Water Pollution:

Water Pollution is contamination of streams, lakes, underground water, bays, or oceans by substances
harmful to living things.

Any physical, biological, or chemical change in water quality that adversely affects living organisms can be
considered pollution

 Water is necessary to life on earth.

 All organisms contain it; some live in it; some drink it.
 Plants and animals require water that is moderately pure, and they cannot survive if their water is loaded
with toxic chemicals or harmful microorganisms.
 Severe water pollution can kill large numbers of fish, birds, and other animals.
 Fish and shellfish harvested from polluted waters may be unsafe to eat.
 People who ingest polluted water can become ill, and, with prolonged exposure, may develop cancers or
bear children with birth defects.

Type of water pollution

Sources of water pollution

Major Water Pollutant:

 The major water pollutants are chemical, biological, or physical materials that degrade water quality.

Water pollutants come from either point sources or dispersed sources.

A point source is a pipe or channel, such as those used for discharge from an industrial facility or a
city sewerage system.

A dispersed (nonpoint) source is a very broad, unconfined area from which a variety of pollutants
enter the water body, such as the runoff from an agricultural area.

Point sources of water pollution are easier to control than dispersed sources.

Because the contaminated water has been collected and conveyed to one single point where
it can be treated.

Pollution from dispersed sources is difficult to control, and, despite much progress in the building of
modern sewage-treatment plants, dispersed sources continue to cause a large fraction of water
pollution problems.

Synthetic Organic Chemicals

Synthetic Organic Chemicals (SOCs) are organic (carbon based) chemicals.

SOCs are used as pesticides, defoliants, fuel additives and as ingredients for other organic compounds. They
are all man made and do not naturally occur in the environment.

Chemicals used to kill unwanted animals and plants, for instance on farms or in suburban yards, may be
collected by rainwater runoff and carried into streams.

Many drinking water supplies are contaminated with pesticides from widespread agricultural use.
Sources:

SOCs most often enter the natural environment through application of pesticide (including runoff from areas
where they are applied), as part of a legally discharged waste stream, improper or illegal waste disposal,
accidental releases or as a by-product of incineration.

Some SOCs are very persistent in the environment, whether in soil or water

Effects:

SOCs are generally toxic and can have substantial health impacts from both acute (short-term) and chronic
(long-term) exposure.

Many are known carcinogens (cancer causing).

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that 10 percent of wells contain pesticides.

Nitrates, a pollutant often derived from fertilizer runoff, can cause methemoglobinemia1in infants.

Oxygen Demanding Wastes or Common organic waste

Environmental Engineering Dictionary Definition:

“Any organic material that will stimulate the metabolism of bacteria with a corresponding use of Dissolved
Oxygen (DO) when discharged into a natural waterway. Frequently used as a euphemism for domestic
sewage.”

Certain organic materials added to water stimulates oxygen consumption by decomposers

 Sewage
 Paper pulp
 Food-processing wastes

Sources:

Natural processes, agricultural applications, urban sewage, and runoff

Effects:

If there is a large supply of organic matter in the water, oxygen-consuming (aerobic) bacteria multiply quickly,
consume all available oxygen, and kill all aquatic life.

When drinking water becomes polluted with wastewater there is the potential to enable waterborne
diseases, such as cholera and gastroenteritis caused by E. coli, Shigella, and Campylobacter, to spread within
a community

Plant Nutrients

Plant nutrients, such as phosphates and nitrates, enter the water through sewage, and livestock and fertilizer
runoff.

Phosphates and nitrates are also found in industrial wastes.

Though these chemicals are natural, 80 percent of nitrates and 75 percent of phosphates in water are
human-added.

1
A potentially lethal form of anaemia that is also called blue baby syndrome.
Cause:

Effects:

Thermal Pollution,

Water temperature plays an important role in signalingbiological functions such as spawning and
migration,and in affecting metabolic rates in aquatic organisms.

Altering natural water temperature cycles can impairreproductive success and growth patterns, leading
tolong-term population declines in fisheries and other classesof organisms.

Warmer water holds less oxygen, impairingmetabolic function and reducing fitness.

Such impacts canbe especially severe downstream of thermal or nuclearpower generation facilities or
industrial activities, where thereturn of water to the streams may be substantially warmerthan ecosystems
are able to absorb.

