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Introduction
task. The motivational model indicates that essence of failed deprivation generates need and such
need create tension in an individual. The individual perceive a makes costs benefits analysis on
the way and means of realizing such tension. Once such perception is clear individual pounce
upon the activities and achieves some result. If it is success he feels rewarded a falls in the cycle
of motivation again. If it is failure he feels punish once again after due mortification of ways and
means pounces back on the cycle or feels frustrated. Therefore, motivation leads to a goal
directed behaviour.
When people join an organization, they bring with them certain needs that fact on the job
performance. Some of these needs are physiological, other are related to psychological and social
values. The later are much more difficult to determine and satisfy and they vary greatly from one
to other. Maslow has developed a hierarchy of needs as follows, physiological security, social
esteem and self-actualization needs. They interacted with the environment to shape on the job
wants that are the basis of motivation. In addition, motivation is affected by people perceptions,
including their feeling equity or fairness in a situation.
the person that sustains his continued activity as a human behaviour. It is an act of stimulating
someone to get a desired course of action. A motivated person takes action and does whatever it
takes to achieve his/her goals. Motivation becomes strong when we have a clear vision of our
goal/what we want to achieve and a strong desire to achieve it. Motivation can be either negative
or positive, punishments or methods where people work in fear will produce minimum
motivation to get along safely. Positive motivation makes people willing to do their work in the
best way they can and improve their performance. Incentive is an external stimulus that activates
need and motive refers to the activated need. It is the outward stimulus for motive to work.
Incentive is the means to motivation. (8)
There are two types of motivation, Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation. It's important to
understand that we are not all the same; thus effectively motivating your employees requires that
you gain an understanding of the different types of motivation. Such an understanding will
enable you to better categorize your team members and apply the appropriate type of motivation.
You will find each member different and each member's motivational needs will be varied as
well. Some people respond best to intrinsic which means "from within" and will meet any
obligation of an area of their passion. Quite the reverse, others will respond better to extrinsic
motivation which, in their world, provides that difficult tasks can be dealt with provided there is
a reward upon completion of that task. Become an expert in determining which type will work
best with which team members. (Pahuja, Psychology of Learning and Development 217)
Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation means that the individual's motivational stimuli are coming from
within. The individual has the desire to perform a specific task, because its results are in
accordance with his belief system or fulfills a desire and therefore importance is attached to it.
Our deep-rooted desires have the highest motivational power. Below are some examples:
Acceptance: We all need to feel that we, as well as our decisions, are accepted by our co-
workers. Curiosity: We all have the desire to be in the know. Honor: We all need to respect the
rules and to be ethical. Independence: We all need to feel we are unique. Order: We all need to
be organized. Power: We all have the desire to be able to have influence. Social contact: We all
need to have some social interactions. Social Status: We all have the desire to feel
important.(217)
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Extrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic motivation means that the individual's motivational stimuli are coming from
outside. In other words, our desires to perform a task are controlled by an outside source. Note
that even though the stimuli are coming from outside, the result of performing the task will still
be rewarding for the individual performing the task. Extrinsic motivation is external in nature.
The most well-known and the most debated motivation is money. Below are some other
examples: Employee of the month award, Benefit package, Bonuses, Organized activities.(218)
2. Theories of motivations
Theories of motivation try to provide general sets of principle to guide our understanding
of the urges, wants, needs, strivings and goals that come under the heading of motivation. They
include drive theories, incentive theories, the opponent process theory and optimal level theory.
In contrast with the push theories of motivation incentive theories are pull theories of
motivation. Because, of certain characteristics they have, the goal objects pull behavior towards
them. The goal objects, which motivate behavior, are known as incentives. An important of
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many incentive theories is that individual expects pleasure from the attainment of what are called
positive incentives and from the avoidance of what are known as negative incentives. Incentives
are positive or negative stimuli that motivate behaviour. This theory treats motivation and
behaviour of the individual as they are influenced by beliefs. Incentive theory involves positive
reinforcement: the stimulus has been conditioned to make the person happier. It is been
associated with the removal of punishment. When there is both need and incentive, we feel
driven.(132)
This is a hedonistic theory, as such, it says we are motivated to seek goals which give us
good emotional feeling and avoid goal resulting in displeasure. Furthermore, this theory says that
many emotional motivation states are followed by opposing or opposite states. For example, a
woman discovers a lump in her breast and gets tensed, that she cries continuously. As the time
passes, she slowly regains some sort of energy and stops crying and begins to work. At this
point, though she works, still tensed and worried and she calls her doctor for an appointment.
