The Roman Empire

- The rise of Roman Empire (reasons)

- The system they used to govern

- The system pf education

- Social classes

- Some roman emperors

- Roman war with carthage

- The fall of Roman Empire.

If you study Gibbons’s work, it’s obvious that America and Britain are headed
in the same direction!

In his historic masterpiece, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
Gibbons identifies five major causes that contributed to the fall of the Roman
Empire: First, the breakdown of the family. Second, increased taxation. Third,
an insatiable craving for pleasure. Fourth, an unsustainable buildup of
armaments. Fifth, the decay of religion.
 ENOTECHRIS | CERTIFIED EDUCATOR

The Roman Empire came, sadly, out of the slow decay of the Roman Republic. The
transformation was subtle and long-term; the key reason appears to be that the Roman
Constitution was designed for the governance of Rome and her environs, and was
undermined over time as Rome began to conquer overseas territories. The office of "Tribune
of the People" became the key office in exploiting the spoils of foreign countries; factions
vying for that office became corrupt in its attainment and execution. Because of the infighting
and political stagnation, eventually one man consolidated enough power to become Emperor.
Considering the United States in the world today and its disregard for its founding documents
and focus on the all-powerful Office of the President, one can't help be struck with the
similarities, and how history repeats itself, and if, in fact, the American Republic founded
only a few hundred years ago is now the American Empire. See a more detailed history of
the Late Roman Republic at the link:

 list Cite
 link Link

ALOHASPIRIT | CERTIFIED EDUCATOR

The Roman Empire became a powerful ancient civilization first because of location and
resources. Italy being located right on the Mediterranean Sea and sandwiched between other
powerful civilzations gave it a great abundance of resources and strength. Also great leaders
such as Julius Caesar that started to build Rome as a great city and empire by also focusing
on military strength in order for Rome to conquer other great civilizations such as the
Ottoman Empire. Then you Have Augustus Octavian who brought Rome to a Golden Age,
or Pax Romana. This was a time when the Colosseum was built and there was peace among
the whole empire. Location, resources, and great leaders all contributed to the rise of the
great Roman Empire.

 list Cite
 link Link

PARKERLEE | CERTIFIED EDUCATOR

One key to its success was the "join the club" policy. Once taken by force, conquered people
were entitled to a 'second-class' Roman citizenship, with partial rights and privileges (know
as 'the Latin Right'). This discouraged insurrection of newly conquered territories and
reinforced coorperation and adhesion to the group:
The granting of citizenship to the conquered and the allies was a vital step in the process of
Romanization. This step was one of the most effective political tools and (at that point in
history) original political ideas (perhaps one of the most important reasons for the success of
Rome).

Roman Empire

Roman Empire

territory controlled by ancient Rome. The Romans built up their empire through conquest or
annexation between the 3rd century BC and the 3rd century AD. At its height, the Roman
Empire stretched from north-western Europe to the Near East and encompassed all the lands
of the Mediterranean.

The control of an empire of this scale depended on a tightly controlled system of

administration, a strong and disciplined army, and excellent communications. Provinces of
the empire were controlled by Roman governors appointed by the emperor. The Roman army
and a number of strategically placed forts ensured that the empire was defended against
hostile local peoples, and an efficient network of roads was built both to allow troops to move
swiftly within the empire and to facilitate trade. Taxes levied and valuable commodities such
as grain, minerals, and slaves enriched Rome and financed its army. The many diverse
peoples and cultures whose countries became part of the Roman Empire were, to varying
degrees, united by Roman culture and Roman ideals of government and citizenship.

The formation of the Roman Empire began under the Roman Republic, but was formed
mostly by the early Roman emperors, and is often thought of as belonging particularly to the
imperial dynasties who held power in Rome after the collapse of the old Republican
constitution. By the end of the 1st century AD, the Roman Empire was already the greatest
empire of the ancient world. However, at the end of the 5th century AD, various economic
factors and ceaseless pressure from barbarian peoples on the frontiers of the empire led to its
eventual collapse in western Europe. An eastern Empire, based on Constantinople
(now stanbul), continued for far longer.

