Journal of Structural Geology 69 (2014) 481e492

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Journal of Structural Geology

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Fluid overpressures and strength of the sedimentary upper crust

John Suppe
Department of Geosciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The classic crustal strength-depth profile based on rock mechanics predicts a brittle strength s1
s3 ¼
Available online 1 August 2014 kðrgz
Pf Þ that increases linearly with depth as a consequence of [1] the intrinsic brittle pressure
dependence k plus [2] an assumption of hydrostatic pore-fluid pressure, Pf ¼ rwgz. Many deep borehole
Keywords: stress data agree with a critical state of failure of this form. In contrast, fluid pressures greater than
Crustal strength hydrostatic rgz > Pf > rw gz are normally observed in clastic continental margins and shale-rich mountain
Pore-fluid overpressures
belts. Therefore we explore the predicted shapes of strength-depth profiles using data from over-
Fluid-retention depth
pressured regions, especially those dominated by the widespread disequilibrium-compaction mecha-
Critical-taper wedge mechanics
Jointing
nism, in which fluid pressures are hydrostatic above the fluid-retention depth zFRD and overpressured
Strength-depth profile below, increasing parallel to the lithostatic gradient rgz. Both brittle crustal strength and frictional fault
strength below the zFRD must be constant with depth because effective stress ðrgz
Pf Þ is constant, in
contrast with the classic linearly increasing profile. Borehole stress and fluid-pressure measurements in
several overpressured deforming continental margins agree with this constant-strength prediction, with
the same pressure-dependence k as the overlying hydrostatic strata. The role of zFRD in critical-taper
wedge mechanics and jointing is illustrated. The constant-strength approximation is more appropriate
for overpressured crust than classic linearly increasing models.
© 2014 The Author. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/).

1. Introduction 1.1. Classic brittle strength-depth relationship

The classic Brace and Kohlstedt (1980) strength-depth graph,
based on experimental rock mechanics, predicts an initial linear
increase in brittle frictional strength with increasing pressure,
followed by an exponential decay in ductile strength with
increasing temperature (Fig. 1A). This first-order prediction has
been remarkably successful, for example in predicting the tem-
perature of the brittle-ductile transition in common rock types.
The intricacies of this graph in the lower crust and upper mantle
continue to be widely discussed and are even controversial in the
case of the proposed “jelly sandwich” of weak lower continental
crust above a presumed stronger mantle (e.g. Chen and Molnar,
1983; Suppe, 1985, p. 188e189; Jackson, 2002; Burov and
Watts, 2006; Bürgmann and Dresen, 2008). In contrast, the
predicted linear increase in brittle strength is generally assumed
without discussion and agrees with deep borehole stress data in
crystalline rock, showing that the crust is commonly close to a
critical state of brittle failure (e.g. Townend and Zoback, 2000;
Zoback, 2007), for example the deep KTB borehole in Germany
(Fig. 1B).
The predicted linear increase in brittle strength s1
s3 with
depth is a consequence of [1] the intrinsic pressure dependence k of
brittle strength, plus [2] an assumption that pore-fluid pressure is
hydrostatic and therefore linearly increasing Pf ¼ rwgz. Ignoring
cohesion we approximate brittle crustal strength very simply as the
vertical effective stress rgz
Pf , times the pressure dependence k.


s1
s3 ¼ k rgz
Pf ; (1a)
(Suppe, 1985, p. 185), where r is the mean bulk density of the
overlying rock. Eq. (1) also can be written in terms of the classic
Hubbert-Rubey (1959) fluid-pressure ratio l ¼ Pf =rgz
s1
s3 ¼ kð1
lÞrgz; (1b)
where (1
l) may be considered the fractional fluid-pressure
weakening. In submarine cases l is measured with respect to the
sea bottom (Davis et al., 1983). For the hydrostatic case (1a)
becomes.
s1
s3 ¼ kðr
rw Þgz: (2)

These crustal-strength equations express the fact that brittle

E-mail address: suppe@princeton.edu. pressure-dependent strength is a function of effective stress

