Guide To The Conversion of Existing Ac Lines To DC Operation

583
GUIDE TO THE CONVERSION OF EXISTING

AC LINES TO DC OPERATION
Working Group
B2.41
May 2014
GUIDE TO THE
CONVERSION OF EXISTING
AC LINES TO DC
OPERATION
WG B2.41
Members
Main authors:
J. Lundquist, Convener (SE), L.O. Barthold (US), A. Beutel (ZA), A.C. Britten (ZA), D.A. Douglass (US),
J. Iglesias (ES), V. Jankov (CA), J.A. Jardini (BR), D. Muftic (ZA), S. Steevens (GE)
Contributions have been made by:

R. Adapa (US), E. Brocard (FR), R. Iravani (CA), R. Lake (NZ), D.I. Lee (KR), J.F. Nolasco (BR),
T. Papazoglou (GR), G. Ruiz (ES), A. Singh (ZA), P. Stevenin (FR), A. Useros (ES)
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ISBN: 978-2-85873-279-1
Guide to the conversion of existing AC lines to DC operation
ISBN: 978-2-85873-279-1
Page 1
Guide to the conversion of

existing AC lines to DC
operation
Table of Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................. 5

Chapter 1: Introduction .............................................................................. 8
AC uprating alternatives ......................................................................... 10
DC conversion - possibilities and constraints ......................................... 10
Potential advantages of DC in an AC system ........................................... 11
Methodology for DC conversion.............................................................. 12
References .............................................................................................. 12
Chapter 2: AC to DC conversion opportunities ......................................... 14
Point-to-point DC schemes .................................................................... 14
DC ties embedded into an AC system ..................................................... 14
HVDC grids ............................................................................................. 14
Segmentation of synchronous systems ................................................... 14
Long HVAC lines with intermediate substations ...................................... 14
References .............................................................................................. 15
Chapter 3: Conversion configuration options............................................ 16
Monopolar options ................................................................................. 17
Bipole options......................................................................................... 17
Tripole option ......................................................................................... 17
Double-circuit options ........................................................................... 17
Asymmetrical voltage assignment........................................................... 19
References .............................................................................................. 19
Page 2
Chapter 4: Corona and field effects of converted lines.............................. 21

Introduction ............................................................................................ 21
A systematic approach to the assessment of the role of corona .............. 22
Corona effects ........................................................................................ 22
Field effects ............................................................................................ 27
Summary of AC and DC corona and field effects ..................................... 28
Hybrid AC/DC line configurations ........................................................... 30
Environmental design criteria for converted lines ................................... 31
Corona and field effects calculation and verification ............................... 36
References .............................................................................................. 40
Chapter 5: Insulation coordination aspects ............................................... 42
DC service voltage withstand .................................................................. 42
Overvoltages........................................................................................... 44
Insulation coordination for the neutral conductor ................................... 47
References .............................................................................................. 49
Chapter 6: Issues and costs of line conversion ......................................... 51
Line conversion issues ............................................................................ 51
Identification of costs ............................................................................. 58
Influence on external structures ............................................................. 61
References .............................................................................................. 61
Chapter 7: Case studies ............................................................................ 63
Prospective conversion of parallel 287 kV circuits to DC......................... 63
Conversion of a single circuit 275 kV AC line to 270 / 500 kV DC .......... 66
Effect of pole conductor surface gradient on power transfer capacity ..... 71
Conversion of a double-circuit line to a hybrid line ................................ 73
References .............................................................................................. 78
Annex A: Mechanisms of corona generation ............................................. 80
Basic processes....................................................................................... 80
Corona inception and Peek’s law ............................................................ 83
References .............................................................................................. 84
Annex B: Calculation of conductor surface voltage gradients .................... 85
Isolated DC line ...................................................................................... 85
Hybrid configurations ............................................................................. 87
References .............................................................................................. 90
Page 3
Annex C: Calculation of RI levels .............................................................. 91

Isolated DC lines ..................................................................................... 91
References .............................................................................................. 92
Annex D: Calculation of AN levels ............................................................. 93
References .............................................................................................. 94
Annex E: Calculation of corona loss .......................................................... 95
References .............................................................................................. 95
Annex F: Electric fields at ground ............................................................. 96
References .............................................................................................. 98
Annex G: Monopolar operation and enhanced shield wire corona ............. 99
References ............................................................................................ 101
Page 4
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Several alternative technologies are at hand for increasing the capacity of existing AC transmission lines, such as
current or voltage uprating. However, conversion to DC is generally considered the most effective way of gaining
major increases in the capability of stability-limited AC lines, as discussed in the previous TB 425.
Conversion of existing AC lines to DC operation includes several aspects that are new to many utilities, such as DC
insulator dimensioning, as well as DC corona and field effects. The aim of the present brochure is to discuss
possibilities and constraints associated with AC to DC line conversion, as well as to inform about these special
aspects and methods for their calculation.
The first chapter deals with conversion opportunities and constraints in general, including economical and system
aspects. Basic differences between AC and DC lines are highlighted, e.g., how the operating voltage affects the
electrical design of the lines as well as the power transfer capability: AC transmission lines are largely designed
with respect to switching overvoltages and corona effects, which are both related to the peak of the operating
voltage, while the power capacity is determined by the corresponding rms voltage. DC lines, on the other hand,
benefit from lower internal overvoltages and less severe corona effects, suggesting that existing AC lines may be
better utilized in terms of higher power transfer capability by application of a comparatively high DC voltage.
However, insulator pollution is more crucial under DC and may be an important obstacle to conversion in polluted
areas by limiting the attainable DC voltage level. Apart from the insulator pollution issue, the DC voltage may also
be constrained by acceptable levels of audible noise in dry weather as well as electric field and space charge
currents at ground level.
The first chapter also briefly discusses system benefits from conversion such as improved control of power flow as
well as enhanced stability and reliability of the AC system. Economical aspects are also briefly discussed, e.g., that
the benefit of conversion is limited to incremental transmission capability while the cost for converter stations is
governed by total capability. As an example, if the capability of a line increases from 1000 MW to 2000 MW by
conversion to DC, the gain is 1000 MW while the converter stations must have a capability of 2000 MW.
The second chapter discusses possible applications for conversion, such as point-to-point DC schemes, DC ties
embedded into AC systems, segmentation of AC grids, and the concept of HVDC grids.
The third chapter describes how conversion of an AC line to DC operation can be done in various configurations,
imposing different limitations related to the utilization of the existing conductors:
 Monopole configurations utilize all three conductors for power transfer, but require current return through
the earth which may not be allowed for several reasons.
 Bipole configurations utilize basically only two conductors for power transfer in normal operation, while the
third conductor is used for metallic return under contingencies. Different conductor rearrangments may
enhance the utilization of existing conductors in bipole configurations.
 Tripole configurations utilize all three conductors for power transfer to a certain extent by the use of an
additional bi-directional converter.
 Hybrid configurations comprise AC and DC circuits running in parallel and require special attention with
regard to electrostatic and electromagnetic coupling between the circuits.
The figure on the next page shows possible configurations of converted lines with reference to the list above.
Page 5
Monopole Bipole
+ + + + 0 -
Tripole Hybrid
 +
+ +/- -  0
 -
The fourth chapter deals with corona and field effects by focusing on the differences between AC and DC lines.
The corona effects in terms of audible noise, radio interference, and corona power loss, are influenced by several
factors including line voltage, conductor height and configuration, phase or pole conductor spacing, weather
conditions, and the amount of organic or inorganic matter on the conductors. Thus, the corona phenomena show a
statistical behavior. Furthermore, the phenomena are different for AC or DC lines, which must be considered in the
conversion of AC lines to DC. An important aspect of the corona effects is that audible noise and radio interference
from DC lines decrease in wet conditions due to the influence of space charges. This is in contrast to AC lines
where corona effects in wet conditions are decisive for the design. As a consequence, the corona effects in dry
weather are among the parameters which determine the attainable DC voltage of a converted line.
The field effects at ground are also different for AC and DC lines. While AC electric fields are independent of
corona effects, the DC electric fields at ground are significantly influenced by corona on the conductors and the
corresponding generation of space charges. While the space charges limit the electric field at the surface of the
conductors, the field strength is enhanced at ground level. The resulting electric field in combination with the space
charges may cause annoying perceptions for humans under the line, and is therefore another important parameter
for determination of the attainable DC voltage level. Regarding possible health effects associated with the fields,
the most important difference between AC and DC lines is that the electric and magnetic fields from DC lines are
static, meaning that no induction effects are caused in the human body.
In the process of AC to DC conversion, different situations can be present: an isolated AC line is to be converted to
a DC line, a DC lines will be inserted in the right-of-way shared by one or several AC lines (hybrid corridor), or an
AC and a DC line will be located on the same towers (hybrid line). Calculation methods for corona and field effects
of isolated AC and DC lines are described in previous brochures. The present brochure shows how these methods,
with certain modifications, can be applied also to hybrid configurations by taking into consideration the interaction
between the lines.
The fifth chapter is focused on insulation coordination issues for a converted line. As mentioned before, insulator
pollution may be a major obstacle to a high DC voltage level since pollution performance of insulators under DC is
inferior to that under AC in polluted conditions. Since cap-and-pin insulators for AC need to be replaced due to
corrosion issues, under DC operation, the issue of pollution performance can be partly resolved by replacing the
conventional AC insulators with special DC glass insulators or composite insulators having a significantly better
pollution performance for a given insulator length. It is furthermore recommended to apply a statistical approach to
achieve an optimal dimensioning of the DC insulators for polluted conditions.
Page 6
Special considerations for overvoltages are also discussed: Fast-front overvoltages on DC lines are superimposed
on the DC service voltage and may affect the lightning performance. Slow-front overvoltages are generally low in
DC systems, suggesting that tower top and midspan clearances may not be crucial for the conversion. It is also
shown how a possible neutral conductor is treated with regard to insulation coordination and arc extinction.
The sixth chapter covers various practical aspects and related costs for line conversion. Examples are exchange or
reconfiguration of insulators, reconductoring, and rearrangement of conductors. The necessity to evaluate towers
and foundations with respect to changing loads is highlighted, and the cost components for the line conversion are
discussed along with the costs for converter stations.
The seventh chapter includes four case studies showing that substantial increases in power capacity are attainable
by conversion to DC:
 Conversion of two parallel 287 kV lines to DC with focus on asymmetrical DC voltages as well as cost and
footprint estimations. The split bipole option combined with HTLS reconductoring in one phase appears to
be the most viable of the DC configurations considered and results in far greater increase in capability than
can be achieved by series compensation of the AC lines. Asymmetrical DC voltage appears to be an
attractive option for some configurations but shows little gain for the split bipole configuration.
 Conversion of a 275 kV line to 270 or 500 kV DC considering total AC and DC system losses, cost
estimation and optimization, as well as tower top reconfiguration and reconductoring. The case is one
example where the level of intervention on the overhead line is dictated by the overall economics of
conversion. It was found that the most viable solution is to convert the old 275 kV AC line to a DC voltage
level of ±500 kV by a complete change of conductor/bundle configuration, pole-to-pole and pole-to-ground
clearances.
 Conversion of a 380 kV line to DC focusing on the effect on power transfer capacity by the maximum
allowable conductor surface gradient at different altitudes, and the influence of the number of
subconductors. It is shown that the DC vs. AC capacity ratio varies from 1.9 using four-conductor bundles
at sea level, down to 0.8 using twin-conductor bundles at high altitude.
 Conversion of a double-circuit 380 kV line to an AC/DC hybrid line by rearranging the subconductors of the
third phase to create a triple-conductor DC bipole from a twin-conductor AC circuit, including corona and
field effect calculations and application of statistical dimensioning for the DC composite insulators. Double-
circuit, twin-conductor lines can be converted to hybrid lines, e.g., by retaining the conductors in their
original positions to form a bipolar DC circuit with metallic-return. Another option would be to rearrange the
conductors to form a bipolar DC circuit with triple-conductor bundles without metallic-return, allowing 50%
higher current rating and a higher DC voltage due to improved corona properties. For the latter option, the
case study shows that DC voltages up to ±450 kV are compatible with environmental limits, providing an
increase of about 100% in thermal power rating compared with the AC line.
The annexes comprise details of corona and field effect calculations as well as numerical examples for the case of
converting one circuit of a double-circuit 380 kV line to create a hybrid line.
In summary, the brochure highlights the opportunities and limitations of AC to DC line conversion by focusing on
the special aspects associated with DC lines, by guiding the reader to previous brochures when applicable, and by
presenting detailed information for new applications such as hybrid AC/DC lines.
Page 7
Chapter 1: Introduction
There are several drivers for enhancing the capacity of existing transmission lines; one example being the
increasing demand for power transfer due to large-scale introduction of renewable energy sources such as wind
power. At the same time, it is becoming increasingly difficult to obtain permits for new transmission right of way;
furthermore the lead time for establishing new power transfer capacity is usually very long. It is therefore tempting
to utilize existing lines in a more efficient way. Several alternative technologies are at hand for increasing the
capacity of existing AC lines, e.g., current or voltage uprating. However, conversion to DC operation is generally
seen as the most effective way of gaining major increases in the capability of stability-limited AC lines, as
discussed in [1-1], see Figure 1-1.
Figure 1-1. Capacity increase vs. cost for different line uprating alternatives. Figure
derived from Ref. [1-1].
Interest in converting existing AC lines to DC has been driven largely by the need for greater transmission
capability in systems already pressing their power transfer limits and hard to reinforce with new line construction.
This report addresses principally issues which affect adaptation of existing towers and/or conductor systems for DC
operation but also cites the interrelationship between a number of AC to DC conversion options and the resulting
loadability of the system of which they are a part. In this context, some of the questions which arise are:
 When and why would the conversion of AC line to DC operation be considered?
 What are the costs?
 What are the advantages and disadvantages?
 What are the key technical factors to be considered?
 What role do corona and field effects play?
Page 8
These topics are all discussed in the present report. While the report will focus mainly on line design issues, Figure
1-1 illustrates a basic economic hurdle in justification of AC-to-DC line conversion; namely the fact that the benefit
of conversion is limited to incremental transmission capability while the cost is governed by total capability. If the
cost per MW for terminal equipment is denoted by c, then the cost C per MW of incremental power capability can
be written as:
C = c∙Pdc/(Pdc-Pac) = c/(1-Pac/Pdc)
Using the above expression, the cost premium for terminal equipment C/c vs. the conversion gain Pdc/Pac is
illustrated in Figure 1-1, where it is seen that:
 With appreciable conversion effectiveness, e.g. Pdc/Pac = 2, the cost per incremental MW becomes twice
the cost per MW for the terminals,
 If the conversion is very effective, i.e. Pdc/Pac >> 1, the cost per incremental MW will approach the cost per
MW for the terminals.
 If no MW increase is achieved by conversion even though the former AC power must be converted to DC,
i.e. Pdc/Pac = 1, the cost per incremental MW is infinite.
Figure 1-2 demonstrates that conversion must achieve a very large boost in capability before the effective cost/MW
of terminal equipment, i.e. DC converter stations, becomes reasonable compared with the avoided cost of new line
construction or other means for significantly increasing the capacity of the network. It follows then, that all AC
options for boosting transmission capability should be explored before weighing the merits of AC-to-DC conversion.
However, if AC options are unable to provide the desired capacity increase, or new AC lines are delayed or
constrained by lengthy permitting processes, conversion to DC may still be a viable alternative.
10
8
Terminals
for Multiplier
6
cost
5
Premium
Terminal
4
Cost
3
Effective
0
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0
Gain by Conversion - DC MW / AC MW
Fig. 1-1. The

Fig.effect
1 The of dc-to-ac
effect power
of dc-to-ac ratio
power ratioon
onthe ratiocost
effective of cost perof
per kW
convertor capability. to the cost per kW of installed terminals.
Figure 1-2. The effect of DC-to-AC power ratio on the ratio of cost per incremental MW
incremental kW transmitted
transmitted to the cost per MW of installed terminals.
Page 9
AC uprating alternatives
AC uprating options include:
 Series compensation.
 Phase-shifting transformers.
 FACTS devices.
 Use of dynamic current ratings for conductors.
 Reconductoring using larger or increased number of conductors – more common now is reconductoring
with high temperature low sag (HTLS) conductors.
 Uprating to a higher AC voltage – generally the next higher standard voltage level.
The first four options, while not relating to the purpose of this report, are important in assessing the economic
benefit of conversion to DC. The last three are useful in increasing AC rating and DC rating alike. The use of
dynamic current ratings for conductors was published in [1-2] [1-3] [1-4] [1-5], while the use of HTLS conductors is
treated in [1-5] [1-6] [1-7] [1-8]. Voltage uprating of AC lines is discussed in [1-1] [1-9] [1-10], and current uprating in
[1-11]. Reference [1-1] also makes a general comparison between AC uprating options and DC conversion in terms
of prospective capacity increase vs. costs.
DC conversion - possibilities and constraints

While the AC uprating options will usually be less expensive than conversion per incremental MW of transmitted
power, they will seldom achieve the level of increase possible with conversion to DC; nor will they always achieve
the benefits DC brings to system operating flexibility, as discussed in Chapter 2.
There is nothing inherent in AC conductors or AC structures that prevents their direct adaptation for DC service
other than, in the case of structures, the problem of adapting towers which used three active phase-positions for
conventional forms of DC transmission which require only two (for bipolar operation). Ways of structural adaptation
of AC towers to bipolar DC and ways of adapting DC to make full use of existing AC phase positions are both
discussed in Chapter 3 of this report.
In general, AC transmission line conductors are chosen to minimize investment cost and energy loss, and then
verified to assure performance with respect to corona effects. Clearances are selected with regard to switching
overvoltage levels. Both corona effects and switching overvoltages are related to the peak level of the AC voltage.
Hence, an AC line is designed for peak voltage level, while its power capacity is limited by the rms voltage level.
Thus, conversion to DC gains the ratio between the peak and the rms voltage, increasing the power capacity per
AC phase position by √2. However, normal bipole DC options use only two of the three AC phase positions while
other DC alternatives, discussed later, may use all three.
Since corona effects with DC voltage may be less severe than with AC, and since the internal overvoltages in DC
systems are a lower ratio than AC switching overvoltages, it may be possible to apply a DC voltage exceeding the
AC voltage peak, as illustrated in Figure 1-3. The attainable DC voltage level is then limited by the DC corona and
field effects as well as the ability to provide adequate DC insulation and clearances, as described in Chapters 4
and 5.
Page 10
UDC
UACpeak
UAC r.m.s.
Figure 1-3. Potential increase in service voltage by conversion from AC to DC.
However, insulator pollution may be an even more important limit to DC voltage level since more pollution is
attracted to insulators energized with DC than with AC. Corrosion of cap-and-pin insulators is also more severe
with DC voltage. Also, high resistivity porcelain and glass are required to accommodate constant DC voltage. Thus,
any scheme for converting AC lines for DC operation presumes a change-out of AC insulators for DC units. Anti-fog
cap-and-pin insulators, or composite longrod insulators, have significantly better pollution performance at a given
insulator length. The insulation coordination aspects of DC conversion, including the critical dimensioning of the DC
insulators with respect to pollution, are presented in Chapter 5.
Potential advantages of DC in an AC system

There are many system circumstances in which conversion of an AC transmission line to DC may become
attractive. Each may benefit from different attributes of DC and, since those attributes vary among alternative DC
schemes, it is appropriate to discuss those attributes briefly here. A more detailed discussion is presented in
Chapter 3.
MORE ECONOMIC TRANSPORT OF POWER

The traditional question in DC feasibility has been “does the advantage in lower cost per km of transmitted power
exceed the cost of converter terminals?” This led to the concept of “break-even distance” justifying the DC option.
In the DC case the cost of transmitted power is lower both because of better utilization of insulation and clearances
inherent in a line, and because DC flow can be controlled to take full and continuous advantage of a line’s thermal
capability whereas loading of an AC line may be severely limited by other system-related factors. Information on
costs for DC lines and converter terminals can be found in [1-12].
DYNAMIC RESPONSE
In some circumstances the rapid control capability of a DC link may increase the level of power which can be
transmitted between two points in a weak synchronous system which would otherwise be limited by stability
concerns. With AC, large levels of synchronizing power will flow only as a result of a large shift in angle between
sending and receiving systems whereas DC can transmit more synchronizing power and do so upon the
recognition rather than the consequences of its need. The presence of DC therefore allows the system to operate
at a higher load angle between sending and receiving points, thereby increasing power transfer in accordance with
the well-known power transfer equation. The DC system can also act to damp system transients.
Page 11
SYSTEM RELIABILITY (N-1) LIMITS
Most systems require that power dispatch be limited to a level where, following the loss of any one line within the
system, no loss of load will result; the “(N-1)” rule. The loss of any phase of an AC line results in loss of the entire
circuit, while a DC line may be seen as a double- circuit line. Thus, the loss of a DC pole may still allow
transmission of some fraction of its previous capacity by means of current return options. This capability, important
in some applications, unimportant in others, is a quality of “redundancy.” That quality differs substantially between
the various DC options available for AC-to-DC line conversion, as discussed in Chapter 3. Regulations governing
(N-1) rules differ for differing jurisdictions. Where regulations cite loss of a pole as an (N-1) event, redundancy may
be quite important. Where an (N-1) event is defined to include loss of the entire line, it is not. Where earth return
current is allowed during emergencies, redundancy of some DC options will increase.
EMERGENCY RATING
Where there is a need to increase power transfer between two points in a complex AC system, the benefit of
converting one of many lines to DC linking those two points, may depend more on the short term emergency rating
of the DC option than on its continuous rating. This too may affect choice of the DC option chosen in conversion of
that circuit.
LOSSES
Transmission line losses may also vary considerably between DC alternatives and, particularly for long lines, have
a bearing on the choice of the DC option chosen in conversion applications.
Thus the selection of the most appropriate DC scheme in considering AC-to-DC conversion will depend on a
number of factors other than the tower and conductor configurations of the AC circuit being considered.
Methodology for DC conversion

The present guide does not propose a complete methodology for conversion of existing AC lines to DC operation;
however, it is recommended that the following topics be considered in the conversion process:
 System studies including identification of candidate AC lines for DC operation, impact on the AC system,
and any power transfer limitations for the DC line.
 Voltage uprating constraints concerning electrical clearances, insulation, and corona and field effects.
 Current uprating constraints regarding thermal rating, power losses, and voltage drop.
 Line upgrading needs based on stress/strength analyses and adequate reliability levels for electrical and
mechanical failures.
 Economics in terms of life cycle cost analyses and combined AC/DC transmission system losses.
References
[1-1] “Increasing Capacity of Overhead Transmission Lines: Needs and Solutions”, Cigré Technical Brochure No.
425, 2010.
[1-2] “The Thermal Behavior of Overhead Conductors,” Electra No. 144, Oct. 1992, pp. 107-125.
[1-3] “Probabilistic Determination of Conductor Current Ratings,” Electra No. 164, Feb. 1996, pp. 103-119.
[1-4] “Thermal Behavior of Overhead Conductors,” Cigré Technical Brochure No. 207, 2002.
Page 12
[1-5] ”Guide for Selection of Weather Parameters for Bare Overhead Conductor Ratings,” Cigré Technical
Brochure No. 299, 2006.
[1-6] “Conductors for the Uprating of Overhead Lines,” Cigré Technical Brochure No. 244, 2004.
[1-7] “Considerations Relating to the Use of High Temperature Conductors,” Cigré Technical Brochure No. 331,
2007.
[1-8] “Guide for Qualifying High Temperature Conductors for use on Overhead Transmission Lines,” Cigré
Technical Brochure No. 426, 2010.
[1-9] “How Overhead Lines are Redesigned for Uprating/Upgrading - Analysis of the Replies to the
Questionnaire,” Cigré Technical Brochure No. 294, 2006.
[1-10] “Guidelines for Increased Utilization of Existing Overhead Transmission Lines,” Cigré Technical Brochure
No. 353, 2008.
[1-11] R. Stephen, “Description and Evaluation of Options Relating to Uprating of Overhead Transmission Lines,”
Paper B2-201, Cigré Session, Paris, 2004.
[1-12] “Impacts of HVDC Lines on the Economics of HVDC Projects”, Cigré Technical Brochure No. 388, 2009.
Page 13
Chapter 2: AC to DC conversion opportunities