Thermal pollution can also be caused by the removal of trees and vegetation that shade and cool streams.

Sources:

Hot--‐waterDischargefromindustrialoperations,powerplants,“abnormal”Oceancurrents

Effects:

Infectious Agents

Many disease-causing organisms that are present in small numbers in most natural waters are considered
pollutants when found in drinking water.

These parasites can cause illness, especially in people who are very old or very young, and in people who are
already suffering from other diseases.

One of the most widespread and serious classes of waterquality contaminants, especially in areas where
accessto safe, clean water is limited, is pathogenic organisms:bacteria, protozoa, and viruses.

These organisms pose oneof the leading global human health hazards.

The greatestrisk of microbial contamination comes from consumingwater contaminated with pathogens from
human or animalfeces.

In addition to microorganismsintroduced into waters through human or animal fecalcontamination, a

number of pathogenic microorganismsare free-living in certain areas or are, once introduced,capable of
colonizing a new environment.

These free-livingpathogens, like some Vibrio bacterial species and a fewtypes of amoebas, can cause major
health problems inthose exposed, including intestinal infections, amoebicencephalitis, amoebic meningitis,
and occasional death.

Viruses and protozoa also pose human healthrisks, including Cryptosporidium and Giardia, Guinea worm,and
others.

In developed countries, sewage treatment plants and pollution-control devices have greatly reduced
pathogens
Source:

Animal wastes from feedlots and fields is also important source of pathogens.

Main source of waterborne pathogens is improperly treated human waste

Effects:

Drinking water generally disinfected via chlorination

Sediments,

Sediment consists of mineral or organic solid matter that is washed or blown from land into water sources.

Sediment pollution is difficult to identify, because it comes from non-point sources, such as construction,
agricultural and livestock operations, logging, flooding, and city runoff.

Each year, water sources in the United States are polluted by over one billion tonnes of sediment.

Sediment can cause large problems, as it can clog municipal water systems, smother aquatic life, and cause
water to become increasingly turbid.

And, turbid water can cause thermal pollution, because cloudy water absorbs more solar radiation.

Sources:

Soil erosion, Dust storms, floods, and mudflows,

Radioactivity,

Radioactive pollutants include wastewater discharges from factories, hospitals and uranium mines.

Sources:

These pollutants can also come from natural isotopes, such as radon.

Effects

Radioactive pollutants can be dangerous, and it takes many years until radioactive substances are no longer
considered dangerous.

Heavy Metals

Heavy metals, such as copper, lead, mercury, and selenium, get into water from many sources, including
industries, automobile exhaust, mines, and even natural soil.

Crops that have been irrigated with polluted water can also be dangerous.

In a similar way to DDT, heavy metals can also build up in the body causing symptoms of poisoning.

Sources:

Lead can get into water from lead pipes and solder in older water systems

Some humanactivities like mining, industry, and agriculture can lead toan increase in the mobilization of
these trace metals out ofsoils or waste products into fresh waters.

Effects:

Even at extremelylow concentrations, such additional materials can betoxic to aquatic organisms or can
impair reproductive andother functions.
These heavy metals are toxic to biological life including the people who may have to drink from the polluted
rivers.

For example, cadmium in fertilizer derived from sewage sludge can be absorbed by crops.

If these crops are eaten by humans in sufficient amounts, the metal can cause diarrhea and, over
time, liver and kidney damage.

Children exposed to lead in water can suffer mental retardation.

Acids

The pH of different aquatic ecosystems determines thehealth and biological characteristics of those systems.

Acid rain, causedpredominantly by the interaction of emissions from fossilfuelcombustion and atmospheric
processes, can affectlarge regions.

Acidification is widespread, especiallydownwind of power plants emitting large quantities ofnitrogen and
sulfur dioxides, or downstream of minesreleasing contaminated groundwater.

Sources:

Arange of industrial activities, including especially mining andpower production from fossil fuels, can cause
localizedacidification of freshwater systems.

Effects:

Acidification disproportionately affects youngorganisms, which tend to be less tolerant of low pH.

LowerpH can also mobilize metals from natural soils, such asaluminum, leading to additional stresses or
fatalities amongaquatic species.