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2014.07.009
0191-8141/© 2014 The Author. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/).
482 J. Suppe / Journal of Structural Geology 69 (2014) 481e492
A. strength σ1−σ3 B. in situ stress σ −σ
1 3
0 500MPa 0 200MPa
0 0
possible stress states
4 2
hydrostatic
8 brittle strength 4 strength dominated by hydrostatic pore-fluid pressures, it is well
12 6 clastic sedimentary basins and in deforming shale-rich plate-
16 8 effects including vertical and lateral pressure redistribution and gas
plastic strength
Germany
KTB borehole
20km 10km
Fig. 1. (A) The classic strength-depth graph with linearly increasing brittle strength,
which is based on the assumption of hydrostatic pore-fluid pressures (Eq. (2)). (B) This
brittle-hydrostatic model agrees well with stress data from the deep KTB borehole in
Germany where fluid pressures are hydrostatic (Brudy et al., 1997; Zoback and Harjes,
1997; Grawinkel and Sto € ckhert, 1997), as well as data elsewhere (see Townend and
Zoback, 2000; Zoback, 2007).
rgz
Pf and not the solid pressure rgz or even depth, which is a
distinction that becomes more important in the case of fluid
overpressures.
The pressure dependence k can be expressed in terms of the
familiar Coulomb internal friction (m ¼ tan4) and varies between
kc ¼ 2sin4 (1
sin4) in pure-thrust compression and ke¼2sin4
(1 þ sin4) in pure normal-fault extension, with strike-slip stress
states (s2 vertical) lying between these limits, as can be shown from
the Mohr diagram.
1.2. Success of the classic brittle-hydrostatic assumption
Brace and Kohlstedt (1980) assumed that brittle crustal strength
is controlled by an optimally oriented static fault friction of
m ¼ 0.6e0.85 based on lab static friction measurements from a wide
variety of rock types (Byerlee, 1978) (kc ¼ 2.1e3.7, ke ¼ 0.68e0.79).
Townend and Zoback (2000) showed that deep borehole stresses
are typically close to a critical state of failure consistent with
m ¼ 0.55e1 (kc ¼ 1.9e4.8, ke ¼ 0.65e0.83) and an assumed hydro-
static fluid pressure, implying that stress z regional strength in
many regions (Zoback, 2007). Therefore the Brace and Kohlstedt
(1980) brittle-hydrostatic proposal (Eq. (2)) is in good agreement
with available observations, as is illustrated by stress data from the
deep KTB borehole in Germany (Fig. 1B).
We have expressed brittle crustal strength (Eq. (1a)) in terms of
the vertical effective stress because this quantity can be directly
calculated from commonly available borehole data or estimated
from seismic velocities in clastic sedimentary sections that have not
undergone uplift and erosion (e.g. Fertl, 1976; Magara, 1978;
Swarbrick et al., 2002; Zoback, 2007). We will use Eq. (1a) to
compare the observed vertical effective stress rgz
Pf with in situ
borehole stress measurements of s1
s3 to determine if they are
consistent with a constant value of the pressure dependence k over
the entire depth range of the data from actively deforming sedi-
mentary basins. This strategy provides a more explicit test of the
role of pore-fluid pressures on crustal strength and avoids
assuming what processes may control crustal brittle strength,
which is an open question. For example, the regional-scale pressure
dependence of the crust k may be controlled by a combination of
faulting, off-fault fracturing, and folding processes, some of which
may be coseismic and may be controlled by dynamic frictional
processes in earthquakes (e.g. Di Toro et al., 2011).
2. Implications of fluid overpressures for regional strength
In contrast with the classic view of linearly increasing crustal
established from petroleum boreholes and seismic velocity analysis
that fluids are overpressured in deeper parts of thick, fine-grained
boundary mountain belts, largely due to disequilibrium compac-
tion from stratigraphic and tectonic loading, but with additional
generation (Bredehoeft and Hanshaw, 1968; Fertl, 1976; Magara,
1978; Hart et al., 1995; Swarbrick and Osborne, 1996; Yardley and
Swarbrick, 2000; Tingay et al., 2009a). The basins of most interest
for crustal strength and large-scale tectonics are continental mar-
gins built on oceanic or highly-thinned continental crust that have
vast deforming clastic-rich volumes that approach a significant
fraction of crustal thickness, even spanning the brittle-ductile
transition (e.g. Gulf of Mexico, Niger delta, Bangladesh/Myanmar,
Sumatra, Makran, Gulf of Alaska, New Zealand, Nankai trough,
Barbados/Trinidad, and offshore southwestern Taiwan). Here we
illustrate typical observed fluid-pressure/depth relationships from
boreholes. We then compute the expected strength-depth profiles
(Eq. (1a)) and compare them with borehole stress data in actively
deforming regions, where stress is expected to be close to regional
strength, or at least limited by Eq. (1a) as an upper bound.
2.1. Disequilibrium-compaction mechanism and crustal strength
The fluid-pressure depth relationship for the Yinggehai basin
offshore south China (Fig. 2A) (Luo et al., 2003) is typical of the
disequilibrium-compaction mechanism (e.g. Swarbrick and
Osborne, 1996; Magara, 1978), which has also been called
“leaky overpressure” (Crans and Mandl, 1980; Mandl and Crans,
1981). Pressures are hydrostatic down to a critical depth of
~1.8 km, the fluid-retention depth zFRD, below which fluid pres-
sures increase parallel to the lithostatic gradient (Fig. 2A),
because permeability becomes sufficiently low that the incre-
mental increases in sedimentary or tectonic load are supported
by the pore fluid, rather than by incremental compaction of the
solid-grain framework. Fluid pressures under the disequilibrium-
compaction mechanism are a simple function of the fluid-
retention depth, representing the sum of the hydrostatic and
lithostatic contributions (Fig. 2A).
Pf ¼ rw gz for z  zFRD (3a)
Pf ¼ rw gzFRD þ rgðz
zFRD Þ for z  zFRD (3b)
It follows that the Hubbert-Rubey fractional fluid-pressure
weakening (1
l) (see Eq. (1b)) is a simple function of the fluid-
retention depth zFRD
ð1
lÞ ¼ ½1
ðrw =rÞzFRD =zz0:6zFRD =z for z  zFRD (4)
We make use of Eq. (4) in the discussion section of this paper.
Because of the observed parallelism of fluid pressures to the
lithostatic gradient, the vertical effective stress rgz
Pf is approx-
imately constant below the fluid-retention depth (Fig. 2A) and
equal to the effective stress at the fluid-retention depth
ðrgz
Pf Þ ¼ ðr
rw ÞgzFRD . Therefore pressure-dependent strength
 J. Suppe / Journal of Structural Geology 69 (2014) 481e492 483

A. B. predicted
fluid pressure Pf strength σ1−σ3
0 50 100 MPa 0 25 50 MPa
0 0
Yinggehai basin, China μ = 0.55
LD3011
1 1
ZFRD ZFRD ZFRD
2 2
effective stress

compressional κc=1.86
ρgz – Pf

extensional κe=0.65
3 3
hydr

ρw
gz F

lith
osta

RD

os
+ρ

4 4
tat
tic

g(

i cρ
z–
ρwgz

gz
z FR
D

5 km 5 km
)

Fig. 2. (A) Typical fluid pressures dominated by the disequilibrium compaction

mechanism, which is characterized by hydrostatic pressures down to a critical depth,
the fluid-retention depth zFRD, below which fluid pressures increase parallel to the
lithostatic gradient, because permeability becomes sufficiently low that incremental
increases in sedimentary or tectonic load are supported by the pore fluid, rather than
by incremental compaction of the solid-grain network. Data are from well LD3011,
Yinggehai basin, offshore south China (Luo et al., 2003). Depths and fluid pressures are
measured with respect to a sea bottom datum in this and other figures (cf. Davis et al.,
1983). (B) The predicted brittle strength in compression and extension is computed
from Eq. (1a) and is approximately constant below zFRD because effective stress rgz

