Chapter 1 - Operational Amplifier

BEL30403
Electronic Circuit Analysis and Design

Chapter 1
Operational Amplifier
Dr. Rahmat Bin Sanudin

Dept of Electronic Engineering
FACULTY OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING
2
Content
Introduction
Op-amp Characteristic
Input Signal Modes
Common-mode Rejection Ratio
AC Equivalent Circuits
Linear Applications
Non-Linear Applications
3
Introduction
Operational amplifier: solid-state device with voltage
gain/amplification capabilities.
Able to accept dc/ac i/p to produce both linear &
nonlinear o/p.
The name “operational amplifier” implied from math
operations: addition, subtraction, integration and
differentiation.
4
Cont...
The applications:
voltage comparators,
regulators,
active filters,
oscillators,
timers and many others.
It is linear IC consists of transistors & passive elements
fabricated in a single chip.
5
Cont...
It is made up of 3 types of amplifier circuit:
differential amplifier (input stage);
voltage amplifier; and
push-pull amplifier (output stage)
Figure 1: Block diagram

of op-
op-amp
6
Op-amp Characteristics
Some characteristics of op-amp are:
Common-mode rejection: reject/reduce hum & noise
High Input Impedance: will not load down a high-
impedance signal source
High Gain
Low Output Impedance: deliver a signal to low-impedance
load.
7
Cont...
The Op-Amp has minimum 5 terminals:
2 signal input terminals, v+ and v-
1 signal output terminal, vo
2 dc power supply input terminals, +V and –V
The op-amp is a differential amplifier with
8
Cont...
Figure 2: Op-Amp symbol
9 Figure 3: Single device – 8 pin DIL package

Cont...
Figure 4 shows
schematic
diagram of an op-
amp:
Figure 4: Schematic diagram of uA741

10
Input Signal Modes
3 types input modes:
Single-ended Differential mode
Double-ended Differential mode
Common mode
Each mode posseses its own advantages in a particular
circuit.
11
Cont...
Input-output of single-ended mode:
Figure 5: Single-Ended Mode

12
Cont...
Figure 6: Differential (Double-ended) Mode
13 Figure 7: Common-mode
Common-mode Rejection Ratio
(CMRR)
Desired signals appear on only 1 input or with opposite polarities

on both input.
They amplified & appear on output.
Unwanted signals (noise) appearing same polarity on both input
lines –> cancelled out & disappear on output.
14
Cont...
CMRR – measure common-mode rejection ability of a
differential amplifier:
Ad
CMRR =
Ac
where Ad is the differential gain and Ac is the common-mode gain.
 Ad 
CMRR in dB: CMRRdB = 20 log  
 Ac 
15
Cont...
A good Op-Amp must have Acl >> ACM
CMRR values
Min = 70dB & Typical = 90 dB
Could reach > 110dB
16
AC Equivalent Circuit
The AC equivalent circuit: practical and ideal circuit.
Figure 8: AC eq. circuit
17
Op-amp Model
The model of an op-amp circuit:
Figure 9: Op-
Op-Amp Model
18
Cont...
2 Inputs:
v- is the inverting input
v+ is the non-inverting input
DC supply (+V & -V): supply power to
internal circuitry & allow output swing to
positive & negative values.
19
Cont...
In the linear mode operation: (
V0 = A0 v − v + −
)
where Ao = open loop voltage gain.
Ao ≈ 104 – 106 or more.
The input impedance Zin is high: >106 Ω

The output impedance Z0 is low: <100 Ω
The output voltage V0 < power supply of the Op-Amp (±V).
20
Transfer Characteristic
21 Figure 10: Transfer Characteristics

Cont...
a) Ri = ∞; i + = i −
b) R0 = 0; V0 = A0 × Vi
c) A = ∞
0
22 Figure 11: Ideal Op-