After examination, the doctor informs her that there is no possibility of cancer and suggests
medicine to take. Now she is relieved and goes happily. Her emotional expression is back to
normal. (132)
Optimal level theories are hedonistic theories, which say that behavior is directed toward
seeking an optimal level of arousal. For instance, if arousal is too low, a person will seek
situations are stimuli to increase arousal; if arousal is too high, behavior will be directed towards
decreasing it. Imagine yourself on extremely busy day at work; too much happening and you are
highly arousal. More likely, you find yourself doing things such as taking the telephone off the
book in order to reduce the overloaded of arousal, to which you are being subjected. In doing so
you are behaving so as to move toward a level of optimal arousal. And low level of arousal may
also motivate behavior directed at increasing arousal levels to the optimum.(132)
In these pages I will be focusing on some of the important of these theories. Maslow’s
Hierarchy of need theory will be dealt with in detail, later.
Employees dislike work; if possible avoid them. They must be coerced, controlled or threatened
to do the work .They avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction. They place a great
importance on security
Employees love work as play or rest. They are self directed and controlled and committed. They
accept and seek responsibilities. They have innovative spirit
McGregor suggests, the more creative Y, as the way forward; but this theory has been
criticized highly for generalisation of work and human behaviour.
One of the most widely mentioned theories of motivation is the Hierarchy of Needs
Theory put forward by Abraham Maslow. He has classified human needs in logical convenient
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way .In his theory he pointed out how human needs influence behaviour Maslow formulated his
humanistic philosophy from the observations made from working with mentally distributed
persons based on the ways in which human needs influence behaviour. He theorized that
experienced needs are primarily influences on human behaviour. When a particular need
emerges it influences human behaviour in terms of motivation preferences. He believed that
there is a natural process whereby individuals needs in an ascending order from most immature
to mature need. He indicates that there should be a test minimal fulfillment before he can pursue
his higher needs. Basically, humanistic perspective believes that people can choose what is right
for them if given an opportunity. Maslow saw human needs in the form of a hierarchy, ascending
from the lowest to the highest and he concluded that when one of set of needs is satisfied, this
kind of need ceases to be a motivator. (134-5)
This refers to the physiological/ physical needs for the maintenance of the body. Food,
water, warmth, shelter, sleep, medicine and education are the basic physiological needs which
fall in the primary list of need satisfaction. Maslow was of an opinion that until these needs are
satisfied to a degree to maintain life, no other motivating factors can work. (138)
These needs form the next higher level. These symbolize needs for bodily protection
against danger, threat etc. and also economic security, not meeting the present needs alone but
future assurance as well. This level not only includes protection form physical harm, ill health
but also protection against emotional harm.(139)
According to Maslow, once people begin to satisfy their need to belong, they tend to be
held in esteem both by themselves and by others. There are needs concerning one’s self esteem
and esteem from others and needs concerning one’s reputation. These needs are believed to have
the strongest influence on human behaviour. They comprise both of awareness of one’s own
importance and the actual realm of others. They lead to self-confidence and prestige.(140)
Maslow regards this as the highest need in the hierarchy, self expression and self
realization. They influence the behaviour at al times, but only after all other needs are satisfied
that they dominate. These relate prominently to personal aspirations of man. It is the drive to
become what one is capable of becoming, including growth, achieving of one’s potential and
self-fulfillment. It is to maximize ones potential and to accomplish something. They also include
need for relative expression and contribution to worthwhile objectives.
