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Definition of Grammar;
The set of rules that explain how words are used in a language.
PARTS OF SPEECH
According to their functions, words are divided into eight categories which are called parts of
speech.
THE NOUN: A word used as the name of a person, a place, a thing or an idea is called noun.
Definition: A word used as the name of a person, an animal, a place, a thing or an idea is called noun.
For example chair, table, book, New York, computer, cup, boy, John, hospital, Newton, garden,
room, man, Paris, doctor, and pen are nouns because each of these words is a name of a person,
a place or a thing.
Examples.
Examples:
KINDS OF NOUNS
Definition: The name of a particular or proper thing, place, person, is called proper noun.
Examples:
For example BMW Car, April, Monday, Oxford University, New York, America, John, Newton,
Einstein, R.H Stephen, are proper nouns because each of these nouns refers to a particular thing,
place or person.
If a common noun is specified it becomes a proper noun. For example day is a common noun but
if it is specified like Monday or Friday, it becomes proper noun. Similarly car is a common noun
but if it is specified like BMW Car, it becomes proper noun.
Examples.
He lives in Paris.
She studies in Oxford University.
Author of this book is John Stephen.
Laws of motion were presented by Newton
The richest person of the world is Bill Gates.
2. Article “the” is not used before the name of countries, cities, for example New York,
Mexico, Canada, Toronto, London, Paris, America. But if the name of country or city or
place expresses group of places or lands or states, then article “the” will be used before it.
For example, the Philippines, the Netherlands, the United States
3. Article “the” is not used before the name of universities, for example Oxford University,
4. Article “the” is used before names composed of both common noun and proper noun, for
example the New York city, the Dominion of Canada, the River Nile
5. “The” is used before the names of laws, principles, theories or devices, for example, the
Pythagorean Theorem, the Fahrenheit Scale, the Law of Newton, the Allais effect. But if
the proper noun is used in possessive form, no article will be used, for example Newton’s
Laws of Motion, Hooke’s Law of Elasticity, Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures.
6. “The” used by the name of ocean, sea, river, dessert or forest (except lakes and fall) for
example the Pacific Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea, the Sahara, the Black Forests.
7. “The” is used before the names of buildings, hotels, libraries having particular names, for
example the Brunel Hotel, the Lahore Museum, the Library of Congress,
8. “The” is used before the name of a geographical region and points on globe, for example
the Middle East, the West, the Equator, the North Pole
“The” is usually used before the names of organizations for example, the Association of
Chartered Accountants, the World Health Organization
Definition: A common noun is used for the name of a common thing, place, person and idea.
Name of a common or a non-specific thing, place, or person is called common noun.
Common noun refers to a non-specific or non-particular thing, place or person.
For example book, pen, room, garden man, girl, road, camera, month, day, chair, school, boy,
car, are common nouns because each of these nouns refers to a common thing, place or person.
Examples:
Definition:The name of an idea, quality or such an object that does not have physical
existence is called abstract noun.
Examples:
Definition: A collective noun is the name given to a collection of things or a group of people
or animals regarded as one whole.
Examples:
Definition: A concrete noun refers to objects and substances, including people and animals,
physical items that we can perceive through our senses.
Concrete nouns can be countable nouns or uncountable nouns, and singular nouns or plural
nouns. Concrete nouns can also be a common noun, proper nouns and collective nouns.
Proper Nouns:
Definition: The name of a person or thing that is a combination of two or more words is called
compound noun.
Examples:
Definition: Countable nouns are the names of things or beings that can be counted.
Examples:
Pen is countable noun because we can count it and can say one pen, two pens, three pens or more
pens. Pen, chair, cup, room, man, baby, bottle, dog, cat are examples countable nouns.
A countable noun can be singular as well as plural. Article “a” or “an” is used before singular
noun but not before plural noun.
If a singular noun starts with consonant letter then “a” is used before it, i.e. a book, a cat, a pen.
If a singular noun starts with a vowel letter or with consonant which sounds like vowel in that
word, “an” is used before it i.e. an apple, an umbrella, an onion, an hour.
1. Plurals are usually formed by adding –s or –es to singular noun for example book–books,
cat–cats, box–boxes, tax–taxes. If a word ends with “y”, the “y” is changed to “I” then –
es is added to make it plural, for example, baby–babies, lady–ladies. There may be some
exceptions.
2. Some plural are formed in different ways for example, man–men, child–children, leaf–
leaves, wife–wives, foot–feet, toot–teeth, datum–data, basis–bases. Such plurals are
called irregular plural forms.
3. Some nouns have same plural and singular form, for example, sheep–sheep, deer–deer,
swine–swine.
Definition: Uncountable nouns are the names of things or beings that can not be counted.
Examples:
For example, water is an uncountable noun because we cannot count it. We cannot say, one
water or two water. Such substances which cannot be counted in terms of numbers are called
uncountable noun.
Examples: Water, milk, bread, honey, rain, furniture, news, information, pleasure, honesty,
courage, weather, music, preparation, warmth, wheat are examples of uncountable nouns.
Uncountable nouns may be used as countable noun when it refers to an individual thing. For
example life is uncountable noun but it be used as countable noun if refers to individual, lives.
Example.
It was feared that two lives had been lost.
We can also use word like “some, any, no, little, more etc” before uncountable nouns if needed
in sentence.
Examples.
They have no information about the accused.
There is little milk in the glass.
A) GENDER
i) Masculine Gender
A noun denoting an animal of either sex is said to be in the Common Gender; as,
THE PRONOUN
Definition: A word that is used in place of a noun is called pronoun.
Pronoun is a word that is used instead of a noun, e.g. he, she, it, they, his, her, him its etc.
Details.
John is an intelligent student. He goes to school daily. He studies a lot. He is making preparation
for examination. He will get high marks examination.
In the above paragraph pronoun “he” is used instead of noun “John”. If we do not use pronoun in
above paragraph we will have to use the noun “John” again and again in each sentence. So, the
purpose of pronoun is to avoid the repetition of a noun.
Examples. He, she, it, they, you, I, we, who, him, her, them, me, us, whom, his, its, their, your,
mine, our and whose, myself, himself, herself , yourself, which, this, that these, those, are the
pronouns which are mostly used.
Personal Pronouns: e.g. I, you, He, she, it, they, who, me, him, her, them, whom
Possessive Pronouns: e.g. yours, mine, his, hers, ours, theirs,
Reflexive Pronouns: e.g. myself, himself, herself, itself, yourself, ourselves, themselves
Reciprocal Pronoun: e.g. each other, one another
Relative Pronouns: e.g. who, whom, whose, which, that
Demonstrative Pronoun: e.g. this, these, that, those
KINDS OF PRONOUNS
Definition: A personal pronoun is used in the place of the name of a person or a thing.
Examples:
We can distinguish two types of personal pronouns: “Personal Subject Pronouns” and
“Personal Object Pronouns”.
Personal Pronouns
Subject form Object form
I Me
You You
He him
she her
it it
we us
You you
They them
Example.
He helps poor.
The pronoun “he” in above sentence describes a person who helps poor.
Personal Pronoun
Number Person
Subject Object
1st Person I Me
1st Person We Us
Examples.
She is intelligent
They are playing chess.
He sent me a letter.
It is raining.
We love our country.
The teacher appreciated them.
I met him yesterday.
He gave her a gift.
Did you go to home?
We use the Personal Subject Pronouns to refer to the person who is doing the action of the verb
or the verb speaks about. A subjective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as
the subject of the sentence.
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He listens to me.
They play cricket daily.
I read a book.
We use the Personal Object Pronouns to refer to the person whom the action of the verbs affects.
An objective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as an object of a verb.
I like him.
We always help them.
He will invite you.
Definition: A pronoun that is used to show possession over something is called possessive
pronoun.
Certain pronouns called possessive pronouns show ownership. Some are used alone; some
describe a noun.
Modify noun: my, your, his, her, its, our, their, whose
This is my computer.
Example.
This book is mine.
The pronoun “mine” describes the relationship between book and a person (me) who possesses
this book or who is the owner of this book.
Examples.
That car is hers.
Your book is old. Mine is new.
The pen on the table is mine.
The smallest cup is yours.
The voice is hers.
The car is ours not theirs.
I have lost my camera. May I use yours?
They received your letter. Did you received theirs.
Note: Possessive adjectives (my, her, your) may be confused with possessive pronouns.
Possessive adjective modifies noun in terms of possession. Both possessive adjective and
possessive show possession or ownership, but possessive adjective is used (with noun) to modify
the noun while Possessive pronoun is used instead (in place of) a noun.
Examples.
This is my book. (Possessive adjective: “my” modifies the noun “book”)
This book is mine. (Possessive pronoun: “mine” is used instead of noun “to whom the book
belongs”)
Demonstrative pronouns “this and that” are used for singular thing while “these or those” are
used for plural things.
Examples
This is black.
That is heavy.
Can you see these?
Do you like this?
John brought these.
Those look attractive.
Have you tried this.
Definition: A relative pronoun is used to connect a subordinate clause to the main clause, and
serve as conjunction also.
Relative Pronoun describes a noun which is mentioned before and more information is to be
given about it.
Or
Relative pronoun is a pronoun which joins relative clauses and relative sentences.
Examples. The most commonly used five relative pronouns are, who, whom, whose, which, that.
“Who” is for subject and “whom” is used for object. “who” and “whom” are used for people.
“Whose” is used to show possession and can be used for both people and things. “Which” is used
for things. “That” is used for people and things.
Examples.
It is the girl who got first position in class.
Examples:
Definition: A pronoun that does not refer to a particular noun but refers to an unspecified
noun or nouns.
Definition: A reflexive pronoun is used when the subject and the object of the sentence are the
same or the action passes back to the subject.
Reflexive pronoun describes noun when subject’s action affects the subject itself.
e.g himself, yourself, herself, ourselves, themselves, itself are reflexive pronouns.
Reflexive pronouns always act as objects not subjects, and they require an interaction between
the subject and an object.
Examples.
I looked at myself in the mirror.
You should think about yourself.
They prepared themselves for completion.
She pleases herself by think that she will win the prize.
He bought a car for himself.
He locked himself in the room.
He who loves only himself is a selfish.
Note: Reflexive noun can also be used to give more emphasis on subject or object. If a reflexive
pronoun is used to give more emphasis on a subject or an object, it is called “Intensive
Pronoun”. Usage and function of intensive pronoun are different from that of reflexive pronoun.
Singular
I talk to myself when I am nervous or excited.
1st person
You cut yourself while cutting tomatoes.
2nd person
He hurt himself playing hockey.
3rd person (male)
3rd person She enjoyed herself at the party.
(female)
3rd person (non- It saw itself in the mirror.
person)
Plural
We blame ourselves for the results of the
1st person election.
For example, A loves B and B love A. we can say that A and B loves each other.
Each other
One another.
Examples.
John and Marry are talking to each other.
The students gave cards to one another.
The people helped one another in hospital.
Two boys were pushing each other.
The car and the bus collided with each other.
The students in the class greeted one another.