Pf is approximately constant. The pressure dependence is assumed (m ¼ 0.55).
in regions dominated by disequilibrium compaction is predicted to
be constant below the fluid-retention depth
s1
s3 ¼ ðr
rw ÞkgzFRD for z  zFRD
but above the zFRD strength follows the classic linearly increasing
hydrostatic prediction (Eq. (2)). Thus the predicted strength-depth
profile in regions dominated by disequilibrium compaction, shown
in Fig. 2B, is radically different from the classic linearly increasing
strength-depth profile of Fig. 1.
The strength of the Yinggehai basin in compression and exten-
sion in Fig. 2B is calculated from Eq. (1a) based on the observed
fluid pressures and an arbitrary assumed pressure dependence
(m ¼ 0.55). However, the actual pressure dependence of regional
crustal strength has to be calibrated with stress and fluid pressure
measurements in deforming regions. A similar fluid-pressure depth
pattern is found throughout the active western Taiwan thrust belt
with zFRD z 3e3.5 km (Fig. 3A) (Yue, 2007; Yue and Suppe, 2014),
with the predicted strength approximately constant below the
fluid-retention depth (Fig. 3B). Here borehole stress measurements
at ~1 km (Hung et al., 2009) in the hydrostatic zone are used to fix
the pressure dependence at m z 0.45 (kc z 1.4). A regional analysis
of wedge mechanics in western Taiwan (Suppe, 2007) indicates a
similar pressure dependence of m z 0.35e0.40 (kc z 1) with the
major thrust faults much weaker (mf z 0.03e0.09), indicating that
off-fault deformation associated with bending of thrust sheets,
rather than the strength of major faults, dominates the crustal
strength.
Fig. 3. (A) Typical fluid pressures in the active western Taiwan thrust belt, Chingtsaohu
(CTH) anticline, with (B) strength computed from Eq. (1a), using a pressure-
dependence to match in situ stress data in the TCDP borehole from Hung et al.
(2009). Point data are shut-in pressure tests from permeable strata, and the solid
curve is pressure in shale computed from sonic log (Suppe and Wittke, 1977;
Yue, 2007; Yue and Suppe, 2014).
done for engineering purposes in petroleum boreholes (e.g. White
et al., 2002; Zoback, 2007).
The Brazos or Corsair region of offshore Texas is a region of
active normal faulting above major lystric detachments as shown in
Fig. 4 (Xiao et al., 1991; Worrall and Snelson, 1989). Many of the
(5) faults are observed to cut near-surface seismic reflectors (Fig. 4).
Fluid pressures are typical of disequilibrium compaction (Fig. 5A)
with a well-defined fluid-retention depth at ~1.7 km, and deeper
fluid pressures increasing parallel to the lithostatic gradient. The
strength predicted from Eq. (1a) is approximately constant because
effective stress is close to constant below the fluid-retention depth.
Leakoff test data from Xiao et al. (1991) show increasing strength
above the fluid-retention depth and approximately constant below
(Fig. 5B), in agreement with our prediction.
The form of the strength-depth curve is fixed by the fluid-
pressure depth curve, whereas the magnitude of the strength is
fixed by the borehole stress data (Fig. 6). The pressure dependence
required for Eq. (1a) to match the stress data corresponds to
m z 0.25 (ke z 0.39). This very low intrinsic pressure dependence
may imply that stress is controlled by very weak major normal
faults whose strength is dominated by weak clay-rich smear gouges
(mf z 0.2e0.3; e.g. Brown et al., 2003; Numelin et al., 2007), with
little contribution of off-fault deformation to regional strength, in
contrast with Taiwan.
The combined fluid pressure and borehole stress data from the
actively deforming Brazos area confirms the prediction of constant
crustal strength below the fluid-retention depth. The stress-depth
relationship is consistent with a critical limiting state of brittle
failure and a constant pressure-dependence k in both the hydro-
static and overpressured strata.

3. Testing the constant-strength prediction 4. Strength in areas of complex overpressures

We now test the constant-strength prediction in an area of
active normal faulting in the Gulf of Mexico where fluid pressure
and borehole stress data exist over a substantial depth interval. In
regions of active extensional tectonics, s3 can be constrained by
leakoff and fracture-initiation tests, which are hydrofracture tests
In addition to the disequilibrium-compaction mechanism, pro-
files of fluid pressure as a function of depth can be dominated or
substantially modified by vertical and lateral pressure redistribu-
tion within permeable strata or along faults within the over-
pressured zone, by seals, and by pressure increases caused by gas
484 J. Suppe / Journal of Structural Geology 69 (2014) 481e492

Fig. 4. Seismic section of the Brazos/Corsair extensional province offshore Texas, showing the location of OCS-G-1757 borehole (Fig. 5). Normal faults that cut near-surface reflectors
are indicated. For section location see Xiao et al. (1991).

generation (e.g. Yardley and Swarbrick, 2000; Swarbrick et al., higher at the bottom (point 2, Fig 7A). Short intervals of isolated
2002; Tingay et al., 2009a). In spite of such complexities of the permeable strata can be seen in the Yinggehai and Taiwan data
fluid-pressure controlling mechanisms, we show for two such (Fig. 7B, ~2.8e3.2 km; Fig 3, ~5e5.15 km), but this phenomenon is
complex overpressured regions that the observed borehole stresses more pronounced in the Brunei data (Fig. 7C, ~1.8e2.35 km,
are consistent with a critical limiting state of brittle failure and a 2.6e2.8 km). In the case of folded strata with dipping, isolated
constant pressure-dependence k in both the hydrostatic and over- permeable layers, the crests of anticlines will be weakened by this
pressured strata. These examples are the Tertiary Brunei delta mechanism and the synclines strengthened, which leads to a
offshore northern Borneo, and the Mesozoic Sable basin offshore focusing of deformation into structurally high locations (e.g.
Nova Scotia, eastern Canada. Krueger and Grant, 2011).
Permeable stratigraphic intervals that are isolated within over- Typical effects of isolated permeable sands can also be seen in
pressured volumes of low permeability shale show vertical gradi- the fluid pressure from the crest of the Chingtsaohu anticline
ents in fluid pressure that are approximately parallel to the (CTH) in Taiwan (Fig 3A), which is composed of two data types.
hydrostatic gradient, rather than parallel to the lithostatic gradient, The point measurements are borehole static shut-in pressures
as shown schematically in Fig. 7A. The top of an isolated permeable within permeable sands, whereas the continuous red line is the
layer commonly has a fluid pressure higher than the overpressured fluid pressure in surrounding shales and mudstones computed
shale gradient, whereas the base of the permeable layer will have
pressure lower than the shale gradient (points 1 and 2 Fig 7A). The
corresponding strengths are lower at the top (point 1, Fig 7A) and
A. B. in situ stress &
fluid pressure Pf strength σ1−σ3
0 50 100 MPa 0 10 20 MPa
0 0
Brazos/Corsair
OCS-G-1757 leak-off
1 1 data
ZFRD ZFRD