Carl Rogers, a clinical psychologist, used the theory of self-concepts, which he defined as
an organized pattern of perceived characteristics along with the values attached to those
attributes. He also assumed that within each individual there is a biological drive toward growth
of self-concept, which can ultimately lead to self-actualization. Rogers believed that while
children's self-concept is developing, they may internalize conditions of worth, judgments about
the kinds of behaviors that will bring approval from others. He felt that, to promote growth and
development, parents and authority figures should give a child unconditional acceptance and
love, which allows a child to develop self-acceptance and to achieve self-actualization. To help
his clients get back on the road to self-actualization, he developed a therapeutic approach called
client-centered therapy, in which the therapist offers the client unconditional positive regard by
supporting the client regardless of what is said. The warm, sympathetic therapeutic environment
allows the client to be freed of internalized conditions of worth and to resume the self-
actualization process. (140-1)
others. Maslow’s hierarchy fails to explain the “starving artist” scenario in which the aesthetic
neglects their physical needs to pursuit of aesthetic or spiritual goals. Additionally, little
evidence suggest that satisfy exclusively one motivating need at a time, other than situations
where needs conflict. While a scientific support fails to reinforce Maslow’s hierarchy, this theory
is very popular, being the introductory motivation theory for many students and managers
worldwide. To handle a number of issues of present in the need hierarchy, Clayton Alderfer
devised the ERG theory; a constant need based model that aligns more accurately with scientific
research. All humans develop their own hierarchy of motives, in the course of our development
from childhood to old age. For some the need for love, security and safety will dominate, some
others the need of achievements. Many of us confine many motives that suit our personality and
experience. Even though Maslow’s theory had found wide recognition, research does not
validate this theory. He provided no empirical evidence and other several studies that sought to
validate it, found no support for it. Then his methodology of selecting few people that he himself
declared self-actualized, as a sample, did not seem to be good science. Another one is that he
placed many constraints on self-actualization. A major criticism is that Maslow said our lower
needs are actualized first before self-actualization takes place. Bu this is definitely not the case.
There are many examples like Galileo, Rembrandt, who were poor but heavily gifted artists who
tried some form of self-actualization. But if we bring it in line with the idea of fully actualizing
person, it makes more sense. Here deprivation of any needs means not fully actualizing and not,
non-self actualizing. Scientific research has failed to support the need hierarchy of Maslow. But
nevertheless, this theory is increasingly popular as an introductive motivation in this field.
Freud’s theory of motivation was based on instincts. In his last book “Outline of Psycho-
analysis”, he asserted that Eros and death instinct are the ultimate cause of the motivation in
behavior. In fact, life instinct, the urge for self-preservation dominates the earlier scenes of one’s
life. When life instinctors, death instinct comes to operation. For example, the lover who has
failed in his love affair may think of committing suicide. However, what moves or energizes the
activities of the life instinct is the need for sexual gratification-a media to provide intense
pleasure of satisfaction and meaning to one’s life.
Behaviorist’s like Watson, Clark Hull and Skinner emphasize that needs and drives work
stimuli to evoke responses in the form of motivation behavior. Explaining the mechanism they
say that a need in the form of stimulation gives birth to a drive or motive which in turn sets the
motivational behavior in motion. The reduction of need and the associate drive, then works as a
rein forcer for maintaining behavior this need or drive reduction hypothesis propagated by
behaviorist has been strongly opposed by psychologists who came later. However, the
importance of needs and drives in controlling and giving the motivational behavior of humans is
beyond questions.
Without agreeing with the extreme views of Freud regarding sex as the basis of human
motivation Alfred Adler, a student of Freud advocated that human beings are motivated
primarily by social urges, for maintaining his social self one requires a margin of safety besides
the simple security in terms of protection from danger. He achieves this margin of safety through
domination and superiority. Therefore, the struggle for achievement and status or the will to
dominate is really an out growth of the fundamental need for security. Thus the motivation of
human behavior may be endured through a single basis drive known as security drive or motive
or in terms of a single need, the need for security to maintain one’s social life
3. Principles of motivation
Motivation is a key word and essential requirement for the success of the learning process
carries out in the class room. Unfortunately there is no single magic formula set of principles for
motivating all students in every teaching-leamtrtg situation. Motivation is in fact is individual
phenomenon. However on the basis of researches and experiences in the field of motivational
psychology and pedagogy the following may be named as general principles of motivation.