Oil and Gasoline:

Oil and chemicals derived from oil are used for fuel, lubrication, plastics manufacturing, and many other
purposes.

These petroleum products get into water mainly by means of accidental spills from ships, tanker trucks,
pipelines, and leaky underground storage tanks.

Most oil is collected in the ocean where massive oil rigs drill for oil under the ocean floor.

Oil leaks from the rigs every day but especially if a tropical storm or hurricane occurs.

After Hurricane Katrina in the Gulf Coast there were at least 20 oil rigs missing, sunk, or adrift in the
ocean.

There were also a number of oil refineries along the coast that had storage tanks float off or crack
open and spill oil into the streets and ocean.

Effects:

Polluted water, ecosystem damage, interrupted socioeconomic conditions of a community – Major

Sources:

Oil Spills from tankers and pipelines, on--‐ or offshore oil production, war (e.g., Gulf War)
Pollutant Primary sources
Organic matter  Industrial wastewater
 Domestic sewage.
Pathogens and  Domestic sewage,
microbial  cattle
contaminants  Other livestock,
 Natural sources.
Nutrients Principally runoff from
 Agricultural lands
 Urban areas
Also some industrial discharge.
Acidification  Sulphur,
(precipitation or  Nitrogen oxides and
runoff)  Particulates from electric
power generation,
 Industrial stack and
 Auto/truck emissions (wet
and dry deposition).
 Acid mine drainage from
tailings as well as mines.
Heavy metals  Industries
 Mining sites
Toxic organic Wide variety of sources from
compounds and micro-  Industrial sites,
organic pollutants  Automobiles,
 Farmers,
 Home gardeners,
 Municipal wastewaters.
Effects
Depletion of oxygen from the water
column as it decomposes, stress or
suffocating aquatic life.
Spreads infectious diseases through
contaminated drinking water supplies
leading to diarrhoeal disease and intestinal
parasites, increased childhood mortality in
developing countries.
Over-stimulates growth of algae
(eutrophication) which then decomposes,
robbing water of oxygen and harming
aquatic life. High levels of nitrate in
drinking water lead to illness in humans.
Acidifies lakes and streams which
negatively impacts aquatic organisms and
leaches heavy metals such as aluminium
from soils into water bodies.
Persists in freshwater environments such as
river sediments and wetlands for long
periods. Accumulates in the tissues of fish
and shellfish. Can be toxic to both aquatic
organisms and humans who consume them.
A range of toxic effects in aquatic fauna
and humans from mild immune
suppression to acute poisoning or
reproductive failure.
Thermal  Fragmentation of rivers by Changes in oxygen levels and
dams decomposition rate of organic matter in the
 Reservoirs slowing water water column. May shift the species
and allowing it to warm. composition of the receiving water body.
 Industry from cooling
towers.
 other end-of-pipe above-
ambient temperature
discharges

Drinking water quality and standards

Drinking water quality standards describes the quality parameters set for drinking water.

Physical Parameters:

Colour

WHO Standard:

 Colour is detectable in a glass of water above 15 True Colour Units (TCU).

 Levels of colour below 15 TCU are acceptable to consumers.
 No health-based guideline value is proposed for colour in drinking water.

Pakistan Standard:

 Colour parameter ≤ 15 TCU/Hazen Units.

Colour of water is one of the most important and conveniently observed indicators of its quality.

The highest quality drinking water should be colourless.

Potential inorganic, organic and bacteriological contributors of colour to natural water are:

 Inorganic constituents such as dissolved iron;

 Dissolved organic substances like humic or fulvic acids, organics from anthropogenic sources such as
dyes;
 Suspended particulate matter such as plant debris, phytoplankton and zooplankton.

Some of these contributors may be harmless but others are definitely harmful.

Suspended organic matter may itself be harmless but may harbour bacteria and viral contaminants.

Trihalomethanes (THM’s) that are generated in the post filtration disinfection stage of water
treatment are considered carcinogenic.

Organic materials pass through coagulation and filtration and are exposed to chlorine acting as a disinfectant.

Presence of colour in water may, therefore, indicate the presence of organics and if organics are there and
the water has been subjected to chlorination, the chances of the existence of THM’s are considerable.

