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Learning Objectives
Copyright 2016 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only.
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE331.html
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/FlightDynamics.html 1
Assignment #3"
due: End of day, Oct 14, 2016!
Handbook Approach to
Aerodynamic Estimation
•! Build estimates from component effects
–! USAF Stability and Control DATCOM (download at
http://www.pdas.com/datcomb.html)
–! USAF Digital DATCOM (see Wikipedia page)
–! ESDU Data Sheets (see Wikipedia page)
Interference
Effects Tail
Interference Aerodynamics
Effects Fuselage
Aerodynamics
Wing
Aerodynamics
Interference
Effects
4
Moments of the
Airplane!
Airplane Balance
•! Conventional aft-tail configuration
–! c.m. near wing's aerodynamic center [point at which wing's
pitching moment coefficient is invariant with angle of attack
~25% mean aerodynamic chord (mac)]
•! Tailless airplane: c.m. ahead of the neutral point
Northrop N-9M
Douglas DC-3
6
Airplane Balance
•! Canard configuration:
–! Neutral point moved forward by canard surfaces
–! Center of mass may be behind the neutral point, requiring
closed-loop stabilization
•! Fly-by-wire feedback control can expand envelope
of allowable center-of-mass locations
Grumman X-29
McDonnell-Douglas X-36
Moment Produced By
Force on a Particle
r! : Cross-product-equivalent matrix
i j k
r!f = x y z ( ) ( )
= yfz " zfy i + ( zfx " xfz ) j + xf y " yf x k
fx fy fz
!
(
! mx $ # yfz ' zfy ) $
& ! 0 'z y $ ! fx $
# & & = r ( f ! r" f = # z &# &
m = # my & = # ( zfx ' xfz ) # 0 'x & # f y &
# &
# m & # # 'y x 0 & # fz &
#" z &%
#" (
xfy ' yf x ) &
&%
" % #" &%
8
Forces and Moments Acting
on Entire Airplane
Force Vector
! X $
# B &
f B = # YB &
# &
" ZB %
Moment Vector
! L $
# B &
mB = # M B &
# &
" NB %
9
Aerodynamic Force
and Moment Vectors
of the Airplane
Force Vector
! f $ ! X $
x
# & # B &
fB = ' # fy & dx dy dz = # YB &
Surface
# & # &
f
#" z &% " ZB %
Moment Vector
" %
$ ( yfz ! zfy )
" L %
' $ B '
mB = ( $ zf ! xf
( x z) ' dx dy dz =$ M
B '
Surface $ ' $ '
$ ( xf ! yf )
# y x
'
& # NB & 10
Pitching Moment
of the Airplane!
11
F-86E F-86D
13
Pitching Moment!
(moment about the y axis)
Pressure and shear stress differentials
x moment arms
Integrate over the airplane surface to
produce a net pitching moment
Body - Axis Pitching Moment = M B
=! '' #$ "pz ( x, y ) + "sz ( x, y ) %& ( x ! xcm ) dx dy
surface
14
Pitching Moment!
(moment about the y axis)
Distributed effects can be aggregated to
local centers of pressure indexed by i
I I
M B ! " # Z i ( xi " x cm ) + # Xi ( zi " zcm )
i=1 i=1
Pure Couple
•! Net force = 0 •! Net moment " 0
Rockets Cambered Lifting Surface
"(
! x C
cp N ) wing
(
+ xcpC N ) fuselage
(
+ xcpC N ) tail
+ ...#
$
xcpnet =
C Ntotal
C N = !CZ
S = reference area
C A = !C X
Body Axes
Wind Axes
(w.r.t, velocity vector)
18
Static Margin
•! Static margin (SM) reflects the distance between the
center of mass (cm) and the net center of pressure (cp)
•! Body axes
•! Normalized by mean aerodynamic chord
•! Does not reflect z position of center of pressure
•! Positive SM if cp is behind cm
Static Margin ! SM =
(
100 xcm ! xcpnet ) B
,%
c
(
" 100 hcm ! hcpnet % )
xcm
hcm !