2 2
effective stress
ρgz
gz – Pf
3 3
hydr

lith
osta

os

4 4
tatic
tic ρ w

computed from Pf
ρg
z
gz

5 km 5 km
μ = 0.1 μ = 0.25 μ = 0.55

Fig. 5. (A) Fluid pressures from the well OCS-G-1757 along section Fig. 4, Brazos/
Corsair extensional province offshore Texas. (B) The predicted brittle strength in
extension is computed from Eq. (1a) and is approximately constant below zFRD at
~1.7 km depth because effective stress is approximately constant. Stress data from leak-
off tests (Xiao et al., 1991) show increasing strength above the fluid-retention depth
and approximately constant below, in agreement with the prediction of Eq. (1a).
Fig. 6. Predicted crustal strength for different values of the pressure dependence for
the Brazos/Corsair province offshore Texas. The predicted strengths are from Eq. (1a),
based on the observed fluid pressures and several assumed depth-constant pressure
dependences ke. Note that the form of the predicted strength-depth curve is the same
for different pressure dependences, differing only in magnitude. The stress data from
leakoff tests (Xiao et al., 1991) are consistent with a pressure dependence of ke z 0.39
(m z 0.25).
 J. Suppe / Journal of Structural Geology 69 (2014) 481e492
Fig. 7. (A) Simple schematic model of the effect of heterogeneous fluid pressures on
strength. Permeable horizons imbedded within low-permeability shale-rich over-
pressured crust show fluid-pressure gradients that are parallel to the hydrostatic
gradient, whereas the surrounding shales show lithostatic-parallel gradients. The
predicted strength-depth gradients alternate between linearly increasing hydrostatic-
parallel gradients in the permeable layers, and constant strength within the imper-
meable shale-rich intervals. Note that the base of a permeable zone (point 2) is pre-
dicted to be stronger than the top (point 1). (B) Example of Yinggehai Basin offshore
China from Fig. 2. (C) Example of Brunei delta from Fig. 9.
from sonic-log data. Note that below the fluid-retention depth
many of the shut-in pressures are substantially higher than
pressures within the surrounding shales. This reflects the fact
that the sands are permeable and are of large vertical and lateral
485
extent down the flanks of the anticline. Therefore the nominal
computed strengths are lower for these higher-pressure strati-
graphic intervals (Fig. 3B).
This vertical pressure redistribution, in some cases combined
with effects of hydrocarbon generation, can lead to failure by ten-
sile fracture and slip on faults, with leakage along faults or high-
permeability pipes (e.g. Finkbeiner et al., 2001; Krueger and
Grant, 2011; Leduc et al., 2013). Permeable fault zones can charge
shallow structures above the fluid-retention depth with high fluid
pressures given suitable local seals, as is the case in the Yinggehai
basin (Luo et al., 2003). These processes may be viewed as redis-
tributing fluid overpressure that is generated by disequilibrium
compaction or other mechanisms, such as the generation of hy-
drocarbons. Tingay et al. (2009a) argue for very large-scale redis-
tribution within the Brunei delta, charging already compacted
strata with high fluid pressures that do not show low porosities
consistent with classic disequilibrium compaction.
4.1. Brunei delta, north Borneo
The Champion region of the Brunei delta, offshore north Borneo,
is characterized by active normal faulting above major lystric de-
tachments (Fig. 8A), which overlie a deep accretionary complex of
the South China Sea (James, 1984; Morley et al., 2008). The fluid-
pressure data as a function of depth (Tingay et al., 2009a,b) are
substantially more complex than our previous examples but typical
of many regions with interlayered permeable and impermeable
formations (cf. Swarbrick and Osborne, 1996). Hydrostatic fluid
pressures are observed in the Champion Deep well (Fig. 9A) above a
fluid-retention depth of zFRD z 1.2e1.5 km where extensional stress
states exist based on analysis of failure of deviated boreholes
(Tingay et al., 2009b). The top of overpressures is at ~1.7 km and is
marked by a discontinuity in permeability, with a shale-rich section
below. Abundant stress data exist in this well; minifrac hydro-
fracture data provide the best estimate of strength, whereas the
leakoff tests provide an effective lower bound. A single pressure-
dependence k is required for Eq. (1a) to match a limiting critical-
failure envelope to the stress data within both the hydrostatic
and overpressured zones above ~2900 m (Fig. 9B). The best fitting
pressure dependence is ke ¼ 0.45 (m ¼ 0.3). Deeper leakoff and
minifrac pressures approximate the overburden pressure, sug-
gesting s3 may be vertical, which may represent loading within the
deep Borneo compressional wedge from which the Brunei delta
extensional system detaches (Tingay et al., 2009b; Morley et al.,
2008; see Fig. 9B below ~2900 m).
Finally, we note that in spite of these complexities of permeable
zones and pressure redistribution in Brunei, the overall strength
below the top of overpressures (~1.7 km) can be approximated as
constant with depth, with a mean value of ~7e8 MPa (Fig. 9B), in
contrast with the classic linearly increasing hydrostatic prediction
of Fig. 1.
4.2. Scotia Shelf, eastern Canada
The 10e18 km thick Mesozoic Sable basin offshore Nova Scotia,
eastern Canada (Fig. 8B), shows an abrupt stratigraphic transition
with depth from hydrostatic to overpressured conditions, as in the
Glenelg J-48 well (Fig. 10A). A regionally consistent pattern of
borehole breakout directions implies a regional state of stress close
to extensional failure (Fig. 8C) (Yassir and Bell, 1994). The Glenelg
field is near the shelf edge and lies within a growth normal fault
system that was mildly active in the late Cenozoic (Williamson and
Smyth, 1992). The Glenelg well contains breakouts over much of its
depth (1181e4442 m; Bell, 1990). Modeling of the Glenelg field
suggests a complex fluid-pressure history that is dominated by
486 J. Suppe / Journal of Structural Geology 69 (2014) 481e492

A. Brunei delta, offshore northern Borneo Champion Champion

Deep Main
s.l. s.l.

1.6ma a
3.8m
e
iocen
top M
ssure
f ov erpre
top o
10 km

5 sec 5 sec

B. Scotia Shelf, offshore eastern Canada

s.l. C. Borehole breakouts Scotia Shelf
C C
K C breakout direction
K
K K m
Sable Island 500
J J
J dge
J salt lf e
she

m
20 km 500

sec
100km
20 km

tion
Glenelg J-48

Fig. 8. (A) Cross section of the Brunei delta extensional province showing the location of the Champion Deep borehole (Fig. 9) and top of overpressures from regional well data
compiled from Morley et al. (2008); James (1984). (B) Cross section of the Scotia Shelf, offshore eastern Canada with (C) location map of section and Glenelg-J-48 borehole (Fig. 10),
and minimum horizontal stress directions from borehole breakouts (Yassir and Bell, 1994).

disequilibrium compaction with minor contribution of gas gener- 5. Discussion

ation (Williamson and Smyth, 1992). Borehole stress data from the
Glenelg J-48 well (Fig. 10B) can be fit reasonably well to a limiting
strength envelope based on the observed fluid pressures and a
single pressure-dependence k within both the hydrostatic and
overpressured zones (ke z 0.39, m z 0.25). In contrast with our
previous examples, there are insufficient data below the top of
overpressures (~4 km) in the Scotia Shelf to constrain or predict the
form of the strength-depth relationship within this very deep basin
(Fig. 8B).
In summary, for the three overpressured examples for which we
have stress and fluid-pressure data over a substantial depth interval
(Figs. 5, 9 and 10), we are able to reasonably fit the stress data to a
limiting strength envelope that is computed from observed fluid
pressures by Eqs. (1) and (2), using a single pressure dependence k
in both the hydrostatic and overpressured zones. These examples
also show regionally consistent stress directions as indicated by
borehole breakouts, natural hydrofractures and active normal fault
trends. Therefore we conclude that they are close to a regional state

A. B. computed in situ stress &

fluid pressure Pf strength σ1−σ3 A. fluid pressure Pf B.
strength σ1−σ3
0 50 100 MPa 0 10 20 MPa
0 0 0 50 100 MPa 0 10 20 MPa
0 0
Brunei Champion Deep minifrac stress Scotia Shelf, Canada leakoff stress
Glenelg J-48 well
IF stress
leakoff stress
1 1
1 1
strength computed strength computed
2 2 from Pf & Eqn.1
from Pf & Eqn.1
lith
os