Increased difficulty in obtaining new transmission rights of way have drawn increased attention to the prospect of
converting AC lines to DC operation – usually achieving a much greater increase in capability than can be achieved
by AC recourses. Prospects for AC-to-DC conversion, encouraged too by advances in equipment technology and
the suggestion of new DC configurations, generally fall within categories cited in the following paragraphs.
Point-to-point DC schemes
The traditional application of DC has been a point-to-point function in which one terminal acts principally as a load
to the sending system and the other as power input to the receiving system; one example being “merchant lines”
for energy trading across borders. Economics weigh very strongly in selection of a DC scheme for such
applications though redundancy may be important if the loss of that tie limits loading of circuits in either sending or
receiving systems or effects generation requirements of either system.
DC ties embedded into an AC system

System planners increasingly consider DC links as an integral element in an AC system – in the conversion case,
taking advantage of DC’s advantage in boosting the useful transfer of a line whose loading may be limited to a
fraction of its thermal capability either by network topology or by virtue of the loading it assumes under an (N-1)
event. Where that is the case, conversion may have benefits on the (N-1)-limited loadability of parallel or
contiguous AC circuits which are as great as the boost in loading of the converted circuit itself. If, by virtue of gain
in rating achieved by conversion, an outage of the converted circuit itself becomes a limiting (N-1) event; its
redundancy can become an important issue. The concept of embedded DC transmission is treated in [2-1].
HVDC grids
The concept of HVDC grids [2-2][2-3][2-4], i.e., the overlaying of very large synchronous AC systems such as those
in Europe or North America with an HVDC network has gained in interest with the development of DC technology –
specifically that related to VSC converters, DC circuit breakers [2-5] and DC/DC converters [2-6]. Such overlays
could consist either of new DC circuits or, in whole or in part, AC lines converted to DC. In this case too,
redundancy of individual DC circuits will be a trade-off to the number of circuits needed for reliable power delivery.
Segmentation of synchronous systems

It has been proposed by some that large synchronous systems such as those in North America and Europe might
benefit by segmentation into smaller regional grids, each linked to its neighbor by DC ties [2-7]. Studies of that
prospect have shown that such a scheme could have the following benefits:
 It limits support given by a sound segment to a deficient segment to levels which would not jeopardize the
sound segment.
 It increases robustness of each segment by allowing independent swings in that segment’s frequency.
 It increases the transfer capability between segments by conversion of interconnecting lines to DC.
Schemes of that sort, if implemented, would also raise the issues cited in Chapter 1 as various DC options for inter-
segment AC-to-DC conversion options were considered.
Long HVAC lines with intermediate substations

There are cases where long HVAC transmission lines exist with intermediate substations. There may also be more
than one line in the same corridor. In such cases it may be advantageous to convert one or more of those lines to
Page 14
DC operation. In such a case it may also be feasible to bypass the intermediate substations. This may also be
limited to some sections between intermediate substations, but cost implications may prohibit this. Detailed
evaluations would be required in any case.
References
[2-1] ”Influence of Embedded HVDC Transmission on System Security and AC Network Performance,” Cigré
Technical Brochure No. 536, 2013.
[2-2] ”HVDC Grid Feasibility Study,” Cigré Technical Brochure No. 533, 2013.
[2-3] G. Asplund, B. Jacobson, B. Berggren, K. Lindén, ”Continental Overlay HVDC-Grid,” Paper B4-109, Cigré
Session, Paris, 2010.
[2-4] K. Lindén, B. Jacobson, M.H.J. Bollen, J. Lundquist, ”Reliability Study Methodology for HVDC Grids,” Paper
B4-108, 2010, Cigré Session, Paris, 2010.
[2-5] J. Häfner, B. Jacobson, “Proactive Hybrid HVDC Breakers – A Key Innovation for Reliable HVDC Grids, “
Paper 264, Cigré Symposium, Bologna, 2011.
[2-6] J. Robinson, D. Jovcic, ”Testing a 900V Hardware Model of a High Voltage DC Transmission Substation, “
Paper 227, Cigré Symposium, Bologna, 2011.
[2-7] A.L. Johnson, L.O. Barthold, H.K. Clark, M.M. El-Gasseir, H.D.K. Epp, N.D. Reppen, D.A. Woodford, “North
America Grid Segmentation Case Studies: Technical Feasibility and Economics of Implementation,” Cigré
Canada Conference on Power Systems, Toronto, October 4-6, 2009.
Page 15
Chapter 3: Conversion configuration options

Figure 3-1 illustrates a variety of means by which a single-circuit AC line may be converted to DC. While each
circuit in that figure is, for convenience, assumed comprised of a two-conductor bundle, the same configurations
would obviously apply to AC circuits with one or more than two conductors per phase position. Configurations
marked with an asterix are those for which some change in conductor or tower configuration would be required.
One right-hand column of Figure 3-1 shows a very simplified power rating index, P , which is the DC MW rating of
the converted circuit assuming full thermal utilization of the conductors divided by the DC MW rating achievable
through conversion to a simple bipole configuration energized at a DC voltage equal to crest line-to-ground AC
voltage. This index should be viewed as very approximate since the choice of configuration and other factors will
often affect the DC voltage that can be sustained under DC operation (see Chapters 4 and 5) and may also affect
the reliability-limited loading of parallel or contiguous AC circuits.
Another right-hand column of Figure 3-1 indicates redundancy, R, which is defined as the MW capability of the
circuit with one pole out of service relative to the capability with all poles in service. (Since a fault on any phase of
an AC circuit requires tripping of all phases, redundancy is zero.) Usefulness of that attribute was discussed in
Chapter 1 above. It is obvious that redundancy can, in some cases, be improved by provision for an earth return
path during emergencies or by replacement of shield wires with those capable of handling load current levels
during emergency periods. Redundancy in Figure 3-1 is understated in that it does not credit the line and
potentially the terminal for a temporary emergency rating higher than continuous rating.
Configuration P R
Configuration P R
.7 - .9 0
a
ac
.7 - .9 0
a
ac
Configuration P R
a b + 0 .7 - .9 1.0 0 .50
ac
b + 0 1.0 .50
Bipoles
b c+ +0 1.0
1.5
.50
0 (.5)
Bipoles
c* + 1.5 0 (.5)
* +
Bipoles
c 1.5 0 (.5)
*
d* + + 2.0 0 (.50)
d* d* + + + + 2.0 2.00 (.50) 0 (.50)

Tripole
Tripole
Tripole
e e+ ++/ +/ 1.4 1.4.73 .73
e + +/ 1.4 .73
* Configurations which require conductor and/or tower modification

Figure 3-1. Alternative single-circuit DC conversions.
Page 16
Comments on each class of conversion are given in the following paragraphs:
Monopolar options
Monopole configurations, while technically feasible in conversion cases, have little application for conversion based
on the economic need to use the existing conductor system effectively and to avoid ground return current.
Bipole options
Bipole configurations have the advantage of an inherent return path, but the disadvantage of not fully utilizing the
available conductors without rearranging or adding subconductors. Configuration b in Figure 3-1, the most
commonly proposed DC option, uses one former AC phase position for its emergency ground return path, thereby
sacrificing one third of the inherent current-carrying capability of the former AC circuit. While option b is cited a
bipole, it could also consist of a “floating monopole,” i.e. a monopole bridge within which a central ground point is
established. A floating monopole achieves certain economies in converter station cost but has no redundancy for a
pole-out condition.
Option c in Figure 3-1 achieves full utilization of all AC thermal capacity by physically moving conductors from one
former AC phase position, bundling one with the positive and another with the negative pole. Apart from the cost
and extra outage time needed for that reconstruction, it leaves the circuit with no ground return path other than that
afforded by the earth (if that is permitted) or by upgrading the shield wire conductivity. In Figure 3-1 the redundancy
value in parenthesis assumes an earth or shield wire path for ground return, increased by an assumed emergency
rating increase of 15%.
Option d in Figure 3-1, often referred to as a “split bipole,” achieves the advantages of full conductor utilization by
doubling the ampere rating of one phase position and allowing it to conduct twice the current carried by the other
two. That doubling, shown in Figure 3-1 as added conductors, may also be achieved by reconductoring so as to
double the ampacity of the common pole. This could be done with a high temperature, low sag (HTLS) conductor
[3-1] [3-2], where the converted line’s high DC rating is used only in emergencies such that losses are less a
concern [3-3]. In any case the ability to re-conductor the center phase will depend on the existing AC structures’
ability to sustain increased wind and/or weight loading.
Tripole option
The tripole option [3-4] achieves full utilization of the thermal capacity of all three phase positions while providing
internal redundancy that does not depend on a ground return path. Normal loading is 1.37 times the bipole rating
while, with one pole out, it reverts to a normal bipole. It achieves a higher rating by a system of “thermal averaging,”
i.e. causing the bridge configuration to shift current allocations among phase conductors such that the rms current
in each of three poles, over a period much shorter than the thermal time constant of the conductors, remains equal
to the conductor’s rating. The period of such shifts can normally be at least five minutes.
The tripole requires that one of the three poles to have a double bridge to allow operation at either polarity and that
bridge current rating be increased to accommodate short term increases in current above the effective rms value.
However those premiums can, in some circumstances, be used to achieve very high short-term overload ratings.
Double-circuit options
There may be incentives to convert one or both AC circuits suspended from a common tower to DC as illustrated in
Figure 3-2. In Figure 3-2, P and R are as defined for the single circuit case, expressed in options c and d on a per
circuit basis. Values of R in parenthesis are values attainable if an earth or shield wire return path is available.
Converting both circuits to DC is a very efficient alternative since all conductors can be utilized for bipolar
transmission without modification. However, removing two circuits from the AC system may severely affect
operational flexibility and reliability, and a so called hybrid line configuration may therefore be the optimum choice.
Page 17
While subsequent chapters address technical issues specific to combined AC and DC on a common tower, no
reasons have been shown to prevent that option. Furthermore, experience with hybrid configurations already exist
in the form of AC and DC lines sharing the same right-of-way (so called hybrid corridors), e.g., in the vicinity of
AC/DC converter stations.
Configuration P R
+
1 .5
.5
a 0
Hybrid ac+dc
+
b* 1.5 00(.5
(.5))
Double circuit conversion to dc
+
11.2 .5
.6
c 0 0
+ +
+
1.5 0 0(.5 )
(.8)
d +
+
Figure 3-2. Alternative hybrid and double-circuit conversion options.
Configuration a in Figure 3-2, the simplest case of a hybrid line, converts one circuit to a bipole with one of three
phase positions used as a metallic ground return. The converted circuit will get the same capability and redundancy
properties as configuration b in Figure 3-1.
Configuration b physically moves one conductor from the center phase of the converted circuit to the positive pole
and another to the negative pole, thus achieving bipole or floating monopole operation with the same
characteristics as configuration c in Figure 3-1.
Page 18
Configuration c represents double circuit conversion consisting of two separate bipoles. Each converted circuit will
get the same capability and redundancy properties as configuration b in Figure 3-1. Loss of any pole of the bipole
configurations would cause the monopole to shut down, retaining the grounded phase position as emergency
return for that circuit.
Configuration d, using full thermal capability of all conductors, has no redundancy except for what can be provided
for by ground return or other options discussed above.
Options in Figures 3-1 and 3-2 will vary in cost, in terminal footprint requirement, and the need for ground
electrodes. Succeeding chapters of this report will discuss means by which the DC capability of existing AC lines
can be maximized recognizing limits imposed both by technical and operational issues and by environmental
impact management.
Asymmetrical voltage assignment

The adaptation of VSC technology to overhead HVDC transmission lines now makes it possible to reverse power
flow by changing current direction rather than voltage polarity. Since both electrical performance and environmental
impacts of positive and negative poles differ, this raises the question of why both positive and negative poles of a
DC transmission line should be symmetrical in design and assigned equal voltages.
Consider the case where DC voltage is limited by audible noise – often the case in lines which are logical
candidates for AC-to-DC conversion, as discussed in Chapter 4. Because the positive pole is the dominant source
of both radio and audible noise, increases in negative voltage will have a negligible effect on noise levels if each
upward step in negative voltage is accompanied by a very slight reduction in positive voltage to keep positive pole
gradients (and noise generation) constant. With positive voltage approximately constant, raising negative voltage
will increase MW rating by almost half the percent increase in negative voltage. Negative voltage can be increased
until the first of four limits is reached.
 Adequate insulation and/or electrical clearances cannot be provided for the negative pole, see Chapter 5.
 Higher negative voltage increases positive gradient on the adjacent shield wire to the point where
unacceptable noise is generated by that shield wire, see Chapter 4 and Annex G.
 Ground level electric field effects are unacceptable, see Chapter 4.
 Negative conductor gradient reaches a level that may pose an unacceptable risk of anomalous flashover
[3-5].
Studies have shown it reasonable in conversion of low to intermediate voltage lines, to increase negative voltage
by approximately 20% and power rating by approximately 10% by voltage asymmetry [3-3] [3-6] [3-7].
While the principle of asymmetry may find application in new DC lines as well as conversion cases, it is particularly
attractive in the conversion case since (a) design constraints are much greater and (b) the gain may involve very
little extra cost in transmission infrastructure.
References
[3-1] “Increasing Capacity of Overhead Transmission Lines - Needs and Solutions –“, Cigré Technical Brochure
No. 425, 2010.
[3-2] “Considerations Relating to the Use Of High Temperature Conductors”, Cigré Technical Brochure No. 331,
2007
[3-3] M. Beshir, L. Barthold, D. Woodford, ”Prospective AC to DC Conversion of two parallel 287 kV

Transmission Lines in the Western US,” Paper B2-107, Cigré Session, Paris, 2012.
Page 19
[3-4] A.-A Edris, L.O. Barthold, D.A. Douglass, W.H. Litzenberger, D.A. Woodford, “Upgrading AC Transmission
to DC for Maximum Power Transfer Capacity,” 12th International Middle-East Power System Conference,
MEPCON 2008, Page 44 – 49.
[3-5] G. C. Sibilant, A. C. Britten, D. Govender, “The Effect of Ions and Space Charge on the Performance of
HVDC Lines – Literature Review and Case Study”, HVDC Congress, Durban, 2006.
[3-6] “Asymmetrical HVDC Line Design and Operation”, EPRI Product ID 1021760, November, 2011.
[3-7] R. Adapa, L. Barthold, D. Woodford, “Asymmetrical Design of VSC-Based HVDC Transmission Lines,”
IEEE Transactions Paper. Summer General Meeting, San Diego Calif. July 2012.
Page 20
Chapter 4: Corona and field effects of converted lines
Introduction
It is well accepted practice that corona and field effects need to be taken into account when designing new AC and
DC power lines, when uprating the voltage of an existing AC line, or when converting existing AC lines to DC
operation. The aim of this chapter is therefore to give a sufficiently detailed description of the characteristics and
prediction of DC corona and field effects and how to integrate these into converted line designs. The various
technical descriptions have also attempted to emphasize those aspects which relate specifically to the conversion
of AC lines to DC operation. To avoid repeating information previously published in readily available Cigré
documents, frequent references are made to [4-1] [4-2] [4-3] [4-4] [4-5] [4-6].
When a set of voltages are applied on the conductors of a transmission line, an electric field, or voltage gradient,
appears on its surface. If the conductor surface voltage gradient is above a certain limit, i.e., the critical corona
onset gradient, corona discharges are initiated. A brief description of the physics behind corona generation under
AC or DC voltage is presented in Annex A. More information on the physics of corona discharges can be found in
[4-1] [4-3].
The corona discharges produce several effects, amongst them corona power loss (CL), audible noise (AN), radio
interference (RI), and visual corona. Conductor corona, and hence CL, RI and AN, is influenced by several factors,
including line voltage, conductor bundle height and configuration, phase or pole conductor spacing, weather
conditions (temperature, pressure, humidity, wind, rain, etc), and the amount of organic or inorganic matter on the
conductors. Thus, the corona phenomena show a statistical behavior. Furthermore, the phenomena are different
for AC or DC lines, which must be considered in the conversion of AC lines to DC operation. The different corona
effects are discussed in the following sections, focusing on the differences between AC and DC lines. The
influence of weather parameters are also discussed, primarily the effect of rain, which differs significantly between
DC and AC lines.
The corona design of DC lines must also consider the conductor surface gradient on the earth (shield/ground)
wires. The reason for this is that in monopolar operation the surface gradient may increase to near or exceed the
corona inception gradient for the conductor concerned. This can lead to high levels of quasi bipolar corona
between the earth wire and pole conductor and may, as a result, cause significantly worse corona performance [4-
7]. Such a phenomenon does not occur on bipolar lines, except possibly when temporary monopolar operation is
employed as a contingency. Further information may be found in Annex G.
Corona discharges also occur on line hardware such as insulators and spacer-dampers as well as on shield wires;
these aspects are also treated.
The electric fields at ground level differ significantly between AC and DC lines, and are of importance when
considering conversion of an existing line from AC to DC. The main difference is that the electric field under a DC
line is enhanced by space charges produced by corona discharges on the surface of the pole conductors.
Regarding the effects of the electric and magnetic fields under DC lines, it is important to remember that the fields
are static. Thus, there are no induction effects as with AC lines. Consequently, the acceptable field magnitudes are
much higher for DC lines. Nevertheless, the electric field under a DC line is an important design factor while the
magnetic field, being of the same order of magnitude as the earth’s magnetic field, is insignificant to DC line
design.
Page 21
A systematic approach to the assessment of the role of corona

Since corona and field effects depend on the selected line configuration and DC voltage level, a systematic
approach is recommended for their assessment for the evaluation of proposed conversion options:
 Define candidate DC line configurations. Depending on the original AC line configuration, several
possible conversion options may exist with regard to conductor positioning, DC polarity configuration, etc.,
as discussed in Chapter 3.
 Define candidate DC voltage levels. Possible DC voltage levels may be constrained by the pollution
performance of the selected DC insulators as discussed in Chapter 5, or by demands for voltage level
standardization.
 Define minimum DC pole conductor height. The required clearance to ground for DC pole conductors
may be regulated with regard to the service voltage level, or to the overvoltage withstand of the selected
insulators as discussed in Chapter 5. Methods for increasing the ground clearance are described in
Chapter 6.
 Define limits for corona and field effects. Limits are discussed in this Chapter.
 Determine corona effect (RI, AN etc) levels at edge of right-of-way. Calculation methods for the
assessment of DC corona effects are presented in this Chapter.
 Determine maximum field effect (electric and magnetic fields and ion current density) levels. Calculation
methods for the assessment of DC field effects are presented in this Chapter.
 Verify corona and field effects levels. The calculated levels should be verified experimentally, as
discussed later in this Chapter.
Note that some steps may need to be repeated, with certain parameters adjusted, if the calculated levels are not
within the required limits, i.e. iteration may be needed. Compromises may need to be made if all quantities are to
be within acceptable limits.
Corona effects
Corona effects of AC and DC transmission lines are described in [4-1] [4-3] [4-5] along with general methods for
their calculation. Corona effect calculations for converted lines are presented in Annexes A through E.
AUDIBLE NOISE
The audible noise emanates from the air pressure variations that are caused by the corona discharges, more
specifically the streamer discharges created under positive DC voltage or during the positive half-cycle of the AC
voltage. The audible noise is the result of numerous uncorrelated corona discharges, resulting in a broadband
noise spectrum covering the entire range of audible frequencies. AN from AC lines also contains a hum component
(100 or 120 Hz) caused by space charge movement close to the conductor, correlated with the power frequency. A
typical AN frequency spectrum of a DC line is shown in Figure 4-1, together with a calculated AN lateral profile
across a right-of-way.
Page 22
Figure 4-1a. Typical AN octave band frequency spectrum of a bipolar DC line. Derived
from Ref. [4-8].
Figure 4-1b. AN profile calculation result example.
The human ear has a different response to each of these frequencies; therefore weighting filter networks are used
for measuring the human response. The most common is the A-weighting network, in which case the audible noise
level is stated as dBA above 20 µPa.
For AC lines, AN is at the highest in rain, while for DC lines, AN is lower in rain than in fair weather. The physical
reasons why the AN from DC lines is higher in dry conditions than in rain, can be roughly explained as follows:
Page 23
 Although the number of corona noise sources increases during rain, the accumulation of space charge
around the DC conductors have a limiting effect on the discharge magnitudes, which is believed to be the
important reason why the AN level decreases in rain [4-3].
 The oxygen atom in each water molecule will tend to capture negative ions and electrons, this being a
process which does not occur in fair-weather conditions.
Furthermore, a particle such as a rain drop does not necessarily need to be touching the conductor to initiate
corona; a discharge can also be caused by a floating particle in close proximity to the conductor. Thus, when water
droplets are present in a high AC electric field, several positive streamer discharges will occur during each positive
half cycle; in the case of DC, the repetitive breakdown of air gaps between water droplets and the conductor does
not occur.
Statistical data on the dispersion of AN in varying weather conditions is shown in Figure 4-2. It has been taken from
Canadian studies on 900 to 1200 kV DC test lines. This suggests that the absolute levels may be unusually high,
and not necessarily representative of noise from lower stressed lines converted from AC to DC operation. What is
significant, however, is that the noise dispersions are probably similar; the designer should therefore assume that
the L10 level exceeds the L50 level in fair weather by 4 to 5 dB; similarly, the L 50/L90 difference should be taken as 5
1
to 6 dB . On AC lines the difference between fair and foul weather corona-generated AN may be significantly larger
(up to 25 dB) [4-8][4-9].
L10
L50
L90
Figure 4-2. Example of statistical AN distributions for fair (unfilled dots) and foul
weather (filled dots) as measured 15 m laterally from a 900 kV DC test line.
Derived from Ref. [4-10].
1
Lx is termed the exceedence level; this is defined as the level that is exceeded x% of the time. For example L 50 is the level that
is exceeded 50% of the time and L90 is exceeded 90% of the time. The value x and the cumulative frequency are
complementary to one another, i.e. x% = 100% - cumulative frequency (%).
Page 24
RADIO INTERFERENCE
Radio interference (RI) is any effect on the reception of wanted radio signal due to any unwanted disturbance
within the radio frequency spectrum. Radio interference is a concern only with amplitude modulation (AM) radio
reception because frequency-modulated (FM) radio is inherently less sensitive to disturbances.
Radio interference is evaluated by comparing the noise level with the radio signal, i.e. the signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR), at the edge of the servitude or right-of-way, and for a frequency of normally 0,5 or 1 MHz using a quasi-
peak detector with a bandwidth of 5 or 9 kHz according to CISPR or ANSI standards, respectively [4-11][4-12]. The
RI level is expressed in dB above 1 μV/m.
Since RI and AN are caused by the same phenomenon, i.e. streamer discharges appearing on the positive
conductor or during the positive half-cycle, the variation of RI with the weather conditions is essentially the same as
for AN. Thus, the RI level is the highest in rain for AC lines, but lower in rain for DC lines. A typical lateral profile of
RI for a bipolar DC line is shown in Figure 4-3.
As RI is dependent on the weather conditions, it is appropriate to represent the RI level in statistical terms for each
weather condition, such as the L5 and L50 levels in fair weather or rain. Alternatively, the results may be presented
as an "all weather" curve considering average climate conditions [4-1][4-3]. A typical all-weather distribution of
measured RI levels is shown in Figure 4-4.
More information on radio interference from AC and DC transmission lines can be found in [4-1][4-3].
Figure 4-3. Typical lateral RI profile of a bipolar DC transmission line .