Op-Amp
Op-amp Applications (Linear)
Output has the same shape as input.
Examples include
inverting amplifiers;
non-inverting amplifiers;
voltage follower;
summing amplifier;
differential amplifiers;
instrumentation amplifiers
Integrator
differentiator
23
Inverting Amplifier
Input signal Vi is applied to negative terminal.
Figure 12: Inverting amplifier
24
Inverting Amplifier
If
Gain derivation:
V+ = 0 I1
and V+ = V-
So V- = 0
Using Ohm’s law:
Vi − V − V − V0 −
I1 = If =
R1 Rf
25
Inverting Amplifier
If
Using KCL: I1 = If
I1
Vi − V − V − − V0
=
R1 Rf
Vi − V0
=
R1 R f
-ve sign indicates
Vo Rf output and input
Voltage Gain: A= =− are out of phase
Vi R1 by 180°°
26
Inverting Amplifier
Vo
Vi
V0 is also
sinusoidal
waveform
but out of
phase by
27 180°°
Inverting Amplifier
Vo Vin
Vsat
-Vsat
V0 is clipped and
limited to
28
saturated value
±Vsat
Non-inverting Amplifier
Input signal is
applied at the non-
inverting terminal
29
Using KCL:
− −
0 −V V − V0
I1 = & If = If =
V − − V0
R1 Rf Rf
Since
− +
V = V = Vi and I 1 = I f
Figure 13: Non-
Non-inverting amplifier
Thus
 Rf  Rf
V0 = Vi 1 +  Av = 1 +
30
 R1  R1
Vo
V0 and Vi
Vi are in
phase
31
Vo V0 is clipped
Vsat and limited to
saturated
value ±Vsat
Vin
-Vsat
32
Multiple Stage Amplifier
Stage 1 Gain: Rf Stage 2 Gain: Rf

A1 = 1 + A2 = −
R1 R2
Stage 3 Gain: Rf Total Gain:  R f  R f  R f 
A3 = −  1 +  −  − 
R3  R1  R2  R3 
33
Circuits Applications
Inverting and Non-inverting Amplifier can be used in various
applications, for example:
DC voltmeter
AC voltmeter
Controlled/Dependent Sources
Voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS)
Voltage-controlled current source (VCCS)
Current-controlled voltage source (CCVS)
Current-controlled current source (CCCS)
34
DC Voltmeter
I0 Rf 1 Rf 100 k 1mA
= + ≈ = =
V1 R 1 (R S ) R1 R 1 (R S ) 100 k (10 ) 10 mV
35
AC voltmeter
Transfer
function same
as DC
voltmeter
36
VCVS
Inverting amplifier
 Rf 
Vo = −   V1
 R1 
37
VCVS
Non-inverting amplifier
 Rf 
Vo = 1+  V1
 R1 
38
VCCS
Floating load
V1
I1 =
R1
I0 = I1
V1
I0 =
R1
39
VCCS
Grounded load
vL − vi vL − vo
iL + + = 0.....(1)
R R
v0
vL = ....(2)
2
vi
⇒ iL =
R
40
CCVS
Output voltage depends on input current
41
CCCS
I 1 R1  R1 
I o = I1 + I 2 = I1 + = I 1 1 + 
R2  R2 
42
CCCS
Vx
0 - Vx or Vx = − I1R 1
I1 =
R1
0 - Vx
I2 =
R2
- Vx - Vx
I o = I1 + I 2 = +
R1 R2
- (- I1R 1 ) - (- I1R 1 ) I o = I1 +
I1R 1  R1 
= I1 1 + 
Io = +
R1 R2 R2  R2 
43
Voltage Follower
V- = V0
V+ = Vi
V- = V+
V0 = Vi
Av = 1
CMRR = ?
Figure 14: Voltage Follower
44
Voltage Follower
Works as a buffer
45
Sample and hold
46
Sample and hold
47
Summing Amplifier
Inverting summing amplifier
Figure 15: Summing amplifier

48
Summing Amplifier
Inverting terminal = summing node at virtual ground.
Each input set by input voltage & resistor.
Each input amplified by independent gain adjustable by input
resistors.
Output is proportional to sum of inputs.
49
Summing Amplifier
Using KCL, I f = I1 + I 2 + I 3
V1 − v − V2 − v − V3 − v − v − − Vo
I1 = I2 = I3 = If =
R1 R2 R3 Rf
− +
Since v =v =0
Therefore − Vo V1 V2 V3
= + +
Rf R1 R2 R3
 Rf Rf Rf 
v0 = − V1 + V2 + V3 
 R1 R2 R3 
50
Summing Amplifier
Non-inverting summing amplifier
 Rf  RB RA 
 