2 2
ta

3 3
lith

tic
hydros

hydr

ρg
ost

σ1 vert
z
atic

κe =0.45
osta

4 4
tatic ρw

κc =0.81
ρg

3 km 3 km
tic ρ w

σ3 vert
z

κe = 0.39
gz

μ= 0.3 μ = 0.25
gz

5 km 5 km

Fig. 9. Fluid pressure and stress from the Champion Deep structure, Brunei delta
extensional province (data from Tingay et al., 2009a,b). The predicted strengths are
from Eq. (1a), based on the observed fluid pressures and the best-fitting constant
pressure dependence k that forms a limiting envelope for the stress data. See text for
discussion.
Fig. 10. Fluid pressure and stress from the Glenelg J-48 well, Scotia Shelf offshore
eastern Canada (data from Bell, 1990). The predicted strengths are from Eq. (1a), based
on the observed fluid pressures and the best-fitting constant pressure dependence k
that forms a limiting envelope for the stress data. See text for discussion.
 J. Suppe / Journal of Structural Geology 69 (2014) 481e492
of pressure-dependent failure approximated by Eqs. (1) and (2).
Finally, these examples give similar low pressure dependences of
ke z 0.39e0.45 (m z 0.25e0.3), consistent with the frictional
strengths of clay-smear fault gouges on normal faults (e.g. Brown
et al., 2003; Numelin et al., 2007).
In light of this success in predicting the form and magnitude of
the limiting strength-depth envelope from fluid pressure data, we
sketch two regional scale tectonic applications.
5.1. Application to regional upper crustal deformation
Our concern in this paper is exploring the first-order effects of
fluid overpressures on regional upper crustal strength. We briefly
discuss two regional applications: [1] the expected role of regional
fluid overpressures in the critical-taper mechanics of accretionary
wedges and fold-and-thrust belts, and [2] the possible effects of
fluid overpressures on crustal strength in very thick continental
margins and shale-rich deforming mountain belts, which in some
cases are thick enough to approach the brittle-ductile transition.
For these regional applications the fluid-retention depth can be
reasonably estimated in many actively deforming regions to suffi-
cient accuracy based on borehole data and seismic velocity analysis.
In contrast, predicting pore-fluid pressures and their hetero-
genieties at the level required in petroleum exploration, production
and engineering is more technically and observationally
demanding and is beyond our present tectonic scope. Nevertheless,
at the more local scale of individual structures, fluid pressures
appear to play very significant roles of interest to structural geol-
ogy, for example see applications of Krueger and Grant (2011) to the
Niger delta deep-water thrust belt, and Finkbeiner et al. (2001) in
the northern Gulf of Mexico, South Eugene Island.
5.1.1. Role of fluid overpressures in critical-taper wedge mechanics
and Hubbert-Rubey fault weakening
There has been a long history of considering the role of fluid
overpressures in the mechanics of thrust faults, accretionary
wedges and thrust belts (e.g. Hubbert and Ruby, 1959; Davis et al.,
1983; Dahlen, 1990). Fluid pressures generally enter these the-
ories as the Hubbert-Rubey weakening coefficient (1
l), which for
simplicity generally has been assumed constant, implying a linearly
increasing crustal strength (Eq. (1)). Unfortunately constant (1
l)
is unrealistic except in the hydrostatic case of l ¼ rw gz=rgz. In the
overpressured case (1
l) is everywhere vertically variable, as we
have seen (Figs. 2, 3, 5, 9 and 10). However, in the case of classic
disequilibrium compaction we can express the vertical variation in
(1
l) as a simple function of fluid-retention depth zFRD given by
Eq. (4), (1
l) z 0.6zFRD/z. This relationship has been applied to
thrust and accretionary wedge mechanics by Yue and Suppe (2014).
Here we summarize the basic roles of overpressure in mechanics of
thrust belts, in light of the results of this paper. For the purposes of
illustration, we make use of some data from the deep-water Niger
delta thrust belt (Fig. 11).
There are two common but contrasting ways of expressing role
of fluid pressure in brittle behavior: [1] in effective coefficients of
friction m*f , internal friction m* and pressure dependence k* and [2]
in absolute fault st and crustal (s1
s3) strengths. Up to this point
we have been considering the effects of overpressure on absolute
crustal strength [2]; in what follows we see that critical-taper
wedge mechanics depends on the effective-friction coefficients
[1]. These effective coefficients are controlled by the ratio of fluid
pressure to solid overburden pressure, l ¼ ðPf =rgzÞ, whereas the
effect of fluid pressure on absolute strength is controlled by their
difference, the effective stress ðrgz
Pf Þ. The effective internal
friction, pressure dependence and fault friction coefficients are
487
h
. i
m* ¼ m 1
Pf rgz ¼ mð1
lÞ (6a)
h
. i
k* ¼ k 1
Pf rgz ¼ kð1
lÞ (6b)
h
. i

m*f ¼ mf 1
Pf rgz ¼ mf 1
lf (6c)
In contrast, the absolute crustal and fault strengths are


ðs1
s3 Þ ¼ k rgz
Pf (7a)


st ¼ mf sn
Pf (7b)
where the effective fault-normal stress (sn
Pf) varies with fault
orientation. For example, in the case of horizontal compression
(sn
Pf) varies between the values for horizontal and vertical faults
ðrgz
Pf Þ  ðsn
Pf Þ  kc ðrgz
Pf Þ.
If we apply these basic relationships (Eqs. (6) and (7)) to the
fluid-pressure distributions predicted by the classic disequilibrium
compaction model, then fluid pressures increase parallel to the
lithostatic gradient below the fluid-retention depth, such that
ðrgz
Pf Þ is constant with depth (Fig. 11A). This leads to constant
absolute crustal and fault strengths (Eqs. (5) and (7)) below the
fluid-retention depth as shown in Fig. 11C. (We note that constant
fault strength with depth has been widely assumed in fault-rupture
dynamical models, e.g. Rice, 1992). In contrast, the effective friction
coefficients continuously decrease (Eq. (6)) because l ¼ ðPf =rgzÞ
continuously increases below the fluid-retention depth, as illus-
trated in Fig. 11B. In each case (Fig. 11B and C), the effect of fluid
pressure on brittle strength is the same for both the crust and the
faults, only differing by the magnitudes of their intrinsic pressure
dependences (mf, m, k).
Active accretionary wedges and thrust belts deform to a critical
taper (a þ b), where a is the surface slope and b is the detachment
dip (e.g. Davis et al., 1983). This critical taper is controlled by
detachment strength F ¼ st =rgH and wedge strength
W ¼ ðs1
s3 Þ=rgH, where H is the local depth of the detachment
h
. i
1
rf r b þ F
aþb¼ h
. i (8)
1
rf r þ W
and rf is the density of the fluid overlying the wedge, air or water
(Suppe, 2007). Taper angles a and b are in radians. A wide variety of
brittle and ductile processes operating at different time and spatial
scales potentially may control F and W (Dahlen, 1990). For example,
in some wedges the detachment may be activated in large-slip
earthquakes with dynamical processes dominating the fault
strength, during which wedge taper might be established by off-
detachment deformation (e.g. Suppe et al., 2009). However, in the
following we assume cohesionless brittle frictional static strengths
for both the wedge and the detachment (Eqs. (6) and (7)) to illus-
trate the predicted role of static pore-fluid pressures controlled by
disequilibrium compaction (Eq. (4)).
Yeh and Suppe (2014) show for the case of a general heteroge-
neous wedge of Dahlen (1990) that, if vertical variation in fluid
pressure can be approximated by our simple fluid-retention depth
zFRD formulation (Eq. (4)), then the effect of fluid overpressures on
wedge mechanics is very simply described by zFRD/H. Here we
illustrate this for the approximation of constant zFRD and an
otherwise homogeneous and cohesionless brittle wedge, for which
488 J. Suppe / Journal of Structural Geology 69 (2014) 481e492