Definition: The pronouns each, either and neither are called ‘Distributive Pronouns’ as they
denote all of a class taken separately.
Examples:
THE VERB
Definition: A word that is used to describe an action, state or feeling is called verb.
Examples:
You go to school.
We eat food.
We play hockey and they enjoy it.
In the given examples the italicized words; go, eat, play and enjoy are verbs.
Examples. Write, run, eat, drink, catch, clean, speak, laugh, weep, are some verbs
He is writing a letter
In the above example, the verb “write” tells us about the action (writing) of the subject (he). A
verb has its subject in sentence and verb tells us what its subject does, did or will do.
Verbs describe action or state. Most verbs describe action, such verbs are called “dynamic verb”,
for example write, eat, run, speak. Some verbs describe state of something, such verbs are called
“stative verb” and are not usually used in continuous tense for example be, impress, please,
surprise, belong to, consist of, resemble, seem
Verbs may well be classified according to their function as well as their formation.
Definition: These are the verbs which require an object to pass over the action from the
subject to the object.
Examples:
In the given examples, the italicized words; believe, built and enjoyed are transitive verbs
Definition: These are the verbs which do not require an object to pass over the action from
subject to object.
Examples:
He died.
We slept.
We laughed and they cried.
In the above given examples the underlined words; died, slept, laughed and cried are intransitive
verbs.
Note: A number of verbs can be used as both the kinds of verbs (either transitive or intransitive):
Examples:
Definition: A ditransitive verb is one that takes two complements, a direct object and an
indirect object at the same time.
Examples
Main verb: A verb which has major meaning in terms of action are called main verb, i.e. write,
buy, eat etc.
Helping verb: A verb which supports the main verb to form the structure of sentence, according
a specific tense, is called helping verb or auxiliary verb, i.e. is, am, have, was, had, is, will etc.
A sentence can have both main verb and helping verb (auxiliary verb).
A verb which supports the main verb to form the structure of sentence (according to a specific
tense) and give us information about the time of action expressed by main verb, is called helping
verb or auxiliary verb, i.e. is, am, have, was, had, is, will etc.
Main verb has real meaning and tells more about action while helping verb has no (or little)
meaning if it is alone but it adds time information about action if used with main verb to specify
the tense or time of the main verb. The examples below will help in better understanding.
She is eating an apple. (“eat” is main verb while “is” is helping verb)
She was eating an apple. (“eat” is main verb while “was” is helping verb)
The main verbs in these sentences “eat” convey the information about the action which is done
on an apple, while the helping verbs in these sentences "is, and was" tells us the about the time of
action by referring to specific tense. In first sentence with helping verb "is" action (eating an
apple) is being done right now in the present time while in the second sentence with hepling verb
"was" action (eating an apple) was being done in past.
It means the MAIN VERB CONVEYS the meaning of action with a little information about its
time, but the HELPING VERB (also called auxiliary Verb) tell us more about the time of action.
Helping verbs and main verbs together make a structure of sentence of a specific tense (action
and its time)
Be (am, is, are). Forms of “be” are used for continuous tenses.
Have (have, has, had). Forms of “have” are used in perfect tense.
Do (do, does, did). Forms of “do” are used in indefinite(simple) tenses i.e. present simple
tense or past simple tense.
Example.
They do not play chess. (Present simple tense)
I did not see him. (Past simple)
Definition: An auxiliary verb is a helping verb used to express tense, mood, or voice.
Primary Auxiliaries :The primary auxiliaries are: be, have, and do.
Examples:
I am eating bread.
They have eaten bread.
You do eat bread.
Examples:
will, shall, may, might, can, could, must, ought to, should, would, used to, need
Examples:
Modal auxiliaries cannot work as main verbs and normally appear with a main verb.
(vii) Infinitive
Definition: Infinitive is the base form of the verb. The infinitive form of a verb is the form
which follows “to”.
Examples:
Infinitives may occur with or without the infinitive marker “to”. Infinitives without “to” are
known as bare infinitives.
Examples:
Help me.
Open the door.
Follow the instructions.
On the basis formation of past simple and past participle, verb is divided into
Regular verbs
Irregular verbs
Regular Verbs.
Some verbs form their past simple and past participle form by adding “-ed” to their base form,
such verbs are called regular verbs, for example laugh—laughed—laughed, look—looked—
looked.
Some examples
Base Past
Past simple Present
Verb form or participle
or V2 participle
V1 or V3
To advise advise Advised advised Advising
To allow allow Allowed allowed Allowing
To enjoy enjoy Enjoyed enjoyed Enjoying
To rain rain Rained rained Raining
To smile smile Smiled smiled Smiling
Irregular Verbs.
Some verbs form their past simple and participle in different ways for example, buy—bought—
bought, eat—ate—eaten, such verbs are called irregular verbs.
Past
Base form Past simple Present
Verb participle
or V1 or V2 participle
or V3
To know know Knew known Knowing
To go go Went gone Going
To drink drink Drank drunk Drinking
To hold hold Held held Holding
To write write Wrote written Writing
Some example
Past
Base form Past simple Present
Verb participle
or V1 or V2 participle
or V3
To cut cut Cut cut Cutting
To shut shut Shut shut Shutting
To spread spread Spread spread Spreading
To put put Put put Putting
To read read Read read reading
Definition: A verb that forms its past tense and past participle by adding -d or -ed (or in some
cases “t”) to the base form.
The verb in which the past tense is not formed by adding the usual -ed ending for the Past Simple
and Past Participle forms. Some irregular verbs do not change; while others change completely.
Irregular verbs have no rules for conjugation. These can only be learnt in context.
Examples:
THE ADJECTIVE
Definition: A word that is used with a noun to add something to its meaning is called
adjective.
Examples:
Small boy
Great leader,
In the above given examples the italicized words are the adjectives.
Adjective is a word that modifies (gives more information about) a noun or pronoun.
For example, tall man, old house, red car. The words “tall, old, red” are adjectives which give
more information about nouns “man, house, and car” in these examples.
More than one adjective can also be used for a single noun in sentence.
Examples.
The beautiful girl entered into the room.
The tall, beautiful girl entered into the room.
The tall, thin, beautiful girl entered into the room.
The tall, thin, beautiful and intelligent girl entered into the room.
An adjective gives information about the colour, size, characteristic, quality, quantity or
personal traits of a noun or pronoun.
Some examples.
White, red, black, green, purple, yellow, orange, brown, and black are adjectives because
they mention the colour of noun or pronoun.
Beautiful, pretty, ugly, thin, slim, fat, tall, and short are adjectives and they describe
physical characteristic of a noun or pronoun.
Intelligent, brave, courageous, determined, exuberant and diligent are adjective and they
describe the personal traits of a noun or pronoun.
Before noun
After some verbs (After stative verbs like seem, look, be (when used as stative verb), feel
etc)
Examples.
Your problem seems difficult.
That book was good.
This pizza tastes delicious.
The story sounds interesting.
He is stupid.
The man became angry.
She looks attractive.
Some Examples:
Examples.
Article “the” is used before superlative degree. “In” or “of” etc is used after the superlative and
modifying noun in sentence.
Examples.
Examples:
In the above given examples the italicized words are proper adjectives.
Definition: An adjective of quality shows the kind , quality or state of a person or thing.
Examples:
In the above given examples the italicized words are adjectives of quality.
Examples:
In the above given examples the italicized words are adjectives of quantity.
Definition: A numerical adjective shows how many persons or things are meant.
Examples:
In the above given examples the italicized words are numeral adjectives.
Examples:
In the above given examples the italicized words are demonstrative adjectives.
Examples:
In the above given examples the italicized words are interrogative adjectives.
Definition: A possessive adjective is used with nouns and does the work of an adjective.
Examples:
In the above given examples the italicized words are possessive adjectives.
THE ADVERB
Definition: An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
Adverb is a word which modifies (gives more information about) a verb or adjective or other
adverb.
For example,
He replied.
He replied quickly.
The word “quickly” is an adverb which gives more information about verb “reply” in the above
example. The adverb “quickly” in above example tells us about the verb “reply” that the reply
was given quickly or with no time delay.
Similarly an adverb may also modify adjective or other adverb or other part of speech except the
noun.
1. A few adverbs exists without “-ly”. For example, fast, slow, deep, far, hard, high, wrong, right,
low, well, tight, straight, there, here, close, late, very, too, not
Examples.
Adverbs are categorized on the basis of it information it gives, into the following categories.
Examples:
These adverbs tell us that in which manner the action occurs or how the action occurs or
occurred or will occur.
Examples.
Examples:
Adverb of place tells us about the place of action or where action occurs/occurred/will occur.
e.g. here, there, near, somewhere, outside, ahead, on the top, at some place.
Examples.
These adverbs tell us about the time of action. e.g. now, then, soon, tomorrow, yesterday, today,
tonight, again, early, yesterday.
Examples.
Examples:
Adverbs of frequency tell us how many times the action occurs or occurred or will occur.
e.g. daily, sometimes, often, seldom, usually, frequently, always, ever, generally, rarely, monthly,
yearly.
Examples.
Adverbs of Manner: Adverbs of manner are placed after the verb or entire expression (at the
end of the sentence).
Examples:
Adverbs of Time: Adverbs of time are placed after the verb or entire expression (at the end of
the sentence).
Examples:
Adverbs of Frequency: Adverbs of frequency are placed before the main verb (not the auxiliary
verb).
Examples:
Adverbs of Degree: Adverbs of degree are placed after the verb or entire expression.
Examples:
Examples:
With LY adverbs (adverbs formed from adjectives by adding -ly to the end) we form the
comparative and superlative forms with more and most.
Superlative
Adjective Adverb Comparative Adverb
Adverb
quiet quietly more quietly most quietly
careful carefully more carefully most carefully
happy happily more happily most happily
OTHER ADVERBS
For adverbs which retain the same form as the adjective form, we add -er to form the
comparative and -est to form the superlative.
Comparative Superlative
Adjective Adverb
Adverb Adverb
IRREGULAR ADVERBS
Comparative Superlative
Adjective Adverb
Adverb Adverb
“Very” is used (i) with Adjectives and Adverbs of the Positive Degree; as,
“Much” is used
(ii) With an Adjective in the Superlative Degree to intensify the meaning; as,
“Ago” is used to denote a period of time from the present dating back wards; as,
“Too” signifies more than enough, and should not be used instead of “Very” or “Much”. It is
used in a negative sense and is equal to “so that……..not”; as,
I shall do it presently.
“Dear”, and not “Dearly”, is used after the Verbs like cost, sell, pay; as,
“Had Better” is always followed is followed by a verb in the Present Tense; as,
THE PREPOSITION
Prepositions are the words which are used to show relationships between nouns, pronouns
and other words in a sentence.
Generally, they come before a noun and never change their form, regardless of the case, gender
etc. of the word they are referring to.
