Nutrition: taking in of nutrients which are organic substances and mineral ions, containing raw

materials or energy for growth and tissue repair, absorbing

assimilating them.

Main nutrients
Carbohydrates

Large carbohydrate molecules such as starch, glycogen and cellulose are made up of long chains
of smaller units - monosaccharides such as glucose - held together by chemical bonds.

Each hexagon represents a glucose monomer.

Fats

Fats are needed for energy and keeping warm.

Fats are made up of 3 units of fatty acids chemically bonded to 1 glycerol unit.
Proteins

Proteins are needed for growth, repair and fighting disease.

Proteins are made of long chains of amino acids chemically bonded together. There are about 20
different amino acids, their pattern in the chain can be quite complex and the molecules can be
very large.
 Food test 1 - Starch test

The brown Iodine solution reacts with starch and changes it to a blue-black color. This test
helps you to find out if a food contains starch.
Process
 add Iodine solution to a solution or directly onto materials such as
bread, potato, crackers...
 a BLUE-BLACK COLOR is a positive result: starch is present
Explanation

Starch can be separated into two fractions- amylose and amylopectin.

Amylose in starch is responsible for the formation of a deep blue color in the presence
of iodine. The iodine molecule slips inside of the amylose coil to give a special color.
 Food test 2 - Benedict's test for Reducing Sugars

All simple sugars (e.g.glucose) are reducing sugars. They will react with a blue liquid
called Benedict's solution to give a brick red color. We can use this reaction to find out if a
food or other substance contains a reducing sugar.

Process
 add a few drops of Benedict's solution
 heat the mixture for 2-3 minutes in boiling water bath

 a BRICK RED/ORANGE COLOR is a positive result: glucose is present

  The closer the color is to brick red, the more reducing sugar is present.

Explanation

 Reducing Sugars are sugars that contain aldehyde groups, that are oxidised to carboxylic
acids (R-COOH).

 They are classified as reducing sugars since they reduce the blue Cu2+(copper II
ions) to to Cu+ (copper I ions). These are precipitated in form of red Cu2O (copper
oxide), insoluble in water.

Illustrations
When the concentration of reducing sugar is low, the color of the Benedict's test may be light
green or pale orange.

Food test 3 - Emulsion (ethanol) test for Fats

This test is done to show the presence of lipids in a substance. The substance is first dissolved
in ethanol. This solution is then dissolved in water. If lipids are present in the mixture, it will
precipitates and forms an emulsion.
Process
 Add the food sample to 2 cm3 of ethanol, shake well.
 Allow to settle in a test tube rack for 2 minutes for food to dissolve in ethanol.

 Empty any clear liquid into a test tube containing 2 cm3 of distilled H2O.
 A MILKY-WHITE EMULSION is a positive result: lipid is present.
 If the mixture remains clear, there are no fats present in the sample

Explanation

 Lipids are insoluble in water and soluble in ethanol (an alcohol).

 After lipids have been dissolved in ethanol and then added to H2O, they will form tiny
dispersed droplets in the water. This is called an emulsion.
 These droplets scatter light as it passes through the water so it appears white and cloudy.
Illustration
 Food test 4 - Biuret test for Proteins

The Biuret Test is done to show the presence of peptide bonds, which are the basis for the
formation of proteins. These bonds will make the blue Biuret reagent turn purple.

Process
 add an equal amount of NaOH to a solution of the food, mix carefully.
 add a few drops of 1% CuSO4, do not shake the mixture.

 a PURPLE/MAUVE COLOR is a positive result: protein is present.

Explanation

 The reagent used in the Biuret Test is a solution of copper sulfate (CuSO4)
and sodium hydroxide (NaOH).
 The NaOH is there to raise the pH of the solution to alkaline levels; the crucial
component is the copper II ion (Cu2+) from the CuSO4.
 When peptide bonds are present in this alkaline solution, the Cu2+ions will form a
coordination complex with 4 nitrogen atoms from peptide bonds.

 The complex of Cu2+ ions and nitrogen atoms make the color
of CuSO4 solution changes from blue to violet.
 This color change is dependent on the number of peptide bonds in the solution, so the
more protein, the more intense the change.
Vitamins, Minerals, Fiber and Water

Vitamins and minerals, although needed only in small quantities, are important for maintaining
good health. A shortage can result in a deficiency disease. Fibre is needed in much larger
quantities. Although it has no nutritional value to us, but long term deficiency can lead to bowel
cancer. Water is also a vital part of our dietary requirements.
 Examiner’s tip:

*Don’t
use abbreviations such
as symbols when you are
asked to name elements:
Carbon, Hydrogen,
Oxygen instead C, H, O

*Remember to state
the units when giving the
answer to a calculation:
58g instead of 58

Using yeast to make bread and beer

Yeast is a single celled, microscopic fungus which uses sugar as food. It is widely used in food
industries such as baking and brewing.
Baking
 Mix yeast with flour, sugar and H2O to make dough.
 Kept dough warm: Yeast respires sugar to produce CO2. This make dough rise.

 When the bread is baked, the yeast is killed.