Derived from Ref. [4-8].
Page 25
Figure 4-4. Typical statistical RI distribution for a DC transmission line . Derived from
Ref. [4-8].
TELEVISION INTERFERENCE
Investigations regarding conductor corona interference above 30 MHz are not as extensive as for RI in the
frequency range up to 30 MHz. In practice, interferences to television reception (TVI) are more often caused by
microgap discharges on power line hardware or by polluted insulators than by conductor corona. Because of the
higher frequency range, attenuation along a power line as well as that away from the line is considerably larger.
Consequently, effects of local noise sources are much more pronounced for TVI. There are no indications that TVI
should be of special concern to DC lines; therefore, if a line has an acceptable RI level, then TVI need not be
considered, and is not further discussed here.
More information on TV interference from transmission lines can be found in [4-1][4-3].
CORONA LOSS
Corona loss arises due to the fact that the corona generates a space charge field, which draws power from the
transmission line. AC corona loss is larger in rain than in fair weather, as is also the case for DC lines, but the
increase is much less for DC lines. Fair weather CL is therefore more significant for DC than for AC, therefore fair
weather CL should be confirmed when evaluating the feasibility of AC to DC conversion, although its magnitude
relative to conductor joule losses is small. Atmospheric conditions such as humidity and wind speed also influence
CL, further strengthening the statistical behavior. Corona current, which causes CL, also influences electric field
and ion density, which will be discussed later.
Page 26
CL should nonetheless be quantified and included in conversion cost calculations, as it could be as much as
approximately 25% of joule losses, depending on factors such as voltage and line length [4-5]. CL could even be
larger than 25% of joule losses if the shield wire goes into corona [4-13]. However, CL is in most cases acceptable
if the AN level is satisfied.
EFFECT OF LINE HARDWARE

The discussion up to this point in Chapter 4 refers largely to line conductors and does not take insulators, dampers,
joints or any other line hardware into account. Type testing should be performed on each individual component by
manufacturers, against appropriate standards. It is recommended that the final assembly undergoes an acceptance
test to confirm that no visible corona occurs and that radio influence voltage (RIV) is kept to an acceptable level. As
a minimum, the AC limit of 65 dB referenced to 1 μV/300 Ω at 1 MHz should be applied to the DC case [4-14]. A
method for derivation of limits for radio noise produced by insulators is given in [4-15].
It should be noted that discharges on polymeric insulators, especially at the live end sheath and fitting core
interface, may cause degradation of the insulator properties, e.g. loss of hydrophobicity and mechanical strength
due to chemical degradation. It is therefore of utmost importance that no visible discharges occur in this area, and
the application of corona rings is critical to minimize or eradicate discharges. The same reasoning applies to the
earth end of polymeric insulators. Note that all RIV tests are performed under clean and dry conditions.
Further information on line hardware corona may be obtained from [4-1][4-3].
CONDUCTED RADIO NOISE

As regards engineering considerations, the use of power line carrier (PLC) on long lines (where the signal
attenuation may be abnormally high) means that the conducted radio noise could reduce signal-to-noise ratios, and
so degrade the reliability of the PLC system. This aspect would be critical on longer lines where hop lengths
exceed approximately 500 km [4-16][4-17]. Corona power losses caused by shield wire corona under monopolar
operation is another concern that may need consideration (refer to Annex G).
Field effects
Field effects of AC and DC transmission lines are described in [4-2] [4-4] [4-6] along with general methods for their
calculation. Field effect calculations for converted lines are presented in Annex F.
ELECTRIC FIELDS AND IONS

Electric fields at the ground in the vicinity of AC and DC lines are very different with regard to their dependence on
corona discharges on the conductors: AC lines produce electric fields that are practically independent of the corona
since the ions produced return to the conductor when the polarity changes. DC lines, on the other hand, produce
electric fields that are greatly influenced by the corona since the entire space between the conductor and ground is
filled with ions that reduce the electric field close to the conductors, at the same time enhancing the electric field at
ground level.
The electric fields from AC and DC lines are also very different as to the effects on humans: AC electric fields
induce time-varying electric fields and currents inside the human body, causing biological effects and are therefore
subjected to recommended statutory limits by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection
(ICNIRP) [4-18]. The static electric fields produced by DC lines do not produce significant electric fields or currents
inside the body to cause biological effects, consequently, no limits have been recommended by ICNIRP. In
absence of other concerns, the remaining effects of DC electric fields are the ions produced by corona, and their
charging effects on body hair and skin, as well as the resulting annoying microshocks occurring when touching
charged or grounded metallic objects under the line.
Page 27
The characteristics of DC electric fields, along with methods for calculation of field intensity and ion current density,
are described in detail in [4-6]. Other aspects on DC electric fields treated in [4-6] are: ozone and NOx production,
charged aerosols, space charges, and human sensations.
MAGNETIC FIELDS
Also the effects of the magnetic fields are very different for AC and DC lines. Time-varying magnetic fields induce
currents in the human body, causing biological effects and therefore subjected to regulations by ICNIRP. Static
magnetic fields, on the other hand, have no inducing effect. Furthermore, statutory restrictions on DC magnetic
fields [4-19] are several orders of magnitude higher than the levels near DC lines, where the field is in the same
order of magnitude as the earth’s magnetic field. Thus, the effects of the DC magnetic fields are insignificant and
not further treated here.
Summary of AC and DC corona and field effects

Overall, although the DC corona and field effects have an element of mystique about them and are not yet fully
understood, it is critical that the engineering and environmental effects be thoroughly assessed. This is one of the
reasons why it is necessary to verify the corona performance and field effects in the process of finding the most
suitable conductor and polarity configuration, as well as the optimal DC voltage level for the converted line. The
aim is to limit the cumulative effect on background noise and on other services.
The differences between AC and DC corona and field effects are summarized in Table 4-1.
Page 28
RELATIVE IMPORTANCE
PARAMETER COMMENT
AC DC
Must meet acceptable limits, so as not to pollute the radio frequency

spectrum. Can be a critical factor as regards the impact on the
Radio Medium to Medium to
receivers of nearby sensitive AM radio stations. The importance
interference high high
depends on the broadcast technology used, i.e. AM or FM. Aviation
receivers and radio telescopes, amongst others, may be affected.
In both the AC and DC cases, “spark or gap-type” interference is
Television caused by loose hardware, and is thus deemed a “fault condition”.
Low Low
interference This form of interference may be avoided by good design and
maintenance.
Audible noise under DC, being highest in dry conditions, is a key
Audible noise High Very high design parameter, especially in the choice of conductor bundle if the
conductor is to be changed.
Whereas in AC systems a continuous (sinusoidal) current will be
capacitively coupled to adjacent objects (lines, persons, dwellings,
Electrostatic
High Medium etc), few regular discharges occur under DC. From an operational
coupling
safety point of view, this makes detection of the DC field inherently
more difficult than for AC.
This refers to the induction of overvoltages in adjacent, parallel
Electro-magnetic
High Medium telephone lines during earth faults: more severe under AC than for
coupling
DC.
High
(monopolar) The high electrical conductivity of DC ion clouds can cause high quasi-
Ionic coupling Very low static voltages to be induced by resistive coupling on nearby metal
Less objects; this effect is unique to DC.
(bipolar)
Enhancement of the DC field by corona–generated space charge
Electric field
High High (ions) is an impact unique to DC. No internationally recommended limit
intensity
for the DC electric field has yet been proposed.
Magnetic field In AC, the effects are well-known. The DC static field and small
High Low
intensity harmonic ripple are generally not of concern.
More severe for DC than AC, and must be limited by means of
Telephone
Medium High appropriate filtering in the convertor station and compatible
interference
separations between DC lines and telephone lines.
Conducted radio
Low Low Only important if power line carrier is used.
noise
In both cases, concentrations at ground level are below background
Ozone Low low
values.
Ion density and
Low High Refer to [4-6] and [4-20].
concentration
Table 4-1: Differences between AC and DC corona and field effects .
Page 29
Hybrid AC/DC line configurations

An AC line considered for conversion to DC operation may be running parallel to another AC line in the same right-
of-way, or even on the same tower when converting only one circuit of a double-circuit line.
The interaction affects the maximum surface gradients on both the AC and DC conductors, as well as the electric
field at ground. The mutual influences on corona and field effects are more pronounced for hybrid lines (AC and DC
lines sharing the same towers) compared to hybrid corridors (AC and DC lines sharing the same right-of-way). The
following discussion is focused on hybrid lines, but may be applicable to hybrid corridors as well, depending on the
separation distance between the AC and DC lines.
For hybrid configurations, the corona effects depend on the relative positioning of the DC and AC conductors. The
reason is that static charges will be induced on the AC conductors by the DC electric field, while time-varying
charges will be induced on the DC conductors by the AC electric field. Hence, the voltage gradient on the surface
of the AC conductors will include a DC component, while the gradient at the surface of the DC conductors will
include an AC component. These electrostatic effects will influence the corona activity on the AC as well as the DC
conductors.
Space charges produced by the DC conductors will further influence the corona activity on the AC conductors;
however, the influence is uncertain since some investigators have predicted an increase [4-21], while others [4-22]
have noted that the AC corona effects are actually reduced by the presence of space charges. Furthermore, the
increase predicted in [4-21] has not yet been verified by measurements, while the reduction described in [4-22] was
measured in a corona cage using a considerably higher DC bias than present in prospective hybrid line
configurations. The mechanism is not fully understood as yet, and further research is required. Conductive coupling
between AC and DC circuits is also not yet well understood. In the absence of full-scale verification of possible
space charge effects, it is recommended that only the electrostatic effects described above are considered when
calculating the hybrid corona effects.
At ground level, AC and DC electric fields will appear simultaneously, which is deemed to cause significant
annoying effects on humans compared to the case of AC or a DC field occurring separately.
Thus, conversion to a hybrid configuration will change the corona and field effects in various ways, and these
changes need to be taken into account to ensure that the environmental performance of both the AC and the DC
lines is acceptable after conversion. Studies of the interactions between adjacent AC and DC lines are described in
detail in the following literature references:
 In [4-23] the conversion of a 500 kV AC double-circuit line into a ±500 kV DC hybrid line is analyzed
considering corona and electric field aspects. Methods for calculating the electric fields at the conductor
surfaces and at the ground are presented along with laboratory measurements showing the mutual
influences of the AC and DC conductors on the same tower.
 In [4-21] the analyses of hybrid configurations are extended to include the mutual effects of space charge
on corona and the electric field. The calculation methods are applied to a 500 kV AC and ±500 kV DC
hybrid line and hybrid corridor.
 In [4-24] a hybrid corridor is analyzed (AC from 138 to 800 kV, and DC from ±200 to ±500 kV) with respect
to the mutual influence on corona and field effects as functions of the separation of the AC and DC lines.
 In [4-25] a hybrid corridor consisting of a 1000 kV AC line and a ±800 kV DC line is investigated with regard
to electric field effects at ground level, focusing on new calculation methods for studying the time-varying
ion flow field in the hybrid corridor.
 Possible electrostatic and electromagnetic interactions between adjacent AC and DC lines are also
described in detail in [4-7][4-8][4-26].
Page 30
It should be noted that the AC magnetic field profile of a double-circuit AC line will change when converted to a
hybrid AC/DC line.
Apart from the corona and field effects, electromagnetic induction of power frequency voltages into the DC circuit
can cause several undesirable effects, e.g. converter transformer core saturation, generation of unacceptable
harmonics, inaccurate current measurement by current transformers and significant increase in transformer audible
noise. The effects can be minimized by installing power frequency filters in the DC circuit and by introducing
transpositions in the DC and AC lines. These aspects are, however, outside the scope of this document.
Environmental design criteria for converted lines

The rationale for proposing corona and field effects design limits is to show how such limits could impact the choice
of DC voltage, and hence the amount of power which can be transferred. It is the responsibility of the designer to
ensure that he or she is well acquainted with the statutory limits applicable for a particular conversion.
CORONA EFFECTS
The critical limits for corona are the conductor surface gradients on the pole conductor and shield wires; not only
does this suppress or reduce corona loss, audible noise and radio interference, but for DC lines it also limits the
amounts of extraneous space charge produced, which effects the electric field intensity at ground level. It should be
noted that the limits for the shield wire would only apply to monopolar lines, or to bipolar lines in rare periods of
quasi-monopolar operation, as discussed in Annex G.
No statutory limits have been found for RI levels specifically for DC lines; however, the design must be compatible
with local radio and broadcast services. General guidelines for limits to RI from power lines are described in [4-1][4-
3][4-15]. The different influences of weather conditions on the RI level at DC compared to AC should be
considered.
As with RI, no statutory limits have been found for AN levels specifically for DC lines. Furthermore, any limits for AC
lines refer to wet conditions of relatively short total duration, and cannot be applied to DC lines, where the AN level
is highest in dry conditions.
In some countries, different values are specified for night and day. As an example, the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) in the US recommends that the day-night average sound level Ldn be limited to 55 dBA outdoors [4-
27]. The level Ldn is defined as:

1
Ld L n  10
 
Ldn  10log  1510  910 10  
10

 24   

Where Ld and Ln are the day and night time sound levels, respectively. However, since the highest level of AN from
DC lines occurs in fair weather, it may be prudent to limit the L dn (10%) of AN from HVDC transmission lines to 55
dBA, and this correspond to 50 dBA for Ldn (50%). Reference [4-5] indicates that the night and all-time distribution
are close together by 1.5 dBA. Therefore, assuming Ld ~ Ln ~ 42 to 44 dBA results in Ldn~50 dBA. In any case,
weather conditions and local regulations need to be considered.
As another example, South African noise regulations generally recommend a night time limit of 35 dBA for rural
areas. The approach being taken by Eskom on this matter is that the DC line should meet a limit of L 50 = 42 dBA at
its servitude boundary. This allows for a limiting 7 dB difference between the required background level of 35 dBA
and what in South African noise legislation is referred to as a noise nuisance [4-28].
Page 31
ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELD EFFECTS

For AC lines, national statutory limits for electric and magnetic fields usually refer to international recommendations
issued by ICNIRP on the basis of proven biological effects.
For DC electric fields, no limit has been suggested by ICNIRP on the basis of biological effects. From a perception
and annoyance point-of-view, it is recommended to limit the field intensity as well as the ion current density at
ground level, since the perception of the electric field depends on the combination of these two entities. Figure 4-5,
derived from [4-29], shows how the human sensitivity to DC electric fields is enhanced by the presence of ions.
It should be noted that DC electric fields and ion currents at ground level depend on conductor sag as well as
climatic conditions; therefore the probability of exceeding certain levels of field intensity and ion current density
shall be considered for any limits imposed, as discussed in [4-6].
Figure 4-5a. Mean sensitivity index d’ for simultaneous application of different electric
field intensities and ion current densities. Derived from Ref. [4-29].
Page 32
Figure 4-5b. Statistical representation of the subjects’ perceptions. Derived from Ref.
[4-29].
For hybrid configurations, the human sensitivity to the electric field is further enhanced due to the simultaneous
presence of both AC and DC fields. It is shown in [4-24] that the subjective evaluation of the “electric field
sensations” in terms of head hair sensation, spark to an umbrella, or spark to a ground rod, increase considerably
when a AC electric field is combined with a DC electric field or ion currents. Figure 4-6, redrawn from [4-24], shows
a sample diagram of head hair sensation level as a function of combined AC and DC electric fields. Sensation
levels are denoted as: 0 – not perceptible, 1 – just perceptible, 2 – definitely perceptible, 3 – slightly annoying, 4 –
very annoying, 5 – intolerable.
Page 33
HEAD HAIR SENSATION

5
4
Sensation Level
0
-40 -20 0 20 40
DC Electric Field (kV/m)
0 2 5 10 15
AC Electric Field (kV/m)
Figure 4-6: Averaged head hair sensation level as a function of DC electric field for AC
electric fields of 1, 2, 5, 10, and 15 kV/m. Redrawn from Ref. [4-24].
For DC magnetic fields, ICNIRP [4-19] indicates a limiting value much higher than what can occur nearby DC lines;
therefore, DC magnetic fields are not further treated here.
The AC magnetic field in a hybrid configuration is not affected by the presence of the DC line, however, the lateral
profile of the field may change considerably since the possible field cancelation effect of the two AC circuits no
longer exists.
SUMMARY OF POSSIBLE DESIGN CRITERIA

A summary of possible design limits and targets relevant to DC corona and field effects are presented in Table 4-2.
These are limits that serve as a suggestion for converted DC transmission lines proposed for a certain situation,
and therefore may not be applicable in all cases, as local conditions and regulations may vary. The values are
therefore given by way of example only. Further research is required to adequately quantify the effect of humidity
on corona inception, ion current density and ground level electric field.
Page 34
EXAMPLES OF DC DESIGN LIMITS AND

PARAMETER COMMENT
TARGETS
Values above 25 kV/cm should be verified by testing.
25 kV/cm at sea level, compensated for
altitude [4-30]. The margin between operating gradient chosen and the
Pole conductor theoretical inception gradient, as given by Peek (refer to
surface gradient* Ref. [4-5] example uses Peek’s equation Annex A), affects this level.
with irregularity factor 0.82 and relative air
density 0.92. This may limit the amount of DC power which can be
transferred – refer to Chapter 7.
14 kV/cm at sea level, compensated for
Generally of concern only for monopolar operation (even
Shield wire altitude [4-30].
under contingency) - refer to Chapter 7 and Annex G.
surface gradient Ref. [4-5] example: 9-24 kV/cm in
bipolar/monopolar operation.
42 dBA at edge of right-of-way under all
weather conditions [4-13].
Audible noise Must be met, whatever the altitude.
Ref. [4-5] example: 42-44 dBA at edge of
ROW based on day/night average limit.
72 dB (1 V/m, 1 MHz) at edge of right-of-

way under all weather conditions [4-13].
Radio
Ref. [4-5] example: 46 dBA at edge of Must be met, whatever the altitude.
interference
ROW in average fair weather based on 66
dB signal strength and 20 dB S/N ratio.
Corona loss Minimize. No altitude correction known.
Total value including electrostatic and space charge fields.
No internationally recommended limit has yet been proposed
[4-18].
Ref. [4-5] recommends 25 kV/m as limit in fair weather and
40 kV/m 5% exceedence in foul weather based on
Electric field at perception threshold.
See comments.
ground level
Ref. [4-6] states that the insufficient data is available to
recommend limits.
Note also the limitations stated in [4-20].
Ion current density should also be taken into account [4-5][4-
6].
ICNIRP value for general public is far above what can be
Magnetic field See comments.
expected under DC lines.
Static electric field should also be taken into account [4-5][4-
6].
Ion current Ref. [4-5] recommends 100 nA/m² as limit based on
2 See comments.
density (nA/m ) perception threshold.
Ref. [4-6] states that insufficient data is available to
recommend limits.
Ion concentration No limits available. Further information may be found in [4-6] and [4-20].
* High conductor surface gradients can under some conditions generate high levels of space charge which may
contribute to anomalous line and insulator flashovers [4-16].
Table 4-2. Examples of design limits and targets relevant to DC corona and
electric field effects for converted lines (example proposed for a certain case).
Page 35
Corona and field effects calculation and verification
CALCULATION OF CORONA EFFECTS

In the process of AC to DC conversion, different situations can be present: an isolated AC line is to be converted to
a DC line, a DC lines will be inserted in the right-of-way shared by one or several AC lines (hybrid corridor), or an
AC and a DC line will be located on the same towers (hybrid line). Calculation procedures for isolated DC and AC
corona effects are applicable to hybrid configurations with certain modifications, as described below.
In the following sections, calculations of conductor surface voltage gradient, radio interference (RI), audible noise
(AN), and corona loss (CL) are presented with references to information available in existing Cigré documents,
primarily [4-1] [4-3] [4-5]. However, those documents are limited to isolated AC or DC lines. Therefore, in order to
cover all aspects of conversion to DC, the corona calculation procedures for isolated DC lines are presented first
with reference to existing Cigré documents; then considerations will be made on how to extend the procedures to
include AC and DC lines in close proximity, largely based on the work performed by BPA [4-23].
Conductor surface voltage gradient

Isolated DC line:
The procedure described in [4-5] for calculating the surface voltage gradients of DC conductors is limited to the
case of isolated bipolar DC lines of symmetrical configuration. In order to cover more general configurations, e.g. a
three-phase AC line converted to DC, the calculation procedure for AC lines described in [4-3] is modified in Annex
B to include also DC lines.
The corona performance of the converted line can then be established by applying the conventional methods
described in [4-3] and [4-5], as discussed in subsequent sections.
Hybrid configuration:
The calculation procedure in Annex B is further extended to include hybrid configurations where the AC conductor
surface voltage gradients are biased by the presence of the DC conductors, while the DC conductor surface
gradients include a ripple emanating from the presence of the AC conductors, as illustrated in Figure 4-7. Referring
to the previous discussion, the calculation procedure proposed in Annex B covers only electrostatic effects; any
influence of space charges on the electric fields on the surface of the AC conductors is tentatively disregarded. A
numerical example is given in Annex B for a double-circuit 380 kV AC line configuration after conversion to a hybrid
line. Note that the polarity configuration of the DC conductors will either amplify or reduce the peak gradients of the
AC conductors during the positive half-cycles, thus influencing the AN and RI performance of the AC line.
As discussed in subsequent sections, the corona performance of a hybrid configuration can then be established by
applying conventional calculation methods described in [4-3] and [4-5] in the following way:
 Calculate the peak values of the combined AC and DC electric field distribution on the surfaces of the AC
and DC conductors as described in Annex B.
 The corona performance of the AC conductors may be calculated as for conventional AC lines after
dividing the peak values of the calculated conductor surface gradients by √2.
 The corona performance of the DC conductors may be calculated using conventional DC empirical
methods by applying the peak values of the conductor surface gradient.
Page 36
Figure 4-7. Conductor surface voltage gradients in hybrid configurations . Derived from
Ref. [4-23].
Radio interference
General information on electromagnetic interference from power lines is presented in [4-3].
Isolated DC line:
Calculation methods for RI from isolated DC lines are described in [4-3] and [4-5]. Calculation details are discussed
in Annex C.
The calculation of RI from hybrid configurations presents some peculiarities [4-23]:
 RI levels from DC lines are higher in fair weather than in rain, and therefore primarily considered as a fair
weather phenomenon. On the other hand, RI levels from AC lines are considered as both a fair weather
and a foul weather phenomenon. For hybrid configurations, it is therefore necessary to study both weather
conditions.
 RI from AC conductors occurs around the peak of the positive half cycle of the power frequency voltage,
whereas RI from DC conductors for an equivalent gradient occurs all the time, primarily from the positive
conductor.
 The nuisance value appears to be higher for AC than for DC.
Page 37
The empirical formulas presented in [4-3] can be used to calculate the RI level of a hybrid configuration at any
particular distance from each AC phase and DC pole conductor by applying the appropriate surface voltage
gradients. With this information, the total RI level is determined by adequately adding those levels for the different
weather conditions. Calculation details are discussed in Annex C along with a numerical example for a double-
circuit AC line converted to a hybrid line.
Audible noise
Various research centers have developed formulas for predicting AN from AC and DC lines. Some of them are
listed in [4-3]. The AC formulas provide the “heavy rain” level (usually equal to the L5 level in rain) and the “wet
conductor” level (usually equal to the L50 level in rain), while the DC formulas normally provide the L 50 level in fair
weather.
The formulas are valid only for the broad-band component of the noise; the hum levels of the AC conductors have
to be considered separately if necessary.
Isolated DC line:
Details on AN calculations for isolated DC lines are discussed in Annex D.
As with RI, the calculation of AN from hybrid configurations presents some peculiarities:
 AN levels from DC lines are higher in fair weather than in rain, and therefore primarily considered as a fair
weather phenomenon. In contrast, AN levels from AC lines are much higher in rain and therefore
considered as a foul weather phenomenon. For hybrid configurations, it is therefore necessary to study
both weather conditions.
 AN from AC conductors occurs around the peak of the positive half cycle of the power frequency voltage,
whereas RI from DC conductors for an equivalent gradient occurs all the time, and practically only from the
positive conductor.
The empirical formulas presented in [4-3] can be used to calculate the AN level of a hybrid configuration at any
particular distance from each AC phase and DC pole conductor by applying the appropriate surface voltage
gradients. With this information, the total AN level is determined by adequately adding those levels for the different
weather conditions. Calculation details are discussed in Annex D along with a numerical example for a double-
circuit AC line converted to a hybrid line.
Corona loss
Basic information about corona losses at AC or DC can be found in [4-3].
Isolated DC line:
Calculation methods for DC corona loss are described in [4-3] and [4-5]. Details on calculations for isolated DC
lines are discussed in Annex E.
Formulas for calculating corona losses on AC lines and isolated DC lines are presented in [4-3] and [4-5]. However,
due to the lack of full-scale test results there is no information available how to apply these formulas to hybrid
configurations, as discussed in Annex E.
Page 38
CALCULATION OF ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS AT GROUND LEVEL