About by outside
above despite over
across down past
after during since
against except through
along for throughout
among from till
around in to
at inside toward
before into under
behind like underneath
below near until
beneath of up
beside off upon
Preposition is a word that shows relation between noun or pronoun and the other words in
sentence.
e.g. in, on, at, to, with, under, above, into, by, of etc
Preposition is always used before a noun or pronoun and shows the relation of the noun or
pronoun to the other words in sentence. The following examples will help in better
understanding.
Example.
Prepositions show many relations (for different nouns) in sentence. On the basis of relation they
show, preposition may be divided into following categories.
Types of Preposition
The types of preposition are as follows:
Prepositions of Time
to / till / marking the beginning and end of a from Monday to/till Friday
until period of time
2. Date
e.g. on 5th of March, March 5
3. Particular day
e.g. on Independence Day, on my birthday,
At 1. Time of clock
e.g. at 5 O’clock, at 7:30 PM
Examples.
He was born in 1945.
She will go to New York on 25th of March.
The concert will begin at 7 O’clock.
He gets up early in the morning.
We enjoyed a lot in the summer.
The president will deliver speech to public on Independence Day.
She received a lot gifts on her birthday.
Where were you at the lunchtime?
I will call you at 12 A.M
Preposition for Place. (in, on, at) Prepositions “in, on or at” are usually used for
different places.
“In” is usually used for place which have some boundary (boundary may physical or
virtual).
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“On” is used for surface
“At” is used for specific place.
Prepositions of Place
under on the ground, lower than (or the bag is under the table
covered by) something else
below lower than something else but the fish are below the surface
above ground
above higher than something else, but a path above the lake
not directly over it
Examples
She lives in New York.
Students study in library.
The wedding ceremony will be held in the hall.
There are some books on the table.
The teacher wrote a sentence on blackboard.
He was flying kite on the roof.
Her parents were waiting for her at the entrance of school
There was a huge gathering at bus stop.
His house is at the end of street.
Examples.
She went to the library.
He jumped into the river.
He ran away when he felt that someone was coming toward him.
Examples.
This book is written by Shakespeare.
The work was completed by him.
The room was decorated by her.
The tub is filled with water.
Examples.
She comes by bus daily.
He opened the lock with key.
Prepositional Verb
A prepositional phrase is a combination of a verb and a preposition. It is just a verb followed by
a preposition.
Some verbs need particular prepositions to be used after them in sentences having a direct object.
Such a verb with its required preposition is called a prepositional phrase.
For example
In above sentence “knock at” is prepositional phrase which contains a verb “knock” and a
preposition “at”. Without the use of correct preposition after a prepositional verb in a sentence,
the sentence is considered to be grammatically wrong. For example if we say, “he knocks the
door”, it is wrong because it lacks the required preposition “at”. So the correct sentence is “he
knocks at the door”.
Prepositional Verbs are transitive and they have a direct object in sentence. Some of the
frequently used preposition verb are, laugh at, knock at, listen to, look at, look for, look after,
wait for, agree to, agree with, talk about, talked to
Examples.
She is listening to music.
She looked at the blackboard.
We believe in God.
They were waiting for the teacher.
Do you agree with me?
Do you agree to my proposal?
Someone is knocking at the door.
You should not rely on her.
KINDS OF PREPOSITIONS
Examples:
He is sitting in front of me
Fresh vegetables are available throughout the year.
He jumps into the river.
The following table contains rules for some of the most frequently used prepositions in English:
THE CONJUNCTION
Examples:
In the above given examples, the words and, because and as well as are the conjunctions.
Note : Conjunctions must carefully be distinguished from relative pronoun and relative adverbs
on the one hand and from prepositions on the other, as
Conjunction is a word that connects words, phrases, clauses or sentences. e.g. and, but, or, nor,
for, yet, so, although, because, since, unless, when, while, where are some conjunctions.
Examples.
Types of Conjunction.
There are three types of conjunctions
Coordinating Conjunction
Subordinate Conjunction
Correlative Conjunction
Coordinating Conjunction.
Coordinating conjunction (called coordinators) joins words, phrases (which are similar in
importance and grammatical structure) or independent clauses.
Coordinating conjunctions are short words i.e. and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet.
Coordinating Conjunction.
Coordinating conjunctions (called coordinators) join words, phrases (which are similar in
importance and grammatical structure) or independent clauses.
Coordinating conjunctions are short words i.e. and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet.
Word + word
Phrase + phrase
Clause + clause
Independent clause + independent clause.
Examples.
In the following examples, coordinating conjunctions join two words of same importance.
In the following examples, conjunction joins two independent clauses. Independent clause is a
clause which can stand alone as a sentence and have complete thought on its own.
Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join. A comma is
used with conjunction if the clauses are long or not well balanced.
If both clauses have same subjects, the subject of 2nd clause may not be written again. See the
following examples
Subordinating Conjunctions.
Subordinating conjunctions (called subordinators) join subordinate clause (dependent clause) to
main clause.
e.g. although, because, if, before, how, once, since, till, until, when, where, whether, while,
after, no matter how, provided that, as soon as, even if,
Correlative Conjunction.
These are paired conjunctions which join words, phrases or clauses which have reciprocal or
complementary relationship.
Either … or
Neither … nor
Whether … or
Both … and
Not only … but also
Examples.
. Examples:
In the given examples and and therefore are the coordinating conjunctions. Coordinating
conjunctions are further divided into four kinds. Let’s discuss each kind with examples.
Cumulative conjunctions are; And, Both… and, Also, Not only … but also, As well as, Too
Examples :
Night came on. The room grew dark.
Night came on and the room grew dark.
He is a fool. He is a knave.
He is a fool and he is a knave.
He is not only a fool but also a knave.
He is a fool as well as a knave.
Examples :
Make haste. You will be late.
Make haste or you will be late.
Come in. Go out.
Come in or go out.
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Either come in or go out.
Do not be a borrower. Do not be a lender.
Be neither a borrower nor a lender.
Examples:
He is slow. He is sure.
He is but he is sure.
I was annoyed. I kept quite.
Examples :
Articles
English language has two articles, “the and a/an”. An article is used for a noun. An article like
an adjective modifies a noun.
For example, a book, the book, a cup, the cup, an umbrella, the umbrella
The article “the” is called definite article and the article “a/an” is called indefinite article.
Types of Articles
There are two articles in English language.
The article “the” before the noun “shirt” in above sentence means that the shirt, he bought, is a
specific or particular shirt and not any shirt.
The article “a” before shirt in above sentence means that the shirt he bought is any shirt and not a
specific shirt.
The article form “an” is used before a word (singular) beginning with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) or
consonant with vowel sound (or beginning with mute h ).
e.g. an apple, an elephant, an umbrella, an hour,
1. Before the place, object or group of object which is unique or considered to be unique and
geographical region and points on globe.
e.g. the earth, the moon, the sky, the stars, the north pole, the equator
2. For a noun which becomes definite or particular because it is already mentioned and is
being mentioned a second time.
e.g. The teacher helped a student and the student became happy.
7. Before names of scientific principles, theories, laws etc. e.g. the Pythagorean theorem, the
laws of Newton, The Fahrenheit Scale. But no article will be used for these names if written
in forms like, Newton’s Law, Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures, Hook’s Law of Elasticity
8. Article “the” is not used for names of universities if written in forms like Oxford
University, Yale University, Columbia University. But article “the” is used if names of
university are written in forms like The University of Oxford, The University of Yale, The
University of Toronto.
9. Article “the” is not used for names of countries of places. e.g. New York, America,
Mexico, Japan, London. Butarticle “the” is used for a name, if it expresses a group of
place, states, or land. e.g. The United States, The Philippines, The Netherlands
Sentence:
A group of words which expresses a complete idea or thought is called a sentence.
Example
He bought a car.
The above group of word expresses a complete idea. Such combination of words is called a
sentence.
Now, look at another group of words “book a read him”. This group of words does not make a
complete sense so it cannot be called a sentence.
A sentence is a combination of words including a subject and a verb which express a complete
idea. A sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a period, question mark or
exclamation mark.
Examples
He goes to school.
She is eating an apple.
My name is John.
What are you doing? Who are you?
What a beautiful flower!
Examples
He is flying a kite.
John is driving a car.
She ate an apple
I wrote him a letter.
A sentence has two parts; Subject and Predicate. Ali goes to school.
Subject Predicate
Subject Predicate
1.
THE SUBJECT
Definition: A word or a group of words in a sentence about which any information is given
called subject.
Kinds of Subjects
(i) Complete Subject: The subject with all its words is called complete subject. A complete
subject may have one or more than one word. Examples:
In the above given examples the italicized; The principal of our college, The manager of our
factory and Lahore are complete subjects. (ii) Simple Subjects Definition: The key word in the
complete subject is called simple subject. Examples:
In the above given examples the italicized; The principal and The manager are simple subjects.
A compound subject consists of two or more words which are joined by using conjunction.
Examples:
In the above given examples the italicized; Ali and Aslam, The principal and the members of
staff and Her shoes and ankles are compound subjects. 2.
THE PREDICATE Def : The part of the sentence that says something about the subject is
called predicate. Ali goes to school.Subject Predicate
Kinds of Predicates
(i) Complete Predicate Def : The Predicate with all its words is called complete predicate. A
complete predicate may have one or more than one word. Examples:
They laughed.
They built a new house.
Ali wrote a letter.
In the above given examples the italicized laughed, built a new house and wrote a letter are
complete predicates.
(ii) Simple Predicate Def : The verb in the complete predicate is called simple predicate.
Examples:
In the above given examples the italicized; prefers, built and wrote are simple predicates.
(iii) Compound Predicate Definition: A compound predicate consists of two verbs which are
joined by conjunction. Examples :
In the above given examples the italicized wrote the letter and posted it, completed our work
and went home and wrote a book and published it are compound predicates.
The part of sentence which tells about the subject is called predicate.
Examples
He is flying a kite.
John is driving a car.
She ate an apple
I wrote him a letter.
Subject refers to the actor of a sentence. The part of a sentence about which something is
told in a sentence is the subject of sentence. While the part of a sentence that tells something
about subject is the predicate of sentence.
Example.
In the above example, “she” is a subject because it performs an action of washing clothes. We
can also say that “she” is a subject because something (that she is washing her clothes) is told
about it in sentence. While the rest part of the sentence “is washing her clothes” is predicate of
sentence because it tells something (washing her clothes) about the subject.
Sentence
A group of word that expresses a complete idea or thought is called a sentence.
Example.
He bought a book.
The above group of words “He bought a book” expresses a complete though hence it is a
sentence. A sentence begins with capital letter and ends with a period “ .”, question mark”?” or
exclamation mark. ” !”
CLASSIFICATION BY PURPOSE
Definition: A declarative sentence makes assertion or states an idea without expecting a reply.
Examples:
Examples
He goes to school
He likes to play chess.
They are singing a song.
Interrogative Sentence
A sentence that asks a question is called an interrogative sentence. Interrogative sentence ends
with question mark.
Examples.
Where are you going?
Do you use your laptop?