Brewing
 Yeast respires sugar (from juice, grain) to form ethanol and CO2.
 The ethanol makes the drink alcoholic, carbon dioxide gives the drink its fizz.

 The process is called fermentation.

Using microorganism in making yoghurt and single cell protein
In the production of yoghurt, we use microorganisms to change one substance into another,
which we use as food. But we can also use the microorganisms themselves, e.g. mycoprotein as
food.
1. Yoghurt making

 Bacteria (usually Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus bulgaricus) are used to

ferment milk at 460C.
 Lactic acid is produced.
 As fermentation progresses, the pH drops.
 The lactic acid makes the milk coagulate.
 The temperature is then reduced to 5oC to prevent further bacterial action.
 The whole process is carried out in sterile conditions.
2. Single-cell protein making

This is protein produced by microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi (e.g. yeast) or unicellular
algae in a fermentation vessel.

The first attempts to make microorganisms into food used yeast. In Germany during World War
I, yeast was cultured in large vats, using molasses (thick syrup produced during the refining of
sugar) as food source for the yeast, to produce a protein supplement for people.

More recently, different kinds of protoctists and bacteria have been grown for food production.
The food made from all of these microorganisms is called single cell protein or SCP.

The first SCP does not taste very nice, partly because they contained a lot of DNA and RNA,
which taste bitter. Most SCPs are now marketed as animal feed.

The only SCP which has found a market as human food is mycoprotein.

This is made from filamentous (thread-like) fungus (so, strictly, not single-cell protein). In
Britain, the fungus Fusarium is used for this purpose. It is made of hyphae rather than singles
cells. But mycoprotein is still called SCP.
 Fungus Fusarium. Photo courtesy: Dennis Kunkel Microscopy Inc.
The Fusarium is grown in large vats, using carbohydrates (e.g. waste from making flour) as a
food source. The fungus reproduces quickly and makes a mass of mycelium, which is harvested
and treated to remove a lot of the RNS it contains. Then it is dried, and shaped into chunks or
cakes, ready for eating as it is, or for making into pies or other foods.

Mycoprotein is a healthy alternative to meat because it has a high protein content (12%), very
little fat, no cholesterol, and a lot of fiber (6%).

Some people think that mycoprotein looks and tastes a bit like chicken.

37 Food additives - uses, benefits and health hazards

Food additives are used for a number of purposes, mainly to extend the life of processed
foods so they can be transported, stored or kept on the shop shelf for longer, maintain a
standard quality, and make the products more attractive to the consumer. Additive groups
include antioxidants, colourings, flavourings and preservatives.

Antioxidants- stop foods reacting with O2, which may spoil the taste of the food or change its
color.

Colourings- improve the appearance of the food.

Flavouring- Enhance taste of food.

Preservatives- give processed foods a longer shelf life by preventing the growth of
microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi that make food go bad and cause food poisoning.
Food coulorings
 Use of modern technology for increasing food production

Modern technology such as chemical fertilisers, pesticides, herbicides, modern agricultural

machinery, artificial selection... have been used to increase food production.

 Development and use of chemical fertilisers on farm land à boots levels of nutrients in
the soil, increasing crop yields.
 Development and use of pesticides such as insectisides and fungicides à kill pests that
feed on ar damage crops à increase crop yields.

 Development and use of herbicides à kill weeds that compete with crops for nutrients,
light, water and space à increase crop yields.

 Use of modern machinery, such as tractors and combine harvesters à enables land and
crops to be managed more efficiently.

 Artificial selection to produce varieties of plants that are suited to particular climates and
soil types, and breeds of animal for specific purpose such as optimum meat, milk, and
wool production.
 Development of biological control methods for pest control as an alternative to
pesticides.

 Use of yeast and bacteria in the large-scale production of bread, beer and wine,
youghurt and cheese. Single-cell protein and fungi are use to produce meat substitudes.

 Use of medicines such as antibiotics, hormones and artificial insemination techniques in

intensive animal rearing.

 Use of plant hormones in plant growing and fruit production.

 Use of genetic engineering and cloning techniques to produce organisms to produce

hormones, etc.
  Development of systems to water plants in greenhouses automatically and to grow
plants in nutrient solutions (a process called hydroponics).

 Use of satellites to monitor crop development, observe crop diseases and assess the need
for additional fertiliser.

 Development of intensive farming and automated feeding mechanisms.

Problems of world food supplies and the causes of famine

There is not always enough food available in a country to feed the people living there. A severe
food shortage can lead to famine.

It has been calculated that more than enoughe food is produced on Earth to provide every single
person with more than enough for their needs. Yet many people do not got enough food. Each
year, many people die because they have an inadequate diet.

The fundamental problem is that food is distributed unequally on our planet: while some parts
of the world produce more than enough food for the people that live there, in other part of the
world not enough food is produced.
 Although large amounts of food are transported from one area to another, this is still not
sufficient to supply enough food to everybody.
 If food prices rise too high, many people may not be able to afford to buy it.
 Famine can occur for many different reasons:
 Climate change and natural disaster such as drought and flooding that prevent crops
from growing.

 Increasing population: population may grow so large that the land on which they live can
no longer provide enough food for them.
 Unequal distribution of food.

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