Ground level electric and magnetic fields are calculated in the same way for AC and DC lines with the exception of
the enhancement of the DC electric field due to space charges.
Isolated DC line:
Ground-level electric field and ion current distribution under DC transmission lines depend primarily on the
conductor bundle configuration and on the minimum height of the conductors. Following the determination of a
maximum DC voltage level of a converted line with regard to RI and AN, any restriction on the DC voltage from the
point of view of electric field effects can be estimated by applying one of the methods described in [4-6]. The
methods can be divided into two groups:
 Analytical methods for solving the equations of electric and ion current density fields by applying some
basic assumptions and appropriate boundary conditions for the DC line.
 Semi-empirical methods based on some analytical assumptions combined with empirical data from test line
measurements.
Purely empirical methods like the ones often used for the calculation of corona effects are lacking, partly because
of the limited amount of results available from full-scale electric field and ion current density measurements. More
information on DC electric field calculation methods is given in Annex F.
The AC electric field at ground is calculated by the conventional method described in [4-2], with the DC conductors
at zero potential.
The DC electric field and ion current density at ground level may be estimated in the same way as for isolated DC
lines, with the AC conductors at zero potential.
The magnetic fields are calculated by the conventional method described in [4-2]. The AC and DC magnetic fields
can be treated separately since the effects on humans are different (there are no induction effects from DC
magnetic fields).
More information on calculation methods for hybrid configurations is given in Annex F along with literature
references.
VERIFICATION OF CORONA AND FIELD EFFECTS

It must be noted that there are dispersions in the results of the various empirical prediction formulas, and also
between predictions and measurements. It is therefore essential to understand the assumptions contained in the
prediction methods and their limitations. Suitable verification tests should therefore be undertaken. The scope of
such tests would depend on individual needs and available high voltage test equipment. At high altitudes (1500 m
and above) it is especially important to perform testing, given the very limited data for such cases. The need for this
form of type testing would apply to each configuration. The most practical way of performing these tests would be
to commission a reputable HVDC laboratory; this does not preclude the utility from also performing tests.
The following must be noted for any tests performed:
 The use of a full-scale test line with all hardware as is to be used on the converted line is recommended for
verification of all predictions; differences between positive and negative poles would also be characterized
in this way, as well as the special characteristics of hybrid lines.
 Consider the effects of altitude.
Page 39
 Consider the relevant weather conditions (wet or dry climate) and seasonal weather variations.
 Corona cages are not recommended for DC application, and are therefore not suitable for testing related to
AC-DC conversion of power lines.
 Complete modeling of a full scale line in a reduced scale test facility cannot be recommended at present,
although promising applications of reduced scale tests have been reported [4-31][4-32].
Procedures and instrumentation for verification of corona and field effects of AC and DC lines are discussed in [4-1]
[4-2] [4-3] [4-6].
References
[4-1] “Interferences Produced by Corona Effect of Electric Systems”, Cigré Technical Brochure No. 20, 1974.
[4-2] “Electric and Magnetic Fields Produced by Transmission Systems”, Cigré Technical Brochure No. 21, 1980.
[4-3] “Addendum to Interferences Produced by Corona Effect of Electric Systems”, Cigré Technical Brochure No.
61, 1996.
[4-4] “Electric Power Transmission and the Environment. Field, Noise and Interference”, Cigré Technical
[4-5] “Impacts of HVDC Lines on the Economics of HVDC Projects”, JWG B2/B4/C1.17, Cigré Technical
[4-6] “Electric Field and Ion Current Environment of HVDC Overhead Transmission Lines”, Cigré Technical
[4-7] Maruvada P.S., “Corona in Transmission Systems: Theory, Design and Performance,” Crown Publications,
Johannesburg, 2011.
[4-8] Maruvada P.S., “Corona Performance of High Voltage Transmission Lines,” Research Studies Press Ltd.,
Baldock, Hertfordshire, 2000.
[4-9] “AC Transmission Line Reference Book—200 kV and Above, Third Edition,” EPRI, Palo Alto, 2005,
1011974. pp. 10-7.
[4-10] “Bipolar HVDC Transmission Study Between ±600 kV and ±1200 kV- Corona Studies Phase 2,” EPRI EL-
2794, project 430-2, December 1982.
[4-11] “American National standard for Electromagnetic Noise and Field Strength Instrumentation, 10 kHz to 40
GHz. Specifications”, IEEE Std. C63.2, 2009.
[4-12] “Specification for Radio Disturbance and Immunity Measuring Apparatus and Methods - Part 1-1: Radio
Disturbance and Immunity Apparatus - Measuring Apparatus”, CISPR 16-1-1, Ed 3, 2010-01-01.
[4-13] “HVDC Power Transmission: Basic Principles, Planning and Converter Technology (Part 1),” Eskom,
Crown Publications, October 2012.
[4-14] A. C. Britten, D. H. Cretchley, K. J. Sadurski, B. Druif, H. A. Roets, “The Compaction of Conductor-To-

Tower Clearances on Eskom’s 765 kV Transmission Lines”, Cigre Symposium on Compacting Overhead
Transmission Lines, Leningrad, 3-5 June 1991.
[4-15] “Radio Interference Characteristics of Overhead Power Lines and High-Voltage Equipment Part 2: Methods
of Measurement and Procedure for Determining Limits”, CISPR 18-2, Ed 2, 2010-06.
Page 40
[4-16] G. C. Sibilant, A. C. Britten, D. Govender, “The Effect of Ions and Space Charge on the Performance of
HVDC Lines – Literature Review and Case Study”, HVDC Congress, Durban, 2006.
[4-17] G. C. Sibilant, A. C. Britten, D. C. Smith, ”The Susceptibility of Power Line Carrier Systems of Long HVDC
Lines to Atmospheric Noise”, HVDC Congress, Durban, 2006.
[4-18] “Guidelines for Limiting Exposure to Time-Varying Electric and Magnetic Fields (1 Hz to 100 kHz)”,
International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection, Health Physics, Volume 99, Number 6,
December 2010.
[4-19] “Guidelines on Limits of Exposure to Static Magnetic Fields”, International Commission on Non-Ionizing
Radiation Protection, Health Physics, Volume 96, Number 4, April 2009.
[4-20] “Environmental and Potential Health Effects of HVDC Transmission Lines”, EPRI Paper 1025385, 2012.
[4-21] P.S. Maruvada, S. Drogi, “Field and Ion Interactions of Hybrid AC/DC Transmission Lines”, IEEE Trans.,
Vol. PWRD-3, July 1988, pp.1165-1172.
[4-22] “Hybrid Tower Study, Volume 3: Phase 3 – Scale Model Development and Full-Scale Tests, “EPRI TR-
103598, Final Report, May 1994.
[4-23] V. L. Chartier, S. H. Sarkinen, R. D. Stearns, A. L. Burns, “Investigation of Corona and Field Effects of
AC/DC Hybrid Transmission Lines”, IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-100, No.1,
January 1981, pp.72-80.
[4-24] B.A. Clairmont, G.B. Johnson, C.E Zaffanella, S. Zelingher, “The Effects of HVAC - HVDC Line Separation
in a Hybrid Corridor”, IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 4, No. 2, 1989, pp. 1338-1350.
[4-25] H. Yin, J. He, B. Zhang, R. Zeng, “ Finite Volume Based Approach for the Hybrid Ion Flow Field of UHVAC
and UHVDC Transmission Lines in Parallel” IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 26, No.4, 2011, pp. 2809
- 2820.
[4-26] E. V. Larsen, R. A Walling, C. J. Bridenbaugh, “Parallel AC/DC Transmission Lines Steady-State Induction
Issues”, IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. PWRD-4, No. 1, Jan 1989, pp. 667-673.
[4-27] “Information on Levels of Environmental Noise Requisite to Protect Public Health and Welfare with an
Adequate Margin of Safety”, U.S. EPA., 550/9-74-004, 1974.
[4-28] “The Measurement and Rating of Environmental Noise With Respect to Annoyance and to Speech
Communication”, South African Bureau of Standards Publication No.10103 (SANS 10103), Government
Gazette No. 18022, 30 May 1997.
[4-29] J.P. Blondin, D.H. Nguyen, J. Sbeghen, D. Goulet, C. Cardinal, P.S. Maruvada, M. Plante, W.H. Bailey,
“Human Perception of Electric Fields and Ion Currents Associated with High Voltage DC Transmission
Lines”, Bioelectromagnetics 17: 1996, pp. 230-241.
[4-30] A. A. Beutel, A. Singh, N. Mahatho, A. C. Britten, N. Parus, P. Moodley, ”Corona and Related Effects of
Transmission Lines Converted from AC to DC Operation: Eskom’s Perspective and Considerations for
Cigre Working Group B2.41”, HVDC and Power Electronic Systems for Overhead Line and Insulated Cable
Applications, San Francisco, USA, March 2012.
[4-31] EPRI, “Electrical Effects of HVDC Transmission Lines: State of the Science”, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, 2010.
[4-32] K.Y. Shin, J.S. Lim, Y.H. Kim, D.I. Lee, D.H. Kim, B.S. Moon, “A Study for Environmental Characteristics of
AC/DC Hybrid Overhead Transmission Line Using Reduced-scale Model, “ HVDC and Power Electronic
Systems for Overhead Line and Insulated Cable Applications, San Francisco, USA, March 2012.
Page 41
Chapter 5: Insulation coordination aspects

This chapter deals with stresses on the insulation of the converted line imposed by the DC service voltage as well
as different types of overvoltages. It is not a complete description of the insulation coordination process, but merely
a discussion of differences in insulation stresses and withstand characteristics due to the conversion from AC to
DC, with reference to existing Cigré Technical Brochures [5-1][5-2][5-3][5-4][5-5].
DC service voltage withstand

The service voltage has an effect on two different parts on the line insulation, namely the insulator strings (primarily
in polluted conditions), and tower and midspan clearances (accounting for conductor displacement due to wind).
INSULATOR SELECTION
Generally, existing AC insulators have to be replaced by insulators intended for DC voltage.
Conventional ceramic and glass insulators for DC have special properties with regard to corrosion protection and
electrical characteristics of the insulating materials. The properties are discussed in Chapter 6 along with the
compatibility of existing AC insulators for DC operation.
Composite long-rod insulators made of Hydrophobicity Transfer Materials (HTM) have generally better pollution
performance in comparison with ceramic or glass insulators of the same length. Considering that the insulator
length may be restricted to that of the original AC insulators in order to retain existing air clearances, composite
insulators may be the preferred choice for conversion.
Arcing horns are generally not necessary on DC insulators as fault currents are low and of short duration. The need
for corona rings on insulators and line hardware is discussed in Chapter 4.
INSULATOR DIMENSIONING
The insulation design of existing AC transmission lines is generally dominated by the performance with regard to
slow-front overvoltages, which determines the arcing distance of the insulator strings. For a given insulator length,
the pollution withstand requirements are then normally satisfied by selecting insulators with a suitable creepage
factor (i.e. creepage distance per unit insulator length).
When converting an AC line to DC, the requirements on the replacement DC insulators become different. In DC
systems the slow-front overvoltage levels are rather low, and the insulation design is often dominated by
requirements on pollution performance. Considering the space available for the replacement insulators in AC to DC
line conversion, it is therefore necessary to limit as far as possible the inaccuracies in the insulator selection and
dimensioning process by following a detailed design approach.
The selection and dimensioning of insulators for DC is described in [5-5]. The document comprises the following
topics:
 Differences between DC and AC pollution performance with regard to pollution accumulation and flashover
characteristics.
 Principles of dimensioning to obtain an acceptable flashover performance level.
 Insulator selection flow chart including identification of candidate insulators, assessment of environmental
and system stresses, determining the insulator characteristics and dimensions, and design verification.
Page 42
Simplified dimensioning approach

Detailed information for application of a simplified dimensioning method primarily intended for the design of new
DC lines is provided in [5-5].
The effect of insulator dimensioning on the attainable DC voltage level of a converted line, with a given insulator
string length, is illustrated by the following example using the simplified approach based on service experience
from existing AC and DC lines in Brazil:
The unified specific creepage distances (USCD) used in clean areas are 28 mm/kV ph-gnd (equal to 16 mm/kVph-ph)
for AC lines, and 27 mm/kV for DC lines. Accordingly, 420 kV AC lines would be equipped with 21 cap-and-pin
standard insulators with a unit length of 146 mm and a creepage distance of 320 mm per unit. Thus, the string
length would be 3066 mm and the total creepage distance is 6720 mm. A potential conversion to DC using cap-
and-pin anti-fog insulators with a unit length of 170 mm and a creepage distance of 550 mm per unit would require
18 units to obtain the same string length. The total creepage distance would then become 9900 mm, thus allowing
a maximum DC voltage of 367 kV.
The simplified approach illustrated above is, however, not well suited when converting AC lines to DC, since the
creepage distance required for a particular pollution severity is often considerably higher for DC than for AC,
especially in more polluted areas, as discussed in detail in [5-6]. Instead, a statistical approach is recommended for
optimized utilization of the available space for the DC insulators on the converted line, as described in the following
section.
Statistical dimensioning approach

To minimize uncertainties in insulation selection and dimensioning, a detailed statistical approach is advised to
quantify the aspects that may impact the insulator dimensions in the design phase. The statistical design approach
is based on a quantification of the pollution stress on the insulators in combination with the pollution withstand
characteristics in order to obtain an acceptable pollution performance of the converted line. The basic approach is
described in [5-7], and special considerations for DC insulators are presented in [5-5] [5-8].
Statistical site severity assessment

The statistical site severity should be assessed through accurate mapping of the area concerned, based on long
term data. The data should include information on:
 Type and composition of the pollution present (i.e. type A or B according to [5-9], type of salts, non-soluble
deposits etc.) and its uniformity along the insulator.
 Climate, geographic information, and land use.
 Service experience with the existing AC line.
Directional Dust Deposit Gauge (DDDG) measurements according to [5-9] can provide information on pollution
severity. However, the information can be improved by establishing test stations at representative locations,
equipped with a selection of energized insulators to get an estimate of long-term pollution accumulation for various
insulator types in the environment of concern. This activity is of special importance for DC insulators due to the
pollution accumulation caused by the electrostatic field.
The following data are required:
 The equivalent salt deposit density (ESDD) and non-soluble deposit density (NSDD) levels as measured
Page 43
according to [5-9]. The preferred statistical parameters are the 2% level and the standard deviations. If data
from DDDG measurements, or non-energized or AC-energized insulators are used, the measured values
are to be corrected to account for the effect on pollution deposit by DC energization [5-5].
 The degree of uniformity of the pollution along the insulator.
 The number of pollution events per year.
 The number of insulators subjected to this pollution condition along the line.
Insulator pollution testing

The statistical approach requires results from representative tests on the selected insulators giving the flashover
properties in statistical terms. Here, a representative test means a standard or non-standard artificial pollution test,
which is optimized to represent the natural pollution condition as close as possible to duplicate:
 The pollution level (i.e. ESDD and NSDD).
 The pollution composition (i.e. type of salt and non-soluble components).
 The uniformity of the pollution deposit.
 The wetting conditions.
Results from natural pollution tests, preferably as long-term measurements of leakage currents, may also be used
to estimate statistical flashover properties.
Determination of the acceptable pollution performance

A statistical approach includes the establishment of an acceptable risk. In the case of a DC line, the acceptable
performance criterion is expressed as the acceptable number of pollution flashovers per year (per DC pole),
accounting for the consequences of flashovers in terms of temporary service interruptions. An example of DC
insulator dimensioning using the statistical approach is given in Chapter 7.
TOWER TOP AND MIDSPAN CLEARANCES

Tower top and midspan air clearances should withstand the DC service voltage under practically all conditions.
Methods for calculation of insulator and conductor swing under extreme wind conditions are described in [5-3],
while critical flashover voltages for typical air gaps stressed by DC are given in [5-2]. Examples of recommended
tower air clearances can be found in [5-3].
Overvoltages
The insulation of the existing AC line is designed to withstand temporary, slow-front, and fast-front overvoltages
with sufficiently low probability of flashover in order to fulfill certain performance criteria. The overvoltage
characteristics as well as the overvoltage performance changes when the line is converted to DC, as discussed in
the following sections. It should be noted that overvoltages may appear in DC systems due to harmonic filter and
smoothing reactor resonance. It is assumed that such issues are solved by design and selection of the associated
equipment, and are not further considered here.
TEMPORARY OVERVOLTAGES
Due to the intrinsic control of conventional DC converters, temporary overvoltages are low and need normally not
be considered with regard to line insulation. Higher temporary overvoltage levels may however occur with certain
VSC-based converter configurations during DC line-to-ground faults, and DC conductors in hybrid configurations
Page 44
may be subject to high temporary overvoltages due to AC line faults [5-10]. However, such overvoltages are of
short duration and the magnitude is usually kept well below 2 p.u. by the surge arresters on the DC side of the
converter.
SLOW-FRONT OVERVOLTAGES
Slow-front overvoltages are usually associated with switching actions in AC systems. Since conventional circuit
breakers are not used in DC systems, switching overvoltages strictly don’t exist on DC lines. Line energization
(even after a line fault) is done in a controlled manner, effectively reducing transient overvoltages. However, when
single pole-to-ground faults occur on bipolar DC lines, transient overvoltages are superimposed on the DC voltage
of the healthy pole conductor [5-12][5-13][5-14][5-15] and on the neutral conductor. The overvoltage magnitude
depends on the position along the line, the location of the fault, and the surge reflection properties of the line
terminal equipment. The resulting pole-to-ground overvoltages have similar characteristics in terms of magnitude
and wave shape as slow-front overvoltages in AC systems.
Figure 5-1, taken from [5-4], shows typical overvoltage profiles for a 1500 km line for three different fault locations.
The maximum magnitude, occurring for fault locations at the midpoint of the line, is usually below 1.8 p.u. for
conventional DC systems. (For comparison, typical maximum values for AC lines are between 2 and 3 p.u.)
As seen from Figure 5-1, high overvoltages appear only on a limited part of the line, and the maximum magnitude
depends on the fault location. These are important aspects when a statistical approach is used for the insulation
coordination. Different terminal equipment, e.g. in VSC-based systems, may require special studies to determine
the overvoltage profiles. Hybrid configurations may also need special consideration with regard to induced
overvoltages caused by AC line faults.
1,8
1,7
1,6
Overvoltages (pu)
Sending
1,5
1,4 1/4
1,3 Mid
1,2
1,1
1,0
0 188 375 563 750 938 1125 1313 1500
Transmission Line Length (km)
Figure 5-1. Fault application overvoltage along a DC line for fault at: sending end, ¼
length, and midpoint of the line [5-4].
Page 45
FAST-FRONT OVERVOLTAGES
Fast-front overvoltages are associated with lightning strikes directly to a DC pole conductor, or to towers and shield
wires. Methods for calculating fast-front overvoltages on AC transmission lines are described in [5-1]. The
procedures are essentially the same for DC lines, with the following exceptions:
 Lightning currents injected by direct strikes to a DC pole conductor generates transient overvoltages which
are superimposed on the DC service voltage. Thus, the composite overvoltage occurring between the
conductor and the tower varies depending on the magnitude and polarity of the lightning current and the
polarity of the DC voltage. Depending on which DC conductor is hit by lightning, the overvoltage is either
higher or lower than under AC (since the average value of the AC voltage is zero). The rate of lightning
strikes to AC and DC conductors is usually considered equal, however, recent studies indicate that the
polarity of the DC conductor significantly affects the striking rate, especially on tall towers [5-11].
 When lightning currents are injected to towers or shield wires, the overvoltages occurring between the DC
conductors and the tower depend on the magnitude and polarity of the lightning current, and the polarity of
the DC conductor. Since the constant DC voltage may be higher than the instantaneous voltage on any of
the AC phase conductors, this suggests that the composite overvoltages occurring between conductor and
tower on DC lines may be somewhat higher than on AC lines.
Fast-front overvoltages on hybrid lines may be studied in a way similar to the procedure used for double-circuit AC
lines, i.e., by considering the instantaneous voltages appearing on AC and DC conductors during a complete AC
cycle.
OVERVOLTAGE WITHSTAND
The overvoltage withstand characteristics of the converted line can be divided into
 Tower top and midspan clearances, primarily associated with the performace of the line.
 Clearances between the conductors and objects on the ground, primarily associated with personal safety.
As discussed above, overvoltages on DC lines are generally composed of transient voltages superimposed on the
DC service voltage. The withstand characteristics of air gaps for composite fast-front and slow-front overvoltages
are described in [5-16][5-17][5-18][5-19][5-20]. A general conclusion is that the withstand of air gaps is only
marginally affected by the presence of the bias DC voltage, suggesting that the total composite overvoltage across
the air gap may be used for determination of required clearances with regard to fast-front and slow-front
overvoltages. The same can be said for the air gap across insulators, except in wet conditions where the slow-front
overvoltage withstand is reduced by about 15 % [5-20].
Tower top and midspan clearances

Requirements on tower top and midspan clearances for AC lines are given in [5-3] based on [5-2] and [5-21]. When
using a deterministic approach, the same requirements may be applied for checking the clearances of the
converted line, while taking into account the composite overvoltages discussed above. Alternatively, a statistical
approach may be used to calculate the performance of the DC line after conversion by considering the composite
overvoltage stresses, the withstand characteristics, and the rate of overvoltage occurrences.
In hybrid configurations, the composite overvoltages appearing between DC and AC conductors are composed of
the DC and AC service voltages in combination with the fast-front or slow-front overvoltages occurring either on the
DC line or on the AC line. It should be noted that the risk of flashovers between DC and AC conductors should be
minimized due to difficulties of DC and AC protection systems to handle such events.
Page 46
Clearance to grounded objects

The required safety clearance to objects on the ground is governed by national codes. Requirements are usually
based on the relation between the flashover voltage of the insulators and the flashover voltage of the safety
clearance [5-21]. The requirements are often expressed as a function of the AC system voltage.
If it is conservatively assumed that both fast-front and slow-front overvoltages are limited by flashovers across the
line insulators, the required safety clearances for fast-front and slow-front overvoltages can be expressed in
relation to the insulator striking distance by applying the appropriate gap factors for the respective air gaps and
overvoltage types. However, slow-front overvoltage levels of DC lines are often low enough to prevent insulator
flashovers, suggesting that only fast-front overvoltages need to be considered for determination of safety
clearances.
Insulation coordination for the neutral conductor