V0 = 1+   VA + VB 
 R1  RA + RB RA + RB 
51
Summing Amplifier
Using KCL: I1 = If
If 0 − V − V − − Vo
=
R1 Rf
I1 V-
- R f V − = R 1V − − R 1Vo
R 1V − + R f V − = R 1Vo
R 1Vo
−
V =
52
R1 + R f
Summing Amplifier
+ +
VA − V VB − V
+ =0
RA RB
IA V+ ( +
R B VA − V + R A VB − V )
=0
( +
)
R AR B
IB
V + (R A + R B ) = R B VA + R A VB
IA + IB = 0
R B VA + R A VB
+
V =
53
RA + RB
Summing Amplifier
− +
V =V
V-
R 1Vo R B VA + R A VB
=
V+ R1 + R f RA + RB
 R1 + R f   R B VA + R A VB 
Vo =    
 R1   RA + RB 
 R f   R B VA + R A VB 
Vo = 1 +   
 R1   R A + R B 
54
Subtraction amplifier
Amplifies difference
between two inputs
 Rf  R3 Rf 
V0 = 1+  V2 − V1 
55
 R1  R2 + R3 R1 + Rf 
Subtraction amplifier If
I1 = I f I1 V-
V1 − V − V − − Vo
=
R1 Rf
R f V1 − R f V − = R 1V − − R 1Vo
(R1 + R f )V − = R f V1 + R1Vo
− R f V1 + R 1Vo
V =
56
R1 + R f
I 2 = I3
V2 − V + V + − 0
=
R2 R3 V+
I2
+ +
R 3 V2 − R 3 V = R 2 V
I3
R 3 V2 = R 2 V + + R 3 V +
+ R 3 V2
V =
R2 + R3
57
+
V =V -
V-
R 3 V2 R f V1 + R 1Vo
= V+
R2 + R3 R1 + R f
R 3V2 R f V1 R 1Vo
− =
R 2 + R 3 R1 + R f R1 + R f
 Rf  R3 Rf 
V0 = 1+  V2 − V1 
 R1  R2 + R3 R1 + Rf 
58
Instrumentation amplifier
Purpose: differential voltage-gain device
Advantage: manipulating gain by changing a single resistor
Limitation: mismatch Ri at inverting & noninverting
Key characteristics:
high input impedance,
high CMRR,
low output impedance
59
IA applications:
Bridge amplifier
Thermocouple amplifier
RTD sensor amplifier
Medical instrumentation
Data acquisition
60
Vo  2R  R 4 
= A1A 2 = 1 +  
V1 − V2  R x  R 3 
61
Output equation derivation:
vin = v1 − v2
v x = ix Rx
v x = v1 − v 2 = v in
v d = i x (R + R x + R ) = i x (R x + 2 R )
vd vd ix ( R x + 2 R ) 2R
A1 = = = = 1+
v in v x ix Rx Rx
62
vd = va − vb
R4
vo = vd
R3
vo R4
A2 = =
vd R3
vo vo v d
AT = = = A2 A1
vi v d vi
 2 R   R4   2 R   R4 
AT = A1 A2 = 1 +    v o = v in  1 +   
 R x   R3   R x   R3 
63
Differentiator
Differentiator takes the derivative of input.
Also a high-pass filter circuit.
Triangular => Square converter
64 Figure 17: Differentiator

Differentiator
i
V- = V+ = 0
iC
V − − Vo (t ) Vo (t )
i= =−
R R
dVC (t ) d (Vi (t ) − V − )
iC = C =C
dt dt
dVi (t )
=C
dt
ic = i
dVi (t ) Vo (t ) V0 = − RC
dVi
C =− dt
65 dt R
Differentiator
Vo
Vi
V0 and Vi
are out of
phase by
90°°
66
Integrator
The output is integral of input.
Also a low-pass filter circuit.
Square => Triangular converter.
1
V0 = − ∫ Vi dt + Vo (t o )
RC
Where V0(t0) is the initial
voltage across capacitor
67
Figure 16: Integrator
Integrator
V- = V+ = 0 Vi (t ) − V _ Vi (t )
i= =
R R
i = iC
Vi (t )
= −C
dVo (t )
ic (t ) =
( )
C d V − − Vo (t )
= −C
dVo (t )
R dt dt dt
dVo (t ) 1
= − Vi (t )
dt RC
1
Vo (t ) Vi (t ) dt + Vo (t 0 )
t1
= −
RC ∫ t0
where Vo(to) is the initial voltage across capacitor