(Pahuja, Psychology of Learning and Development 218)
collaborative learning and see the results. Your students will always remain motivated to
learn.(219)
3.3. Principle of arousing and maintaining interest
Interest is a key word and central figure in any process of motivation. One gets motivated
and remains absorbed in a particular learning task depending upon the degree of arousal and
maintaining interest in the task, therefore make the teaching-learning as interesting as possible
for motivating your students.(219)
3.4. Principle of clarity and definiteness of goal and purpose
The learner is motivated to the extent he or she sees some purposes, values and
advantages drawn through the learning. Similarly if one is definite about the goals and objectives
of his learning, he can go straight forward on the path of his earning without any confusion and
ambiguity. He can be more attractive take more interest and show more zeal and enthusiasm
towards the learning of the things for which he is more clear about their nature and
outcomes.(219)
3.5. Principle of employing proper methods and devices class room.
Much depends upon the art of teaching. A good teacher by adopting suitable proper
methods may motivate his students for a successful journey of teaching and learning in and
outside the classroom. The choice of proper methods including aid material, devices and modern
technology may thus work as a good motivating agent. (219)
The autocratic functioning, breeding of the conformity and passivity, denial of the
freedom to ask and respond, irrelevant rebuking and reproofing of the student, etc., prove quite
detrimental to the enthusiasm and initiatives of the learners. It is better to say good bye to all this
negative elements and introduce an open and positive teaching learning environment for the
student’s motivation.(220)
Introduction of change and variety proves a big factor in motivating the learner in any
teaching, learning situation. It brings novelty, newness, curiosity, adventurism and other likewise
things in a routine or the otherwise boring and fatigued environment of learning situation.
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Therefore it is always advisable to introduce change and variety in terms of the instructional
material, methods, devices teaching-learning situations, etc., for keeping the student
motivated.(220)
The learner should know about the progress of his learning as frequently and immediately
as possible. It helps in maintain his interest and motivation further in the ongoing teaching-
learning process. The knowledge of the progress in attending the prior set goals motivates the
student in directing his activities with more energy and enthusiasm towards the goal by offering
continues opportunities to experience success.
It is an acceptable fact that internal motivation is longer, lasting and more self-directive
than the external motivation. It’s also true that some individuals particularly children of certain
ages and some adults have little capacity for internal motivation and must be guided and
reinforced constantly through external rewards and incentives. In such cases the beginning may
be made through these means of external motivation. However cautions should always be
exercised in using external rewards when they are not absolutely necessary and ultimately one
should learn to get motivation from the internal sources instead of the external rewards and
incentives. (221)
It is the child who has to learn. The teacher only helps him to learn. Therefore, what the
child has to learn, the teacher is only to help him in learning that. But, what child has to learn,
should be judged according to the ability, interest capacity and previous experience of the child.
Is he, mature enough to understand the new material or do the assigned task? Does he possess
necessary skills and abilities for doing the present task? Is he mentally prepared for the present
learning? These are some of the questions which should be kept in mind while asking the child to
learn something new or perform some assigned task. The learning material or experiences should
always be assigned according to the needs, interest and abilities of the child. (224)
Experience is a great teacher. What has been learned or experienced in the past proves a
good base for the present learning. The assigned task seems to be interesting easy and within the
capacity of the individual, if it is properly related with the past experience. The child is easily
motivated to learn the new materials if he thinks that he knows all that which is required as a
base for the new learning. Therefore, it is the duty of the teacher to base his present teaching
upon the previous learning experiences by the pupil. (224)
Whatever the subject matter may be a good teacher with his art of teaching can stimulate
the students of learning. Old dogmatic methods kill the initiative and interest of the learner while
the progressive methods based on the psychological principles, keep him motivated. The use of
audio-visual aids and the service rendered by museum, library, visit of places, directly help the
teacher in motivating his students. Therefore, a teacher should make use of the suitable methods,
devices and aid material in his teaching. (225)
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One cannot feel interested in a task if one is not aware of the purpose served by doing
that. Definiteness of aims and the goals makes the learner interested and sets him to work in a
desirable direction. The students must be acquainted well with the aims and objectives of
studying a subject or a topic. They must be told the purpose of acquiring a new skill or
experiences so that a clear perception of the goals may motivate them and bring required results.