c 19
Static Margin
Static Margin = SM
=
(
100 xcm ! xcpnet ), %
c
(
" 100 hcm ! hcpnet % )
20
Pitch-Moment Coefficient
Sensitivity to Angle of Attack
For small angle of attack and no control deflection
(
M B = Cm q Sc ! Cmo + Cm" " q Sc )
21
Pitch-Moment Coefficient
Sensitivity to Angle of Attack
For small angle of attack and no control deflection
( ) (
Cm! " #C N! net hcm # hcpnet " #C L! net hcm # hcpnet )
$ xcm # xcpwing ' $ xcm # xcpht '
" #C L! wing & ) # C L! ht & )(
% c ( % c
referenced to wing area, S
22
Horizontal Tail Lift Sensitivity
to Angle of Attack
2
+ S .+V .
"
#
( )
$ C L! ht
%
horizontal '
tail & ref = S
( )
= C L! ht
+
-
ref = Sht ,
1(
)* .
0
)! /
1elas - ht 0 - ht 0
, S / , VN /
•! Downwash effect on
aft horizontal tail
•! Upwash effect on a
canard (i.e., forward)
surface
23
NACA 0012
NACA 2412
Airfoil Tools
http://airfoiltools.com
NACA 4412
24
Effect of Static Margin on
Pitching Moment
For small angle of attack and no control deflection
( )
M B = Cm q Sc ! $%Cmo " C N# hcm " hcpnet # &' q Sc
( )
! $%Cmo " C L# hcm " hcpnet # &' q Sc
25
(
M B = Cmo + Cm! ! q Sc )
= 0 in trimmed (equilibrium) flight
26
Effect of Static Margin on Pitching
Coefficient
•! Zero crossing determines trim angle of
attack, i.e., sum of moments = 0
•! Negative slope required for static stability
•! Slope, "Cm/"!, varies with static margin
C mo
( )
M B = Cmo + Cm! ! q Sc ! Trim = "
Cm!
27
( )
M B = Cmo + Cm! ! + Cm" E " E q Sc
1
! Trim = "
Cm!
(
Cmo + Cm# E # E )
Elevator deflection effectively changes C mo 28
Stability and Control at the
Design Stage!
Chapter 6, Airplane Stability and
Control, Abzug and Larrabee!
•! What are the principal subject and scope of the
chapter?!
•! What technical ideas are needed to understand the
chapter?!
•! During what time period did the events covered in the
chapter take place?!
•! What are the three main "takeaway" points or
conclusions from the reading?!
•! What are the three most surprising or remarkable
facts that you found in the reading?!
29
!is"rical Fac"ids
Aviation in The Great War
•! 1914-18: World War I changes the
complexion of flying
–! Reconnaissance
SPAD S.VII
–! Air superiority (dog fights)
–! Bombing
–! Personal transport
•! Wrights US monopoly broken by
licensing for war effort
•! Aircraft Design
–! Biplanes, a few mono- and
triplanes
–! Design for practical functions
–! Multiple engines, larger aircraft
–! Aft tails
–! Increased maneuverability,
speed, g-loads, altitude
–! Improved piston engines
–! Tractor propellers 30
Maneuvering World War I Aircraft
•! Maneuverable aircraft with
idiosyncrasies
–! Rotary engine
–! Small tail surfaces DeHavilland DH-2
–! Reliability issues
•! Maneuvering to stalls and spins
•! Snap roll: rudder and elevator
•! Barrel roll : aileron
•! Cross-control (e.g., right rudder, left
Fokker E.III
stick)
–! glide path control during landing
–! good view of landing point
•! Unintended snap rolls led to spins and
accidents during takeoff or landing Sopwith Triplane
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ETc1mNNQg8
31
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OBH_Mb0Kj2s
Sopwith Camel
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3ApowyEXSXM
32
S.E.-5 vs. Fokker D.VII
•! RAF S.E.-5: theoretical approach to design
–! Best WWI design from the Royal Aircraft
Factory
–! Stationary engine
–! High dihedral
–! Stable spiral mode
–! High control forces
–! Poor maneuverability
–! Relatively safe and effective
33
Stability OR Control?
