What is Cultural Anthropology? Branches of Anthropology?

Cultural Anthropology:
Anthropology is the study of all aspects of humans in all times and all places.
It means it studies about anything that belong to a human being like behavior, a
ttitude, perceptions, beliefs and cultures. It also studies about the evolution
of human beings and their cultures. Anthropology examines such topics as how pe
ople live, what they think, what they produce, and how they interact with their
environments.
Discipline of Anthropology:
Anthropology is traditionally divided into four sub disciplines. Physical Anthro
pology and three branches of Cultural Anthropology.
Physical Anthropology:
The systematic study of human as biological organism. It is also known by the n
ame of “Biological Anthropology”. In this branch the anthropologists studies abo
ut the affects of culture on the physics of human beings or the evolutions of th
e human’s organisms.
For Example in the “Kaya Village” the women have long necks so here the anthropo
logists studied about the reasons of their long necks. They went there and asked
from them about it. So they came to know that in their culture females wear a s
teel rings round the neck from the age of 8 or 9 years. And they think that they
would be look ugly if their neck will not be long.(NAT GEO)
Due to their culture their physics change so in Physical Anthropology it
is studied. In other words it can said that the evolution of human body that is
happen due to cultural or societal influence.
Cultural Anthropology:
The branch of Anthropology that focuses on human behavior.
It further divides into three branches.
Linguistic Anthropology
Archaeology
Ethnology
Linguistic Anthropology:
The branch of Cultural Anthropology that studies human language is called Lingui
stic Anthropology. In this branch the social scientists studies about the charac
teristics, importance, development and their intellectuals. They also studied ab
out the rules of language and the basic components of Language.
For example if we see in English Language we will see the name o
f great intellectuals who made the theories and the rules of grammar like Noam C
homsky describe the “Learning Approach Theory” and Michael and other persons mad
e the rules of grammar.
Archaeology:
Archaeology is the branch of Cultural Anthropology that study of remains materia
l usually from the past to describe and explain human behavior. Archaeology stud
ies past human behavior through the examination of material remains of previous
human societies. These remains include the fossils (preserved bones) of humans,
food remains, the ruins of buildings, and human artifacts—items such as tools, p
ottery, and jewelry. From their studies, archaeologists attempt to reconstruct p
ast ways of life. Archaeology is an important field of anthropology, which is th
e broad study of human culture and biology. Archaeologists concentrate their stu
dies on past societies and changes in those societies over extremely long period
s of time.
Ethnology:
“Ethnology is the knowledge of past people’s incidents, cultures and their belie
fs”
Ethnology, typically practiced by socio-cultural anthropologists, is concerned w
ith the study of cultures in their traditional forms and in their adaptations to
changing conditions in the modern world. Ethnography, the observational branch
of ethnology, describes each culture, including its language, the physical chara
cteristics of its people, its material products, and its social customs. In desc
ribing a particular tribe, for example, ethnographers gather information about i
ts location and geographical environment. They also investigate all aspects of i
ts culture, including food, shelter, dress, transportation, and manufacture of t
he tribe; its customs regarding government, property, and division of labor; its
patterns of production and exchange; its customs regarding birth, adulthood ini
tiation rites, marriage, and death; its religious ideas relating to magic, super
natural beings, and the universe; and its artistic, mythological, and ceremonial
interpretations of its natural and social environment.
Culture
1. Introduction
Word culture is taking from Latin word ‘cultura’ which means to cultivate. For e
xample, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 defin
itions of "culture" in Culture: a Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions. H
owever, the word "culture" is most commonly used in three basic senses:
• Excellence of taste in the fine arts and humanities, also known as high
culture
• An integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior that depe
nds upon the capacity for symbolic thought and social learning
• The set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that character
izes an institution, organization or group
• Culture includes socially acquired knowledge, beliefs, art, law, morals,
customs, and habits. (Edward B Taylor)
Culture is a powerful human tool for survival, but it is a fragile phenomenon.
It is constantly changing and easily lost because it exists only in our minds.
Our written languages, governments, buildings, and other man-made things are mer
ely the products of culture. They are not culture in themselves. For this reas
on, archaeologists can not dig up culture directly in their excavations. The br
oken pots and other artifacts of ancient people that they uncover are only mater
ial remains that reflect cultural patterns--they are things that were made and u
sed through cultural knowledge and skills.
In the twentieth century, "culture" emerged as a concept central to anthropology
, encompassing all human phenomena that are not purely results of human genetics
. Specifically, the term "culture" in American anthropology had two meanings:
(1) The evolved human capacity to classify and represent experiences with symbol
s, and to act imaginatively and creatively.
(2) The distinct ways that people living in different parts of the world classif
ied and represented their experiences, and acted creatively.