A. effective friction C. absolute

fluid pressure crustal & fault strength
& pressure dependence
0 50 100 MPa 0 20 40 60 80 MPa
s.b. s.b.
deep water Niger delta μf = 0.2
μ = 0.55
1 1 κc = 1.86
ZFRD ZFRD ZFRD
2 2 2

μ*f μ* κ*c

σ1−σ 3 = 0.6 κc ρ gZ FRD

3 3 3
στ vert. fault

f FRD / Z)
lith
os

FRD / Z)
ρw

tat
ic
gz F

/ Z)
0.6 μ (Z
4 4 4
ρg
RD

0.6 μ (Z

D
z

στ horiz. fault
+ρ

FR
hydr

c (Z
g(

=0.6μf ρ gZ FRD
z–
osta

5 5 5

κ
z FR

0.6
D

crustal strength
tic

)
ρwgz

6 6 6

7 km 7 km 7 km
D.
1.5°
wedge taper predicted by static fluid pressures detachment dip β = 1.5°
α
β

1.2°
wedge surface slope
& detachment dip

hydrostatic wedge surface slope α

0.9° ZFRD
overpressured we
dge surface slo
0.6° pe α
β + μ (Z /H)
0.3° α + β = 1 + κ f (Z FRD /H) horiz. scale100km
c FRD
0.0°
0 2 4 6 8 10 km
depth to detachment H

E. sea level F. sea level

σ1 σ3
hydrostatic wedge overpressured wedge
D D σ1 σ3
α α zFRD
zFRD

β H z β H
z

Fig. 11. Contrasting roles of fluid overpressure on effective friction and absolute strength and their effect on critical-taper thrust mechanics, illustrated for the Niger delta. (A) Fluid-
pressures from a well in the deep-water Niger delta thrust belt (Krueger and Grant, 2011). (B) Predicted decay of effective friction (m*f , m*) and pressure dependence k* with depth
(Eq. (6)), based on the decay of Hubbert-Rubey weakening below the fluid-retention depth (1
l) z 0.6zFRD/z. (C) Predicted constant absolute fault and crustal strength below the
fluid-retention depth zFRD (Eq. (7)), based on constant effective stress ðrgz
Pf Þ. (D) Predicted wedge taper for the deep-water Niger delta thrust belt, based on the assumption that
strength is controlled by static regional fluid pressure (Eqs. (9) and (11)). Because both fault strength and wedge strength would be affected in identical proportion by regional fluid-
pressure, through zFRD/H, regional overpressures are incapable of explaining the order-of-magnitude contrast between wedge strength W and fault strength F in the Niger delta and
many other thrust belts (see discussion). Nevertheless, overpressures produce some reduction in taper relative to the already very low taper predicted for a hydrostatic wedge. (E &
F) Schematic hydrostatic and overpressured wedges, showing contrasting strength-depth profiles.

the detachment and wedge strengths become simply the effective disequilibrium compaction model is a very simple function of zFRD/
strength coefficients of Eq. (6) written in terms of zFRD/H H, which affects fault strength and wedge strength identically
.
F ¼ mf ð1
lH Þ ¼ mf ½1
ðrw =rÞzFRD H (9a) h
. i .
1
rf r b þ mf ½1
ðrw =rÞzFRD H
aþb¼ h
. i . (10)
W ¼ kc ð1
lH Þ ¼ kc ½1
ðrw =rÞzFRD =H (9b) 1
rf r þ kc ½1
ðrw =rÞzFRD H