AC lines converted to bipolar DC lines may have to be equipped with a neutral conductor (metallic return) if a
transition from bipolar to monopolar operation cannot use ground return. Either one or more of the existing
conductors on the structures, or additionally installed neutral conductor, can be utilized for this purpose, as
discussed in Chapter 3.
The neutral conductor is shared between the two poles and is electromagnetically coupled with both; a fault on one
pole may cause a fault on the neutral and affect the operation of the other pole. Faults on the neutral conductor
insulation will affect pole independence unless they are efficiently detected and cleared.
The dimensioning of insulators for the neutral conductor and the need for arcing protection of these insulators are
discussed in detail in [5-22]. Aspects relevant to converted lines are discussed in subsequent sections.
VOLTAGE STRESSES ON NEUTRAL CONDUCTORS

The neutral insulation is subject to a number of voltage stresses:
 The maximum continuous DC operating voltage of the neutral insulators is equal to the voltage drop on the
neutral conductor during the maximum power transfer in monopolar operation, typically a few tens of
kilovolts.
 System start-up, system shut-down, and converter commutation failure produce slow-front overvoltages on
the neutral conductor of up to one hundred kilovolts.
 During a pole-to-ground fault, slow-front overvoltages in the range of a few hundred kilovolts are induced
on the neutral conductor, similar to the overvoltages that appear on the healthy pole during pole-to-ground
faults.
 Lightning strikes to the transmission line subject the neutral insulation to very high amplitude, fast-front
overvoltages.
VOLTAGE WITHSTAND OF NEUTRAL INSULATION

The neutral insulation must withstand the continuous operating voltage on the neutral conductor, the system start-
up overvoltages, the system shut-down overvoltages, and the overvoltages that occur during commutation failure.
A neutral insulator string comprising two to five units would typically satisfy these requirements. However, the
neutral insulator must be much longer than that to withstand both slow-front overvoltages due to pole-to-ground
faults, and fast-front overvoltages caused by lightning. The neutral insulation strength of originally designed DC
lines is typically lower than the pole insulation strength, and consequently, the neutral insulation is more
Page 47
susceptible to flashovers (including back flashovers). If the converted line needs to have a dedicated neutral
conductor, its insulation has to be carefully designed in order not to reduce the reliability of the line.
MECHANISM OF NEUTRAL TO GROUND FAULTS

If a flashover occurs only on the neutral insulation (e.g., due to a direct lightning strike or back flashover due to a
lightning strike to a tower or shield wire) and the DC system was in a bipolar mode of operation before the fault, the
differential DC current in the neutral conductor will be too low to support a permanent DC arc and the fault will clear
spontaneously.
In these situations one event may cause flashover on the pole insulation and the neutral insulation simultaneously,
depending on the neutral insulation level:
 A pole-to-ground line insulation flashover (e.g., due to pollution) will produce high slow-front overvoltages
on the neutral conductor that may cause a flashover on the neutral insulator.
 A lightning strike to the tower or shield wires that causes pole-to-ground insulation flashover may cause a
flashover on the neutral insulation (because of the shared transmission line structure).
In the above situations, the neutral insulation fault will be supported by the DC current and will turn into a DC arc.
Such arcs are difficult to clear spontaneously because there is no zero crossing of the current.
Faults on the neutral insulation may affect the operation of the DC system if one pole is already out of service and
the neutral conductor is being used as a current return path. Because the neutral conductor is shared by the two
poles, simultaneous faults on the pole insulation and the neutral insulation jeopardize pole independence. Faults on
the neutral insulation do not cause power transfer interruption; however, they must be cleared to avoid outage of
the other pole.
NEUTRAL INSULATOR FAULT CLEARING METHODS

Two methods of clearing neutral conductor faults without power transfer interruption are available: arcing horns,
and diverting a portion of the neutral current through the ground using a ground breaker at the ungrounded side of
the neutral conductor.
Arcing horns are insulator hardware devices that keep an arc away from the insulator surface (thereby preventing
damage) and elongate it until it becomes unstable; this instability leads to its extinction. The thermal motion of the
DC arc (rather than the effects of electromagnetic forces) is the greatest contributor to this elongation [5-23]. The
arcing horns can reliably extinguish DC arcs only if the arc current and supporting voltages are within the
capabilities of the arcing horns. The V-I characteristics of the arcing horns depend on their size and shape, as
shown in [5-23].
The arcing horns are effective only when their V-I characteristics are above the system V-I characteristics at the
fault location and they do not intersect, see Figure 5-2. The bigger the intersected area (below the line), the less
likely that the DC arc will extinguish spontaneously (arc is more stable). The straight lines in Figure 5-2 are V-I
characteristics of the system at different fault location (with 50 km increment). The right side intersection point
between the gap and fault characteristics is the stable arc point (e.g. 50 A for 0.3 m gap and fault 100 km from the
neutral grounding point). As seen from Figure 5-2, increased neutral insulation level significantly improves the
chances of spontaneous extinction of DC arcs.
A neutral insulation fault can be cleared more efficiently by diverting a portion of the neutral current through the
ground by using a grounding breaker at the ungrounded end of the neutral conductor; this reduces the fault current
and brings the V-I characteristics of the fault below the V-I characteristics of the arcing horns. The efficiency and
limitations of applying grounding breakers are discussed in detail in [5-22].
Page 48
The desired performance of the line can be achieved and economically optimized with a combination and balance
of the neutral insulation level and application of other neutral fault clearing methods.
7500
V-I Characteristics
5000
Voltage (V)
2.0m Gap
1.5m Gap
Fault at far end station (500 km)
2500
1.0m Gap
Fault at
station (0
0.5m Gap
km)
0.3m Gap
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Current (A)
Figure 5-2. Arcing horns fault clearing efficiency for different fault locations, as a
function of the fault current and arc voltage (±500 kV, 500 km system,
grounding breaker open, 15 Ohm tower footing resistance, 500 MW power
transfer). Derived from Ref. [5-22].
References
[5-1] “Guide to Procedures for Estimating the Lightning Performance of Transmission Lines,” Cigré Technical
[5-2] “Guidelines for the Evaluation of the Dielectric Strength of External Insulation,“ Cigré Technical Brochure
No. 72, 1992.
[5-3] “Tower Top Geometry and Mid Span Clearances,” Cigré Technical Brochure No. 348, 2008.
[5-4] “Impacts of HVDC Lines on the Economics of HVDC Projects,” Cigré Technical Brochure No. 388, 2009.
[5-5] “Outdoor Insulation in Polluted Conditions: Guidelines for Selection and Dimensioning Part 2: The DC
Case,” Cigré Technical Brochure No. 518, 2012.
[5-6] A. Pigini, R. Cortina, “Insulation Challenges when Uprating EHV AC Lines or Converting EHVAC Lines to
EHVDC Lines”, INMR World Congress, Seoul, Korea, 2011.
[5-7] C.S. Engelbrecht, R. Hartings, J. Lundquist, “Statistical Dimensioning of Insulators with Respect to Polluted
Conditions,” IEE Proceedings on Generation, Transmission and Distribution, Volume: 151 Issue 3, May
2004, pp. 321 – 326.
Page 49
[5-8] A. Pigini, R. Cortina, “Evaluation of the Performance of Polluted Insulators under DC: a Statistical
Approach”, ISH-2011, Paper C-023, Hannover, Germany, August 22-26, 2011.
[5-9] “Selection and Dimensioning of High-Voltage Insulators Intended for Use in Polluted Conditions – Part 1:
Definitions, Information and General Principles,” IEC/TS 60815-1, Ed. 1.0, 2008-10.
[5-10] R. Verdolin, A.M. Gole, E. Kuffel, N. Diseko, B. Bisewski, “Induced Overvoltages on an AC-DC Hybrid
Transmission System,“ IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 10, No. 3, July 1995, pp. 1514-1524.
[5-11] J.L. He, R. Zeng, “Lightning Strike Characteristics of ±800 kV DC UHV Transmission Lines,” Cigré
Symposium, Bologna, 2011.
[5-12] E.W. Kimbark, "Transient Overvoltages Caused by Monopolar Ground Fault on Bipolar DC Line: Theory
and Simulation," IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-89, No. 4, pp. 584-592,
April, 1970.
[5-13] N.G. Hingorani, "Transient Overvoltage on a Bipolar HVDC Overhead Line Caused by DC Line Faults,"
IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-89, No. 4, pp. 592-602, April, 1970.
[5-14] D J. Melvold, P. Odam, J J. Vithayathil, "Transient Overvoltages on an HVDC Bipolar Line During
Monopolar Line Faults, ," IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-96, No. 2, pp.
591-598, March/April, 1977.
[5-15] G.T. Wrate, I.K. Tasinga, S.S. Low, D.J. Melvold, R. S. Thallam, D. W. Gerlach, J. Y. Chang, "Transient
Overvoltages on a Three Terminal DC Transmission System due to Monopolar Ground Faults," IEEE
Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 5, No. 2, April 1990.
[5-16] Y. Watanabe, “Influence of Preexisting DC Voltage on Switching Flashover Characteristics,” IEEE

Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-87, No. 4, April 1968, pp. 964-969.
[5-17] N. Knudsen, F. Iliceto, "Flashover Tests on Large Air Gaps with D.C. Voltage and with Switching Surge
Superimposed on D.C. Voltage," IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-89, No. 5,
May/June 1970.
[5-18] N. Knudsen, F. Iliceto, "Contribution to the Electrical Design of EHVDC Overhead Lines," IEEE
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-93, No. 1, 1974, pp. 233-239.
[5-19] C. Menemenlis, G. Harbec, ”Behavior of Air Insulating GAPS of DC Systems Under Impulse, DC and
Composite Voltages,” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-98 , No. 6, 1979, pp.
2065 – 2075.
[5-20] R. Cortina, G. Marrone, A. Pigini, L.Thione, W. Petrusch, M. P. Verma, “Study of the Dielectric Strength of
External Insulation of HVDC Systems and Application to Design and Testing,“ Paper 33-12, Cigré Session,
Paris, 1984.
[5-21] “Overhead Electrical Lines Exceeding AC 45 kV, Part 1: General Requirements – Common Specifications,”
European Standard EN 50341-1, October 2001.
[5-22] V. Jankov, M. Stobart, ”HVDC System Performance with a Neutral Conductor,” IEEE International
Conference on High Voltage Engineering, New Orleans, September 2010, pp. 188 – 191.
[5-23] Canellas, J., Clarke, C.D., Portela, C.M., “DC Arc Extinction on Long Electrode Lines for HVDC
Transmission,” International Conference on DC Power Transmission, pp. 127-133, June 1984.
Page 50
Chapter 6: Issues and costs of line conversion
Line conversion issues

Several issues have to be considered prior to line conversion in order to come up with an optimum total solution.
The different options available both for the line and for the converter stations have to be evaluated, giving proper
importance to all aspects involved, such as different line configurations, voltage levels, rights of way, partial re-
routing, accessibility, permits, regulatory aspects, outage time required, etc.
A number of arrangements and combinations can be analyzed for each line, from the simplest case of retaining
most of the line components and the geometry, to more complicated solutions, including modifications to structures
or changing the conductor positions.
The actual condition of the line is particularly important, like it is in the cases of uprating or extending the life of AC
lines in general [6-1]. A thorough assessment of the different line components may be needed, and all information
that can be collected about the condition of the existing line is of value. Important measures are: visual/infrared
inspections of fittings, conductor/structure assessment, checking of the conductor clearances to ground, etc.
INSULATOR REPLACEMENT
As insulation plays an important role when converting an existing AC line to DC, several aspects must be taken into
account, in addition to the creepage distance requirements discussed in Chapter 5.
DC compatibility of existing insulators

Corrosion attack from DC voltage is of concern to cap and pin insulators, where the pin, and to some extent also
the cap, may be subject to serious corrosion problems that may jeopardize the mechanical integrity of the insulator
string [6-2]. The corrosion effects are proportional to the leakage currents, in other terms, the pollution conditions.
Ion migration in porcelain or glass discs is another concern, not coupled to the pollution conditions), which may
lead to reduced insulating properties, service interruptions, and increased maintenance cost [6-2][6-3]. The
phenomenon depends on the inherent properties of the insulating material; therefore, it is recommended that the
insulator manufacturer is consulted regarding the DC compatibility of the existing insulators.
Changes of insulator arrangements

Changes of insulator arrangement, if required, can be because of:
 Necessity to increase dry arcing distances of insulator assembly, due to increase of total creepage
distance and/or change of type of insulator applied.
 Better coordination of clearances in tower window in order to achieve higher insulation withstands.
 To maintain or increase required conductor-to-ground, and pole-to-pole midspan clearances.
Typical arrangements to achieve that are shown in Figure 6-1, 6-2, and 6-3.
Page 51
Figure 6-1. A-string (or, inverted V assembly).
One possible variation of the solution in Figure 6-1 might be to change the suspension assembly to conventional
strain to obtain extended creepage distance and/or increased clearance to ground. One example of the latter is
shown in Figure 6-2. It changes substantially the mechanical loading conditions at the attachment point and it is
why ”Special Release Hardware” has been used [6-4]. The structure capacity also needs to be checked for
unbalanced tensions.
Figure 6-2. Modification of suspension to strain assembly example.
The type of arrangement shown in Figure 6-3 was developed to reduce a substantial change of mechanical loading
conditions in the attachment and, thus, to avoid any special release hardware and similar. One very successful
application, in New Zealand was described in details in [6-5].
Page 52
Figure 6-3. Semi tension insulator string (or ”floating” strain assembly).
A more substantial change to the insulator arrangement is shown in Figure 6-4. Insulated cross arm solution as a
re-design / change of tower top geometry is an attractive option, which gives a high freedom of optimization of pole
geometry and insulation performance. One illustrative example (with possible solution for metallic-return
conductors) is elaborated in [6-6]. A major challenge in an upgrade like that is to establish the integrity and strength
of tower body and to re-check tower strength for its actual limits.
Figure 6-4. Transformation of double-circuit 220 kV AC to ± 400 kV DC. Derived from

Ref. [6-6].
Page 53
CONDUCTOR CONDITION CHECK AND/OR REPLACEMENT

Conductors are one of the most expensive components of any line, and the first attempt in any upgrade option will
always be to see if existing conductors can be re-utilized, completely or partially. Lines targeted for upgrade will be
regularly old or even very old. It is why a comprehensive assessment in order to establish a residual life of actual
conductors and fittings, mid-span joints in particular, is essential.
Conductors and ground wires

The conductor used for DC application is not different to AC application and the method of assessment for DC
application remains the same. There is only one detail in which conductor in DC application is different – there is no
skin-effect and, because of it, AC value of resistance does not apply here.
Use of conductors as metallic return

When an existing phase conductor on an AC line is utilized as metallic return conductor for DC application, there is
no constraint or specific measure to apply for that. Electrical properties, in this case, are such that conductor
current density will be now uniform, which is a (small) contribution to the increase of power transfer capability.
Ground wires
Ground wires and optical ground wires (OPGW) are, in possible AC to DC upgrade, exposed to higher risk due to
corrosion in presence of direct current sources, irrespective of mode of utilization – with or without metallic return
option. It is why a detailed inspection of conditions of ground wires, OPGW and associated hardware is highly
recommended. If there is already a sign of corrosion on any of these components, remedial measures are needed
as a part of the upgrade program.
If existing ground wires are replaced by large-diameter conductors, they may be utilized for metallic return. The
insulation requirements for metallic return (neutral) conductors are discussed in Chapter 5.
Connectors
The condition of all joints and load-bearing parts of metal fittings in general have to be checked adequately, having
in mind that candidate lines for upgrade are regularly old. This is of special importance since the conductors may
more regularly be operated at their thermal limit after conversion to DC.
For final proof that a certain part can stay as it is, or should be preplaced or repaired, specific inspection is needed.
For details, see [6-7]. Some repair work can be done “in the field”, if proven to be the most effective.
Thermal rating risk

The thermal rating of an AC or DC line is typically calculated on the basis of assumed “suitably conservative”
weather conditions which may or may not be based on actual field measurements in typical transmission line
corridors. In these rating calculations, the thermal rating is calculated at the maximum allowable conductor
temperature (MACT), with heat loss by radiation and convection set equal to the heat input to the conductor
through solar heating and Ohmic losses under the assumed weather conditions.
For AC lines, particularly at higher voltages, the maximum power flow may be determined by voltage drop and
system stability limits at levels much less than the thermal rating. As a result, the thermal rating may never be
“tested”. That is, if the AC power flow is limited by voltage drop and stability concerns to no more than, e.g., 30% of
the thermal rating, and the maximum conductor temperature may be much less than the line MACT and the
existing conductor system (conductor, clamps and connectors) may never have experienced temperatures of more
o
than 50 C over the life of the line.
Page 54
If converted to DC, the current density on the existing AC line conductors may need to be much higher so to justify
the conversion, and will typically experience much higher current densities since power flows are limited by the
thermal rating rather than electrical effects. As a result, the conductor system is likely to experience much higher
temperatures more frequently than when utilized as an AC line. The AC line whose conductor system never
o o
experienced temperatures above 50 C, may now routinely approach 100 C. Connectors in particular may be
subject to rapid aging and reduction in strength if poor initial installation methods become evident at much higher
temperature cycling.
A parallel concern centers on the weather assumptions used in the AC line rating calculation. The use of
aggressive weather assumptions, particularly wind speed, may be undetectable in AC lines where normal power
flows do not exceed, e.g., 30% of the thermal rating. When converted to DC, the higher current density may yield
conductor temperature well in excess of the line’s MACT. An assumed wind speed of 1.2 meters per second may
o o
result in conductor temperatures as high as 150 C after conversion of an AC line with a MACT of 100 C.
On the basis of these observations, it is recommended that the thermal rating of DC lines being converted from
existing AC lines, should use very conservative line rating weather assumptions combined with careful checking of
electrical clearances along the line.
Options for reconductoring

Reconductoring is required either because of bad state of existing conductors, or the need to increase current
loading capacity. When the main motive is to increase current rating, it can be done either with larger standard
conductors (ACSR or AAAC), or with novel HTLS (High Temperature, Low Sag Conductors), see [6-8][6-9]. A
change to standard conductors will be the regularly preferred option, if strength of supporting structures allow, due
to its cost effectiveness. A change to the HTLS type, keeping diameter and weight to similar level as the existing
standard conductor, will be the preferred option when the increase of size of standard conductor will require too
costly and/or too time-consuming intervention on present supporting structures.
Structures
Conductor reconfiguration
To maximize the use of existing phase conductors, it may be beneficial to rearrange individual subconductors, e.g.,
to form a triple-conductor bipole out of three twin-conductor bundles. As indicated in Figure 3-1 (options c), current
rating will increase by 50% but the larger bundles may also allow a higher DC voltage due to the reduced corona
effects. Vertical tower configurations are especially well suited for such conductor rearrangements since the
subconductors can be moved freely without interfering with the tower leg, while horizontal configurations don’t allow
such conductor rearrangements without considerable complication.
Need to evaluate changing loads or point of application

A complete change of the loading tree for the structures may be caused by changing from three-phase to two-pole
configuration, introduction of metallic return options, modifications in ground wire or OPGW function, or conductor
replacement. The structures have to be analyzed based on the changed loading tree to determine if and where
reinforcements are required and what the cost will be. Such analysis of existing structures, using design tools
available today, is very effective and does not require much time.
Possible reinforcement needs and design margins

Reinforcement of present structures will be required because of present conditions (the outcome from detailed
inspection and possible field tests) and/or because of relevant change of mechanical loading conditions. The
largest increase of loading will be due to introduction of larger conductors and the likely increase in attachment
height of the conductor. A relevant “design margin”, which might be utilized to reduce or eliminate intervention on
Page 55
present supporting structures is regularly coming from the fact that a suitable candidate for AC to DC upgrade will
be among old lines, designed using old, regularly conservative design assumptions and “safety factors” which do
not have justification in required reliability levels for the upgraded line.
Possible need for temporary modifications

The need for temporary modifications and methods of implementation are very much case specific, depending on
the type of actual supporting structure, conductor configuration and availability of tools for temporary modifications.
Typical examples are towers with one (middle) phase or all three phases in a window, which do not allow for an
easy change of phase and bundle configuration. The range of options is from complete re-stringing of conductors,
creation of temporary cross arms to the utilization of a “robotic arm” or emergency/temporary structure. Whichever
option is selected, an elaborated specific design solution and a method statement for safety procedure is essential
before starting this type of work. The same applies for on-site inspection of actual work.
Corrosion
Very often the condition of lines is related to the level of corrosion of all different components and parts; this is why
checking of deterioration, loss of strength and functionality due to corrosion is very important. Common methods for
any AC or DC line or any metallic structure in particular, apply here too.
Foundations
Changing loads
The condition of existing foundation is a starting point here, as with other components. When the actual load
capacity is established, a necessary level of intervention on foundation can be developed. There is a wide range of
possible options and optimally the selection is very much project and site specific.
Pylons, mixed solutions

Pylons, or supporting structures in general are already mixed by its function on the line – suspension, angle strain,
terminal – mixing different shapes or different materials is technically feasible, however, environmental impact and
related techno-economical analyses may need to be investigated.
OUTAGES BEFORE AND AFTER CONVERSION

When it is considered to modify a line to increase its power capacity, the availability of this power is a key factor
that is determinant for the final solution. Line outages related to the conversion process are important in this
respect.
Replacement of the AC insulators can be carried out while the line is still in AC operation, since DC insulators work
perfectly well under AC. Live line replacement of the insulators will minimize the outage time before conversion.
Outages prior to the conversion may also include re-routing or extending the line to the new converter station,
because space may not be available to accommodate converter stations next to existing AC substations. In that
regard, approaches and procedures are exactly the same as for development of new converter stations and new
lines.
Outages immediately after conversion may be necessary for testing and commissioning purposes.
Outages after conversion due to maintenance or malfunction of the DC terminal equipment may be minimized by
preparing for temporary operation under AC.
Page 56
Live line work

Live line work is an efficient method for reducing the outage time of transmission lines due to maintenance and
repair. Live line work on DC line uses, in principle, the same technology as for AC lines of the corresponding
voltage level. In that regard, more recent development of IEC standards is anticipating the same approach and the
same tools for 800 kV AC level as for ±600 kV DC, for example. (Above these voltage levels, there is obviously not
much experience with live line work, being AC or DC system.)
Work on DC lines in hybrid configurations will have to follow the same safety procedures as for AC lines running in
parallel, or for double-circuit AC lines.
PERMITTING AND REGULATION ISSUES
Regulatory aspect
All relevant regulatory aspects (standards and legal procedures) of AC lines converted to DC are identical to the
requirements for new DC lines and will not be elaborated here. The most critical (and new) aspect in such
conversion appears to be the introduction of possible earth electrodes and associated electrode lines, and possibly
hybrid lines.
Specific requirements for electric field, noise, clearances, etc. have been discussed in Chapters 4 and 5. Ways of
handling such matters are discussed in the case studies in Chapter 7 and the working examples in the Annexes.
Possible increase of right of way width

If conversion solution leads to (significant) increase in normal operating voltages, then the request for the increase
of the existing right of way might be unavoidable. A practical solution is very much case specific and requires in-
depth analysis of existing situation with the existing AC line. A formal application of differences between existing
(AC) and new required (DC) right of way may not be optimal; it will be a luxury to go through a whole procedure of
acquiring additional space on the entire route. Instead it might be that such intervention is needed only for some
critical spots or sections of the line.
Modifications and re-routings to new conversion stations