2. History of the Concept of Culture
People have long been aware of cultural differences among societies. Some of the
earliest accounts of culture come from the Greek historian Herodotus, who lived
in the 400s BC. Herodotus traveled through the Persian Empire, which included m
uch of the Middle East and surrounding parts of Asia and Africa. He wrote at len
gth about the cultural and racial diversity of these places, much of which he li
nked to differences in people’s environments.
For almost 2000 years following the time of Herodotus, many people attributed cu
ltural differences to racial inheritance. The biblical account of the Tower of B
abel, in which God caused people to speak new languages, also provided an explan
ation for cultural diversity.
At the end of the Middle Ages (5th to 15th century ad), many countries of Wester
n Europe began sending explorers around the world to find new sources of materia
l goods and wealth. Prolonged contacts with new cultures during these travels sp
arked Europeans’ interest in the sources and meaning of cultural diversity.
The English term culture actually came into use during the Middle Ages. It deriv
ed from the Latin word for cultivation, as in the practice of nurturing domestic
ated plants in gardens. Thus, the word originally referred to people’s role in c
ontrolling nature.
3. Characteristics of Culture
Everything has its characteristics likewise culture has also its own characteris
tics that make it different from others and made it easy to understand. Followin
g are the characteristics of the culture.
i. Culture is Symbolic
Symbols allow people to develop complex thoughts and exchange those thoughts wit
h others.
People have culture primarily because they can communicate with and understand s
ymbols. A symbol has either an indirect connection or no connection at all with
the object, idea, feeling, or behavior to which it refers. For instance, most pe
ople in the United States find some meaning in the combination of the colors red
, white, and blue. But those colors themselves have nothing to do with, for inst
ance, the land that people call the United States, the concept of patriotism, or
the U.S. national anthem, The Star Spangled Banner.
To convey new ideas, people constantly invent new symbols, such as for mathemati
cal formulas. In addition, people may use one symbol, such as a single word, to
represent many different ideas, feelings, or values. Thus, symbols provide a fle
xible way for people to communicate even very complex thoughts with each other.
For example, only through symbols can architects, engineers, and construction wo
rkers communicate the information necessary to construct a skyscraper or bridge.
ii. Culture is Learned
People are not born with culture; they have to learn it. For instance, people mu
st learn to speak and understand a language and to abide by the rules of a socie
ty. In many societies, all people must learn to produce and prepare food and to
construct shelters. In other societies, people must learn a skill to earn money,
which they then use to provide for themselves. In all human societies, children
learn culture from adults. Anthropologists call this process enculturation, or
cultural transmission.
Enculturation is a long process. Just learning the intricacies of a human langua
ge, a major part of enculturation, takes many years. Families commonly protect a
nd enculturate children in the households of their birth for 15 years or more. O
nly at this point can children leave and establish their own households. People
also continue to learn throughout their lifetimes. Thus, most societies respect
their elders, who have learned for an entire lifetime.
iii. Culture is Shared
People living together in a society share culture. For example, almost all peopl
e living in the United States share the English language, dress in similar style
s, eat many of the same foods, and celebrate many of the same holidays.
All the people of a society collectively create and maintain culture. Societies
preserve culture for much longer than the life of any one person. They preserve
it in the form of knowledge, such as scientific discoveries; objects, such as wo
rks of art; and traditions, such as the observance of holidays.
iv. Culture is Adaptive
Cultural adaptation has made humans one of the most successful species on the pl
anet. Through history, major developments in technology, medicine, and nutrition
have allowed people to reproduce and survive in ever-increasing numbers. Howeve
r, the successes of culture can also create problems in the long run. Over the l
ast 200 years, people have begun to use large quantities of natural resources an
d energy and to produce a great amount of material and chemical wastes. The glob
al population now consumes some crucial natural resources—such as petroleum, tim
ber, and mineral ores—faster than nature can produce them. Many scientists belie
ve that in the process of burning fuels and producing wastes, people may be alte
ring the global climate in unpredictable and possibly harmful ways (see Global W
arming). Thus, the adaptive success of the present-day global culture of product
ion and commerce may be temporary.
Culture must benefit people, at least in the short term, in order for it to be p
assed on to new generations. But it can clearly also harm some people. The numbe
r of people living in severe poverty near the end of the 20th century was larger
than the entire population of the world in ad 1500.
