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The Blood Clotting Mechanism

Introductory Note: Knowledge of the structure and functions of blood and other aspects of
the heart and vascular system are part of training in many therapies, such as Massage,
Aromatherapy, Shiatsu, and others. This page is intended as Revision Notes for Basic / First
Level Courses in these therapies, and some ITEC Diplomas.
Blood Clotting is one of three mechanisms that reduce the loss of blood from broken blood
vessels.
The three mechanisms are:
Vascular Spasm - The smooth muscle in blood vessel walls contracts immediately the
blood vessel is broken. This response reduces blood loss for some time, while the other
hemostatic mechanisms become active.
Platelet Plug Formation - When blood platelets encounter a damaged blood vessel
they form a "platelet plug" to help to close the gap in the broken blood vessel. (The key
stages of this process are called platelet adhesion, platelet release
reaction, and platelet aggregation)
Blood Clotting (Coagulation) - As described below:

Following damage to a blood vessel, vascular spasm occurs to reduce blood loss while
other mechanisms also take effect:
Blood platelets congregate at the site of damage and amass to form a platelet plug. This is
the beginning of the process of the blood "breaking down" from is usual liquid form in such
a way that its constituents play their own parts in processes to minimise blood loss.
Blood normally remains in its liquid state while it is within the blood vessels but when it
leaves them the blood may thicken and form a gel (coagulation). 
Blood clotting (technically "blood coagulation") is the process by which (liquid) blood is
transformed into a solid state.
This blood clotting is a complex process involving many clotting factors (incl. calcium ions,
enzymes, platelets, damaged tissues) activating each other.
The three stages of this process are:
1. Formation of Prothrombinase
Prothrombinase can be formed in two ways, depending of which of two "systems" or
"pathways" apply. These are
Intrinsic This is initiated by liquid blood making contact with a foreign
System surface, i.e. something that is not part of the body; or
Extrinsic This is initiated by liquid blood making contact with damaged
System tissue.
Both the intrinsic and the extrinsic systems involve interactions
between coagulation factors. These coagulation factors have individual names but
are often referred to by a standardised set of Roman Numerals, e.g. Factor VIII
(antihaemophilic factor), Factor IX (Christmas factor).

2. Prothrombin converted into the enzyme Thrombin

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Prothrombinase (formed in stage 1.) converts prothrombin, which is a plasma
protein that is formed in the liver, into the enzyme thrombin.
3. Fibrinogen (soluble) converted to Fibrin (insoluble)
In turn, thrombin converts fibrinogen (which is also a plasma protein synthesized
in the liver) into fibrin.
Fibrin is insoluble and forms the threads that bind the clot.

Consequences of Blood Clotting Problems:


If blood clots too quickly/easily then thrombosis may occur. This is blood clotting in an
unbroken blood vessel, which is dangerous and can lead to strokes or heart-attacks.
Conversely, if blood takes too long to clot hemorrhage may occur. In this case much blood
may be lost from the blood vessels, which is also dangerous.
The hereditary disorder haemophilia is a condition in which certain coagulation factors
are missing from the blood, as a result of which the blood cannot form clots (without
medical intervention). 
The Structure and Functions of Blood
Note: Knowledge of the structure and function of blood and aspects of the heart and
vascular system are part of training in various therapies, (incl. e.g. Massage, Aromatherapy,
Acupuncture, Shiatsu, etc.). This page is intended to include detail suitable for introductory
courses, and some ITEC Diplomas.
This page is divided into the following sections:
1. The Functions of Blood 
(generally - as opposed to the functions of particular components of blood).
2. The Composition of Blood 
(incl. the different types of blood cells and their properties and functions).
3. Process of Oxygenation of Tissues due to Circulation of Blood
4. Types of Leucocytes (White Blood Cells)

1. Functions of Blood
 
1. Transports:
Dissolved gases (e.g. oxygen, carbon dioxide);
Waste products of metabolism (e.g. water, urea);
Hormones;
Enzymes;
Nutrients (such as glucose, amino acids, micro-nutrients (vitamins & minerals),
fatty acids, glycerol);
Plasma proteins (associated with defence, such as blood-clotting and anti-
bodies);
Blood cells (incl. white blood cells 'leucocytes', and red blood cells 'erythrocytes').