Interrogative Sentence
Imperative Sentence
Imperative Sentence
Examples
Open the door. (an order)
Please help me. (a request)
Exclamatory Sentence
A sentence that expresses strong feelings or emotions is called an exclamatory sentence. These sentences
express surprise, joy, sorrow, appreciation, love excitement, frustration, anger etc. An exclamatory
sentence ends with exclamation mark.
Examples:
Alas! He is dead.
Examples
What a beautiful flower it is!
How nicely she is singing!
That is fantastic!
Hurrah! We won the match!
Optative Sentence
Clause
“A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a predicate”
For example, he laughed.
Example
I will meet him in office.
The part of above sentence “I will meet him” is a clause because it has a subject (I) and a
predicate (will meet him). On the other hand, the rest part of above sentence “in office” lacks
both subject and predicate (verb) such group of word is called phrase.
A clause may stand as a simple sentence or may join another clause to make a sentence.
Therefore, a sentence consists of one, two or more clauses.
Examples.
• He is sleeping. (One clause)
• The kids were laughing at the joker. (One clause)
• The teacher asked a question, but no one answered. (Two clauses)
• I am happy, because I won a prize. (Two clauses)
• I like Mathematics, but my brother likes Biology,
because he wants to become a doctor. (Three clauses)
Clauses are divided into main clause (also called independent clause) and subordinate clause
(also called dependent clauses).
Types of Clauses
There are two major types of clauses main (or independent) clause and subordinate (or
dependant) clause.
While the clause “which looks very nice” does not express a complete thought and can’t stand as
a sentence. It depends on another clause (main clause) to express complete idea. Such a clause is
called subordinate or dependent clause.
Examples
I met the boy who had helped me.
She is wearing a shirt which looks nice.
The teacher asked a question but no one answered.
He takes medicine because he suffers from fever.
He became angry and smashed the vase into peaces.
In the above sentences each underlined part shows main clause. It expresses complete though
and can stand as a sentence that is why a main or an independent clause is normally referred as a
simple sentence.
Example
He likes Chinese rice which tastes good.
The clause “which tastes good” in above sentence is a subordinate clause because it does not
express complete thought and can’t stand as a sentence. It depends on main clause (he likes
Chinese rise) to express complete thought.
Examples.
I met the boy who had helped me.
I bought a table that costs $ 100.
He takes medicine because he suffers from fever.
The teacher asked a question but no one answered.
1. Noun Clause
2. Adjective Clause.
3. Adverb Clause
Noun Clause
“A dependent clause that functions as a noun in a sentence is called noun clause.”
A noun clause performs same function like a noun in a sentence.
Example
What he did made a problem for his family.
In above sentence the clause “what he did” functions as a noun, hence it is a noun clause. A noun
clause works as a noun that acts as a subject, object, or predicate in a sentence. A noun clause
starts with words “that, what, whatever, who, whom, whoever, whomever”.
Examples
Whatever you learn will help you in future. (noun clause as a subject)
What you said made me laugh. (noun clause as a subject)
He knows that he will pass the test. (noun clause as an object)
Now I realize what he would have thought. (noun clause as an object)
Adjective Clause
“A dependent clause that functions as an adjective in a sentence is called adjective
clause.”
An adjective clause works like adjective in a sentence. The function of an adjective is to modify
(describe) a noun or a pronoun. Similarly a noun clause modifies a noun or a pronoun.
Example
He wears a shirt which looks nice.
The clause “which looks nice” in above sentence is an adjective clause because it modifies noun
Examples.
I met the boy who had helped me.
An apple that smells bad is rotten.
The book which I like is helpful in preparation for test.
The house where I live consists of four rooms.
The person who was shouting needed help.
Adjective clause begins with relative pronoun (that, who, whom, whose, which, or whose) and
is also relative clause.
Example
•The student in the class who studied a lot passed the test. (Restrictive clause)
•The student in the class, who had attended all the lectures, passed the test.
(Nonrestrictive clause)
In the first sentence the clause “who studied a lot” restrict information to preceding
noun(student), it means that there is only one student in the class who studied a lot, hence it is a
restrictive clause.
In the second sentence the clause “who had attended all the lectures” gives us information about
preceding noun but does not limit this information to the preceding noun. It means there can be
several other students in the class who had attended all the lectures.
A comma is always used before a restrictive clause in a sentence and also after nonrestrictive
clause if it is within a main clause. “That” is usually used to introduce a restrictive clause while
“which” is used to introduce a nonrestrictive clause.
Example
The table that costs $ 100 is made of steel. (Restrictive clause)
The table, which costs $ 100, is made of steel. (Nonrestrictive clause)
Time: when, whenever, since, until, before, after, while, as, by the time, as soon as
Cause and effect: because, since, now that, as long as, so, so that,
Contrast: although, even, whereas, while, though
Condition: if, unless, only if, whether or not, even if, providing or provided that, in case
Examples,
Don’t go before he comes.
He takes medicine because he is ill.
Although he tried a lot, he couldn’t climb up the tree.
Unless you study for the test, you can’t pass it.
I will go to the school unless it rains.
You are safe as long as you drive carefully.
You can achieve anything provided that you struggle for it.
Phrase
“A phrase is defined as a group of related words that lacks both subject and verb.”
A phrase is a part of a sentence. It is a group of words (within a sentence) that does not contain
both subject and verb, and does not express a complete idea.
Example.
He is standing near a wall.
The part of above sentence “near a wall” is a phrase because it does not contain subject and verb,
and does not express a complete idea.
A phrase does not include both subject and verb at a same time and does not make a complete
sense, hence a phrase cannot stand as a sentence on its own.
If a group of words include both subject and verb then it becomes a clause, so the difference in a
clause and a phrase is that a clause contains subject and verb but a phrase does not contain
subject and verb.
For example, The boy in the red shirt behaves in a strange way.
Examples
He is wearing a nice read shirt. (as a noun/object)
The people at the party were dancing. (as a noun/subject)
The man in the room is our teacher. (as adjective, modifies noun man)
She gave me a glass full of water. (as adjective, modifies noun glass)
He always behaves in a strange way. (as adverb, modifies verb behave)
He returned in a short while. (as adverb, modifies verb return)
On the basis of their functions and constructions, phrases are divided into various types i.e. noun
phrase, verb phrase, adverb phrase, adjective phrase, appositive phrase, infinite phrase,
participle phrase and gerund phrase.
Types of Phrases
A phrase is a group of related words (within a sentence) without both subject and verb. For
example, He is laughing at the joker.
A phrase functions as a noun, verb, adverb, adjective or preposition in a sentence. The function
of a phrase depends on its construction (words it contains). On the basis of their functions and
constructions, phrases are divided into various types i.e. noun phrase, verb phrase, adverb
phrase, adjective phrase, appositive phrase, infinite phrase, participle phrase and gerund
phrase.
A noun phrase consists of a noun as the head word and other words (usually modifiers and
determiners) which come after or before the noun. The whole phrase works as a noun in a
sentence.
Noun Phrase = noun + modifiers (the modifiers can be after or before noun)
Examples.
He is wearing a nice red shirt. (as noun/object)
She brought a glass full of water. (as noun/object)
The boy with brown hair is laughing. (as noun/subject)
A man on the roof was shouting. (as noun/subject)
Prepositional phrase.
A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, object of preposition(noun or pronoun) and
may also consist of other modifiers.
e.g. on a table, near a wall, in the room, at the door, under a tree
A prepositional phrase starts with a preposition and mostly ends with a noun or pronoun.
Whatever prepositional phrase ends with is called object of preposition. A prepositional phrase
functions as an adjective or adverb in a sentence.
Examples.
A boy on the roof is singing a song. (As adjective)
The man in the room is our teacher. (As adjective)
She is shouting in a loud voice. (As adverb)
He always behaves in a good manner. (As adverb)
Adjective Phrase.
An adjective phrase is a group of words that functions like an adjective in a sentence. It
consists of adjectives, modifier and any word that modifies a noun or pronoun.
An adjective phrase functions like an adjective to modify (or tell about) a noun or a pronoun in a
sentence.
Examples.
He is wearing a nice red shirt. (modifies shirt)
Prepositional phrases and participle phrases also function as adjectives so we can also call them
adjective phrases when they function as adjective. In the above sentence “The girl with brown
hair is singing a song”, the phrase “with brown hair” is a prepositional phrase but it functions as
an adjective.
Adverb Phrase
An adverb phrase is a group of words that functions as an adverb in a sentence. It consists of
adverbs or other words (preposition, noun, verb, modifiers) that make a group with works like an
adverb in a sentence.
An adverb phrase functions like an adverb to modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb.
Examples
He always behaves in a good manner. (modifies verb behave)
They were shouting in a loud voice. (modifies verb shout)
She always drives with care. (modifies verb drive)
He sat in a corner of the room. (modifies verb sit)
He returned in a short while. (modifies verb return)
A prepositional phrase can also act as an adverb phrase. For example in above sentence “He
always behaves in a good manner”, the phrase “in a good manner” is a prepositional phrase but it
acts as adverb phrase here.
Verb Phrase
A verb phrase is a combination of main verb and its auxiliaries (helping verbs) in a sentence.
Examples.
He is eating an apple.
She has finished her work.
You should study for the exam.
She has been sleeping for two hours.
According to generative grammar, a verb phrase can consist of main verb, its auxiliaries, its
complements and other modifiers. Hence it can refer to the whole predicate of a sentence.
Example. You should study for the exam.
Examples.
He likes to read books. (As noun/object)
To earn money is a desire of everyone. (As noun/subject)
He shouted to inform people about fire. (As adverb, modifies verb shout)
He made a plan to buy a car. (As adjective, modifies noun plan)
Gerund Phrase
A gerund phrase consists of a gerund (verb + ing) and modifiers or other words associated with
the gerund. A gerund phrase acts as a noun in a sentence.
Examples
I like writing good essays. (As noun/object)
She started thinking about the problem. (As noun/object)
Sleeping late in night is not a good habit. (As noun/subject)
Weeping of a baby woke him up. (As noun/subject)Participle Phrase
A participle phrase consists of a present participle (verb + ing), a past participle (verb
ending in -ed or other form in case of irregular verbs) and modifiers or other associate words. A
participle phrase is separated by commas. It always acts as an adjective in a sentence.
Examples
The kids, making a noise, need food. (Modifies kids)
I received a letter, mentioning about my exam. (Modifies letter)
The table, made of steel, is too expensive. (Modifies table)
We saw a car, damaged in an accident. (Modifies car)
Absolute Phrase
Absolute phrase (also called nominative phrase) is a group of words including a noun or pronoun
and a participle as well as any associated modifiers. Absolute phrase modifies (give information
about) the entire sentence. It resembles a clause but it lack a true finite verb. It is separated by a
comma or pairs of commas from the rest sentence.
Examples
He looks sad, his face expressing worry.
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She was waiting for her friend, her eyes on the clock.
John is painting a wall, his shirt dirty with paint
Comparison
Definitions
A clause is defined as a group of related words that contains a subject and predicate (verb).
e.g. he came.
A phrase is defined as a group of related words that does not contain a subject and a verb.
e.g. on the table.
He is laughing at a joker.