Taste and Odour:

  WHO Standard: Non-objectionable/Acceptable
 Pakistan Standard: Non-objectionable/Acceptable

Tastes and odours in water supplies can generally be attributed to two different causative elements:

 The actions of human beings upon the aquatic environment

 Natural forces within the environment occasionally affecting each other.

Actinomycetes (bacteria) and algae are two important groups of organisms that produce taste and odour
related toxins in drinking water.

In heavily polluted waters, say near the effluent outlets, or where there are high nutrient levels from
domestic, agricultural or industrial fertilizers, excessive plant and algal growth can degrade the water quality
and are a very visible cause of the taste and odour problem.

As far as the human cause of taste and odours in drinking water is concerned, probably the most common
cause of consumer complaints is chlorination in the water treatment plant.

When low dosages of chlorine are added to water that contains phenols, chlorophenol compounds are
formed and impart an objectionable medicinal taste to the water.

In general, however, the medicinal odours frequently encountered in treated waters, originally contaminated
by industrial wastes, may be due to a variety of other chlorinated organic compounds.

Because of the various combinations of inorganic and organic compounds that cause tastes and odours in
water supplies, no simple treatment is cost effective for all taste and odours but generally some form of
oxidation is usually effective and potassium permanganate and chlorine dioxide are commonly used.

Turbidity:

WHO Standard: Ideally median turbidity should be below 5 Nephlometric,

Pakistan Standard: Below 5 NTU.

Turbidity Units (NTU).

Turbidity (muddy aspect) in water is caused by suspended matter, such as clay, silt, finely divided organic and
inorganic matter, soluble coloured organic compounds, plankton and other microscopic organisms.

The particles that cause turbidity in water range in size from colloidal dimensions (approximately 10 nm) to
diameters of the order of 0.1 mm.

Levels of turbidity in raw water can range from less than 1 to over 1000 NTU and control of turbidity in public
drinking water supplies is important for both health and aesthetic reasons.

Particulate materials in water are usually not in themselves potentialhazards, but they may have indirect
effects.

The concentrations of heavy metal ionsand biocides are usually much higher in suspended solids than in
water.

Theadsorption capacity of suspended particulates can lead to the entrapment ofundesirable compounds and
pesticides like DDT, and Herbicides such as 2; 4-D,paraquat and diquat have shown twenty fold increase in
solubility in waters withraised turbidity values.

When such contaminated particles enter the stomach,through drinking water, the release of the pollutants
could occur, with possibledeleterious effects.

pH of Drinking Water
  WHO Standard: Most raw waters lie in the pH range of 6.5 to 8.5.
 Pakistan Standard: pH range from 6.5 to 8.5.

No health based guideline value is proposed for pH, but it is one of the most important operational water
quality parameters.

It is a measure of acid-base equilibrium in natural water. An increased concentration of carbon dioxide will
lower the pH and vice versa.

Careful attention to pH control is necessary at all stages of water treatment and distribution system to ensure
satisfactory water clarification and disinfection and also to minimize the corrosion of water mains and pipes
in household water systems.

If this is not done, contamination of the drinking water may result manifesting itself in the form of
taste, odour and appearance changes.

At pH less than 7, for example, corrosion of water pipes may be accelerated releasing metals into the water;
this may be a cause of concern if the concentration of such metals exceeds the permissible limits.

The direct effects of exposure of humans and animals to extreme pH values (below 4 or above 10) for
extended periods of time may result in irritation to the eye, skin and mucous membranes.

In sensitive individuals gastrointestinal irritation may also occur, however, occasional pH changes may not
have any direct impact on water consumers.

Chemical Properties:

Aluminium (Al)

Aluminium is the most abundant metallic element and constitutes about 8% of the Earth’s crust.

Aluminium is estrogenically introduced in drinking water through the treatment process.

The high concentration have been linked to the development of Alzheimer Disease

WHO standard = 0.2 mg/l or less is a practicable level for aluminium.

Same is applicable for adaptation for Pakistan i.e. less than 0.2 mg/l.

Arsenic

Arsenic is a metal-like substance found in small amounts in nature.

Drinking water containing high levels of arsenic may cause health problems.

Mineral deposits in some areas naturally contain high levels of arsenic.

Groundwater flowing through these deposits can dissolve arsenic from the minerals.

This can increase the amount of arsenic in to the well water.