Probable modifications of right of way and re-routing to new converter stations are among the most important
aspects of conversion due to sensitivity and complexity of acquisition in relationship to the environmental impact
issues in general. The level of complexity is different from country to country.
The time and cost for modifications and re-routing, including acquisition of space for new converter stations will be
a regularly significant aspect in a conversion project justification.
The challenge of finding space for converter terminals is exacerbated where the AC line must remain in service
during construction and commissioning of the DC terminals. However a recent innovation in transformerless VSC-
based converter terminals reduces both the cost and footprint requirements of converters [6-10]. While the
transformerless system proposed can create a DC voltage only up to 1.3 times line-to-ground crest voltage of AC,
that ratio is often within the DC voltage limit sustainable by an AC line, in the absence of major tower
reconstruction.
Environmental issues
It appears that by far the biggest environmental issue for AC to DC upgrade is coming from possible introduction of
current earth return mode and, in association with that, earth electrodes and connecting lines. There is, from all
Page 57
previous (new) DC installations, enough studies and experience with this type of impact. In that regard, local,
regional and country specific requirements and regulations have to be complied with.
Another significant environmental issue is coming from the fact that, in attempting to reach optimal, cost-effective
solution, the AC to DC upgrade will end up, very often, with the fact that new nominal DC voltage will be
significantly higher than normal operating voltage of existing AC line. In that regard, all environmental issues,
requirements and regulations apply for upgraded DC lines as for completely new designed DC lines for that voltage
level. See Chapter 4 for a discussion on limits to environmental effects.
Identification of costs
Any upgrade from AC to DC will be always an expensive exercise. A justification for upgrade has to come from
planners, based on relevant techno-economical analysis and targeting rational projection of (electrical) loading
requirements. There will be always a gap between technically feasible power transfer capacity and what can be,
even in optimistic scenario, possible to expect on the upgraded line. In very simple terms, it is irrational to upgrade
a line to a capacity which is much higher than the loading which is available to transfer in the future. In that regard
a close cooperation between planners and designers is essential, as discussed in more detail in [6-11].
The cost of AC to DC conversion has been a major factor in all pre-feasibility and feasibility studies so far and may
be the main reason why such initiatives did not materialize yet. On a technical level, all relevant constraints can be
reduced or eliminated successfully, but the cost of such an intervention will be the determining factor and should be
evaluated in terms of the overall life cycle costing in an integrated AC and DC system. In that regard, “do nothing”,
to minimize intervention on existing AC lines in conversion to DC operation, might never be a viable option, for
obvious reasons.
Economics of HVDC systems is described and exercised for several different options in [6-12], aiming at new DC
lines. However, the principles and the general approach are completely applicable for AC to DC conversion as well.
The major cost components for AC to DC line conversion are identified in the following with reference to [6-12]:
CONVERTER STATIONS
A very simple empirical equation offered in [6-12] gives a good idea about expected (budget) cost:
Ct = A∙(V∙B)∙(P∙C)
where
Ct = millions of USD
P = bipole power (MW)
V = voltage (kV)
The coefficients A, B, and C are results of regression analysis and curve fitting, as follows:
Below 4 000 MW 4 000 to 6 000 MW

A 0.698 A 0.154
B 0.317 B 0.244
C 0.557 C 0.814
Page 58
LINE UPGRADING/UPRATING COST
General
Line upgrading/upgrading costs are very much dependant on the level of intervention on the line. It is in the range,
as follows:
 For “do nothing” option: electrodes + electrode lines cost (EEL).
 For major upgrade and uprate: 100% cost of new DC line + EEL.
Any conversion solution which preserves or re-utilizes any one of the major line components, partly or completely,
will reduce costs accordingly.
A cost estimation of a DC line can be done using the simple formula:
Cline (USD/km) = a + b∙V + S∙(c∙N + d)
where
a, b, c, d are parameters obtained from regression analysis and curve fitting
V is the pole to ground voltage (kV)

2
S is the conductor cross section (mm )
N is the number of sub-conductors per pole
It is necessary to note that values of parameters a, b, c , d given in [6-12] have to be actualized for each particular
implementation, using the same or similar methodology of regression analysis and curve fitting.
Insulators and fittings

Insulators and fittings (without installation) contribute to a total capital cost of about 3 to 5% of the line cost. It might
be increased significantly (up to 10%), if major intervention on insulation is required.
Conductors and ground wires

Conductors and ground wires contribute (without installation) about 20 to 40% to the total cost. If OPGW is
anticipated, this percentage contribution will increase accordingly, depending on type, size and number of fibers.
Structure modifications
There is a wide range of possible modifications, from small interventions or extension of cross arms up to a
complete change from the tower base. In the example shown in Figure 6-5, 40 to 60% of the existing structure has
to be replaced, and the cost of replacement has to be calculated on this basis.
The cost of structure modifications depends on the following:
 Dismantling and removal from site of existing tower top.
 Fabrication, supply, and erection of new tower top.
 Reinforcement of mainly leg sections.
Page 59
The reinforcement of leg sections can mostly be done while the line is in operation and thus has a small cost
implication from line outage during construction. The cost of dismantling and removal of steel from site can be
partially offset by the sale of the removed steel.
It is estimated that the cost of towers for new a DC line (material + labor) will be in the range from 20 to 25% of total
capital cost.
Figure 6-5. Example of major structure modification. Derived from Ref. [6-13].
Foundations
The foundation adequacy needs to be calculated and tested, if required [6-14], based on the original design. Non-
destructive uplift tests may be conducted where geology and foundation types vary to determine design resistance
of foundations to be used for their new applications. Where foundations require reinforcement, care needs to be
taken in terms of safety and the existing structure may require temporary guy supports while the foundation is
opened and strengthened.
A contribution of cost of foundation (materiel plus labor) for a new DC line, for normal soil conditions and regular
requirements, will be 8-10%. This percentage can be significantly higher for poor soil conditions.
COST OF LOSSES
A capitalized cost of losses is of the same order of magnitude as capital cost for construction of new line, with
required normal operating voltage and power transfer capacity. It is why losses have a major impact on conductor
size and conductor configuration. Moreover, it might have significant impact on justification of proposed solution for
AC to DC conversion.
Joule losses, are by far the most significant components of total losses on the line and they will be in the order of 6
to 10% of rated power, mostly depending on length of line. For calculation of capitalized value of losses, actual and
relevant economic parameters have to be utilized.
Page 60
COST OF OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

Cost of operation and maintenance for overhead lines is regularly projected / budgeted in the order of 1-2% of
Capital cost, per year. There is no indication that AC and DC lines differ in that regard, unless there are certain
serious specific issues like, for example, environmental difficulties with earth electrode solutions.
COST OF ENGINEERING AND ASSESSMENT

The assessment and engineering cost includes the following:
 Field inspections of each component for corrosion, damage, configuration, location etc.
 Determination of electrical and mechanical parameters for optimization, analysis and design.
 New structure and foundation design.
 Possible on-site structure/foundation proof testing.
 Development of complete design solution.
 Design supervision of upgrade/uprate.
A budget cost, depending on level of intervention, is in the range from 0 (for “do nothing” option), up to 100% of
complete new design. Expressed in terms of capital cost of the new line, the engineering cost for DC lines is
estimated in the range from 2 to 5%.
Influence on external structures

A most prominent influence of overhead lines, being AC or DC, on external structures is on longitudinal type of
installations like pipelines, telecommunication lines, railway systems, and metallic fences.
Of particular interest and importance is the evaluation of such influence on underground, underwater metallic
pipelines. It was proven that the introduction of a new DC line, regularly with higher voltage than corresponding
existing AC lines, will increase the risk of damage on pipeline and/or cathodic protection in normal operation mode,
when earth return mode is utilized, and in the case of a fault on the DC system. The evaluation of so called stray-
current effects will be necessary, as well as the development of adequate mitigating measures, if the level of
possible stray currents is found to be too high.
References
[6-1] “Guidelines for Increased Utilization of Existing Overhead Transmission Lines,” Cigré Technical Brochure
No. 353, 2008.
[6-2] J-M George, Z. Lodi, “Design and Selection Criteria for HVDC Overhead Transmission Lines Insulators,”
Cigré Canada Conference on Power Systems, Toronto, October 4 - 6, 2009.
[6-3] “Insulators for Overhead Lines with a Nominal Voltage Above 1000 V - Ceramic or Glass Insulator Units for
D.C. Systems - Definitions, Test Methods and Acceptance Criteria”, IEC 61325 ed1.0 (1995-03).
[6-4] A.-A Edris, L.O. Barthold, D.A. Douglass, W.H. Litzenberger, D.A. Woodford, “Upgrading AC Transmission
to DC for Maximum Power Transfer Capacity,” 12th International Middle-East Power System Conference,
MEPCON 2008, Page 44 – 49.
[6-5] TE Jacobs, R Lake, “Design Tool Reduces Line-Uprating Costs”, Transmission & Distribution World, April
2003.
Page 61
[6-6] L. Colla, M. Rebolini, S. Malgarotti U. Zanetta, “Analysis on the Possible Conversion of Overhead Lines
from AC to DC,” Cigré Session, Paper B2-201, Paris, 2010.
[6-7] “Joints on Transmission Line Conductors: Field Testing and Replacement Criteria”, Cigré Technical
[6-8] “Conductors for the Uprating of Overhead Lines”, Cigré Technical Brochure No. 244, 2004.
[6-9] “Considerations Relating to the Use of High Temperature Conductors”, Cigré Technical Brochure No. 331,
2007.
[6-10] J. Dorn, H. Huang, D. Retzmann, “Novel Voltage-Sourced Converters for HVDC and FACTS Applications,
Cigé Symposium on DC, Osaka, Japan, 2007.
[6-11] “Increasing Capacity of Overhead Transmission Lines; Needs and Solutions”, Cigré Technical Brochure No.
425, 2010.
[6-12] “Impacts of HVDC Lines on the Economics of HVDC Projects”, Cigré Technical Brochure No. 388, 2009.
[6-13] D. Muftic, D. Desiko, A. Hammad, “Converting HVAC lines to HVDC Operation”, Cigré Canada,
Conference on Power Systems, Oct. 2008.
[6-14] R.G. Lake, “Full Scale Tower and Foundation Test Help to Identify Reliability of Existing Lines and Gives
Guidance of Likely Dynamic Tower/Foundation Interaction Behavior”, CIGRE 2012, Paper B2-206.
Page 62
Chapter 7: Case studies
Prospective conversion of parallel 287 kV circuits to DC
Introduction and background

Two electrically parallel 287 kV transmission lines at relatively low altitude are in horizontal configuration and on
parallel rights of way for half of their 90 mile (145 km) length, and share a common tower in vertical configuration
over the other half. The lines underlie a much stronger 500 kV system which share approximately the same path
and purpose. Their dimensions are shown in Table 7-1. They have a single 1.4”, 512 kcmil copper conductor, rated
at approximately 900 A.
Suspection Height
Circuit Separation
Lower Conductor
Height at Tower
(Center-Center)
Configuration
Center-line to
Phase-Phase
Shield Wire
Shield Wire
ROW edge
Clearance
Minimum
Offset
Horizontal 9.9 23.6 9.1 80.8 28.2 33.3 +/- 6.7
Vertical 12.3 28.1 9.1 12.3 18.3 43.1 +/- 12.3
Table 7-1. 287 kV circuit dimensions (m).
System Context
The two lines, originally designed to deliver hydro electric power from Hoover Dam to the city of Los Angeles,
underlie three 500 kV lines serving the same general purpose and areas. Loading of the 287 kV circuits is limited to
280 MW each, both by the original copper conductor and by auto-transformer ratings that tie them to the 500 kV
grid. Overloading of these lines is currently the limiting condition for outages of the parallel 500 kV circuits. Series
compensation could at best only slightly increase their loading limit. Any reasonable increase in MW rating
achievable through conversion to DC would be useful and, since that loading would still be small compared to 500
kV loading, internal redundancy of the DC scheme would have much less value as shown in Figure 7-1.
DC configurations considered
Table 7-2 illustrates the DC configurations considered. The tripole configuration was ruled out due to conflicting
requirements of both vertical and horizontal configurations. No tower modifications were anticipated though for the
split bipole option, the center phase position would be reconductored with an HTLS choice capable of twice the
ampacity of the existing phase wires. Asymmetrical voltages were considered in all studies and showed important
advantages for some, but very little for the split bipole option eventually considered the most attractive.
Page 63
Figure 7-1. Benefits of alternative upgrade measures.
Corona and field effects

While the primary limitation was the AN level at the right-of-way edge, a conductor gradient criterion of 24 kV/cm on
the positive poles and 26 kV/cm on the negative poles limited asymmetrical voltages. Ground field effects were
very low.
Table 7-2. Summary of sustainable voltage for six DC alternatives.
Page 64
Insulation
Safety codes in California prescribe a fixed minimum clearance for this general voltage class, thus preventing
advantage being taken of lower surge levels. However the existing insulator length will accommodate 21 5¾ inch
DC fog-type insulators - each with 455 mm of creep distance, totalling 9555 mm. Even if a conservative criterion of
38 mm/kV is selected, that would support 251 kV. Higher voltage could be accommodated if long-rod insulators
were used.
Cost and footprint issues

Initial cost estimates for the primary options are shown in Table 7-3 in which the right hand column illustrates major
difference in cost per incremental kW between options. The figures shown are considered very conservative
inasmuch as they are based on transmission line loading alone and do not recognize the value of increased
reliability-based loadability of the overlying 500 kV lines.
Foot print requirements are estimated in Table 7-4. One terminal could accommodate a converter station within
available space. The other would fall short by about 50% and would therefore require special space-conservative
design.
Option Area (m2)

1 17,465
2 26,755
3 27,870
4 24,619
Table 7-3. Cost estimates. Table 7-4. Footprint estimates.
Other issues considered

It was deemed likely that the circuits could be converted to DC without flow interruption by live-line change-out of
insulators plus switching provisions allowing either AC or DC operation – using the latter during commissioning.
With the two split bipole configuration of Option 2, the AC to DC conversion could be implemented in two separate
phases, one for each split bipole.
General conclusions
The split bipole option, Option 2, appears to be the most viable of the DC configurations considered and achieves a
far greater increase in capability than can be achieved by series compensation of the AC lines. Voltage
differentiation appears to be an attractive option for some configurations but shows little gain for the split bipole
configuration. More details on this case study can be found in [7-1].
Page 65
Conversion of a single circuit 275 kV AC line to 270 / 500 kV DC

The Kwa Zulu Natal region in South Africa has two load centers and is supplied by two corridors of 400 kV and
275 kV lines over a distance of about 300 km. The 400 kV network is predominant and the lines are currently
loaded with 45% above their SIL. The network is also very susceptible to voltage collapse. Planning studies
indicated that additional 400 kV strengthening would not provide substantial transfer capacity increase and a
765 kV network overlay was proposed. The injection would be sourced from the north near the generation pool and
injected into the two load centers.
The case presented here is one example where the level of intervention on overhead line, chosen as suitable and
available for upgrade, is dictated by the overall economics of conversion. Minimum intervention, by transforming
existing 275 kV DC line into corresponding ±270 kV DC was proven just not to be enough to offset the additional
cost for converter stations, first of all. To maximize benefits of such conversion, because of advantages in:
 significant increase in power transfer capacity,
 improvement in reliability and stability of network,
 reduced line and system losses,
a major intervention in conductor, insulation and tower configuration was needed. Details are presented here.
System Context
A system study performed for this case, anticipated the following modes of operation:
 Bipole.
 Split bipole.
 Tripole.
The optimal solution was developed based on bipole mode, based on the extensive techno-economical analysis.
Line conversion options considered in this case are as follows:
 a. Re-insulate two 275 kV circuits to a 270 kV DC bi-pole using existing conductors.
 b. Same as (a) plus building a new 270 kV DC line.
 c. Modify one circuit to 500 kV DC bi-pole plus building a new 500 kV DC circuit.
 d. Modify two circuits to 500 kV DC bi-pole plus building two 500 kV DC circuits.
Selection of optimal configuration

Using the maximum commercially available DC valve current as a basis for determining the power rating of the DC
link, or using any similar criterion, is unwise since it can lead to an uneconomic solution or a scheme that carries
high risk of jeopardizing the security and performance of the overall system. Since the DC scheme in this case is
embedded within the AC network, the total of AC and DC transmission losses is used to determine the optimum DC
current rating for each option.
Figure 7-2 depicts the AC system losses, the DC losses and the total system losses for the 270 kV options (a) and
(b) as a function of the DC link power at the rectifier terminal. Total system losses before conversion is also
Page 66
indicated as a constant. Note that the AC losses drop as the power transmitted by the DC link is increased. This is
more evident for option (b) since the DC link provides a direct path from the generation to the load centre and
bypassing most of the AC transmission circuits. The total losses for option (b) have a minimum at about 1000 MW
which corresponds to 1852 A while the thermal loading of the existing conductors is 3642 A. Option (a) has a
minimum at 900 MW and is less technically attractive.
Figure 7-2. Losses for 270 kV DC Options.
1
Figure 7-3. Losses for 500 kV DC options.
Page 67
As shown in Figure 7-3, the optimum rating for option (c) is about 1500 MW, i.e. 1500 A with conductor thermal
loading of 3060 A. For option (d) the optimum rating is about 2500 MW, i.e. 2500 A with conductor thermal loading
of 6120 A. It is interesting to note the minor difference of total system losses reduction between options (c) and (d)
despite the large difference in their optimum ratings.
Load flow and dynamic studies

Complete system load flow studies for each conversion option are carried out, using a detailed DC model, under
normal and contingency conditions for all expected system development scenarios. This is necessary to establish
the unique features of the overall system steady state operational behavior for each conversion option. This also
allows an accurate estimate of the costs associated with AC network strengthening to collect and evacuate the
power transmitted by the DC link for every conversion option. Complete system dynamic (transient stability) studies
for each conversion option are also performed to examine AC voltage and angle stabilities for AC network and DC
system faults including loss of one DC pole. This is essential to establish the impact of each conversion option on
the overall system security and to determine the overload requirements of the DC scheme.
Cost of conversion
For a fair comparison among the conversion options the following major cost items are estimated:
 DC converter terminals.
 Line circuits.
 AC network modifications.
 Capitalized losses over 25 years. The reduction of AC system losses is considered as a rebate with
negative cost.
All components of initial investment costs for the conversion options are shown in Figure 7-4. The total capitalized
costs reflecting the influence of savings of capitalized losses are also shown in Figure 7-4.
Figure 7-4. Cost for conversion options.
Page 68
1100
1050
1000
950
900
850
800
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Conversion Option
Figure 7-5. Cost per kW transmitted.
Since the four options have different ratings, the capitalized cost of one kW delivered is used as a selection
criterion. This factor contains all cost components as well as the efficiency of the transmission scheme. As shown
in Figure 7-5, conversion option (c) exhibits the optimum scheme.

When minimum intervention is considered – change from 275 kV AC to ± 270 kV DC as in Figure 7-6 – it is
anticipated that the bundle conductor configuration will stay the same. In cases like that, corona and field effects
can be verified effectively using ratios and differences between AC and DC voltages in that regard, elaborated in
detail in Chapter 4. However, being the least economical option as explained above, it was not found necessary to
explore it further.
The most attractive option, being upgrade to ± 500 kV as in Figure 7-7, means a complete change of
conductor/bundle configuration, pole-to-pole and pole-to-ground clearances and, from corona and field effects
prospective, means actually design of complete new line. In that regard, all relevant effects are checked as per any
new ± 500 kV line. One detail which helped in that regard is the availability of a benchmark example, i.e., the
±533 kV line Apollo – Cahora Bassa [7-12].
Page 69
Figure 7-6. Upgrade with re-insulation. Figure 7-7. Upgrade with re-insulation
and reconductoring
Insulation
For the 275 kV AC line under consideration, two feasible DC voltages are being considered; 270 kV and 500 kV.
The following table illustrates the 270 kV and 500 kV DC insulation requirements for different pollution severities,
compared to the current 275 kV AC configuration.
DIMENSIONS
CONFIGURATION Air-gap Insulation length [m] for pollution level
[m] Light Medium Heavy
Current 275kV AC 2.35 2.35 - -
270kV DC 2.1 2.2 3.1 4.4
500kV DC 3.8 4.1 5.8 8.2
Table 7-5. Minimum insulation requirements [7-7] [7-13].
Insulation requirements, as specified above, are minimum, irrespective of type of insulator. The existing insulator
is glass, but not suitable for DC application. Pollution levels are as per IEC 60815.
Other issues considered

A reactive compensation issue in part of the network studied here appears to be of higher priority, irrespective of
the fact that conversion of one or two lines to DC will contribute positively, but not solve the problem completely.
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Depending on that, and the entire transmission system development dynamics, there might be a final decision to
go into the execution phase of this conversion.
General conclusions
In the case study presented here it was found that an old 275 kV AC line can be converted to a voltage level of
±500 kV, as the most viable solution of conversion to DC. The level of required intervention on transmission line is
important, but not the determining factor for selection of the most cost effective solution of conversion in general.
More information related to this case study can be found in [7-2] through [7-8].
Effect of pole conductor surface gradient on power transfer capacity

The purpose here is to apply the design principles related to corona at altitudes ranging from sea-level to 2500 m,
and from this to determine the ratio of the DC power transmitted to the AC power by the same line. Comments and
deductions are made.
Commercial software has been used to do the calculations of the various parameters. The configuration is shown
in Figure 7-8, and is taken from the design of a French 380 kV transmission line [7-9].
Figure 7-8. Configuration of 380 kV line.
The main dimensions are: H1 = 16.0 m, H2 = 23.0 m, L1 = 10 m, L2 = 2.45 m
Pole sub-conductor spacing = 40 cm, Pole sub-conductor radius = 1.58 cm, Shield wire radius = 1 cm
Note that heights given are average values and that the drawing is not to scale.
Calculations were performed for relative air densities (RADs) of 0.7, 0.8 and 1.0, corresponding to the altitudes
given in Table 7-6. The pole conductor surface gradient limit at sea level was chosen to be 25 kV/cm (taken from
Table 4-2 in Chapter 4). The corresponding limit of the pole conductor surface gradient at each RAD was therefore
17.5, 20 and 25 kV/cm (calculated by multiplying the chosen pole conductor surface gradient limit at sea level by
each RAD). Pole conductor bundle size was also included as a variable.
The results obtained are listed in Table 7-6 and plotted in Figure 7-9. This gives the ratio of the transmitted DC
power to the AC power, for the case where the DC current is assumed to be equal to the root mean square value of
the AC current. The values of Vdc applicable were obtained from the foregoing values of the conductor surface
gradients.
Page 71
The equation used was:
Pdc 2 xVdc xI dc

Pac 3 Vline x I rms cos 
where cosφ =0.95
The same conductor temperature was assumed for AC and DC cases.
n=4 n=3 n=2

DC voltage DC voltage DC voltage
Altitude (m) Pdc/Pac Pdc/Pac Pdc/Pac
(kV) (kV) (kV)
0 (sea level) 590 1.887 491 1.57 350 1.12
1824 472 1.51 395 1.263 280 0.896
2736 413 1.321 343 1.097 245 0.784
Shield wire surface gradient at sea level