4. Categories of Culture
Anthropologists have described a number of different categories of culture. For
example, a simple distinction can be made between cultural objects, such as type
s of clothing, and cultural beliefs, such as forms of religion. Many early anthr
opological definitions of culture are essentially descriptions of categories of
culture or cultural items.
i. Material Culture
All societies produce and exchange material goods so that people can feed, cloth
e, shelter, and otherwise provide for themselves. This system is commonly known
as an economy. Anthropologists look at several aspects of people’s material cult
ure. These aspects include
(1) The methods by which people obtain or produce food, known as a pattern of su
bsistence
(2) The ways in which people exchange goods and services
(3) The kinds of technologies and other objects people make and use
(4) The effects of people’s economy on the natural environment.
ii. Social Culture
People in all types of societies organize themselves in relation to each other f
or work and other duties, and to structure their interactions. People commonly o
rganize themselves according to
a) Kinship and marriage
In smaller societies people organize themselves primarily according to ties of k
inship (blood relation) and marriage. Kin generally give each other preferential
treatment over non kin. People who share ties by blood and marriage commonly li
ve together in families.
All people in bands generally respect each other as equals, thou
gh children must show increased respect for their elders. The eldest group membe
rs often earn special recognition for their knowledge. Men and women in bands al
so commonly regard each other as equals.
Kinship and family relations are both important in agricultural
societies, as well as for many people in industrial and commerce-based societies
. But for many people today living in large societies, kinship and family relati
ons have become less important. Many people live alone or in small families and
also depend on organizations, workplaces, and government institutions to provide
support available in smaller societies from family and kin.
b) Work
Anthropologists call the smallest unit of economic production in any society a h
ousehold. A household consists of a group of people, usually a family, who work
collectively to support each other and often to raise children.
In small, independent band and tribal societies, individual hous
eholds produce their own food, clothing, and shelter. Men and women commonly div
ide work duties; men hunting and building shelters and women gardening, cooking,
and caring for children. People in small societies often live in extended famil
ies, in which several generations of kin and relatives by marriage live in the s
ame household. Sometimes, however, men and women live in separate places, especi
ally if they also often work and participate in ceremonies apart from members of
the opposite sex.
In chiefdoms and civilizations, households have to produce enoug
h to support themselves and their leaders. All households do not always have equ
al access to needed materials, such as tools or draft animals, or land. Thus, so
me families have higher status than others do. On the whole, men in these societ
ies have higher status than women and perform fewer menial tasks.
In industrial societies, few households are self-sufficient. For
instance, most people could not build their own houses, grow and cook all of th
eir own food, and make all of their clothes. Most people also depend on technolo
gies that no one could produce alone from raw materials, such as cars, refrigera
tors, and computers.
c) Political position.
Groups of people living in bands have no formal leadership, and all people have
input in making group decisions. Most decision-making in tribes occurs within ho
useholds. Occasionally, most or all members of lineages or clans convene to make
important village decisions, such as about dealing with neighboring tribes.
Within most tribes, all groups commonly have about equal status.
Since every person belongs to a descent group, no one person ranks too far abov
e or below another. In some tribes, however, people known as big men might earn
a degree of higher status and respect than others by demonstrating bravery or br
avado.
Chiefdoms, larger than most tribes, consist of at least two very
large descent groups organized under rulers known as chiefs, who are born into
their positions of leadership. Chiefs must prove that they are closest in descen
t to the founding ancestor of the highest ranked clans within chiefdoms. They li
ve as full-time rulers who may not have to work at productive duties. Chiefs hav
e the power to collect some of the goods people produce, such as food, and redis
tribute them in times of need or use them in ceremony.
A state may claim ownership of all its territory and resources a
nd may wage wars against other nations. Important families may rule states for s
everal generations, though this happened more commonly in the past. But all stat
es have distinct social and economic classes, and higher classes have greater po
litical influence or power than do lower classes.
5. Ideology of Culture
In every society, culturally unique ways of thinking about the world unite peopl
e in their behavior.
In every society, culturally unique ways of thinking about the world unite peopl
e in their behavior. Anthropologists often refer to the body of ideas that peopl
e share as ideology. Ideology can be broken down into at least three specific ca
tegories: beliefs, values, and ideals.
i. Religion
Religion allows people to know about and communicate with supernatural beings—su
ch as animal spirits, gods, and spirits of the dead. Religion often serves to he
lp people cope with the death of relatives and friends, and it figures prominent
ly in most funeral ceremonies
ii. Secularism
Many societies today interpret the natural world and form beliefs based on scien
ce and logic. Societies in which many people do not practice any religion, such
as the United States, may be known as secular societies. However, no society is
entirely secular.
iii. Art
Art is a distinctly human production, and many people consider it the ultimate f
orm of culture because it can have the quality of pure expression, entirely sepa
rate from basic human needs. But some anthropologists actually regard artistic e
xpression as a basic human need, as basic as food and water. Some art takes the
form of material production, and many utilitarian items have artistic qualities.
Other forms of art, such as music or acting, reside in the mind and body and ta
ke expression as performance. The material arts include painting, pottery, sculp
ture, textiles and clothing, and cookery. Nonmaterial arts include music, dance,
drama and dramatic arts, storytelling, and written narratives.