35
Rolling Moment
I I
LB ! # Z i ( yi " y cm ) " # Yi ( zi " zcm )
i=1 i=1
Yawing Moment
I I
N B ! # Yi ( xi " x cm ) " # Xi ( yi " ycm )
i=1 i=1
!! Sideslip usually a
small angle ( ±5 deg)
!! Side force generally
not a significant effect
!! Yawing and rolling
moments are principal
effects
37
( )
CY! " CY!
Fuselage
( )
+ CY!
Vertical Tail
( )
+ CY!
Wing
S = reference area
38
Side Force due to Sideslip Angle
$S '
(C )
Y!
Vertical Tail
$ #C '
"& Y ) *vt & vt )
% #! ( ref = Svt % S (
SBase
(C ) , d Base
2
" +2 ; SB = 4
S
Y!
Fuselage
(C ) Y!
Wing
" +C DParasite, Wing + k- 2
( )
Cn! " Cn!
Vertical Tail
( )
+ Cn!
Fuselage
( )
+ Cn!
Wing
( )
+ Cn!
Propeller
40
S = reference area
Yawing Moment due to Sideslip Angle
Vertical tail contribution
Svt lvt
(C )n!
Vertical Tail
" #CY!vt $vt
Sb
! #CY!vt $vtVVT
%V 2 (
( )
!vt = !elas 1+ "# "$ ' vt2 *
& VN )
Svt lvt
VVT = = Vertical Tail Volume Ratio
Sb 41
"2K VolumeFuselage
(C ) n!
Fuselage
=
Sb
1.3
K = $1! dmax
" %
# Length fuselage '&
(C )
n!
Wing
= 0.075C LN " + fcn ( #, AR, $ ) C LN 2
k1
( )
C l! " C l!
Wing
( )
+ C l!
Wing # Fuselage
( )
+ C l!
Vertical Tail
43
44
Tail Design Effects!
45
Tail Design
Effects
•! Aerodynamics
analogous to those of
the wing
•! Longitudinal stability
–! Horizontal stabilizer
–! Short period natural
frequency and damping
•! Directional stability
–! Vertical stabilizer (fin)
•! Ventral fins
•! Strakes
•! Leading-edge
extensions
•! Multiple surfaces
•! Butterfly (V) tail
–! Dutch roll natural
frequency and damping
•! Stall or spin prevention/
recovery
•! Avoid rudder lock (TBD)
46
V (Butterfly) Tails
•! Analogous to conventional tail at Beechcraft Bonanza
low angles of attack and sideslip
•! Control surface deflection
–! Sum: Pitch control
–! Difference: Yaw control
•! Nonlinear effects at high angle of
attack are quite different from
conventional tail
47
Sht lht
VHT =
S c 48
Tail Moment Sensitivity to
Angle of Attack
2
# Vht & # ,# Sht & # lht & /
( )
Cm! ht = " C L! ht
ht %
% 1"
)* &
$ VN (' $ )! '
+
( elas .%$ (' %$ (' 1
- S c 0
2
# Vht & #
( )
= " C L! ht
ht %
$ VN '( %
$
1"
)* &
)!
(' +elasVHT
Sht lht
VHT = = Horizontal Tail Volume Ratio
Sc
49
"C L Sht
C L! E !
"! E
( )
= # ht$ht C L%
ht S
& C N! E
(C )
L#
ht
! ht = Carryover effect
"ht = Tail efficiency factor
= Horizontal tail lift-coefficient slope
'C N = C N! E ! E
Sht = Horizontal tail reference area
= #$ ht%ht (C ) V
L&
ht
HT
50
Downwash and Elasticity Also
Effect Elevator Sensitivity
2
)# !C L & , # Vtail & # !0 & #S &
+%$ !" E (' .
* ht - ref = S
(
= C L" E ) ref = S
(
= C L" E ) %
ref = Sht $ V ' $
N
( % 1/ (
!1 '
2elas % ht (
$ S '
51
Lockheed C-69
Fairchild-Republic A-10
52
Ventral Fin Effects
Increase directional stability
Counter roll due to sideslip of the dorsal fin
Learjet 60
Beechcraft 1900D
53
Svt lvt
VVT =
S b
Otto Koppen: “If they build more than one of these, they’re crazy!”