where lH is the regional l at the detachment depth H. Thus we see In the case of the Niger delta, the variation of zFRD/H predicts a very
that the effect of fluid overpressures on critical taper under the slowly decreasing taper with increasing H (Fig. 11D).
 J. Suppe / Journal of Structural Geology 69 (2014) 481e492
In the case of a submarine wedge, rf ¼ rw, the expression for
taper becomes further simplified to
. Eqs. (1) and (2)). Extrapolating to greater depths, Brace and
b þ mf zFRD H
aþb¼ (11a)
1 þ kc zFRD =H
and for a hydrostatically pressured submarine wedge (zFRD  H) the
taper is constant
b þ mf
aþb¼ (11b)
1 þ kc
We see from the overpressured wedge-taper equation (Eq.
(11a)) that it is the contrast in crustal and fault strength coefficients
kc and mf that dominates the contrast in wedge and fault strengths
W and F and hence the taper magnitude. It is only in cases in which
zFRD/H is small that fluid overpressures begin to dominate wedge
tapers.
The contrast between F and W is quite large for the Niger delta,
F/W < 0.1, based on regional magnitudes of F ¼ 0.04 and W ¼ 0.7
that were computed from the covariation of surface slope a with
detachment dip b, without any strong assumptions of strength-
controlling mechanisms (Suppe, 2007, using Niger delta taper
data of Bilotti and Shaw, 2005). This large contrast between F and W
is typical of many accretionary wedges and thrust belts; a typical
value of F/W z 0.1 is indicated based on the observed narrow ta-
pers of accretionary wedges (Suppe et al., 2009). Narrow wedge
tapers cannot be dominated by regional fluid overpressures except
in cases of small zFRD because fluid pressures affect the wedge and
fault strengths by the same proportions in Eqs. 9 and 11. Other
mechanisms of fault weakening relative to wedge strength will
generally be required, for example the diverse mechanisms of
dynamical weakening in large earthquakes (e.g. Di Toro et al., 2011).
In other tectonic environments quasistatic mechanisms of fault
weakening are indicated, such as evaporite detachments or
intrinsically weak clay gouges (e.g. Brown et al., 2003; Numelin
et al., 2007).
Nevertheless, static regional fluid overpressures are predicted to
have two well-defined effects on wedge tapers. [1] First, over-
pressures reduce the taper relative to what it would be for an
equivalent hydrostatic wedge (Eqs. 11a and b). In the case of the
Niger delta well (Fig. 11A) the predicted effect of zFRD/H is a ~30%
reduction of an already very small predicted hydrostatic surface
slope of ~1.1 to an overpressured slope of ~0.8 (Fig. 11D) (based on
an ~1.5 detachment dip b, zFRD ¼ 2.3 km, and a detachment depth
H¼~7 km). The predicted effect will be larger for wedges with a
very shallow fluid-retention depth relative to detachment depth.
[2] Second, given a relatively constant zFRD we expect a decreasing
wedge taper towards the wedge interior based on a regional
decrease in zFRD/H. In the case of the Niger delta well this predicted
effect is quite subtle (Fig. 11D). The surface slope would decrease
only ~0.1 over 100 km, given the very gentle detachment dip of
~1.5 , which is difficult to verify given widespread wedge-top
deposition. In contrast, decreasing surface slopes away from the
toes of submarine accretionary wedges are widely observed
without any associated change in detachment dip (e.g. Zhao et al.,
1986). In the case of the convex toe of the Barbados accretionary
wedge, Yeh and Suppe (2014) show that the decrease in taper is a
fluid-pressure effect, dominated by the decrease in zFRD/H towards
the wedge interior and a very shallow fluid-retention depth.
5.1.2. Strength of very thick overpressured crust
Here we briefly consider the implications of fluid overpressures
for crustal-scale strength-depth profiles. Borehole observations in
the range 1e9 km suggest a widespread limiting critical state of
489
pressure-dependent failure controlled by effective stress under
both hydrostatic and overpressured conditions (Figs. 1e3, 5, 9, 10;
Kohlstedt (1980) argued that hydrostatic pore-fluid pressures
would be typical of crystalline crust, based on expected high per-
meabilities. Townend and Zoback (2000) argued that continued
faulting is required to provide high-permeability conduits that
keep fluid pressures near hydrostatic in crystalline crust, especially
in plate interiors (Zoback and Townend, 2001). These consider-
ations have led to the classic strength-depth profile (Fig. 1).
Here we consider the possibility of overpressured conditions
existing within substantial thicknesses of the crust. Thick sedi-
mentary basins on continental margins built on oceanic or highly-
thinned continental crust have vast deforming clastic-rich volumes
that approach a significant fraction of crustal thickness, and may
even span the brittle-ductile transition (e.g. Gulf of Mexico, Niger
delta, Sumatra, Nankai trough). These thick clastic stratigraphic
accumulations may deform into shale-rich plate boundary moun-
tain belts (e.g. Bangladesh/Myanmar, Barbados/Trinidad, Makran,
Gulf of Alaska, offshore SW Taiwan, New Zealand). In the active
compressional Southern Alps of New Zealand there is deep
geophysical evidence for near lithostatic pore-fluid pressures over
much of the width of the mountain belt, extending to depths of
20e30 km, based on seismic P-wave velocity analysis, local to-
mography and magnetotelluric data (Stern et al., 2001; Eberhart-
Phillips and Bannister, 2002; Wannamaker et al., 2002; Scher-
wath et al., 2003). This is a region of the crust interpreted to be
composed of clastic sedimentary rocks undergoing prograde
metamorphism to schist and is expected to extend beyond the
brittle-ductile transition. Very deep (~40 km) near lithostatic fluid
pressures are widely regarded as a central ingredient of slow-slip
earthquake phenomena (e.g. Peng and Gomberg, 2010).
Furthermore, petrologic observations suggest that fluid pres-
sures may be near lithostatic in fine-grained crust undergoing the
transition from shale to phyllite and schist, dominated by pressure
solution. It is widely argued that pore-fluid pressures are close to
lithostatic, based on the existence of some types of crack-seal and
open-void veins (e.g. Etheridge, 1983; Etheridge et al., 1984; Fisher
and Brantley, 1992; Hilgers et al., 2006; Van Noten et al., 2011), and
based on studies of fault-related mesothermal gold-quartz vein
systems, which are suggestive of fault-valve phenomena near the
base of the seismogenic zone (e.g. Sibson et al., 1988). Fluid-
inclusion studies within ore-hosting conduits indicate large oscil-
lations between near-lithostatic and possibly near-hydrostatic
pressures. These observations are suggestive of a dual-
permeability system with a fine-grained matrix at near-lithostatic
pressure, and fault conduits that are alternately broken and sealed
by vein formation with associated fluid pressure and stress fluc-
tuations of the seismic cycle (e.g. Robert et al., 1995;
Micklethewaite, 2008).
Studies by Van Noten et al. (2011) of the stress-state and fluid-
pressure evolution in the High-Ardenne slate belt of Germany,
based on analysis of quartz veins and fluid inclusions, indicate near
lithostatic pore-fluid pressures under very low grade metamorphic
conditions of ~250 C, and an assumed depth of ~7 km based on
stratigraphy. They estimated a limiting compressive crustal
strength s1
s3 during vein formation of ~35e45 MPa, which is
consistent with a nominal fluid-retention depth of 1e3 km, near
the top of the Lower Devonian siliciclastic section. In contrast, a
crustal strength of 100e200 MPa would be expected at ~7 km
depth under the classic brittle-hydrostatic model. The super-
lithostatic fluid pressures suggested for vein formation may
reflect transient vertical redistribution (cf. Fisher et al., 1995).
Furthermore, the low ambient background crustal stress states
required for widespread joint and vein formation are expected at
490 J. Suppe / Journal of Structural Geology 69 (2014) 481e492

great depth in overpressured crust, in contrast with the classic A. Hydrostatic crust B. Overpressured crust
hydrostatic strength-depth profile (see Fig. 12).
strength σ1−σ3 strength σ1−σ3
If we interpolate our borehole observations from overpressured
0 500 MPa 0 500 MPa
continental margins with the geophysical and petrologic evidence 0 0
for near-lithostatic fluid pressures, and hence very low strength, hydrostatic brittle strength

hy
dro
near the brittle-plastic transition, then constant strength may be a
ZFRD

sta
reasonable first-order strength-depth model for fine-grained, 4 4

tic
clastic-dominated crust, as shown in Fig. 13B. This constant

b
ritt
strength model is in contrast with the classic Brace and Kohlstedt

le
8 8

s
(1980) hydrostatic strength-depth profile that is well justified for

tre
overpressured

n
crystalline crust (Figs. 1 and 13A). That said, the strength, fluid

Z km

Z km
gth
brittle strength
12 12

A. στ
hydrostatic regional strength 14 possible stress states 14
100MPa
plastic strength plastic strength
20 20

Fig. 13. Contrasting hydrostatic and overpressured crustal strength-depth curves. (A)
The classic strength-depth graph showing linearly increasing brittle strength, which
requires hydrostatic pore-fluid pressures (Eq. (2)). This model agrees with much deep
borehole data (Fig. 1). (B) The constant-strength model for overpressured crust, based
2To
on borehole data from this paper combined with geophysical and petrologic evidence
To 50 100 200MPa
for near-lithostatic overpressures and low strength in fine-grained rocks at very low
(σn – Pf ) metamorphic grade near the brittle-plastic transition.

