = 0.00119in 2 HPu = = = 0.375hp/(in 3 /min)
sin φ sin 28.3 MRR 5.3
Fs = SAs = 40,000(0.00119) = 47.5lb
(c) HPu with the correction factor Fig. 21.14
Fs cos(β − α ) 47.5 cos(43.3 − 10)
Fc = = = 83.6lb
cos(φ + β − α ) cos(28.3 + 43.4 − 10)
HPu 0.375
HPu = = = 0.326hp/(in 3 /min)
f 1.15
v = ωr = 500rev / min(π 6 / 12)ft / rev = 785ft/ min
Fc v 83.6(785)
HP = = = 2hp 24
33,000 33,000
 5. Cutting Temperature
• Cook’s dimensional analysis
0.333
U ⎛ vto ⎞
T = 0.4 ⎜ ⎟
ρC ⎝ K ⎠
• Experimental Measurement
– Tool-chip thermocouple
– Trigger’s results T = Kv m
• RC-130B Ti (T=479v0.162)
• 18-8 Stainless steel (T=135v0.361)
• B113 Free machining steel (T=86.2v0.348)

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