The above sentence has two parts “he is laughing” and “at a joker”.
The first part of the sentence “he is laughing” is a clause because it has a subject (he) and a
predicate (is laughing).
The second part of the sentence “at a joker” is a phrase because it does not contain subject and
verb.
The difference between a clause and a phrase is that a clause consists of both subject and verb,
but a phrase lacks a subject and verb.
Examples.
The underlined part of each of following sentences shows a clause, while the rest part (non-
underlined) of each sentence shows a phrase.
On the basis of numbers of clause and types of clauses present in a sentence, sentences are
divided in to four kinds.
According to structure we may classify sentences into four kinds, simple, compound, complex
and compound-complex.
He went to school.
We played cricked.
I wrote my first novel last year.
A simple sentence consists of only one independent clause containing a subject and a verb
and it expresses complete thought. There is no dependent clause.
“An independent clause (also called main clause) is called a simple sentence.”
Examples.
He laughed.
She ate an apple.
They are sleeping.
I bought a book.
Compound Sentence
A compound sentence consists of at least two independent clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions.
There is no dependent clause in compound sentence. The coordinating conjunctions use to join
independent clauses are “for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so”. Independent clauses can also be joined by a
semicolon (;). A comma may or may not be used before the conjunction in compound sentence.
Definition: A compound sentence has two or more independent clauses but no subordinate
clause. A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinator. The
coordinators are as follows: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.
Examples:
Examples
I like an apple but my brother likes a mango.
I helped him and he became happy.
He failed two times yet he is not disappointed.
I asked him a question; he replied correctly.
Complex Sentence
A complex sentence consists of one independent clause and at least one dependent clause joined by
subordinating conjunction (because, although, since, when, unless etc) or relative pronoun (that, who,
which etc).
Definition: A complex sentence has one independent clause and at least one subordinate
clause. A complex sentence always has a subordinator such as because, since, after, although, or
when or a relative pronoun such as that, who, or which.
Examples:
Examples
I met the boy who had helped me.
She is wearing a shirt which looks nice.
You can’t pass the test unless you study for it.
If a complex sentence begins with an independent clause, a comma is not used between clauses
in a complex sentence. If a complex sentence begins with dependent clause then a comma is use
after dependent clause in a complex sentence. See the following example.
Definition: A compound complex sentence has at least two independent clauses and one or
more subordinate clauses. It is also called multiple sentences. Examples:
Examples
1. He went to college and I went to a market where I bought a book.
2. I like Mathematics but my bother likes Biology
because he wants to be a doctor.
In the first sentence of above sentence, there are two independent clauses “he went to college”
and “I went to a market”, and one dependent clause “where I bought a book”.
Interjection
Interjections are short words which show strong feeling or emotions.
e.g. oh, ah, wow, hurrah, alas, ouch, Oops, aha, hey, etc
• Joy
• Sorrow
• Wonder
Examples.
Besides these specific interjections, a normal word can also be used as interjection if it is used to
express feeling or emotion.
Tense
Definition: An aspect of verb which tells the time of an action is called tense. Tenses have
certain rules, according to which a sentence is made.
There are mainly three kinds of tenses.
1. Present tense
2. Past tense
3. Future tense
Each of present, past and future tense is further divided into four kinds.
1. Simple (Indifinite)
2. Continuous (progressive)
3. Perfect
4. Perfect Continuous (Perfect progressive)
In this way, there are 12 kinds of tense, which are explained in detail as below
Rules. 1st form of verb or base verb is used as main verb in sentence.
Note: If the subject in a sentence is “he, she, it, singular or proper noun” then “s” or “es” is
added to the first form of verb or base form in the sentence.
Examples.
I write a letter.
He gets up early in the morning.
Sun rises in east.
Negative Sentences
• Subject + auxiliary verb +NOT + Main verb +object
• Subject + Do not/Does not + 1st form of verb (or base form) + object
Examples.
I do not write a letter.
He does not get up early in the morning.
Sun does not rise in east.
Note: In negative sentence auxiliary verb “do or does” along with “not” is used. If the subject in
a sentence is “he, she, it, singular or proper noun”, then “Does not” is used after subject in
sentence. If subject is “I, we, they, you or plural” then “Do not” is used after subject in sentence.
“s” or “es” is not added to main verb in negative sentence
Interrogative Sentence
• Auxiliary verb + Subject + Main verb + Object
• Do/Does + Subject + 1st for of verb (or base verb) + Object
Examples.
Do I write a letter?
Does he get up early in the morning?
Does sun rise in east?
Note: If the subject in a sentence is “he, she, it, singular or proper noun” the sentence is started
with Auxiliary verb “Does”. If the subject in a sentence is “I, we, they, you or plural” the
sentence is started with auxiliary verb “Do”. “s” or “es” is not added to main verb in
Interrogative sentence
Negative Sentences
I do not sing a song
He does not drink water
They do not read lessons
Birds do not chirp
John does not reach home in time.
Water does not maintain its surface level.
Interrogative Sentences
Do I sing a song?
Does he drink water?
Do they read lessons?
Do birds chirp?
Does John reach home in time?
Does water maintain its surface level?
Structure of sentence
Positive Sentence
• Subject + auxiliary verb + main verb-ing (Present participle) + object
• Subject + am/is/are + (1st form of verb or base verb + ing) + object
Examples
I am playing cricket.
He is driving a car
They are reading their lessons.
Negative Sentence
• Subject + auxiliary verb + not + main verb-ing (Present participle) + object
• Subject + am/is/are + not + (1st form of verb + ing) + object
Rules for using auxiliary verbs (am or is or are) after subject in negative sentences are same as
mentioned above.
Examples.
I am not playing cricket.
He is not driving a car
They are not reading their lessons.
Interrogative Sentences
• Auxiliary verb + Subject + main verb-ing (Present participle) + object
• Am/is/are + Subject + (1st form of verb or base verb + ing) + object
For making interrogative sentences, the sentence is started with auxiliary verb rather than putting
auxiliary verb inside the sentence. If the subject is “I” the sentence starts with auxiliary verb
“am”. If the subject is “He, She, It, singular or proper name” the sentence starts with auxiliary
verb “is”. If subject is “You, They or plural” the sentence starts with auxiliary verb “are”.
Examples.
Am I playing cricket?
Is he driving a car?
Are they reading their lessons?
More Examples
Positive Sentences
I am listening to the news
You are washing your clothes
She is riding on horse
Negative Sentence
I am not listening to the news.
You are not washing your clothes.
She is not riding on a horse.
They are not playing football.
It is not raining.
Interrogative Sentences
Am I listening to the news?
Are you washing your clothes?
Is she riding on a horse?
Are they playing football?
Is it raining?
Structure of Sentence
Positive Sentence
• Subject + Auxiliary verb + main verb (past participle) + object
• Subject + has/have + 3rd form of verb or past participle + object
If the subject is “He, She, It, singular or proper name” then auxiliary verb “has” is used after
subject in sentence.
If subject is “You, They or plural” then auxiliary verb “have” is used after subject in sentence.
Examples
I have eaten meal
She has learnt a lesson
Rules for using auxiliary verb “has or have” in negative sentence are same as mentioned above.
Examples
I have not eaten meal.
She has not learnt a lesson.
Interrogative Sentences
• Auxiliary verb + Subject + main verb (past participle) + Subject
• Has/have + Su bject + 3rd form of verb or past participle + subject
Interrogative sentence starts with auxiliary verb. If the subject is “He, She, It, singular or proper
name” then the sentence starts with auxiliary verb “has”.
If subject is “You, They or plural” then the sentence starts with auxiliary verb “have”.
Examples
Have I eaten meal?
Has she learnt a lesson?
More Examples.
Positive Sentences
They have gone to school.
They have bought a new car.
I have started a job
It has rained.
The guests have arrived
John has left for home.
You have told a lie.
Negative Sentences
They have not gone to school.
They have not bought a new car.
I have not started a job
It has not rained.
The guests have not arrived.
John has not left for home.
You have not told a lie.
Negative Sentences
Have they gone to school?
Have they bought a new car?
Note: If there is not time reference or sense of time reference then it is not Present perfect
continuous tense because there is no hint about the time of action when it started in past and it
seems just an ongoing action at present time which resembles “present Continuous tense. So the
reference of time differentiates between Present perfect continuous tense and Present continuous
tense.
Rules: An auxiliary verb “has been or have been” is used in sentence. 1st form of verb (base
verb) +ing (present participle) is used as main verb in sentence. “Since” or “for” is used before
the “time reference” in sentence. If the time reference is exactly known such as 1995, 4 O’clock
then “since” is used before the time in sentence. If the time reference is not exactly known such
as three hours, six years, four days, then “for” is used before the time in sentence. Time reference
such as 3 hours or 5 days is not exactly known because we don’t know that about which three
hours a day is told in sentence or about which 5 days in a month is told in sentence. While the
1995 is exactly known time.
Structure of sentence.
Positive Sentence.
• Subject + Auxiliary verb + main verb (Present participle) + Object + Time reference
• Subject + has been/have been + (1st form of verb or base verb + ing) + object + time
reference
If the subject is “He, She, It, singular or proper name” then auxiliary verb “has been” is used
Examples.
He has been watering the plants for two hours.
I have been studying since 3 O’clock
Negative Sentence.
• Subject +”Not” between the Auxiliary verb + main verb (present participle) + Object + Time
reference
• Subject + has not been/have not been + (1st form of verb or base verb + ing) + object + time
reference
To make negative sentence, the word “not” is written between the auxiliary verbs, so it becomes
like “has not been or have not been”. The rule for using auxiliary verb “has been or have been”
in negative sentences is as same as mentioned above.
Examples.
He has not been watering the plants for two hours.
I have not been studying since 3 O’clock.
Interrogative Sentence.
• Auxiliary verb + Subject + Auxiliary verb + main verb (present participle) + object + time
reference
• Has/have + Subject + been + (1st form of verb or base verb+ing) + object + time reference
Interrogative sentence starts with auxiliary verb. If the subject is “He, She, It, singular or proper
name” then the sentence starts with auxiliary verb “has” and auxiliary verb “been” is used after
subject
If subject is “You, They or plural” then the sentence starts with auxiliary verb “have” and “been”
is used after subject
Examples.
Has he been watering the plants for two hours?
Have I been studying since 3 O’clock?
More examples.
Positive sentences
It has been raining for three days.
I have been living in America since 2003.
He has been playing cricket for two hours.
Negative sentences
It has not been raining for three days.
I have not been living in America since 2003.
He has not been playing cricket for two hours.
They have not been watching television since 6 O’clock.
She has not been working in this office since 2007.
Positive sentences
Has it been raining for three days?
Have I been living in America since 2003?
Has he been playing cricket for two hours.
Have they been watching television since 6 O’clock?
Has she been working in this office since 2007?
It is used to express an action that happened or completed in past, usually a very little time
before speaking, or action which is just completed. Time of action is not specified in terms of
long time ago or short ago but it make a sense that the action has done a little time ago. For
example, a person says, “I watched a movie”, it means the speaker of this sentence watched a
movie a little time ago or little time ago in the same day.