Z=2.4km

30° co Z=8km
pressure and state of stress through the brittle-ductile transition in
he shale-rich mountain belts remains a significant research frontier
sio
co nle
he ss beyond the scope of this paper. However, current viscous-plastic
siv reg
er ion
oc modeling of disequilibrium compaction suggests that matrix
ks al
tre str
–100MPa ng
th
en
gth weakening by pressure solution becomes a dominant mechanism
(T
o=
10
in generating near-lithostatic fluid pressures at great depths
MP (Morency et al., 2007).
a)

στ 6. Conclusions
B.
overpressured regional strength
The classic view of upper crustal strength is a linearly increasing
100MPa
pressure-dependent brittle strength, which requires a hydrostatic
σ1 vertical
pore-fluid pressure. This model has been confirmed by much
borehole data in crystalline crust to depths reaching 8e9 km
ΔPf (Fig. 1). In contrast, clastic sedimentary basins and deforming shale-
rich mountain belts display pore fluids that are overpressured
tensile effective stress Z>ZFRD
strength To
below some critical depth, based on much borehole data and
seismic velocity analysis. Therefore we have explored the predicted
50 100 200MPa shapes of strength-depth curves based on fluid-pressure data in a
(σn – Pf ) number of overpressured regions, using the same assumption used
in the hydrostatic case: that a limiting critical strength is controlled
Z=ZFRD=2.4km
by effective stress times a pressure dependence s1
s3 ¼
effective stress
30°
kðrgz
Pf Þ. We have successfully tested this prediction for three
for regional co
jointing he
sio cases in which we have both fluid pressure data and in situ borehole
co nle
he
siv ss stress data over a substantial depth interval (Gulf of Mexico, Brunei
er reg
oc
ks
ion
al
delta, and Scotia Shelf, eastern Canada).
–100MPa tre str Fluid overpressures that are dominated by the disequilibrium
ng en
th gth
(T
o= compaction mechanism are of particular interest for regional-scale
10
MP
a)
tectonics because they are very widely observed, have straightfor-
ward implications for crustal strength, and are predictable based on
Fig. 12. Effective stresses required for regional joint formation and the predicted observable quantities. The most straightforward signature of regional
regional stress states for (A) hydrostatic and (B) overpressured crust at a critical state of disequilibrium compaction is hydrostatic fluid pressures at shallow
failure, illustrated with Mohr diagrams. Effective stresses at great depth in over- depths above the fluid-retention depth zFRD, and overpressured
pressured crust are small and therefore relatively favorable for regional joint forma- below it, increasing parallel to the lithostatic gradient rgz. Therefore
tion, in contrast with hydrostatic crust. Note that for all depths greater than the fluid-
retention depth zFRD, the effective stress state is identical to that at the fluid-retention
effective stress ðrgz
Pf Þ is constant below the zFRD, which implies
depth, therefore only a modest increase in fluid pressure DPf would allow the effective that brittle strength will be also constant s1
s3 z 0.6kgzFRD. Crustal
stresses needed for joint formation by tensile fracture, even at very great depth. strength profiles in areas of regional disequilibrium compaction are
 J. Suppe / Journal of Structural Geology 69 (2014) 481e492
radically different from the classic linearly-increasing hydrostatic
strength-depth profile (e.g. Figs. 1, 2 and 13).
Fluid-retention depth zFRD is particularly important because it can
be observed based on commonly available borehole data and on
seismic velocity analysis in non-eroded siliciclastic sedimentary
sections. In addition, fossil fluid-retention depths can be preserved in
uplifted and eroded strata and identified by a variety of means
(Magara, 1978; Yue and Suppe, 2014). Once we know the fluid-
retention depth we can estimate the Hubbert-Rubey weakening
(1
l) z 0.6zFRD/z everywhere within the overpressured zone (Eq.
(4)), which allows us to immediately know the vertical variation in
effective friction (m*f , m*, k*) and absolute crustal (s1
s3) and static
fault strength st (Eqs. (6) and (7), Fig. 11). Therefore, fluid-retention
depth zFRD should be considered an important observable param-
eter in crustal mechanics.
Observations of fluid-retention depth zFRD are of particular
importance for critical-taper mechanics of accretionary wedges and
thrust belts. Yeh and Suppe (2014) have incorporated the rela-
tionship between Hubbert-Rubey weakening and fluid-retention
depth (1
l) z 0.6zFRD/z into the general heterogeneous wedge
theory of Dahlen (1990). This allows us to directly incorporate
observations of fluid-retention depth in applications of wedge
mechanics, obtaining geologically reasonable fluid pressure and
strength distributions. Yeh and Suppe (2014) have applied this to
data from the Barbados accretionary wedge, and show that the
convex geometry of its toe, which is typical of many classic accre-
tionary wedges, is dominated by regional fluid overpressures as
described by wedge equations that incorporate fluid-retention
depth zFRD and other observable parameters. In the present paper
we apply a simplified version of the Yeh and Suppe (2014) theory to
illustrate the effects of fluid overpressures on wedge taper (Eq. (11),
Fig. 11). This analysis suggests that the very low tapers of many
accretionary wedges and fold-and-thrust belts, which imply wedge
strengths much higher than basal fault strengths F/W z 0.1, are
reduced but not dominated by regional overpressure effects,
because static fluid overpressures affect wedge strength and basal
fault strength by the same proportions (Eqs. (9) and (11)).
We have briefly discussed some geophysical and petrologic
evidence for near-lithostatic overpressures and low strength at
deeper levels of the crust, at very low metamorphic grade near the
brittle-ductile transition. Combining this deeper evidence with the
borehole evidence of this paper, we suggest that a first-order
constant strength model is more appropriate for overpressured
crust than the classic linearly-increasing strength-depth profile
(Fig. 13).
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to collaborators and organizations for their support
and encouragement over an extended period, including Li-Fan Yue,
En-Chao Yeh, the Chinese Petroleum Corporation (CPC Corp), Tex-
aco USA, National Taiwan University, Ludwigs Maximillian Uni-
versity, Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, and ROC National
Science Council grant NSC102-2116-M-002-002.
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