2. Maintains Body Temperature

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3. Controls pH
The pH of blood must remain in the range 6.8 to 7.4, otherwise it begins to damage
cells.

4. Removes toxins from the body


The kidneys filter all of the blood in the body (approx. 8 pints), 36 times every 24
hours. Toxins removed from the blood by the kidneys leave the body in the urine. 
(Toxins also leave the body in the form of sweat.)

5. Regulation of Body Fluid Electrolytes


Excess salt is removed from the body in urine, which may contain around 10g salt
per day 
(such as in the cases of people on western diets containing more salt than the body
requires).

2. Composition of Blood
Blood consists of many components (constituents). 
These include:
55%Plasma
45%Components, i.e. 'Blood Cells'.
Of these, 99% are erythrocytes (red blood cells) and 1% are leucocytes (white blood
cells) and thrombocytes (blood platelets).
This is summarised in the following diagram, and described in further detail below.

The summary chart above includes: erythrocytes (red blood cells), thrombocytes (blood
platelets) and leucocytes (white blood cells). It also includes categories of leucocytes:
agranulocytes and granulocytes (also known as polymorphonucleocytes), which may also
be sub-divided into lymphocytes, monocytes, basophils, neutrophils and eosinophils.

The following table includes further general information about the constituents of blood.

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Structure Functions
Plasma Normal blood plasma is 90-92 % The medium in which the blood
water. cells are transported around the
This is the straw-coloured fluid in body (by the blood vessels) and
which the blood cells are suspended, are able to operate effectively.
and consists of:
Dissolved substances including Helps to maintain optimum body
electrolytes such as sodium, temperature throughout the
chlorine, potassiun, manganese, organism.
and calcium ions; Helps to control the pH of the
Blood plasma proteins (albumin, blood and the body tissues,
globulin, fibrinogen); maintaining this within a range at
Hormones. which the cells can thrive.
Helps to maintain an ideal
balance of electrolytes in the
blood and tissues of the body.
 

Erythrocytes Immature erythrocytes have a Carry oxygen (process described in


(Red blood  nucleus but mature erythrocytes more detail -below).
cells) have no nucleus.
  Haem  
Erythrocytes have a "prosthetic
group" (meaning "in addition to"
- in this case, in addition to the
cell). The active component of
this prosthetic group is Haem.
Haem relies on the presence of
iron (Fe).
Haem combines with oxygen to
form oxyhaemoglobin:

... continued in section below.


  Erythrocytes are eventually  
broken down by the spleen into
the blood pigments bilinubin and
bilviridin, and iron. These
components are then
transported by the blood to the
liver where the iron is re-cycled
for use by new erythrocytes, and

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the blood pigments form bile
salts. (Bile breaks down fats.)
  Have a longevity of approx. 120    
days.
  There are approx. 4.5 - 5.8    
million erythrocytes per micro-
litre of healthy blood (though
there are variations between
racial groups and men/women).

Leucocytes There are different types of Major part of the immune system.
(White blood leucocytes (described in more
 cells) detail - below), classified as:
Granular: e.g. Neutrophils,
Eosinophils, Basophils.
Agranular (do not contain
granules): e.g. Monocytes,
Lymphocytes.
Have a longevity of a few hours    
to a few days (but some can
remain for many years).
There are approx. 5,000 - 10,000    
leucocytes per micro-litre of
blood.