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_C._Koppen
54
Lateral-Directional Control Surfaces
Elevons
Rudder
55
# "C & S
( )
CY! R
ref =S
!% Y (
$ "! R ' ref =S + ( )
= * C L) ,
vt - ref =Svt
. vt/vt vt
S
0CY = CY! R! R
Yawing moment coefficient variation due to rudder deflection
lvt +S l .
(C )
n! R
ref =S
( )
= " CY! R
ref =S b
( )
# " % C L$
&
'
vt ( ref =Svt
) vt*vt - vt vt 0
, S b/
= ") vt*vt %( C ) ' VVT
& L$
(vt ref =Svt
56
Rolling Moment due to Aileron
Deflection
L ! Cl " qSb • " A L A
Ayres Thrush
Crop Duster
57
Next Time:!
Aircraft Performance!
Reading:!
Flight Dynamics !
Aerodynamic Coefficients, 118-130!
Learning Objectives
Definitions of airspeed
Performance parameters
Steady cruising flight conditions
Breguet range equations
Optimize cruising flight for minimum thrust and power
Flight envelope
58
Supplemental Material
59
HondaJet Videos
•! https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=tchNTucoifY
•! https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=uyrSWF2-0KI
60
Planform Effect on Center of Pressure
Variation with Mach Number
•! Straight Wing
–! Subsonic center of
pressure (c.p.) at ~1/4
mean aerodynamic
chord (m.a.c.)
–! Transonic-supersonic
c.p. at ~1/2 m.a.c.
•! Delta Wing
–! Subsonic-supersonic
c.p. at ~2/3 m.a.c.
61
62
Pitch Up
and Deep Stall
•! Possibility of 2 stable equilibrium
(trim) points with same control setting
–! Low !
–! High !
•! High-angle trim is called deep stall
–! Low lift
–! High drag
•! Large control moment required to
regain low-angle trim
•! Possibility of 2
stable equilibrium
(trim) points with
same control
setting
–! Low !
–! High !
•! High-angle trim is
called deep stall
–! Low lift
–! High drag
•! Large control
moment required to
regain low-angle
trim
64
Sweep Effect on Pitch Moment
Coefficient, CL vs. Cm
•! !c/4 = 0
–! Low ! center of pressure
(c.p.) in front of the quarter
chord
–! Stable break at stall (c.p. Stall
Stall Stable Unstable
moves aft) Break Break
•! !c/4 = 15° CL(!)
–! Low ! c.p. aft of the quarter-
chord
–! Stable break at stall (c.p.
moves aft)
•! !c/4 = 30°
–! Low ! c.p. aft of the quarter- NACA TR-1339
chord
–! Unstable break at stall (c.p.
moves forward)
•! Outboard wing stalls before Cm(!)
tip stall
inboard wing ( ) 65
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mZL0x-gEDM8 66
Shortal-Maggin
Longitudinal
Stability Boundary
for Swept Wings
•! Stable or unstable pitch AR
break at the stall
•! Stability boundary is
expressed as a function of
–! Aspect ratio
–! Sweep angle of the
quarter chord
–! Taper ratio
67
68
Effects of Wing Aspect Ratio and
Sweep Angle
•! Lift slope
•! Pitching moment slope
•! Lift-to-drag ratio
•! All contribute to
–! Phugoid damping
–! Short period natural frequency and
damping
–! Roll damping
69
L
C Ltotal (C Lo + C L" " )
total
D = C + !C 2 =
(
Do L )
total
#$C Do + ! C %& 2
L
total
Roll damping
Wing with taper Thin triangular wing
71
Learjet 60
Beechcraft Baron
73
Boeing/Bell V-22
74
Anatomy of a Cirrus Stall Accident
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7nm_hoHhbFo
75
Some Videos
XF-92A, 1948
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hVjaiMXvCTQ
First flight of B-58 Hustler, 1956
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=saeejPWQTHw
Century series fighters, bombers, 1959
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WmseXJ7DV4c&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BMcuVhzCrX8&feature=related
YF-12A supersonic flight past the sun
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=atItRcfFwgw&feature=related
Supersonic flight, sonic booms
http://www.youtube.com/watch?
76
v=gWGLAAYdbbc&list=LP93BKTqpxbQU&index=1&feature=plcp