68
Integrator
Vo
V0 and Vi
are out of
Vi phase by
90°°
69
Op-amp Applications (Non-Linear)
The applications include:
Comparator
Schmitt Trigger
Bounded comparator
70
Comparator
Used to determine if input signal has passed the
threshold.
It takes advantage the non-linear mode operation
of Op-Amp.
The threshold level is determined by applying vth
to one of the inputs.
71
Comparator
Zero-level detection
Figure 18
18:: Zero level detection
72
Comparator
Nonzero-level detection
73
Figure 19: Battery reference
Comparator
Voltage divider reference
Figure 20: Voltage divider reference

74
Comparator
Zener Diode sets reference voltage
Figure 21
21:: Zener diode ref voltage
75
Comparator problem
Figure 22: Correct decision
76 Figure 23: Inccorrect decision

Comparator
Solution: use 2 thresholds, i.e. a comparator with
hysteresis.
Now 2 switching points: vthh>vthl
The choice of vthh and vthl is determined by the
system noise level.
Figure 24: Comparator with hysteresis
77
Schmitt Trigger
Comparator with memory - exhibit hysteresis
Hysterisis: defined by difference 2 trigger levels.
VHYS = VUTP -VLTP
Vo
Vsat
Vi
0
VLTP VUTP
78
-Vsat
Schmitt Trigger
When output at max +ve voltage & input>UTP,
o/p switch to max -ve voltage.
VUTP =
R2
(+ Vout(max) )
R1 + R2
Figure 25: Negative switching

79
Schmitt Trigger
When output at max -ve voltage & input<LTP,
output switch to max +ve voltage.
VLTP =
R2
(− Vout(max) )
R1 + R2
Figure 26: Positive switching

80
Schmitt Trigger
If R2 is VCC
connected to
Vi _
a voltage
reference Vo
(Vref) instead + R1
of GND, -VCC
then:
R2
R1 R2
+
V = (Vref ) + (Vo )
R1 + R 2 R1 + R 2 Vref
81
Schmitt Trigger
R1 R2
VUTP = (Vref ) + (+ VCC )
R1 + R 2 R1 + R 2
R1 R2
VLTP = (Vref ) + (− VCC )
R1 + R 2 R1 + R 2
By choosing the right values of R1, R2 and Vref,

the VUTP and VLTP can be both positives or
negatives
82
Schmitt Trigger
Vo
Transfer
characteristic Vsat
: Both VLTP &

VUTP can have Vi
positive
VLTP VUTP
values
-Vsat
83
Schmitt Trigger
Vo
Transfer
characteristic: Vsat
Both VLTP &
VUTP have
Vi
negative values 0
VLTP VUTP
-Vsat
84
Schmitt Trigger
In some applications, it is necessary to limit the
output voltage levels of a comparator to a value
less than that provided by the saturated op-amp
The process of limiting the output range is called
bounding
85
Bounded Comparator
Figure 27: Bounded positive value
86 Figure 28: Bounded negative value

Cont...
Figure 29: Double-

Double-bounded
87
Exercise
Determine the output voltage waveform for the comparator
below:
88
Answer
89
90

Chapter 1 - Operational Amplifier

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Chapter 1 - Operational Amplifier

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BEL30403

Electronic Circuit Analysis and Design

Dr. Rahmat Bin Sanudin

Figure 1: Block diagram

Figure 2: Op-Amp symbol

9 Figure 3: Single device – 8 pin DIL package

Figure 4: Schematic diagram of uA741

Figure 5: Single-Ended Mode

Figure 6: Differential (Double-ended) Mode

Desired signals appear on only 1 input or with opposite polarities

Figure 8: AC eq. circuit

The input impedance Zin is high: >106 Ω

21 Figure 10: Transfer Characteristics

22 Figure 11: Ideal Op-

Figure 12: Inverting amplifier

Using Ohm’s law:

Stage 1 Gain: Rf Stage 2 Gain: Rf

Figure 14: Voltage Follower

Figure 15: Summing amplifier

64 Figure 17: Differentiator

where Vo(to) is the initial voltage across capacitor

Figure 20: Voltage divider reference

Figure 22: Correct decision

76 Figure 23: Inccorrect decision

Figure 24: Comparator with hysteresis

Figure 25: Negative switching

Figure 26: Positive switching

By choosing the right values of R1, R2 and Vref,

: Both VLTP &

Figure 27: Bounded positive value

86 Figure 28: Bounded negative value

Figure 29: Double-

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