Trombocytes Blood platelets are cell To facilitate blood clotting - the


(Platelets) fragments; purpose of which is to prevent loss
Disk-shaped;   of body fluids.
Diameter 2-4 um   
(1 micro-metre = 1 um =
0.000001m);
Have many granules but no  
nucleus;
Have a longevity of approx. 5-9  
days.
There are approx. 150,000 -   
400,000 platelets per micro-litre
of blood.

3. The Oxygenation of Blood

The oxygenation of blood is the function of the erythrocytes (red blood cells) and takes
place in the lungs.

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The sequence of events of the blood becoming oxygenated (in the lungs) then oxygenating
the tissues (in the body) is as follows: 

  The Right Ventricle (of the heart) sends de-oxygenated blood to the lungs.
  While in the lungs:
1. Carbon Dioxide diffuses out of the blood into the lungs, and
2. Oxygen (breathed into the lungs) combines with haemoglobin in the blood as it
passes through the lung capillaries.
  Oxyhaemoglobin returns to the heart via the pulmonary vein and then enters the
systemic circulation via the aorta.
  There is a low concentration of oxygen in the body tissues. They also contain waste
products of the metabolism (such as carbon dioxide).
  Due to the high concentration of oxygen in the blood and the low concentration of
oxygen in the tissues,
   
  ... the high concentration of carbon dioxide in the tissues diffuses into the blood. (95%
of this carbon dioxide dissolves in the blood plasma.)
  Blood returns from the tissues back to the heart via the superior vena cava (from the
upper-body) and the inferior vena cava (from the lower-body)
 

4. Types of Leucocytes (White Blood Cells)

Lymphocytes: Monocytes: *Basophils: *Neutrophils: *Eosinophils:

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Approx. 24% of Approx. 4% of 60-70% of 2-4% of 0.5-1% of
leucocytes are leucocytes are leucocytes are leucocytes are leucocytes are
lymphocytes. monoocytes. basophils.  neutrophils.  eosinophils. 
These produce These are also Diameter 10-12 Diameter 10-12 Diameter 8-10
anti-bodies and known as micro-metres. micro-metres. micro-metres.
include: phagocytes.
* T-Cells They combat Phagocytosis. Combat the Liberate
* B-Cells microbes by Destruction of effects of heparin,
* Natural the process of bacteria with histamine in histamine,
Killer Cells phagocytosis. lysozyme and allergic and seratonin
strong oxidants. reactions; in allergic
Phagocytize reactions,
antigen-antibody intensifying
complexes; inflammatory
Destroy some response.
parasitic worms.
* It is only possible to observe the differences between these by staining them.
Further notes about the types of leucocytes identified above:
Lymphocytes:   Phagocytosis:
The term "antigen" refers to something that is not
 
naturally present and 'should not be in the body'. A phagocyte is a cell able to engulf and digest
T Cells (lymphocytes) are activated by the thymus bacteria, protozoa, cells, cell debris, and other s
 
gland. particles. Phagocytes include many leucocytes
B Cells (lymphocytes) are activated by other (white blood cells) and macrophages - which pl
lymphoid tissue. The 'B' indicates 'bone marrow'   major role in the body's defence system.
cells. Phagocytosis is the engulfment and digestion o
Both T-cells and B-cells: bacteria and other anigens by phagocytes.
(1) destroy antigens, and   This is illustrated below.
(2) produce 'memory cells' and anti-bodies.
Basophils:  
An increased (higher than usual) percentage of
basophils in the blood may indicate an  
inflammatory condition somewhere in the body.
Neutrophils & Monocytes:  
Neutrophils are the first leucocytes to respond to  
bacterial invasion of the body. They act by
carrying out the process of phagocytosis (see
opposite), and also be releasing enzymes - such as
lysozyme, that destroy certain bacteria.
Monocytes take longer to reach the site of
infection than neutrophils - but they eventually
arrive in much larger numbers.Monocytes that
migrate into infected tissues develop into cells
called wandering macrophages that can
phagocytize many more microbes than

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neutrophils are able to.
Monocytes also clear up cellular debris after an
infection.
Eosinophils:  
An increased (higher than usual) percentage of
eosinophils in the blood may indicate parasitic  
infection somewhere in the body.