(225)
Every learner wishes to know the result of his striving. When we make ourselves engaged
in doing some task, it is natural to have curiosity about the progress made in completing that
task. The knowledge that we are progressing satisfactorily, gives us proper incentive. The child
who is attempting mathematical problem concerning with a particular topic, gets constant
motivation if he is well-acquainted with his progress. Immediate knowledge of the results
provides sufficient feed-back to the learner. It does not only acquaint him with his success or
failure but makes him able to plan his further attempts in reaching towards specific goals. The
proper critical evaluation of the pupil’s work, in terms of specific defects, errors and good points
proves an effective incentive for the desirable improvement. Teachers should make provision for
acquainting the students well with their progress. For this purpose, proper record cards, graphs
and charts should be maintained in the school. (225)
Both praise and reproof are the potent incentives. They can be safely used for the
achievement of desired motivation in the class room situations. Which one of these incentives
will prove more effective depends upon the personality of the learner as well as of the person
who gives them. In the case of some individuals, both praise and reproof work well while others
respond best to one or the other. Generally, those having feeling of inadequacy respond more
favorably to praise and those who are self assured work harder than after criticism. The ways, in
which these incentives are given or repeated by the teacher, also counts much. The essential
condition for the effectiveness of these incentives is that they must either satisfy or threaten our
security or one or more of our other motives. In this way, the teacher must try to recognize the
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nature of the students and consequently make use of the praise or reproof in motivating and
inspiring them. (225)
Rewards and punishments bring the same results as praise and reproof. Both of these are
powerful incentives and try to influence the future conduct or learning of an organism favorably.
While punishment as a negative motive is based on fear of failure, fear of losing prestige, fear of
insult in rejection, fear of physical pain and so on. The reward as a positive motive seeks to
influence conduct favorably by associating a pleasant feeling with the desired act. As far as
possible, the use of punishment as a motivating agent should be avoided as it kills initiative,
leadership, resourcefulness and the spirit of free thinking and adventurous living. On the other
hand, the rewards like prizes, honours, certificates, medals have psychological value and develop
in the student’s creative abilities, spirit of emulation, self-confidence and self-respect and other
democratic feeling. (226)
4.9. Ego-involvement
The ego consists of attitudes relating to the self. Every one of us tires to maintain status
and self-respect. We like those people; objects and situation that make us feel important and
dislike those that make us feel inferior. Teachers generally, are in the habit of ridiculing and
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snubbing their students. It is not the proper way of motivating them. Instead of using such means
teacher should try to motivate his students by appealing to ego maximization. He should engage
them in the activities which can appeal to his self-respect and raise his status among his class-
mates or peers. (227)
This situations and environment, in which the learning is to be made by the learner,
influences the learning process. A well-equipped, healthy class-room environment proves a
motivating force. The child likes to read, write or listen to the teacher carefully if he finds
favorable environment and appropriate learning situations. The suitability of the school building,
the seating arrangement and other physical facilities available and affection he gets from his
teachers, the mutual cooperation and help he gets from his class-mates, the opportunity to
participation he gets in the school co-curricular activities, etc., all influence and motivate the
learning behaviour of the child. Therefore, efforts should be made to provide suitable learning
situations and environment for effective learning. (228)
Conclusion
Thus, we have come to know what motivation is. We have seen different view, ideas and
knowledge given by various psychologists about motivation. It helps us to know human nature
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better and all the things related to it. Various psychologists has defined motivation and explained
it in such a form that it will help us to know the reason and relation of motivation. The sources of
motivation are complex. The motivation to learn is personal and comes from within an
individual, but it can be influenced by external factor. Educators must keep the principle of
motivation at the fore front of all instructional design. The application of motivation theory is
limited only by one imagination. The concepts learner motivation underlines the importance of
learning analysis in instructional design.
Bibliography