20.6 16.04 10.43
voltage under contingency (kV/cm)
Table 7-6. Calculation results for varying number of subconductors (n).
Figure 7-9. Example of the effect of pole conductor bundle size and altitude on pole
conductor corona limitation of power gain by AC to DC conversion.
The DC/AC power ratios have been plotted for 2, 3 and 4 conductor bundles in Figure 7-9. The curves bring out the
point that to get a significant advantage from the use of DC that 3 and 4 conductor, and not 2 conductor bundles,
need to be used. This holds for lines of at least approximately 200 km length. This does require the use of higher
voltages, which will mean that long insulator strings will in turn be required; there is an obvious trade-off to be made
here between the power ratio and the operating voltage.
Page 72
Careful consideration should be given to the margin between the operating pole conductor surface gradient limit
(chosen as 25 kV/cm for this particular example) and the theoretical corona inception gradient. Refer to Annex A
for more information on the latter. The results shown imply a margin of approximately 0.87 or less. This is
calculated as E0/EC, where E0 is the operating pole conductor surface gradient and EC is the theoretical corona
inception gradient at a particular altitude.
Complying with an electrostatic field limit of 20 kV/m does not appear to be a problem, but to meet a space-charge
enhanced field limit of 30 kV/m or thereabouts, could be difficult.
If the existing conductors are to be re-used, then this criterion would limit the operating voltage used for the
converted line, which would limit the possible power transfer.
A thicker conductor produces more intense corona and more space charge than a thinner conductor, for the same
surface gradient. This therefore needs to be taken into account if new conductors are to be used [7-9].
Conversion of a double-circuit line to a hybrid line

Double-circuit lines of the “Danube” type are used extensively in central parts of Europe for nominal voltage levels
from 110 to 380 kV. The main dimensions of a typical 380 kV configuration are shown in Figure 7-10 along with the
applied phase order. The phase conductors have a diameter of 31.9 mm, the subconductor spacing is 400 mm,
and the shield wire diameter is 24.2 mm. The calculated thermal power capacity at maximum conductor
temperature (+80°C) and maximum service voltage (420 kV) is 1688 MW at an ambient temperature of +10°C, and
1197 MW at +40°C. The capacity was calculated according to [7-10] with weather parameters selected as per [7-
2
11] (“base rating”): wind speed 0.6 m/s, solar radiation 1000 W/m , emissivity factor 0.7 and absorptivity factor 0.8.
11,60
4,60
9,25
L1 L3
9,50
7,50
L2 L3 L1 L2
15,50
Figure 7-10. Main dimensions of a double-circuit 380 kV line.
Page 73
System context
The massive introduction of wind power in many European countries requires increased cross-border power
transmission capacity. Since the thermal capacities of many existing cross-border lines cannot be fully utilized due
to stability concerns, conversion to DC becomes attractive, especially if the thermal power capacity of the line can
be increased at the same time by using a comparatively high DC voltage level.
DC configurations considered
Converting both circuits to DC is usually the most efficient alternative since all conductors can be utilized for bipolar
transmission without modification. However, removing two circuits from the AC system may severely affect
operational flexibility and reliability, and a hybrid solution may therefore be the optimum choice. A double-circuit,
twin-conductor line can be converted to a hybrid line in different ways; the most straightforward would be to retain
the conductors in their original positions to form a bipolar DC circuit with a metallic-return conductor. However, a
more efficient option would be to rearrange the available conductors by splitting one of the twin-conductor bundles
and moving the subconductors to form a bipolar DC circuit with triple-conductor bundles as shown in Figure 7-11.
The advantage of the latter option is that triple-conductor bundles allow a 50% higher current rating and a
potentially higher DC voltage due to improved corona properties. Three possible conductor and insulator
configurations are shown in Figure 7-11 for one particular polarity configuration.
L1 L1 L1
-
L2 L3 L2 L3 L2 L3
- + - + +
A B C
Figure 7-11. Examples of possible hybrid line configurations with A as a base case.
Mechanical considerations
It is obvious that the mechanical loading of the structures will vary as the conductor configuration is changed from
three-phase AC to bipolar DC on one side of the tower. Climatic loads from temperature, wind and ice have to be
considered along with accidental loads appearing upon conductor breakage, especially for the crossarm loading.
The consequences for the three different configurations are discussed in the following:
Page 74
Configuration A: The climatic loads on the lower crossarm increase due to the triple-conductor bundles, and the
torsional load on the tower from conductor breakage increases for the same reason. Reinforcements of the lower
crossarm and tower cross braces are required.
Configuration B: The climatic loads on the lower crossarm increase in a similar way to configuration A, while
torsional loads from conductor breakage are somewhat reduced compared to configuration A due to the different
positions of the insulator attachment points. But new insulator attachment points must be arranged, and
reinforcements of the lower crossarm and tower cross braces are required.
Configuration C: The climatic loads on the upper crossarm increase due to the triple-conductor bundle, while the
loads on the lower crossarm are reduced. The torsional load on the tower from conductor breakage increases,
especially in the upper part. New insulator attachment points must be arranged, and reinforcements of the upper
crossarm and tower cross braces are required.

The corona effects in terms of L50 AN levels in fair weather and rain were calculated using the method for hybrid
lines discussed in Chapter 4 for considering both DC and AC line contributions in various climatic conditions.
Calculations were made with an AC voltage of 420 kV, and three prospective DC voltages: ±400 kV, ±450 kV and
±500 kV. Calculated lateral profiles for hybrid line configuration A, as shown by colored lines in Figures 7-12 and 7-
13, refer to a midspan position with the conductors at their minimum height: 11.3 m for the AC line, and 11.5 m,
12.0 m, and 12.5 m for the DC line at the three different voltage levels (in lack of specific regulations for DC).
Calculated AN profiles before conversion are shown in black for comparison.
2x420 kV +/- 400 kV +/- 450 kV +/- 500 kV
50
45
Audible noise - dBA
40
35
30
-50 -25 0 25 50
Lateral distance from line centre - m
Figure 7-12. L 50 AN lateral profiles for hybrid line in fair weather.
Page 75
2x420 kV +/- 400 kV +/- 450 kV +/- 500 kV
60
55
Audible noise - dBA
50
45
40
-50 -25 0 25 50
Figure 7-13. L 50 AN lateral profiles for hybrid line in rain.
+/- 400 kV +/- 450 kV +/- 500 kV
30
20
Electric field - kV/m
10
-10
-20
-30
-50 -25 0 25 50
Figure 7-14. DC electric field lateral profiles for hybrid line in fair weather.
Page 76
+/- 400 kV +/- 450 kV +/- 500 kV
100
Ion current density - nA/m2 80
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
-50 -25 0 25 50
Figure 7-15. DC ion current density lateral profiles for hybrid line in fair weather.
The electric field and ion current density generated by the DC line was calculated using the AnyPole program,
providing the approximate L10 levels in fair weather during no-wind conditions as discussed in Chapter 4. Standard
values were used for the corona onset surface voltage gradients of positive and negative conductors, i.e., 14 and
13 kV/cm, respectively. Note that AC conductors act like ground wires when calculating DC electric fields.
Calculated lateral profiles are shown in Figures 7-14 and 7-15 for the three prospective DC voltages.
Insulation
The statistical dimensioning method described in Chapter 5 was used for selecting the length of the composite
insulator type chosen to replace the existing porcelain longrod insulators. Firstly, the 50% flashover voltage was
determined as a function of insulator length and Salt Deposit Density (SDD) in artificial pollution tests. Secondly,
the required insulator lengths for the three DC voltages were calculated by assuming a statistical ESDD 2% level of
2
0.02 mg/cm and an acceptable pollution failure rate of 0.1 per year for a 100 km line, assuming 10 pollution events
per year. The results of the statistical calculations showed that the required insulator lengths are 3.4 m, 3.8 m, and
4.2 m for DC voltages of ±400 kV, ±450 kV, and ±500 kV, respectively, to be compared with the length of the
existing porcelain longrod insulators, which is about 4.2 m.
Other insulation coordination aspects, such as tower and midspan clearances, were not considered in the present
case study.
Conclusions
The required lengths of the composite insulators, together with the required minimum conductor heights, were used
to determine the maximum allowable conductor sags in the ruling span for each of the three prospective DC
voltages. Using available sag-tension data for the ruling span, the corresponding maximum conductor
Page 77
temperatures and maximum current ratings were determined as shown in Table 7-7 for ambient temperatures of
+10°C and +40°C. Finally, the thermal power capacities of the AC and DC circuits were calculated and presented
in Table 7-7. A power factor of cos  = 0.90 was applied for the AC line.
Maximum Maximum thermal power

Maximum current rating
Service voltage conductor capacity
temperature +10°C +40°C +10°C +40°C
kV °C A A MW MW
AC 420 +80* 2578 1827 1688 1197
±400 +80* 3891 2759 3113 2207
DC ±450 +80* 3891 2759 3502 2483
±500 +78** 3801 2652 3801 2652
*Absolute temperature limit; **Sag-limited temperature
Table 7-7. Calculated maximum current rating and thermal power capacity.
The following limits to the environmental effects of the DC line were applied for the case study: Maximum 40 dBA
2
as AN L50 level in fair weather at 50 m from line centre, maximum 30 kV/m electric field, and maximum 100 nA/m
ion current density. The results of the calculations show that DC voltages up to ±450 kV are compatible with the
environmental limits, providing an increase of about 100 % in thermal power rating compared to the AC line. (Other
conductor and polarity configurations may be even more beneficial.)
It should be noted that the conditions for DC conversion are exceptionally beneficial for the present line and tower
type considering the possibility of rearranging the conductors, as well as the possibility to apply properly
dimensioned DC composite insulators without affecting the clearance to ground.
It should also be noted that no restrictions were applied to the combined AC and DC electric fields at ground level
with regard to the annoying effects of spark discharges, as discussed in Chapter 4.
References
[7-1] M.J Beshir, L.O. Barthold, D.A. Woodford, “Prospective AC to DC Conversion of Two Parallel 287 kV
Transmission Lines in the Western US”, Cigré Session, Paper B2-107, Paris, 2012.
[7-2] A. Hammad, "Stability and Control of HVDC and AC Transmissions in Parallel", IEEE Transactions on
Power Delivery, Vol. 14, No. 4, Oct. 1999.
[7-3] A. Orzechowski, "Analysis of Possible Enhancement of Transmission Capacity while Converting 220kV
Alternating Current Overhead Lines into Direct Current Lines", Cigré Session, Paper B4-105, Paris, 2004.
[7-4] P. Naidoo, D. Muftic, N. Ijumba, "Investigations into the Upgrading of Existing HVAC Power Transmission
Circuits for Higher Transfers using HVDC Technology", Inaugural IEEE PES 2005 Conference and
Exposition in South Africa, Durban, July 2005.
[7-5] M.I. Khan, R.C. Agwaral, "Conversion of 220 kV AC Line into HVDC", Inaugural IEEE PES 2005
Conference and Exposition in South Africa, Durban, July 2005.
Page 78
[7-6] P. Naidoo, R. Estment, D. Muftic, N. Ijumba, "Progress Report on the Investigations into the Recycling of
Existing HVAC Power Transmission Circuits for Higher Power Transfers using HVDC Technology", IEE
Conference on AC and DC, London, 2006.
[7-7] R. Stephen, T. Gaunt, D. Muftic, R. Marais, P. Naidoo, S. Narain, A. Hammad, “AC to DC Conversion and
Other Techniques to Uprate Transmission Lines Based on Input from Planners”, Cigré Session, Paper B2-
104, Paris, 2008.
[7-8] D. Muftic, D. Desiko, A. Hammad, “Converting HVAC Lines to HVDC Operation”, Cigré Canada,
Conference on Power Systems, Oct. 2008.
[7-9] C.H. Gary, M.R. Moreau., “L'effet de couronne en tension alternative“, Paris, Eyrolles, Chapter 7, 1977, pp.
90-92, 298.
[7-10] “Thermal Behavior of Overhead Conductors,” Cigré Technical Brochure No. 207, 2002.
[7-11] “Guide for Selection of Weather Parameters for Bare Overhead Conductor Ratings,” Cigré Technical
[7-12] S. Narain, V. Naidoo, R. Vajeth, “Upgrading the Performance of the Apollo – Cahora Bassa ±533 kV Line”,
Cigré Session 2012, Paper B2-301.
[7-13] “Insulation Co-Ordination for 600/800kv HVDC,” Eskom Interim Report RES/RR/11/33157, 2011.
Page 79
Annex A: Mechanisms of corona generation
Basic processes
Corona under AC or DC conditions is a phenomenon which occurs when the voltage, and hence electric field,
applied to a power line conductor, is high enough to cause partial breakdown of the air in the vicinity of the
conductor. It always occurs in a non-uniform field, as illustrated in Figure A-1. Corona does not cause flashover of
the air gap, but it is a critical stage in the breakdown process.
Figure A-1. Basic process in formation of corona discharges.
The basic processes in the formation of corona discharges on conductors in air are [A-1][A-2]:
 Ionization and excitation by electron and ion impact.
 Photo-ionization and excitation.
 Electron attachment.
 Electron emission from solid electrodes.
In terms of classical corona and breakdown models, what essentially happens is that the voltage applied to a
conductor causes atoms in the gas, in this case air, to become excited to the extent that the atom releases the
excited electron. The atom, having lost an electron, becomes positively charged and is said to have been ionized;
in fact, it has become a positive ion. Corona discharges on power line conductors (i.e. in air) are caused primarily
by ion and electron impact.
The second mechanism deals with the energy imparted to an atom, by electron collisions, ion collisions and photo-
ionization. Photo-ionization refers to the release of photons of energy from excited atoms, as they return to their
neutral state. The release of energy produces electromagnetic interference in the form of visible light and radio
noise.
The third important process is that of electron attachment. Here, the free electrons will tend to be strongly attracted
to oxygen molecules (because of their electro-negativity), so forming negative ions. The resulting formation of
Page 80
negative ions reduces the number of electrons available for the creation of positive ions by ion and electron impact.
This is fundamentally the reason why the negative breakdown strength of air is higher than that for positive polarity.
In the case of electron emission from solid electrodes, the essential mechanism is the release of electrons by the
impact of positive ions on the metal surface. This mechanism only becomes significant at the higher electric field
intensities, which are above those encountered in practical line designs.
Under both DC and AC, two distinctly different and sustained regimes of corona discharges occur, namely, those
under positive polarity, and those under negative polarity.
The physical processes are complex, but for an engineering understanding of the mechanisms, it is important to
appreciate that under positive corona, electrons, which are very mobile, are attracted to the anode and in so doing
are accelerated into an electric field of increasing magnitude. This causes more ionization through energetic
collisions with molecules of oxygen and nitrogen that in turn cause the removal of electrons from their outer shells.
The positive ions so created are slow moving and accumulate in the high field region near the anode. The so-called
avalanche formed in this way increases the field in the gap, and, if the field intensity is high enough, will cause
further corona and eventually breakdown of the gap. Free electrons attach themselves to the un-ionized but highly
electronegative oxygen molecules; as a result, negative ions, which move slowly towards the cathode, are then
formed. The process intensifies the electric field some distance away from the conductor; this then weakens or
shields the field at the conductor and, as a result, reduces the intensity of the ionization. The positive ions then drift
away, thereby allowing the electric field at the conductor to recover and the ionization process to repeat itself. This
occurs every few seconds. The clouds of positive and negative ions constitute what is known as space charge.
Both forms of corona exist under AC conditions, positive corona normally being dominant. However, the rapid
alternation of voltage polarity (50 or 60 Hz) causes a process of generation and suppression of corona which
makes its properties different from those of DC. One important difference is that, unlike DC corona, very little net
space charge drifting away from the conductor is produced.
Negative corona is physically a different process from positive corona, and is briefly explained as follows. Unlike
positive corona, the free electrons in the negative corona process are repelled by the negative cathode and move
as an avalanche into a gradually weakening electric field. It is in this region that the electrons can attach
themselves to oxygen molecules and so create a negative space charge. The repulsion of electrons from the
cathode also causes ionization of oxygen and nitrogen molecules by means of electron collisions, so creating a
positive space charge; the net field at the cathode is thus increased slightly, thus causing the ionization as a whole
to intensify. During this stage, the two clouds of space charge gradually increase in magnitude and move closer to
the cathode. The negative residual space charge then acts to reduce the negative field near the cathode and
thereby reduces the local negative field (at the cathode) to below the negative corona inception level. In this way,
the discharge is suppressed. The space charges thereafter disperse and the ionization process then repeats itself.
Positive and negative corona processes are illustrated in Figures A-2 and A-3.
Page 81
Figure A-2. Positive corona. Derived from Ref. [A-3].
Figure A-3. Negative corona. Derived from Ref. [A-4]
Page 82
Corona inception and Peek’s law

The well-known experimenter F. W. Peek showed in 1927 [A-5] that the surface electric field (“conductor surface
gradients”) at which visible corona appears on a conductor is given by an empirical formula of the form:
 K 
Ec  K1 m 1  2  kV/cm
 r 
where [4-8]:
p 293
δ = relative air density = x
760 273  t
Here p = atmospheric pressure in mm of mercury
t = ambient temperature in degrees C
m = irregularity factor
r = conductor radius in cm
K1= 21.9 for AC
K1= 33.7 for positive DC
K1 = 31.0 for negative DC
K2 = 0.308 for AC
K2 = 0.24 for positive DC
K2 = 0.308 for negative DC
Some observations are:
The above formula only gives the designer an estimate of the corona inception field, and hence voltage. It does not
quantify the magnitude of the corona.
The formula is useful, however, in that it can give the designer a way of narrowing down the choice of possible
conductors, or in the case of an existing conductor bundle, the ratio of the operating conductor surface gradient to
the inception gradient.
Some remarks about the roughness factor are now made: this is an empirical factor which takes into account the
fact that conductors are not perfectly smooth, a condition for which m=1. (The irregularity factor used here for
corona inception should not be confused with the roughness factor used for thermal calculations of conductors.)
Practical values of m in DC conditions are in the range of about 0.4 to 0.8. Low values of m occur particularly when
the conductor is positive, because the positive polarity inherently attracts more pollutants than in the negative case
of the same intensity. The contamination constitutes sharp points, i.e. areas of high field intensity, which cause the
appearance of visible corona at lower electric field levels and hence lower voltages than predicted for the reference
case of the smooth conductor.
Note that the smaller the conductor, the higher will be the surface gradient needed to produce corona.
Page 83
References
[A-1] Maruvada P.S., Corona Performance of High Voltage Transmission Lines, Research Studies Press Ltd.,
[A-2] Trinh N.G., Partial Discharges XIX: Discharges in Air - Part 1: Physical Mechanisms, IEEE Electrical
Insulation Magazine, Vol. 11, March/April 1995, pp 23-29.
[A-3]. IEEE/PES Special Course on Corona and Field Effects of AC and DC High Voltage Transmission Lines,
University of Rome, September 1982.
[A-4] E. Kuffel and M. Abdullah, “High-Voltage Engineering”, Fig 2.19, Pergamon Press, 1970.
[A-5] Cobine J. D., “Gaseous Conductors”, New York, Dover Publications Inc., 1958.
Page 84
Annex B: Calculation of conductor surface voltage gradients
Figure B-1. Geometrical references for calculation of Maxwell potential coefficients.
Isolated DC line
For an isolated AC or DC line, the relationship between charge (Q) and voltage (V) on the conductors or shield
wires are given by:
V    Q
Vi and Qi are the voltage and charge of conductor i
ij are the Maxwell potential coefficients (refer to Figure B-1):
Page 85
1 2 hi
ii  . ln
2  0 ri
1 Dij'
ij   ji  . ln
2  0 Dij
where
1
=17.97 km/µF
2  0
ri is the single conductor or shield wire radius;
For bundled conductors, ri is replaced by the equivalent radius:
n ri
req  R n
R
where
n is the number of sub-conductors in the bundle;
R is the radius of the circumference passing the subconductors;
a
R for a regular bundle with distance a between adjacent subconductors;
2 sin( / n)
hi is the minimum or average height of the conductor or shield wire:
hi  hmin is the minimum height
1
hi  hmin  s is the average height, and s is the sag of the conductor or shield wire;
3
After inversion of the potential coefficient matrix, the charges of the conductors are determined as:
Q   1 V 
Since it is assumed that the total charge of the bundle is equally distributed on the n subconductors, the mean
gradient of a conductor in a bundle is given by:
1 Q
Ea 
n 2  0 r
The average maximum gradient of the subconductors is defined by:
 (n  1) r 
E max  E a 1 
 R 
Page 86
The equations give reasonably accurate results for the average maximum surface gradient, with errors not
exceeding 2% for n ≤ 4 and normal conductor spacing. More accurate methods, such as the method of successive
images [B-1], are recommended for n > 4.
Hybrid configurations
For a hybrid configuration, the potential coefficient matrix [] is established in the same way as described above for
the system of AC conductors, DC conductors and shield wires. After inversion, the AC charge components on the
AC and DC conductors are found by setting the DC voltage sources to zero; similarly, the DC components of the
charges on the AC and DC conductors are found by setting the AC voltage sources to zero.
The peak charges are found by adding the DC charge component to the absolute peak value of the AC charge
component for each conductor. The average maximum peak gradients are then calculated in the simplified way by
dividing the peak charge of each bundle equally between the subconductors, as described before.
A numerical example for a hybrid configuration is given below, based on the case study presented in Chapter 7.
The phase conductors have a diameter of 31,9 mm with a subconductor spacing of 400 mm, and the shield wire
has a diameter of 24.2 mm. Minimum conductor heights are 11.3 m for the AC phase conductors and 11.5 m for
the DC pole conductors after conversion. The minimum shield wire height is 35.4 m.
11,60
4,60
L1
9,25
L3 L1
9,50
7,50 L2 L3
L2 L3 L1 L2 -
15,50
+
Figure B-2. Dimensions of a double-circuit 380 kV line converted to a hybrid line.
The applied indices for the different conductors are shown in the table below:
Matrix index 1 2 3 4 5 6
Conductor L3 L1 L2 DC neg. DC pos. s/w
Page 87
The potential coefficient matrix, with the conductors at their minimum heights, becomes:
5.65 1.20 1.10 0.60 0.34 0.63

1.20 6.26 1.06 0.64 0.43 1.19 

1 1.10 1.06 5.65 0.34 0.22 0.54
  
2 0 0.60 0.64 0.34 5.13 1.11 0.64
0.34 0.43 0.22 1.11 5.13 0.55
 
0.63 1.19 0.54 0.64 0.55 8.67 
The corresponding capacitance matrix is:
 0.192  0.029  0.030  0.015  0.005  0.007

 0.029 0.175  0.024  0.013  0.007  0.019

 0.030  0.024 0.188  0.005  0.002  0.006
1  C  2 0  
  0.015  0.013  0.005 0.209  0.042  0.010
  0.005  0.007  0.002  0.042 0.206  0.009
 
 0.007  0.019  0.006  0.010  0.009 0.120 
To calculate the AC charges on all conductors, the DC conductors are placed at zero potential along with the shield
wire. Note that the AC voltages are represented by complex numbers, so calculations have to be carried out
separately for real and imaginary components. With an AC voltage of 420 kV, corresponding to a phase-to-ground
peak voltage of 343 kV, the peak values of voltages and AC charges per phase/pole conductor become:
 171  j 297   37.5  j 65.9 75.8

 343   69.0  j1.3   69.1
     
 171  j 297   35.5  j 64.9 74.0
Vac     kVpeak Qac   2 0    2 0  
 0    1.1  j 3.0   3 .2 
 0    1.1  j 0.9   1.4 
     
 0    4.4  j 0.3   4.4 
To calculate the DC charges on all conductors, the AC conductors are placed at zero potential along with the shield
wire. With DC voltages of ±400 kV, voltages and DC charges per phase/pole conductor become:
Page 88
 0    3.9 
 0    2.5 
   
 0    1.0 
Vdc     kV Qdc   2 0  
  400   100.5
 400   99.3 
   
 0    0.4 
The peak values of the average maximum surface voltage gradients due to AC and DC charges can now be
calculated as:
25.7    1.3 
23.4   0.8 
   
25.0   0.4 
E max ac     kVpeak / cm E max dc     kV / cm
 0.8    23 .9 
 0.3   23.6
   