Arsenic has no smell or taste, so it is not possible to tell that the drinking water contains arsenic or not unless
it is tested in the lab.

Adverse health effects of arsenic depend on the type and amount of arsenic that has entered the body, the
length of exposure time and the response of the exposed body.

Unborn babies, young children, people with long-term illnesses and elderly people are at greatest risk due to
arsenic exposure.
Pakistan has set standard less than or equal to 0.05 mg/l.

This also conforms to most of the developing countries in Asia.

Barium (Ba)

Barium is normally found as a trace element both in igneous and sedimentary rocks.

It is also used in various industrial applications.

Food is considered to be the primary source of intake for the non-occupationally exposed population.

Its value has been proposed to be 0.7 mg/l for Pakistan in confirmation with WHO guidelines.

Boron (B)

Boron in surface water is frequently a consequence of the discharge of treated sewage effluent.

It is also naturally found in the edible plants and general population obtains it through the food intake.

The value for Boron for Pakistan is 0.3mg/l in confirmation with WHO guidelines.

Cadmium (Cd)

Now-a-days Cadmium compounds are widely used in the batteries.

There is a vast use of Cadmium in the steel and plastic industry.

It is released to the environment through the wastewater and diffuse pollution is caused by contamination
from fertilizers.

The drinking water may get contaminated by impurities in the zinc of galvanized pipes and solders and some
metal fittings.

Food is daily source of exposure to Cadmium.

Smoking is a significant additional source of cadmium exposure.

For Pakistan a value of 0.01 would be appropriate, which is in accordance with the standards for most
developing nations in Asia.

Chloride (Cl)

Chloride in drinking water comes from natural sources, sewage and industrial effluents, urban runoff
containing de-icing salt and saline intrusion.

The main source for humans comes from the edible salt.

The high dose of chloride may result in detectable taste at 250mg/l but no health-based guideline value is
proposed.

However, less than 250 mg/l would suffice as a Pakistani standard for Chloride.

Zinc

Zinc, like magnesium and selenium, is also an essential trace element.

It is found in all foods and potable water.

The levels of zinc in surface and ground water normally do not exceed 0.01mg/litre and0.05mg/litre,
respectively.

Concentration in tap water may increase due to dissolution from the pipes. The daily requirement for an
adult man is 15-20mg/day.

A value 5 mg/l may be appropriate for Pakistan although up to 3 mg/l is usually acceptable for consumption
for consumers.

This value takes into account what is being followed at the regional level i.e. most Asian countries.

Mercury

Mercury is used in electrolyte production of chlorine and also used in gold mining.

It is used in the thermometers and their spill can cause exposure to mercury.

Mercury in uncontaminated drinking water is thought to be in the form of Hg2+.

Food is main source of mercury in non-occupationally exposed population.

The mean dietary intake of mercury in various countries ranges from 2 to 20μg/day per person.

The value for Pakistan is proposed to be less than or equal to the WHO’s one.

Manganese

Manganese is naturally occurring, one of the most abundant metals in the Earth’s crust.

Usually it occurs along with iron. It levels in fresh water ranges from 1 to 200μg/litre.

Higher levels in aerobic waters are usually associated with industrial pollution.

The high amounts may also result in the discoloration of drinking water and become objectionable for the
consumer.

The value for Pakistan is proposed to be less than or equal to the WHO’s one.

Iodine

Iodine occurs normally in water.

Iodine is also used for the water treatment in the emergency situations.

Iodine is an essential element in the synthesis of thyroid hormone.

Lack of iodine in drinking water and food, leads to the thyroid diseases.

Fluoride (F)

Fluoride is present in the Earth’s crust and forms a part of number of minerals.

The exposure of the human population depends upon the geographical location of the inhabitants.

Daily consumption is from food mainly, and less from the drinking water and toothpastes.

In some northern areas of Pakistan it is found high amounts in the run-off water that is consumed by the
people living over there and has led to the discoloration of the teeth (dental fluorosis).

Epidemiological evidence shows that fluoride primarily affects the skeletal tissue.

A few recent incidences of fluoride in drinking water resulting into skeletal deformation.

The value for Pakistan has been tightened than the WHO’s one i.e. less than or equal to 1.5 mg/l.

And many more chemical properties are involved;