Blood Vessel
Introductory Note: Knowledge of the structure and function of blood vessels and other
aspects of the heart and vascular system are parts of training in many therapies, such as
Massage (incl. "Indian Head Massage", "Swedish Massage", "Acupressure Massage" etc.),
Aromatherapy, Shiatsu, and others. This page is intended to include the detail required for
most Basic / First Level Courses in these therapies, and some ITEC Diplomas
The main types of blood vessels are:
 Arteries,

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 Arterioles,
 Capillaries,
 Venules, and
 Veins.
These are described and compared on this page.
1. Diagrams
The following diagram summarises the sequence of blood flow through the heart, arteries,
arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins, then back to the heart:

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2. Structure and Functions of Blood Vessels

  Structure Functions
Arteries The walls (outer structure) of arteries Transport blood away from the
contain smooth muscle fibre that contract heart;
and relax under the instructions of the Transport oxygenated blood only
sympathetic nervous system. (except in the case of the
pulmonary artery).

Arterioles Arterioles are tiny branches of arteries Transport blood from arteries to
that lead to capillaries. These are also capillaries;
under the control of the sympathetic Arterioles are the main regulators
nervous system, and constrict and of blood flow and pressure.
dialate, to regulate blood flow.

CapillariesCapillaries are tiny (extremely Function is to supply tissues with


narrow) blood vessels, of components of, and carried by, the
approximately 5-20 micro-metres  blood, and also to remove waste
(one micro-metre = 0.000001metre) from the surrounding cells ... as
diameter. opposed to simply moving the
There are networks of capillaries in most blood around the body (in the case
of the organs and tissues of the body. of other blood vessels);
These capillaries are supplied with blood Exchange of oxygen, carbon
by arterioles and drained by venules. dioxide, water, salts, etc., between
Capillary walls are only one cell thick
the blood and the surrounding
(see diagram), which permits exchanges
body tissues.
of material between the contents of the
capillary and the surrounding tissue.

Venules Venules are minute vessels that drain Drains blood from capillaries into
blood from capillaries and into veins. veins, for return to the heart
Many venules unite to form a vein.

Veins The walls (outer structure) of veins Transport blood towards the
consist of three layers of tissues that are heart;
thinner and less elastic than the Transport deoxygenated blood
corresponding layers of aerteries. only (except in the case of the
Veins include valves that aid the return pulmonary vein).
of blood to the heart by preventing blood
from flowing in the reverse direction.

3. Comparison between Arteries and Veins


Arteries Veins

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  Transport blood away from the Transport blood towards the heart;
heart;
  Carry Oxygenated Blood  Carry De-oxygenated Blood
(except in the case of the Pulmonary (except in the case of the
Artery); Pulmonary Vein);
  Have relatively narrow lumens (see Have relatively wide lumens (see
diagram above); diagram above);
  Have relatively more muscle/elastic Have relatively less muscle/elastic
tissue; tissue;
  Transports blood Transports blood
under higher pressure (than veins); under lower pressure (than
arteries);
  Do not have valves (except for the Have valves throughout the main
semi-lunar valves of the pulmonary veins of the body. These are to
artery and the aorta). prevent blood flowing in the wrong
direction, as this could (in theory)
return waste materials to the
tissues.

 
The Structure of the Heart
Introductory Note: Knowledge of the structure and function of the heart and other aspects
of the vascular system, is an essential part of training in many therapies, such as Massage
(in its many forms, "Indian Head Massage", "Swedish Massage", "Acupressure Massage"
etc.), Aromatherapy, Acupuncture, Shiatsu, and others. This page is intended to include the
detail required for most Basic / First Level Courses in these therapies, and some ITEC
Diplomas.
The first diagram (immediately below) is a cut-away section through the heart, showing its
physical appearance and labelling its major components and blood vessels. The simpler
diagrams below it are line drawings including essential information in a form that is easier
to reproduce in exams.