Rules:2nd form of verb (past simple) is used as main verb in the positive sentences and base
form is used in negative and interrogative sentences.
Structure of sentences
Positive Sentence
• Subject + main verb (past simple) + object
• Subject + 2nd form of verb (past simple) + object
Examples
I killed a snake
He ate a mango.
Negative sentences
• Subject + (auxiliary verb + not) main verb (base form) + object
• Subject + did not + 1st form of verb or base form + object
Examples.
I did not kill a snake
He did not eat a mango
Interrogative sentences
• Auxiliary verb + subject + main verb (base verb) + object
• Did + subject + 1st form of verb (or base verb) + object
Interrogative sentence starts with “did” and the 1st form of verb (base verb) is used instead of
using 2nd form (or past simple verb).
Examples
Did I kill a snake?
Did he eat a mango?
More Examples
Negative sentences
He gave me a gift
They went to cinema.
She wrote a letter to him.
I made a table.
You answered correctly.
Negative sentences
He did not give me a gift
They did not go to cinema.
She did not write a letter to him.
I did not make a table.
You did not answer correctly.
Interrogative sentences
Did he give me a gift?
Did they go to cinema?
Did she write a letter to him?
Did I make a table?
Did you answer correctly?
More Examples.
Positive Sentences
They have gone to school.
Prepared By: Arif Hussain
Page 87
They have bought a new car.
I have started a job
It has rained.
The guests have arrived
John has left for home.
You have told a lie.
Negative Sentences
They have not gone to school.
They have not bought a new car.
I have not started a job
It has not rained.
The guests have not arrived.
John has not left for home.
You have not told a lie.
Negative Sentences
Have they gone to school?
Have they bought a new car?
Have I started a job?
Has it rained?
Have the guests arrived?
Has John left for home?
Have you told a lie?
Rules: Auxiliary verb “was or were” is used in sentence. 1st form of verb or base verb + ing
(present participle) is used as main verb in sentence.
Structure of sentence
Positive sentences
• Subject + auxiliary verb + Main Verb (present participle) + object
• Subject + was/were + (1st form of verb or base verb +ing) +object
If the subject is “he, she, It, I, singular or proper noun” then auxiliary verb “was” is used. If
subject is “you, we, they or plural” then auxiliary verb “were” is used.
Examples.
Negative sentences
• Subject + auxiliary verb + NOT + Main verb (present participle) + object
• Subject + was/were + NOT + (1st form of verb or base verb +ing) +object
Rules for using auxiliary verb after subject are same as mentioned above.
Examples.
She was not crying yesterday.
They were not climbing on a hill.
Interrogative sentences
• Auxiliary verb + Subject + Main verb (present participle) + object
• Was/were + Subject + (1st form of verb or base verb +ing) +object
The interrogative sentence starts with the auxiliary verb. If the subject is “he, she, It, I, singular
or proper noun” then the sentence starts with auxiliary verb “was”. If subject is “you, we, they or
plural” then the sentence starts with auxiliary verb “were”.
Examples.
Was she crying yesterday?
Were they climbing on a hill?
More Examples
Positive sentences
They were laughing at the joker.
He was taking exam last month
You waiting for him yesterday
She was working in a factory.
It was raining yesterday.
Negative sentences
They were not laughing at the joker.
He was not taking exam last month
You were not waiting for him yesterday
She was not working in a factory.
It was not raining yesterday.
Interrogative sentences
Were they laughing at the joker?
Was he taking exam last month?
Were you waiting for him yesterday?
Was she working in a factory?
Was it raining yesterday?
For example,
I had lived in America. (The sense of time in this sentence refers to a completed action in past
and especially a long time ago)
The students had gone before the teacher came. (The first part of sentence “The student has
gone” is sentence of past perfect tense, it says about an action which occurred before another
action in past which is “the teacher came”. The second part “the teacher came” is sentence of
past simple tense. So such a sentence which express an action in past before another action in
past comprises two parts where the first part of sentence is past perfect tense)
Rules. Auxiliary verb “had” is used in sentence. 3rd form of verb (past participle) is used as
main verb in sentence
Structure of sentence.
Positive sentence
• Subject + auxiliary verb + main verb (past participle) + object
• Subject + had + 3rd form of verb or past participle + object
Examples.
He had taken the exam last year
A thief had stolen my watch.
Negative sentence
• Subject + auxiliary verb + NOT + main verb (past participle) + object
•Subject + had + not + 3rd form of verb or past participle + object
Interrogative sentence
• Auxiliary verb + subject + main verb (past participle) + object
• Had + subject + 3rd form of verb or past participle + object
More Examples
Positive sentences
They had visited a doctor.
He had slept.
I had finished my work last year.
It had rained heavily last month.
The film had started before we reached cinema.
Negative sentences
They had not visited a doctor.
He had not slept.
I had not finished my work last year.
It had not rained heavily last month.
The film had not started before we reached cinema.
Interrogative sentences
Had they visited a doctor?
Had he slept?
Had I finished my work last year?
Had it rained heavily last month?
Had the film started before we reached cinema.
It is used to express a continued or ongoing action that started in past and continued until
sometime in past. (Remember, an ongoing action in past which continued till some time in past)
There will be a time reference, such as “since 1980, for three hours etc” from which the action
had started. A sense of time reference is found in these sentences which shows that action had
started in past and continued till some time in past. Such time reference or sense of reference is
the identity of Present perfect continuous tense because it tells that action has started from a
particular time in past or for some time period. For example, “He had been studying in this
Note: If there is not time reference or sense of time reference, then it is not Past perfect
continuous tense because there is no hint about the time of action when it started in past or
continued for some time period, so it seems just an ongoing action in past which resembles “past
Continuous tense”. So the reference of time differentiates between Past perfect continuous tense
and past continuous tense.
Rules: An auxiliary verb “had been” is used in sentence. 1st form of verb (base verb) +ing
(present participle) is used as main verb in sentence. “Since” or “for” is used before the “time
reference” in sentence. If the time reference is exactly known such as 1995, 4 O’clock then
“since” is used before the time in sentence. If the time reference is not exactly known such as
three hours, six years, four days, then “for” is used before the time in sentence. Time reference
such as 3 hours or 5 days is not exactly known because we don’t know that about which three
hours a day is told in sentence or about which 5 days in a month is told in sentence. While the
1995 is exactly known time.
Structure of sentence.
Positive Sentence.
• Subject + Auxiliary verb + main verb (Present participle) + Object + Time reference
• Subject + had been + (1st form of verb or base verb + ing) + object + time reference
Examples.
I had been waiting for him for one hour.
She had been playing chess since 7 O’clock.
Negative Sentence.
• Subject +”Not” between the Auxiliary verbs + main verb (present participle) + Object +
Time reference
• Subject + had not been + (1st form of verb or base verb + ing) + object + time reference
To make negative sentence, the word “not” is added inside auxiliary verb, so it becomes “had not
been”.
Examples.
I had not been waiting for him for one hour.
She had not been playing chess since 7 O’clock.
Interrogative Sentence.
• Auxiliary verb+ Subject + Auxiliary verb + main verb (present participle) + object + time
reference
Interrogative sentence starts with auxiliary verb “had” and auxiliary verb “been” is used after
subject in sentence.
Examples.
Had I been waiting for him for one hour?
Had she been playing chess 7 O’clock?
More examples.
Positive sentences
I had been living in America since 2003.
He had been playing cricket for two hours.
They had been watching television since 6 O’clock.
She had been working in this office since 2007.
It had been raining for three days.
Negative sentences
I had not been living in America since 2003.
He had not been playing cricket for two hours.
They had not been watching television since 6 O’clock.
She had not been working in this office since 2007.
It had not been raining for three days.
Positive sentences
Had I been living in America since 2003?
Had he been playing cricket for two hours.
Had they been watching television since 6 O’clock?
Had she been working in this office since 2007?
Had it been raining for three days?
Rules. Auxiliary verb “will” is used in sentence. 1st form of verb or base form is used as main
verb in sentence.
Structure of sentence
Examples.
I will buy a computer tomorrow.
They will come here.
Negative sentence
• Subject + auxiliary verb+ not + main verb (present participle) + object
• Subject + will +not + (1st form of verb or base form +ing) + object
Interrogative sentence
• Auxiliary verb + subject + main verb (present participle) + object
• Will + subject + (1st form of verb or base form +ing) + object
More Examples
Positive sentences
He will start a business.
She will send me a letter.
I will give you a pen tomorrow
Students will take exams at the end of semester.
They will buy a new car.
The Pattern of exam will change next year.
Negative sentences
He will not start a business.
She will not send me a letter.
I will not give you a pen tomorrow
Students will not take exams at the end of semester.
They will not buy a new car.
The pattern of exam will not change next year.
Rules. Auxiliary verb “will be” is used in sentence. 1st form of verb + ing (present participle) is
used as main verb in sentence.
Structure of sentence
Positive sentence
• Subject + auxiliary verb + main verb (present participle) + object
• Subject + will be+ 1st form of verb or base form+ing (present participle) + object
Examples.
I will be waiting for you.
You will be feeling well tomorrow.
Negative sentence
• Subject + not between auxiliary verbs+ not + main verb (present participle) +
object
• Subject + will not be + 1st form of verb or base form+ing (present participle) +
object
To make negative sentence “not” is written between auxiliary verbs “will and be” in sentence.
Examples.
I will not be waiting for you.
You will not be feeling well tomorrow.
Interrogative sentence
• Auxiliary verb + subject + auxiliary verb + main verb (present participle) + object
• Will + subject + be+ 1st form of verb or base form+ing (present participle) + object
Interrogative sentence starts with auxiliary verb “will” and auxiliary verb “be” comes after
subject in interrogative sentence
Positive sentences
We will be shifting to a new home next year.
He will be flying a kite.
It will be raining tomorrow.
She will be enjoying her vacations.
He will be expecting honesty from his employees.
She will be delivering a speech to people.
Negative sentences
We will not be shifting to a new home next year.
He will not be flying a kite.
It will not be raining tomorrow.
She will not be enjoying her vacations.
He will not be expecting honesty from his employees.
She will not be delivering a speech to people.
Interrogative sentence
Will we be shifting to a new home next year?
Will he be flying a kite?
Will it be raining tomorrow?
Will she be enjoying her vacations?
Will he be expecting honesty from his employees?
Will she be delivering a speech to people?
Rules. Auxiliary verb “will have” is used in sentence. 3rd form of verb or past participle form of
verb is used as main verb in sentence.
Structure of sentence
Positive sentence
• Subject + auxiliary verb + main verb (past participle) + object
• Subject + will have + 3rd form of verb or past participle + object
Negative sentence
• Subject + Not between auxiliary verbs + main verb (past participle) + object
• Subject + will not have + 3rd form of verb or past participle + object
Examples
She will have finished the work by Wednesday.
I will have left for home by the time he gets up.
You will not have started a job.