 3.7    0.4 
Finally, the combined peak values of the average maximum surface voltage gradients due to AC and DC charges
are found by considering that:
 the AC gradients of the AC conductors are biased by the DC components,
 the positive and negative peaks of the AC gradients are superimposed on the positive and negative
gradients of the DC conductors.
The result is shown below. Note that the AC conductors are represented by their gradients during the positive half-
cycles, because these gradients are decisive for the AN and RI levels. The DC conductor gradients are shown with
their respective polarities. (The shield wire can be looked upon as an AC conductor, since the AC component of the
gradient happens to be larger than the DC component.)
 27.0 
 24.2 
 
 25.4 
E max     kVpeak / cm
 24.7 
 23.9
 
 4.1 
Page 89
Note that the polarity configuration of the DC conductors will either amplify or reduce the peak gradients of the AC
conductors during the positive half-cycles. With the particular polarity configuration used in this example, the
positive peak gradients on all the AC conductors will increase due to the close proximity of the negative DC
conductor, thereby effectively increasing the AN and RI levels of all the AC conductors.
The results can be used to determine the AC and DC corona effects using conventional empirical formulas for RI
and AN. For the AC conductors, the peak surface voltage gradients must be divided by √2 since the formulas
require that the gradient be expressed as kVrms/cm. For the DC conductors, the peak gradients are to be used
without modification.
References
[B-1] M. Sarma and W. Janischewskyj, “Electrostatic Field of a System of Parallel Cylindrical Conductors,” IEEE
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-88, 1969, pp. 1069-1079.
Page 90
Annex C: Calculation of RI levels
Isolated DC lines
Reference [C-1] (Chapter 7) presents two empirical formulas (BPA and Anneberg) for direct calculation of the RI L 50
level of positive conductors in fair weather. To obtain the L50 levels in rain, 3 dB should be subtracted according to
[C-1] (Table 7.2). The corresponding RI levels of the negative conductors are assumed to be 4 dB lower [C-2]. The
total RI levels in rain and fair weather may be determined by adding the RI levels emanating from individual
positive and negative conductors by means of “CISPR addition”, as described in [C-1] (Annex 3.1, Note 2).
For the AC conductors, reference [C-1] (Chapter 3, Annex 3.2), comprises three empirical formulas (BPA, Cigré
and CRIEPI) for calculating the RI L50 levels of each phase in rain or fair weather. Note that the Cigré formula
originally refers to heavy rain; the L50 levels in rain or fair weather may be obtained by subtracting 7 or 24 dB,
respectively (based on the corrections for different weather conditions used in the BPA formula). Note also that the
peak values of the conductor surface gradients must be divided by √2 before applying any of the formulas.
For the DC conductors, the same formulas apply as for isolated DC lines, with the exception that the peak values of
the conductor surface gradients are used in the calculations.
Total RI L50 levels in rain and fair weather are determined by adding individual RI levels emanating from AC
conductors and DC conductors during the respective weather conditions by means of “CISPR addition” as
described in [C-1] (Annex 3.1, Note 2)..
The numerical example presented in Table C-1 refers to the double-circuit line described in Annex B after
conversion to a hybrid line situated at sea level. The Cigré formula in reference [C-1] (Chapter 3, Annex 3.2) is
used to calculate the RI L50 levels of the AC conductors in fair weather and in rain, while the BPA formula in [C-1]
(Chapter 7) is used to calculate the RI L50 levels of the DC conductors in the same weather conditions. The RI
levels at sea level are calculated at a lateral distance of 15 m from the outer phase, i.e. 30.5 m from the centre of
the line, at a height of 1 m. The radial distance D is the resulting radial distance to each conductor. Due to the
asymmetrical geometry of the hybrid line, RI levels are calculated at both the “DC side” and “AC side”. The RI
levels are given in dB (1µV/m) at 0.5 MHz in accordance with CISPR.
Conductor RI L50 level on DC line side RI L50 level on AC line side

Index Polarity Emax D Rain Fair D Rain Fair
kV/cm m dB dB m dB dB
1 AC 27.0/√2 39.4 59.3 42.3 25.2 65.6 48.6
2 AC 24.2/√2 44.4 50.6 33.6 29.0 56.7 39.7
3 AC 25.4/√2 47.1 52.7 35.7 18.2 66.4 49.4
4 DC neg. 24.7 25.3 37.9 40.9 39.4 30.2 33.2
5 DC pos. 23.9 18.3 46.3 49.3 47.2 29.8 32.8
Total* 59.3 49.3 67.5 50.5
*using “CISPR addition”
Table C-1. RI levels ±30.5 m from centre of hybrid line.
Page 91
Note that surface voltage gradients calculated for the minimum conductor heights provide conservative RI levels
since corona discharges along the entire length of a line contribute to the RI level at a specific point.
References
[C-1] “Addendum to Electric and Magnetic Fields Produced by Transmission Systems”, Cigré Technical Brochure
No. 61, 1996.
[C-2] V. L. Chartier, S. H. Sarkinen, R. D. Stearns, A. L. Burns, “Investigation of Corona and Field Effects of
January 1981, pp.72-80.
Page 92
Annex D: Calculation of AN levels
Isolated DC lines
Reference [D-1] (Chapter 7) presents three empirical formulas (BPA, IREQ, and CRIEPI) for calculating the AN L 50
level of positive conductors in fair weather, while the fourth formula (FGH) calculates the maximum level. To obtain
L50 levels in rain, 6 dB should be subtracted from the L 50 levels in fair weather according to [D-2]. The AN levels
from negative conductors are considerably lower and need not be considered. In case of multiple positive
conductors, the total AN L50 level in fair weather or rain are found by adding the AN levels of the individual positive
conductors according to [D-1] (Chapter 7, Eq. 7.7).
For the AC conductors, reference [D-1] (Chapter 4, Annex 4) presents five empirical formulas for direct calculation
of AN L50 levels in rain (EPRI, ENEL, BPA, PRI, and CRIEPI), while remaining formulas are restricted to AN L5
levels. A Cigré formula for AN L5 levels, derived from the original formulas, is also given in [D-1]. For the Cigré
formula, the AN L50 levels in rain may be found by applying the correction factors given in of [D-1] (Figure 4.5). The
AN L50 levels in fair weather may be obtained by subtracting 25 dB from the AN L50 levels in rain according to [D-2].
Note that the peak values of the AC conductor gradients must be divided by √2 before applying any of the formulas.
For the positive DC conductors, the same formulas apply as for isolated DC lines, with the exception that the peak
values of the conductor surface gradients are used in the calculations.
Total AN L50 levels in fair weather or rain for a hybrid configuration are determined by adding individual AN levels
emanating from the AC and DC conductors during the respective weather conditions in accordance with [D-1]
(Chapter 7, Eq. 7.7).
The numerical example presented in Table D-1 refers to the double-circuit line described in Annex B after
conversion to a hybrid line at sea level. The BPA formula in [D-1] (Chapter 4, Annex 4) is used to calculate the AN
L50 levels from the AC conductors in rain and in fair weather, while the BPA formula in [D-1] (Chapter 7) is used to
calculate the corresponding AN levels from the positive DC conductor. The AN levels at sea level are calculated at
a lateral distance of 15 m from the outer phase, i.e., 30.5 m from the centre of the line, at a height of 1 m. The
radial distance D is the resulting radial distance to each conductor. Due to the asymmetrical geometry of the hybrid
line, AN levels are calculated at both the “DC side” and the “AC side”. The total AN L 50 levels in fair weather or rain
are found by adding the AN levels of the individual AC and DC conductors according to [D-1] (Chapter 4, Eq. 4.17).
Lateral profiles for the same case are shown in Chapter 7 (Figures 7-12 and 7-13).
Conductor AN L50 level on DC line side AN L50 level on AC line side

Index Polarity Emax D Rain Fair D Rain Fair
kV/cm m dBA dBA m dBA dBA
1 AC 27.0/√2 39.4 47.8 22.8 25.2 50.0 25.0
2 AC 24.2/√2 44.4 41.5 16.5 29.0 43.6 18.6
3 AC 25.4/√2 47.1 43.8 18.8 18.2 48.5 23.5
4 DC neg. 24.7 25.3 - - 39.4 - -
5 DC pos. 23.9 18.3 29.9 35.9 47.2 25.2 31.2
Total 50.0 36.2 52.9 32.9
Table D-1. AN levels ±30.5 m from centre of hybrid line.
Page 93
References
[D-1] “Addendum to Electric and Magnetic Fields Produced by Transmission Systems”, Cigré Technical Brochure
No. 61, 1996.
[D-2] V. L. Chartier, S. H. Sarkinen, R. D. Stearns, A. L. Burns, “Investigation of Corona and Field Effects of
January 1981, pp.72-80.
Page 94
Annex E: Calculation of corona loss
Isolated DC lines
Reference [E-1] (Chapter 7.2) presents two empirical formulas (Anneberg and IREQ) that can be applied to
monopolar (Anneberg) as well as bipolar lines of symmetrical configuration, taking into account seasonal variations
of the losses. In addition, a formula for symmetrical bipoles in fair or foul weather conditions can be found in [E-2]
(Chapter 4.8.1.2). For non-symmetrical bipolar conductor configurations that may result from converting AC lines to
DC, the average height of all DC the conductors may be used.
The generation of radio interference and audible noise from the AC conductors depend on the peak value of the
conductor gradient during positive half cycles. Generation of corona losses, on the other hand, occurs at both
positive and negative half cycles. Thus, the DC component of the AC conductor gradient, due to the presence of
DC conductors in a hybrid configuration, will not affect the corona losses in the same way as it affects the radio
interference or audible noise levels. The same can be said about the influence of the ripple in the surface gradient
of the DC conductors due to the presence of AC conductors in a hybrid configuration.
Hybrid effects on corona losses have been studied theoretically and with the help of reduced-scale line models
complemented by some full-scale tests [E-3] [E-4] [E-5]. However, so far it has not been possible to develop
general formulas for calculating corona losses of AC and DC conductors in hybrid configurations.
References
[E-1] “Addendum to Electric and Magnetic Fields Produced by Transmission Systems”, Cigré Technical Brochure
No. 61, 1996.
[E-2] “Impacts of HVDC Lines on the Economics of HVDC Projects”, JWG B2/B4/C1.17, Cigré Technical
[E-3] T. Zhao, S.A. Sebo, D.G. Casten, “Calculation of Single Phase AC and Monopolar DC Hybrid Corona
Effects, “ IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 11, No. 3, July 1996.
[E-4] I.A. Metwally, “Investigation of Corona Phenomena for a Reduced-Scale Model of Hybrid AC and DC
Lines,” IEEE Conf. on Electrical Insulation and Dielectric Phenomena, San Francisco, October 20-23, 1996.
[E-5] Xiangxian Zhou, Xiang Cui, Tiebing Lu, Yang Liu, Xuebao Li, Chao Fang, “Measurement and Modeling of
Low-Frequency Current From Hybrid AC/DC Corona”, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 27, No.
3, July 2012, pp. 1678 – 1686.
Page 95
Annex F: Electric fields at ground
Isolated DC lines
The calculation methods presently available for estimating the magnitude of the space charge enhanced electric
field, and ion current density at ground level below DC lines are described in detail in [F-1]:
 Analytical methods based on the integration of the basic field equations with boundaries conditions with the
assumptions that the space charge affects only the magnitude and not the direction of the electric field, and
that for voltages above corona onset, the magnitude of the electric field at the surface of the conductor in
corona remains constant at the onset value. A simplified method of analysis was developed at the
Bonneville Power Administration (BPA), which was later used to develop the computer program AnyPole
(available in the public domain).
 A semi-empirical method, called the “degree of corona saturation” method, for calculating ground-level
electric fields and ion currents under DC lines based on the electrostatic value in combination with the
degree of corona saturation by space charge. The electrostatic values are calculated using the well-
established electrostatic field theory, while the saturated values are based on laboratory tests on reduced-
scale models. The degree of saturation was derived from full-scale tests carried out on a number of bipolar
DC line configurations. This technique is incorporated in the TL Workstation, an EPRI proprietary program.
 Finite Element Methods (FEM) which can avoid some of the basic restrictions of the analytical methods.
These methods may be too complex for general use, but benefits from extensive modeling capabilities.
Numerical examples using the three different methods of calculation are presented in [F-1] together with
measurement results from a test lines and an operating DC line.
Several researchers have studied the problem of calculating the DC electric field produced by hybrid
configurations. The most important references are listed below:
 In [F-2] it is proposed to simulate the bottom DC conductor using software for nominal and space charge
enhanced fields to obtain the enhancing factor at ground level. The enhancing factor and the nominal field
(including the DC pole conductors and the AC phase conductors at zero potential) is then used to evaluate
the total DC component of the electric field at ground.
 In [F-3] a similar concept is recommended, however the enhancing factors being calculated by integrating
the field equations along the flux lines while keeping the AC conductors at zero potential.
 In [F-4] the “corona saturation method” described above is used to calculate the DC component of the
electric field with the AC conductors at zero potential.
 In [F-5] the influence of the time-varying voltage of the AC conductors is taken into account in calculating
the combined hybrid electric field.
 In [F-6] a Finite Volume Method (FVM) is introduced for calculating the DC electric field and ion current
density in the presence of a time-varying AC electric field. The method is applied to a hybrid corridor to
study how the field intensity and ion current density varies with the separation distance between the AC
and DC lines.
The AC electric field produced by a hybrid configuration is calculated by the conventional method described in [F-
7], with the DC conductors at zero potential.
Page 96
The numerical example presented below refers to the double-circuit line described in Annex B after conversion to a
hybrid line. The following components of the electric field are calculated at ground level at a distance of 15 m from
the outer conductors, i.e., at ±30.5 m from the centre of the line:
 The electric field due to the AC voltage (420 kV) applied while considering the DC pole conductors and the
shield wire at zero potential.
 The space charge enhanced electric field and ionic current density due to the DC voltage (±400 kV) applied
while considering the AC conductors and the shield wire at zero potential.
Electric field due to AC voltage

According to [F-7], the electric field Ey at a point on the ground (where Ex is zero) is the sum of the field
contributions from all conductors:
n
Qi 2hi
Ey   
i 1 2 0 Di 2
where
Qi is the line charge density of conductor i
hi is the height above ground of conductor i
Di is the radial distance to conductor i
Note that Ey and Qi are complex quantities.
The AC charges calculated in Annex B are used to calculate the peak of the AC electric field at both sides of the
line, as shown in Table F-1.
Conductor DC line side AC line side

2 2
Index Polarity Qr/2πε0 Qi/2πε0 2h/D Er Ei 2h/D Er Ei
kVp/m kVp/m kVp/m kVp/m
1 AC -37.5 65.9 0.014 -0.54 0.95 0.034 -1.29 2.27

2 AC 69.0 -1.3 0.021 1.43 -0.03 0.047 3.25 -0.06
3 AC -35.5 -64.9 0.010 -0.36 -0.65 0.064 -2.27 -4.16
4 DC neg. -1.1 -3.0 0.035 -0.04 -0.10 0.015 -0.02 -0.04
5 DC pos. -1.1 -0.9 0.064 -0.07 -0.06 0.010 -0.01 -0.01
6 s/w -4.4 -0.3 0.032 -0.14 -0.01 0.032 -0.14 -0.01
0.28 0.10 -0.49 -2.01

Total
0.30 2.07
Table F-1. AC electric field at ground ±30.5 m from centre of hybrid line.
Page 97
Electric field and ion current due to DC voltage

Calculations done with the AnyPole software, using ±400 kV DC voltage and standard values for corona inception
(14 and 13 kV/cm for positive and negative conductors, respectively), provided the results shown in Table F-2.
Lateral profiles for the same case are shown in Chapter 7 (Figures 7-14 and 7-15).
DC line side AC line side
Electric field Ion current density Electric field Ion current density
kV/m nA/m2 kV/m nA/m2
12.0 6.9 2.6 0.3
Table F-2. DC electric field and ion current density at ground ±30.5 m from centre of
hybrid line.
References
[F-1] “Electric Field and Ion Current Environment of HVDC Overhead Transmission Lines”, Cigré Technical
[F-2] V. L. Chartier, S. H. Sarkinen, R. D. Stearns, A. L. Burns, “Investigation of Corona and Field Effects of
January 1981, pp.72-80.
[F-3] P.S. Maruvada, S. Drogi “Field and Ion Interactions of Hybrid AC/DC Transmission Lines”, IEEE Trans.,
Vol. PWRD-3, July 1988, pp.1165-1172.
[F-4] B.A. Clairmont, G.B. Johnson, C.E Zaffanella, S. Zelingher, “The Effects of HVAC - HVDC Line Separation
in a Hybrid Corridor”, IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 4, No. 2, 1989, pp. 1338-1350.
[F-5] Y. Yang, J. Lu, Y. Lei, “A Calculation Method for the Hybrid Electric field Under UHVAC and UHVDC
Transmission Lines in the Same Corridor,“ IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 25, No. 2, April 2010.
[F-6] H. Yin, J. He, B. Zhang, R. Zeng, “Finite Volume-Based Approach for the Hybrid Ion-Flow Field of UHVAC
and UHVDC Transmission Lines in Parallel,” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 26, No. 4, Oct.
2011, pp. 2809 – 2820.
[F-7] “Electric and Magnetic Fields Produced by Transmission Systems”, Cigré Technical Brochure No. 21, 1980.
Page 98
Annex G: Monopolar operation and enhanced shield wire corona

Abnormal corona on the shield wire is a phenomenon that can occur in monopolar line configurations [G-1]. It can
also occur in bipolar schemes when these, by way of a contingency, operate temporarily in a negative voltage
monopolar mode. Work done by Eskom [G-2] [G-3] suggests that when the (positive polarity) surface field induced
on the earthed shield wire exceeds about 12 to 14 kV/cm, and also when negative space charge (generated by the
negative pole conductor) is present, then intense corona discharges may occur in the shield wire/pole conductor
gap. This creates a quasi-bipolar configuration. This effect should be avoided, if possible.
In the case of the monopolar Cahora Bassa lines, the power line carrier (PLC) noise increases by about 20 to 25
dB when the negative pole voltage exceeds about minus 390 to 400 kV. This induces a high positive electric field
on the shield wire, so causing it to produce high levels of conducted radio noise; under these conditions, the PLC
system on the line concerned becomes partially inoperative. The noise on the other line operating at positive 500
kV may increase by a few dB but nowhere near enough to disrupt the normal operation of the PLC system. The
extraneous corona in this case is associated with a large increase in localized corona power loss, and this fact on
its own is enough reason to find ways of suppressing the phenomenon.
A recent finding is that the high levels of space charge have been found to cause a significant increase in the
attenuation of power line carrier signals; this is in addition to the large increase in space charge generated noise
referred to in the previous paragraph. The increase in signal attenuation is of the order of 2.9 dB/100 km at 280
kHz; to this increase is added the basic line attenuation of about 10 to 12 dB/100 km, also at 280 kHz. As a result,
unacceptably high data error rates occur under these conditions of greatly reduced signal-to-noise ratio.
By operating the scheme with one line energized at + 533 kV and the other at -390 kV, the onset of the
phenomenon can be prevented or suppressed. What will happen when the 8th converter bridge is commissioned
and the system operates at the full negative applied voltage, will be a matter of considerable technical significance
and interest (only 7 bridges are now operational, with the negative pole voltage being reduced, for obvious
reasons).
It is suggested that to suppress or prevent the phenomenon, the positive polarity electrostatically induced surface
field on the shield wire should be limited to 12 to 14 kV/cm.
The two graphs in Figure G-1 show that, in the case of the two Cahora Bassa lines, the shield wire surface gradient
is highest at the tower, namely, where the pole conductor/ shield wire clearance is least. Note that the pole
conductor gradient is at its maximum at the mid-span position. The area in which both the positive and negative
corona inception gradients are exceeded is the region of the most intense corona.
The most practical way of suppressing shield wire corona is to choose a larger diameter shield wire conductor such
that the corona inception gradient will not be exceeded during the possible contingency of temporary monopolar
operation of a bipolar line.
Page 99
Figure G-1b. Conductor surface gradients for 533 kV case, existing geometry and
conductoring.
Figure G-1b. Abnormal corona power losses and conducted radio noise generated by the
shield wire/pole conductor interaction.
Page 100
References
[G-1] Maruvada P.S., ”Corona Performance of High Voltage Transmission Lines,” Research Studies Press Ltd.,
[G-2] A. C. Britten, D. C. Smith, G. C. Sibilant, R. Hubbard, “Survey of Noise Problems in the Power Line Carrier
System of the Cahora Bassa Scheme”, HVDC Centre, HVDC Congress, Durban, 2006.
[G-3] A. C. Britten, D. C. Smith, G. C. Sibilant, D. Muftic, A. Singh and P.M. Naidoo, “Corona, Field Effects and
Telecommunications Requirements in the Design of Long UHVDC Lines”, EHV and UHV Electric Power
Conference, Beijing, China, November 2006.
Page 101

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GUIDE TO THE CONVERSION OF EXISTING

Contributions have been made by:

Guide to the conversion of

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................. 5

Chapter 4: Corona and field effects of converted lines.............................. 21

Annex C: Calculation of RI levels .............................................................. 91

 When and why would the conversion of AC line to DC operation be considered?

 What are the costs?

 What are the advantages and disadvantages?

 What are the key technical factors to be considered?

 What role do corona and field effects play?

Fig. 1-1. The

 Use of dynamic current ratings for conductors.

DC conversion - possibilities and constraints

Figure 1-3. Potential increase in service voltage by conversion from AC to DC.

Potential advantages of DC in an AC system

MORE ECONOMIC TRANSPORT OF POWER

SYSTEM RELIABILITY (N-1) LIMITS

Methodology for DC conversion

Chapter 2: AC to DC conversion opportunities

DC ties embedded into an AC system

Segmentation of synchronous systems

Long HVAC lines with intermediate substations

Chapter 3: Conversion configuration options

d* d* + + + + 2.0 2.00 (.50) 0 (.50)

e e+ ++/ +/ 1.4 1.4.73 .73

* Configurations which require conductor and/or tower modification

* Configurations which require conductor and/or tower modification

Figure 3-1. Alternative single-circuit DC conversions.

Comments on each class of conversion are given in the following paragraphs:

* Configurations which require conductor and/or tower modification

Figure 3-2. Alternative hybrid and double-circuit conversion options.

Asymmetrical voltage assignment

 Ground level electric field effects are unacceptable, see Chapter 4.

[3-3] M. Beshir, L. Barthold, D. Woodford, ”Prospective AC to DC Conversion of two parallel 287 kV

Chapter 4: Corona and field effects of converted lines

A systematic approach to the assessment of the role of corona

Figure 4-1b. AN profile calculation result example.

Figure 4-3. Typical lateral RI profile of a bipolar DC transmission line .

More information on TV interference from transmission lines can be found in [4-1][4-3].

EFFECT OF LINE HARDWARE

Further information on line hardware corona may be obtained from [4-1][4-3].

CONDUCTED RADIO NOISE

ELECTRIC FIELDS AND IONS

Summary of AC and DC corona and field effects

Must meet acceptable limits, so as not to pollute the radio frequency

Table 4-1: Differences between AC and DC corona and field effects .

Hybrid AC/DC line configurations

Environmental design criteria for converted lines

ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELD EFFECTS

HEAD HAIR SENSATION

SUMMARY OF POSSIBLE DESIGN CRITERIA

EXAMPLES OF DC DESIGN LIMITS AND

72 dB (1 V/m, 1 MHz) at edge of right-of-

Corona and field effects calculation and verification

CALCULATION OF CORONA EFFECTS

Conductor surface voltage gradient

The calculation of RI from hybrid configurations presents some peculiarities [4-23]:

 The nuisance value appears to be higher for AC than for DC.

Details on AN calculations for isolated DC lines are discussed in Annex D.

CALCULATION OF ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS AT GROUND LEVEL

VERIFICATION OF CORONA AND FIELD EFFECTS