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Illustration of the Physical Form of the Heart

The heart is a muscular cone-shaped organ about the size of a clenched fist of the same
person. 
It is located in the upper body (chest area) between the lungs, and with its pointed end
(called the apex) downwards, forwards, and pointing towards the left. 
The main purpose of the heart is to pump blood around the body.
The basic structure of the heart (illustrated above) may be described as follows:
The Heart is divided into separate right and left sections by theinterventricular septum,
or "septum" when the context is clearly that of the heart. Each of these (right and left)
sections is also divided into upper and lower compartments known as atriaand ventricles,
respectively.
The four main chambres of the heart are therefore the:
Right Atrium (Labelled "RA" in the diagrams on this page);
Right Ventricle (Labelled "RV" in the diagrams on this page);
Left Atrium (Labelled "LA" in the diagrams on this page);
Left Ventricle (Labelled "LV" in the diagrams on this page).
 
Deoxygenated blood (from the body) is pumped through the right atrium and the right
ventricle (to the lungs), while oxygenated blood (from the lungs) is pumped through the left

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atrium and the left ventricle (to the body).
Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium from the Superior vena cava and
the Inferior vena cava.
Deoxygenated blood leaves the right ventricle by Pulmonary artery, which
takes blood to the lungs via the right and left brances of the pulmonary artery.
Oxygenated blood enters the left atrium from the Pulmonary veins. These may
be labelled as "right pulmonary veins" and "left pulmonary veins".
Oxygenated blood leaves the left ventricle by Ascending aorta, which takes
blood to the body via its system of arteries, arterioles, and capillaries. Major
arteries leading from the heart (via the ascending aorta) include
thebrachiocephalic artery, the left common carotid artery, and the left
subclavian artery (illustrated above). These are just a few of the main arteries
of the body.
It is essential that blood flows in the correct direction through the heart so the structure of the
heart includes a series of valves.
The Tricuspid valve separates the right atrium from the right ventricle.
The Pulmonic / Pulmonary valve separates the right ventricle from the
pulmonary artery.
The Mitral (also known as the Bicuspid) valve separates the left atrium from
the left ventricle.
The Aortic valve separates the right ventricle from the ascending aorta.
 
Line Drawings of the Basic Structure of the Heart
Although Diagram (1) above is a clear illustration of the structure of the heart it may be
difficult to reproduce quickly in examinations. The following diagrams are less detailed and
not as fully labelled (the same information as above applies so more labels could be added),
but may be more convenient to sketch rapidly if required to do so.
 
Diagram (2)a is a simplification of Diagram (1); Diagram 2(b) includes additional information
about structures concerned with the system of electical conduction operating in the heart (which
is described on the page about The Functions of the Heart).
The Functions of the Heart
Introductory Note: Knowledge of the structure and function of the heart and other aspects
of the vascular system, is part of training in many therapies, such as Massage (in its many
forms, "Indian Head Massage", "Swedish Massage", "Acupressure Massage" etc.),
Aromatherapy, Acupuncture, Shiatsu, and others. This page is intended to include the
detail required for most Basic / First Level Courses in these therapies, and some ITEC
Diplomas.
The physical form and structure of the heart is described and illustrated on the separate
page: The Structure of the Heart
The following diagrams are simple summaries of the main parts of the heart, the functions
of which are described below.

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What are the Functions of the Heart ?
The main functions of the heart can be summarised as follows:

Right-Hand Side of the Heart   Left-Hand Side of the Heart


The right-hand side of the heart receives de- The left-hand side of the heart receives
oxygenated blood from the body tissues (from oxygenated blood from the lungs (via the
the upper- and lower-body via the Superior pulmonary veins) into the left atrium. This
Vena Cava and the Inferior Vena Cava, oxygenated blood then passes through the
respectively) into the right atrium. This de- bicuspid valve into the left ventricle. It is
oxygenated blood passes through the then pumped to the aorta under greater
tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. This pressure (as explained below). This higher
blood is then pumped under higher pressure pressure ensures that the oxygenated
from the right ventricle to the lungs via the blood leaving the heart via the aorta is
pulmonary artery effectively delivered to other parts of the
body via the vascular system of bllod
vessels (incl. arteries, arterioles, and
capillaries).
 