Interrogative sentence
• Auxiliary verb + Subject + auxiliary verb + main verb (past participle) + object
• Will + Subject +have + 3rd form of verb or past participle + object
Examples
Will she have finished the work by Wednesday?
Will I have left for home by the time he gets up?
Will you have started a job?
More Examples
Positive sentences
He will have finished his work.
You will have made a new chair.
She will have decorated her home.
I will have bought a computer.
They will have shifted to a new home.
Students will have passed the examination.
Negative sentences
He will not have finished his work.
You will not have made a new chair.
She will not have decorated her home.
I will not have bought a computer.
They will not have shifted to a new home.
Students will not have passed the examination.
Interrogative sentences
Will he have finished his work?
Will you have made a new chair?
Note: If there is not time reference or sense of time reference then it is not future perfect
continuous tense because there is no hint about the time of action when it will start in future and
it seems just an ongoing action in future which resembles “future Continuous tense. So the
reference of time differentiates between Future perfect continuous tense between future
continuous tense.
Rules: An auxiliary verb “will have been” is used in sentence. 1st form of verb (base verb) +ing
(present participle) is used as main verb in sentence. “Since” or “for” is used before the “time
reference” in sentence. If the time reference is exactly known such as 1995, 4 O’clock then
“since” is used before the time in sentence. If the time reference is not exactly known such as
three hours, six years, four days, then “for” is used before the time in sentence. Time reference
such as 3 hours or 5 days is not exactly known because we don’t know that about which three
hours a day is told in sentence or about which 5 days in a month is told in sentence. While the
1995 is exactly know time.
Structure of sentence.
Positive Sentence.
• Subject + Auxiliary verb + main verb (Present participle) + Object + Time reference
•Subject + will have been + (1st form of verb or base verb + ing) + object + time reference
Examples.
I will have been waiting for him for one hour.
She will have been playing football since 2015.
To make negative sentence, the word “not” is added inside auxiliary verb, so it becomes “will
not have been”.
Examples.
I will not have been waiting for him for one hour.
She will not have been playing football since 2015.
Interrogative Sentence.
• Auxiliary verb + Subject + auxiliary verb + main verb (present participle) + object + time
reference
• Will + Subject + have been + (1st form of verb or base verb+ing) + object + time reference
Interrogative sentence starts with auxiliary verb “will” and auxiliary verb “have been” is used
after subject in sentence.
Examples.
Will I have been waiting for him for one hour?
Will she have been playing football since 2015?
More examples.
Positive sentences
I will have been living in America since 2003.
He will have been playing cricket for two hours.
They will have been watching television since 6 O’clock.
She will been working in this office since 2007.
It will have been raining for three days.
Negative sentences
I will not have been living in America since 2003.
He will not have been playing cricket for two hours.
They will not have been watching television since 6 O’clock?
She will have been working in this office since 2007.
It will not have been raining for three days.
Positive sentences
Will I have been living in America since 2003?
Will he have been playing cricket for two hours.
• Active voice
• Passive voice
In “active voice” subject acts upon object, while in “passive voice” object is acted upon by
subject. It can also be said, in “active voice” subject does a work on object, while in “passive
voice” object is worked on by subject. The normal structure of an active voice sentence is
subject+verb+object but in passive the normal structure of sentence is reversed according to
certain rules and becomes like object+verb+subject. The real meaning of a sentence does not
change if the sentence is expressed either by active voice or by passive voice. The active voice is
mostly used in writing because it gives a direct and more concise meaning. Passive voice is used
sometimes due to the following reasons.
1. When intentionally hiding the subject of sentence. For example, a student who failed in
exam might say, some chapters were not studied.
Another example. Women were not treated as equals
2. When passive voice better explain thought of sentence. For example, to say, cloth is sold
in yards, is more meaningful than to say, Shop keepers sell cloth in yards.
3. When passive voice better emphasizes the main though of the sentence. For example, a
man who is being teased by another person might say in anger, “you will be beaten by
me”
4. When subject is not exactly known. For example, His watch was stolen. It is not known
that who stole his watch, the subject (thief) is not exactly known so it is better to use
passive voice for such sentence.There are certain rules for expressing a thought in passive
voice or for changing a sentence from active voice to passive voice.
1. The places of subject and object are interchanged i.e. the object shifts to the place of
subject and subject shifts to the place of object in passive voice. Example.
Active voice: I write a letter.
Passive voice: I letter is written by me.
2. Sometimes subject of sentence is not used in passive voice. Subject of sentence can be
omitted in passive voice, if without subject it can give enough meaning in passive
voice.Examples.
Passive voice: cloth is sold in yards
3. 3rd form of verb (past participle) is always used as main verb in sentences of passive
voice for all tenses. Base form of verb or present participle will be never used in passive
voice.
The word “by” is used before subject in sentences in passive voice.Example.
Active voice: He sings a song.
Passive voice: A song is sung by him.
4. The word “by” is not always used before subject in passive voice. Sometimes words
“with, to, etc” may also be used before subject in passive voice.
Examples.
Active voice: The water fills the tub.
Passive voice: The tub is filled with water.
Active voice: He knows me.
Passive voice: I am known to him.
5. Auxiliary verbs are used passive voice according to the tense of sentence.
Note: First 5 rules are usually same for all tenses in passive voice. Rule No. 6 is about the
use of auxiliary verb in passive voice which differs for each tense. The auxiliary verbs of
passive voice are used according to tense of sentence of its active voice form. The
auxiliary verb for each tense is given in the following table with explanation and
examples. Click on the following links.
Fundamental Rules
The places of subject and object in sentence are inter-changed in passive voice.
3rd form of verb (past participle) will be used only (as main verb) in passive voice.
Auxiliary verbs for each tense are given below in the table.
For example,
For changing these sentences in to passive voice, auxiliary verb “be” is used. The word “Let” is
added before sentence in passive voice. Auxiliary verb “be” is added after object in sentence in
passive voice. Main verb (base form) of imperative sentence is changed to 3rd form of verb (past
participle) in passive voice. For best understand read the following examples.
Examples
Transitive verb.
He sent a letter.
(Send is a transitive verb and it needs an object i.e. letter to express full meaning.)
Intransitive Verb.
He laughs.
(Laugh is an intransitive verb and it does not need object for expressing full meaning.)
e.g. Sleep, go, reach, sit, die, are examples of intransitive verbs.
A sentence can be changed into passive voice if it has subject and object. Sometimes subject may
not be written in passive voice but it does not mean that it has no subject. Such sentences have
subject but the subject is so common or familiar or known that if even it is not written in passive
voice, it gives full meaning.
For example
Cloth is sold in yards.
The following tenses can also not be changed into passive voice.
1. Direct speech
2. Indirect speech
In direct speech the original words of person are narrated (no change is made) and are enclosed
in quotation mark. While in indirect speech some changes are made in original words of the
person because these words have been uttered in past so the tense will change accordingly and
pronoun may also be changed accordingly. In indirect speech the statement of the person is not
enclosed in quotation marks, the word “that” may be used before the statement to show that it is
indirect speech. Indirect speech is also called reported speech because reported speech refers to
the second part of indirect speech in which something has been told by a person.
Reporting verb: The verb first part of sentence (i.e. he said, she said, he says, they said, she
says,) before the statement of a person in sentence is called reporting verb.
Reported Speech. The second part of indirect speech in which something has been told by a
person (which is enclosed in quotation marks in direct speech) is called reported speech. For
example, a sentence of indirect speech is, He said that he worked in a factory. In this sentence
the second part “he worked in a factory” is called reported speech and that is why the indirect
speech as a whole can also be called reported speech.
In following example the pronoun of reported speech is “I” which will be changed in indirect
speech into the pronoun (Subject) of reporting verb that is “he”.
Example.
1. Change in time: Time is changed according to certain rules like now to then, today to
that day, tomorrow to next day and yesterday to previous day.
Examples.
Direct speech: He said, “I am happy today”
Indirect Speech: He said that he was happy that day.
1. Change in the tense of reported speech: If the first part of sentence (reporting verb
part) belongs to past tense the tense of reported speech will change. If the first part of
sentence (reporting verb part) belongs to present or future tense, the tense of reported
speech will not change.
Examples.
Direct speech: He said, “I am happy”
Indirect Speech: He said that he was happy. (Tense of reported speech changed)
Direct speech: He says, “I am happy”
Indirect Speech: He said that he is happy. (Tense of reported speech didn’t
change)
Change in tense is made according to rules of indirect speech which are given in table below.
She said, “he goes to school daily” He said that she went to school daily.
They said, “we love our country” They said that they loved their country
She said, “I am washing my clothes” She said that she was washing her clothes.
They said, “we are enjoying the weather” They said that they were not enjoying the
weather.
I said, “it is raining”
She said, “I am not laughing” She said that she was not laughing.
She said, “he has finished his work” She said that he had finished his work.
I said, “she have eaten the meal” I said that she had eaten the meal.
She said, “It has been raining for three days.” She said that it been raining for three days.
I said, “She has been working in this office I said that she had been working in this office
since 2007” since 2007.
PAST TENSE
PAST SIMPLE changes into PAST PERFECT
He said to me that I had answered correctly.
He said to me, “you answered correctly”
John said that they had gone to cinema.
John said, “they went to cinema”
He said that he had made a table.
He said, “I made a table”
She said, “I didn’t buy a car” She said that she had not bought a car.
He said to me, “ I was waiting for you” He said to me that he had been waiting for me.
I said that it had been raining.
I said, “It was raining”
She said, “I was not laughing” She said that she not been laughing.
PAST PERFECT changes into PAST PERFECT (tense does not change)
She said, “She had visited a doctor” She said that she had visited a doctor.
I said, “she had eaten the meal” I said that she had eaten the meal.
They said, “we had not gone to New York. They said they had not gone to New York.
FUTURE TENSE
I said, “I will not take the exam” I said that I would not take the exam.
She said, “they will have passed the She said that they would have passed the
examination” examination.
Note: The tense of reported speech may not change if reported speech is a universal truth though
its reporting verb belongs to past tense.
Examples.
Direct speech: He said, “Mathematics is a science”
Indirect Speech: He said that mathematics is a science.
Direct speech: He said, “Sun rises in east”
Indirect Speech: He said that sun rises in east. (Tense didn’t change because
reported speech is a universal truth thought its reporting verb
belongs to past tense)
Examples
Do you like music? (It can be answered in YES or NO)
How are you? (It cannot be answered in YES or NO but it needs a little bit
explanation i.e, I am fine.)
Examples.
Direct speech: He said to me, “do you like music?”
Indirect Speech: He asked me if I liked music. (Not, did I like music)
Or Indirect Speech: He asked me whether I liked music.
Examples.
Direct speech: He said to me, “how are you?”
Indirect speech: He asked me how I was. (Not, how was I)
Direct speech: Teacher said to him, “what is your name?”
Indirect speech: Teacher asked him what his name was.
Direct speech: She said to him, “why did you come late?”
Indirect speech: She asked him why he had come late.
Direct speech: He said, “when will they come?”
Indirect speech: He asked when they would come.
Direct speech: She asked his son, “why are you crying?”
Indirect speech: She asked her son why he was crying.
She said, “he can play a violin.” She said that he could play a violin.
They said, “we can climb on a hill” They said that they can climb on a hill.
She said, “he may visit a doctor.” She said that he might visit a doctor.
They said, “they may go to zoo” They said that they might go to zoo.
She said, “they must carry on their work” She said that they had to carry on their work.
I said to him, “you must learn the test-taking I said to him that he had to learn the test-taking
strategies” strategies.
Indirect speech for sentence having MODALS, should, ought to, might, would, and could”
Would
They said, “we would apply for a visa” They said that they would apply for visa.
She said, “I would appear in exam” She said that she would appear in the exam.
Could
She said, “she could play a piano” She said that she could play a violin.
They said, “we couldn’t learn the lesson” They said they couldn’t learn the lesson.
Might
He said, “guests might come” He said that guest might come.
She said, “it might rain” She said that it might rain.
John said, “I might meet him” John said that he might meet him.
Should
He said, “I should avail the opportunity” He said that he should avail the opportunity.
They said, “we should take the exam” They said that they should take the exam.
Ought to
He said to me that I ought to wait for him.
He said to me, “you ought to wait for him”
She said that she ought to learn method of
She said, “I ought to learn method of study” study.
They said, we ought to attend our classes” They said that they ought to attend their
classes.
Imperative sentences.
To change such sentences into indirect speech, the word “ordered” or “requested” or “advised”
or “suggested” or “forbade” or “not to do” is added to reporting verb depending upon nature of
imperative sentence in reported speech.
Examples.
Direct speech: He said to me, “please help me”
Indirect Speech: He requested me to help him.
Direct speech: She said to him, “you should work hard for exam”
Indirect Speech: He suggested him to work hard for exam.
Direct speech: They said to him, “do not tell a lie”
Indirect Speech: They said to him not to tell a lie.
Direct speech: He said, “open the door”
Indirect Speech: He ordered to open the door.
Direct speech: The teacher said to student, “do not waste time”
Indirect Speech: The teacher advised the students not to waste time.
Direct speech: He said, “please give me glass of water”
Indirect Speech: He requested to give him a glass of water.
Indirect speech of
Exclamatory sentences.
Sentence which expresses state of joy or sorrow or wonder is called exclamatory sentence.
For example.
• Hurrah! We won the match.
• Alas! I failed the test.
• Wow! What a nice shirt it is.
To change such sentences, the words “exclaimed with joy” or “exclaimed with sorrow” or
“exclaimed with wonder” is added in the reporting verb depending upon the nature of
exclamatory sentence in indirect speech.
Examples.
Direct speech: He said, “Hurrah! I won a prize”
Indirect Speech: He exclaimed with joy that he had won a prize.
Direct speech: She said, “Alas! I failed in exam”
Indirect Speech: She exclaimed with sorrow that she failed in the exam.
Direct speech: John said, “Wow! What a nice shirt it is”
Indirect Speech: John exclaimed with wonder that it was a nice shirt.
Direct speech: She said, “Hurrah! I am selected for the job”
Indirect Speech: She exclaimed with joy that she was selected for the job.
Direct speech: He said, “Oh no! I missed the train”
Indirect Speech: He exclaimed with sorrow that he had missed the train.
Direct speech: They said, “Wow! What a pleasant weather it is”
Indirect Speech: They exclaimed with wonder that it was a pleasant weather.
pronoun of reporting verb or object (person) of reporting verb (first part of sentence). Sometimes
the pronoun may not change.
1. First person pronoun in reported speech i.e. I, we, me, us, mine, or our, is changed
according to the pronoun of reporting verb if pronoun in reporting verb is third person
pronoun i.e. he, she, it, they, him, his, her, them or their.
2. First person pronoun in reported speech i.e. I, we, me, us, mine, or our, is not changed if the
pronoun (Subject) of reporting is also first person pronoun i.e. I or we.
Examples.
Direct speech: I said, “I write a letter”
Indirect speech: I said that I wrote a letter.
Direct speech: We said, “we completed our work”
Indirect speech: We said that we completed our work.
3. Second person pronoun in reported speech i.e. you, yours is changed according to the
person of object of reporting verb.
Examples.
Direct speech: She said to him, “you are intelligent”
Indirect speech: She said to him that he was intelligent.
Direct speech: He said to me, “you are late for the party”
Indirect speech: He said to me that I was late for the party.
4. Third person pronoun in reported speech i.e. he, she, it, they, him, his, her, them or their, is
not changed in indirect speech.
Examples.
Direct speech: They said, “he will come”
Indirect speech: They said that he would come.
Direct speech: You said, “they are waiting for the bus”
Indirect speech: You said that they were waiting for the bus.
Examples.
Direct speech: He said, “I will buy a book tomorrow”
Indirect speech: He said that he would buy a book the next day.
Direct speech: She said, “I am happy now”
Indirect speech: She said that she was happy then.
Direct speech: He said, “I like this book”
Indirect speech: He said that he liked that book.
Words spoken by a person can be reported to another person in two ways. These two ways of
narration are called direct speech and indirect speech.
Direct speech
When we use direct speech we quote the actual words said by the speaker.
Examples are:
She said, ‘I am going to the market.’
John said, ‘I will be late today.’
Alice said, ‘Would you like to come with me?’
Indirect speech
When we use indirect speech, we do not quote the exact words said by the speaker. Instead, we
express the idea in our own words.
In order to report the words of the original speaker in our own language, we have to make
several changes in his/her sentence. The important rules are given below:
First Personal I My Me
Pronoun
We Our Us
First personal pronoun of the reporting speech changes according to the subject of the reported
speech.
Second personal pronoun of the reporting speech changes according to the object of the reported
speech.
Third personal pronoun of the reporting speech doesn’t undergo any change
If the reporting verb is in the present or future tense, the tense of the verb in the direct speech
does not undergo any changes in the indirect speech.
When the reporting verb is in the past tense, all present tenses inside the quotation marks will
change to their corresponding past tenses.
The simple present tense will change into the simple past tense.
The present continuous tense will change into the past continuous tense.
The past continuous tense will change into the past perfect continuous tense.
The present perfect tense will change into the past perfect tense.
The present perfect continuous tense will change into the past perfect continuous tense.
1st form of the Verb → Changes into 2nd form of the Verb Changes into had + 3rd form of
→ the Verb
Is/am/are + 1st form+ing Change into Was/were + 1st Change into had been + 1st
→ form+ing → form+ing
Has/have +3rd form → Change into Had+3rd form → ‘Had’ doesn’t change (No
change)
Has/have been +1st Change into Had been +1st ‘Had been’ doesn’t change (No
form+ing → form+ing → change)
Here the reporting verb (said) is in the past tense. To change this sentence into indirect speech,
we have to change the present tense(s) inside the quotation marks into their corresponding past
tenses.
When the reporting verb is in the past tense, past tenses inside the quotation marks will change
into their corresponding past tenses.
Note that sometimes we do not change a simple past tense into past perfect tense in the indirect
speech.
Indirect: He said that he lived many years in the US. OR He said that he had lived many years in
the US.
Note that the past perfect tense is used to lay stress on the completion of one past action before
another past action.
When the reporting verb is in the past tense, shall will change into should in indirect speech.
Similarly, will will change into would, can into could and may into might.
Notes:
Adverbs of time or place do not normally change if the reporting verb is in the present or future
tense.
Types of Sentences
1: Declarative Sentences
Answers
2: Interrogative Sentences
There are two main kinds of interrogative sentences. Those which start with an auxiliary verb
and those which start with a question word such as what, why, when, where, how etc.
The following changes occur when an interrogative sentence in the direct speech is changed to
the indirect speech.
Interrogative sentences beginning with an auxiliary verb are changed into the indirect speech by
using the connective if or whether.
The reporting verb said (or any other word used as the reporting verb) changes to asked,
queried, questioned, demanded of or enquired of in the indirect speech. Note that of is used
after enquired and demanded only when the reporting verb has an object.
The most common reporting verbs used to report a question are asked and enquired of. The
reporting verb queried is somewhat investigative. Demanded of is the strongest of all reporting
verbs mentioned above. It is used when an explanation is desired.
Note that the indirect narration is always in the assertive form. In other words, the interrogative
sentences in the direct speech will change into assertive sentences in the indirect speech.
Study the following examples carefully to understand the rules mentioned above.
Note that the auxiliary verbs should, could, would, ought to and might do not change in the
indirect speech.
Answers
Interrogative Part II
When a question begins with a question word such as what, who, whom, when, where, why,
how etc., the same word is used to introduce the question in the indirect speech. In other words,
the question word becomes the joining word instead of that, if or whether.
3: Imperative Sentences
Imperative sentences do not normally have an expressed subject. This is because the
subject ‘you’ is usually understood. As a result of this, imperative sentences begin with a verb in
the simple present tense.
An imperative sentence expresses ideas such as advice, order, request, suggestion, instruction,
permission, allowance etc.
In order to change an imperative sentence into the indirect speech, we use a to-infinitive. A –
that clause is also possible in some cases. Note that instead of ‘said’ we use one of the
following reporting verbs:
Notes:
Direct: The old woman said to the boy, ‘Please help me.’
Indirect: The old woman requested the boy to help her.
Direct: I said to him, ‘Love and obey your parents.’
Indirect: I advised him to love and obey his parents. OR I advised that he should love and
obey his parents.
Direct: The teacher said to the students, ‘Work hard.’
Indirect: The teacher advised the boys to work hard. OR The teacher suggested that the boys
should work hard.
Direct: The doctor said to the patient, ‘Quit smoking.’
Indirect: The doctor advised the patient to quit smoking. OR The doctor suggested that the
patient should quit smoking.
Direct: The officer said to the clerk, ‘Do it immediately.’
Indirect: The officer ordered the clerk to do it immediately.
Direct: The teacher said to the boy, ‘Come in, please.’
Indirect: The teacher allowed (or asked) the boy to come in.
Direct: He said to me, ‘Post this letter at once.’
Indirect: He ordered me to post that letter at once.
Direct: I said to the children, ‘Do not make a noise.’
Indirect: I forbade the children to make a noise. (NOT I forbade the children not to make a
noise.)
Direct: I said to her, ‘Don’t mention his name.’
Indirect: I forbade her to mention his name.
Direct: I said to the child, ‘Do not look down into the well.’
Indirect: I warned the child not to look down into the well.
Direct: He said to me, ‘Wait here till I return.’
Indirect: He asked me to wait there till he returned.
4: Optative Sentences
It is sentence that indicates a wish, pray or desire.
She prayed that her son might stand first in the class.
He prayed for them that they might catch the train that day.
If the reported speech begins with the word “would”, we change the reporting verb into
wished.
Mother said to me, “Would that your father were here today!”
The teacher said to the students, “Would that I were on leave today!”
5: Exclamatory Sentences
He exclaimed with great sorrow that his brother had met with an accident.
They exclaimed with great joy that they had defeated our team.