How does the heart perform these functions ?
The pump action performed by the heart is achieved by a sequence of alternating
contraction and relaxation of the heart muscle (illustrated above). 
In this context the term "systole" refers to the contraction part of the sequence and the
term "diastole" to the relaxation part of the sequence. Hence, the "systolic" and "diastolic"
pressures may be measured and recorded separately when monitoring blood pressure.
This process is directed by the nervous system, nerve impluses initiating each sequence.

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The whole series of actions that cause alternating contractions and relaxations may be
summarised in five stages:

1. The vagus nerve stimulates the sinoatrial node (SAN), the pacemaker of the heart.
The sinoatrial node (SAN) is a tiny area of specialised cardiac (meaning "heart")
muscle in the upper wall of the right atrium, near the vena cava - as shown above.
The fibres of the SAN contract rhythmically approx. 70 times each minute. After
each of these contractions, the impluse is dispersed across the atrial cardiac muscle,
leading to ...
2. ... simultaneous contraction of both the right and left atria. This movement of the
cardiac muscle pushes blood from the atria into the ventricles (via the tricuspid and
bicuspid valves).
3. The contractions of the atria send impulses down the Purkinje fibers, which in turn
stimulate the atrioventricular node (AVN).
The atrioventricular node is a mass of modified cardiac muscle located in the
lower/central part of the right atrium of the heart.
The Purkinje fibres are referred to by various names in different textbooks, so are
also known as "Purkyne Fibres", "Purkynje Fibres", and as the "Bundle of His".
This/these are a bundle of modified cardiac muscle fibers that transmit impulses
from the atra, via the AVN, to the ventricles.
4. The action potential from the impulse transmitted down the Purkinje fibers reaches
the right and left branches of the Purkinje fibres - as shown in the diagram on the
right. This causes the ...
5. ... ventricles to contract, which pushes blood upwards into the arteries that take the
blood away from the heart (the pulmonary artery taking blood to the lungs, and the
aorta taking blood to the body).
Systemic Circulation
Introductory Note: Knowledge of systemic circulation and other aspects of the heart and
vascular system are essential parts of training in many therapies, such as Massage (in its
many forms, "Indian Head Massage", "Swedish Massage", "Accupressure Massage" etc.),
Aromatherapy, Acupuncture, Shiatsu, and others. This page is intended to include the detail
required for most Basic / First Level Courses in these therapies, and some ITEC Diplomas.
Systemic Circulation is the system of blood vessels and associated tissues that supplies
blood, and hence oxygen, to all parts of the body.
One of the best ways to describe this system is using a diagram:
Diagram summarising Systemic Circulation

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This diagram and systemic circulation itself may be summarised in words as follows:

Oxygenated Blood
Oxygenated blood leaves the lungs and enters the Left Atrium (LA) of the heart via
the pulmonary veins.
This oxygenated blood is then pumped from the Left Atrium (LA) of the heart to the
Left Ventricle (LV) of the heart, and then out of the heart to the body tissues via
the aorta, which is the major artery leaving the heart.
The aorta divides into other arteries that serve different parts of the body (as
mentioned on the page about the 
structure of the heart). These can be separated into two categories: blood supply to
the upper-body, and blood supply to the lower-body.
Blood Supply to the Upper-Body:
The aorta leads to the subclavian arteries that take blood to the arms (some of

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which eventually reaches the hands), 
and also to the carotid artery that carries blood to the head.
Blood Supply to the Lower-Body:
The aorta also leads to the hepatic artery that carries blood to the liver,
the mesenteric artery that carries blood to the small intestines,
the renal arteries that carry blood to the kidneys, 
and the iliac arteries that carry blood to the legs (some of which eventually reaches
the feet.).

Deoxygenated Blood
Blood is deoxygenated when it leaves the tissues and organs it has supplied with
oxygen and other nutrients, to return back to the pulmonary circulatory system. 
This can also be summarised for the upper-body and lower-body separately:
Return of Blood from the Upper-Body:
Blood returns from the head via the jugular veins, and from the arms via
the subclavian veins. All of the blood in the major veins of the upper body flows into
the superior vena cava, which returns the blood to the right ventricle of the heart.
Return of Blood from the Lower-Body:
Blood returns from the small intestines by passing through the hepatic portal
vein to the liver. 
Blood returns from the liver via the hepatic vein, from the kidneys via the renal
veins, and from the legs via the iliac veins. All of the blood in the major veins of the
lower body flows into the inferior vena cava, which returns the blood to the right
ventricle of the heart.
After re-entering the (right atrium of the) heart via the superior vena cava and
the inferior vena cava, deoxygenated blood is pumped into the right ventricle of the
heart and then out of the heart to the lungs via the pulmonary artery.
Deoxygenated blood enters the lungs and is oxygenated before leaving the lungs (as
oxygenated blood), and so the cycle begins again ...
ntroductory Note: Knowledge of the structure and functions of blood and other aspects of the
heart and vascular system are part of training in many therapies, such as Massage,
Aromatherapy, Acupuncture, Shiatsu, and others. This page is intended as Revision Notes for
Basic / First Level Courses in these therapies, and some ITEC Diplomas.
Measurement of Blood Pressure
Blood pressure can be measured by an instrument called a sphygmomanometer.
A column of mercury is linked to an inflatable cuff which is wound around the upper arm. A
stethoscope is then used to listen to the sounds of the blood in the brachial artery, at the
bend of the elbow. 
The sounds start at the systolic pressure: 
(heart contraction => higher pressure) 
and finish at the diastolic pressure: 
(heart relaxation => lower pressure).
Hence blood pressure is expressed as :
"height of column of Hg at systolic pressure "
"height of column of Hg at diastolic pressure".

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Normal Blood Pressure is about mm Hg.
The following table summaries key causes, effects, and symptoms of both "High" and "Low"
Blood Pressure:

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  Causes of Condition Effects / Symptoms
High Blood Pressure May be of unknown cause  Damage to arteries &
(essential hypertension, veins.
or hyperpiesia) Holes get blocked up by
May result from kidney colesterol.
disease, including narrowing of
the renal artery (renal Hypertension is symptomless
hypertension) until the symptoms of its
Or endocrine diseases (such as complications develop.
Cushing's disease or
phaeochromocytoma) These include :
Or disease of the arteries (such
as contraction of the aorta) - Atherosclerosis
which is known as secondary,
orsymptomatic Heart failure,
hypertension.
More general contributory factors Cerebral haemorrage,
are :
Stress; Obesity; Age; Social Kidney failure.
Class; Smoking; Lack of
exercise; Poor diet.

Low Blood Pressure Can occur following: Temporary Hypotension :


Excessive fluid loss (e.g. Simple faint (syncope)
through diarrhoea, burns or
vomiting), Light-headed
Severe blood loss
(haemorrage) from any cause. Sweats

Other causes may include: Impaired conciousness

Myocardinal infarction, Severe Hypotension :


Peripheral circulatory
Pulmonary embolism, failure (cardiogenic shock)
Unrecordable blood
Severe infections, pressure
Weak pulses
Allergic reactions,
Suppression of urine
Arrhythmias, production

Acute abdominal conditions


(e.g. pancreatitits),

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Addisons disease, and

Drugs (e.g. an overdose of the


drugs used to treat
hypertension).

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