The Beginnings of Empire

The early history of the city of Rome saw its gradual domination, first under the Kings of
Rome and then under the Roman Republic, of the Italian peninsula. The emergence of this
small but powerful city-state inevitably brought it into conflict with other Mediterranean
powers, particularly with some of the states of Greece and with Carthage. The protracted
series of wars which Rome fought in order to establish itself as the major Mediterranean
power led to the conquest and annexation of territories belonging to its rivals: in this way
Rome acquired Sicily (241 BC); the twin province of Sardinia and Corsica (238 BC); most of
Spain (197 BC); Macedonia and parts of northern Africa (146 BC); and the lands of
Pergamum in Asia Minor (133 BC). Further territory was added as a result of the campaigns
of Julius Caesar (leading to the conquest of the rest of Spain and of northern Gaul) and during
the Civil Wars of the later 1st century BC (including, most importantly, the Provinces of
Africa and of Egypt). By 27 BC, when Octavianus, having emerged from the chaos of the
Civil Wars without significant rival to his powers, adopted the title "Augustus" and so
became the first Roman emperor, the foundations of the empire were already laid, and Rome
was already the leading power, in the western world.

In the early years of the Roman Empire, each province was given its own constitution, agreed
and loosely supervised by the Senate in Rome. For each province a governor was appointed;
although, in theory, the tenure of governors lasted one year, in practice, their terms of office
were often extended. By the time of Augustus, a hierarchy of provinces had developed: some,
considered "public provinces", were administered by proconsular governors, appointed by the
Senate, with no responsibility for the command of troops. The remainder were imperial
provinces, effectively governed by appointees of the emperor. For the more peaceful and
stable imperial provinces, in which no more than a single legion of troops was based, the
governor was a former praetor (magistrate); the more heavily garrisoned provinces were ruled
by governors drawn from the ranks of former consuls (chief magistrates). There were also
some provinces in which the governor was of equestrian rank (drawn from the lower echelons
of the Roman nobility): Judaea, annexed in 6 BC after the collapse of the client kingdom
of Herod, was an equestrian province, as was Egypt (which long had a special status on
account of its great wealth and strategic importance). In times of crisis, a serving consul
might be sent out to govern a province: this happened in Sicily after a serious slave revolt in
134 BC. Aided by a procurator, who was charged with financial affairs, the governor was
responsible for the running of the province, day-to-day matters being settled by a series of
local and town councils. The provincial constitution would deal with, among other matters,
the status of free towns and ports within the province; with the rights of the inhabitants
(whether or not Roman citizens); and with the types and levels of taxation which were to be
paid by the provincials.

Each province was usually made up of civitates, local communities that were to some extent
self-administering, and often roughly equivalent to the national or tribal groupings existing
before annexation of the territory by Rome. At this early period the great majority of
provincials were peregrini, citizens of a Roman province albeit without the rights of Roman
citizens: many exceptions could, however, be found, in settlements such as
the coloniae (legally regarded as virtual extensions of Rome itself) and in municipia to which
citizen status had been granted. Until at least the late 1st century AD, however, it is true to
say that the provinces of the empire were entirely subordinate to the Italian homeland.

From the beginning, the economic benefits of empire made themselves felt in Rome, and the
city soon grew to depend upon the influx of provincial wealth. Taxes in kind, especially of
grain, were enough to upset the balance of Italian agriculture, while the wealth of Spanish
mines, of exotic goods, of slaves, and of custom dues from far-off caravan routes allowed
huge programmes of public works in Rome and allowed its inhabitants relief from their own
taxes. Increasingly, however, much of this wealth was required to sustain the ever-larger
army needed to garrison and maintain the empire.

1st-Century Consolidation and Expansion

Rome's future as an imperial power was affirmed by Augustus, who set out to stabilize and
formalize the rather haphazard and vaguely defined boundaries of Roman possessions. This
objective was approached in two ways, according to circumstance: either by direct military
conquest or, more subtly, by encouraging client kingdoms in strategic buffer zones, where the
services of friendly local rulers could be bought or otherwise gained, and would offer a
measure of security along the borders. This policy was used particularly to ally Rome to some
of the sophisticated dynasties of the east, buying protection against
the Scythian and Parthian peoples who threatened Asia Minor. Further east, however, legions
were stationed in Syria to make a permanent frontier of the Euphrates and the edge of
the Arabian Desert.

In Europe, the land of Gaul, which had been conquered by Julius Caesar, was organized into
four provinces, and the older possessions in Spain into three. Attempts to find tenable
frontiers for the Rhine and Danube provinces, however, were less straightforward, and
attempts to push beyond the Rhine, and so to remove the threat posed by the Germanic
peoples, led to one of Rome's most humiliating defeats when an army under Publius
Quinctilius Varus was virtually wiped out in the Teutoberg Forest (the clades
Variani; literally, "the catastrophe of Vares"). The eventual Roman withdrawal to the natural
frontier suggested by the great rivers left the provinces of Upper and Lower Germany with a
total of eight legions, with a further seven in the Danube provinces—an indication of Roman
concern about the security of this border. Augustus, however, had been so shattered by the
humiliation of the loss of Germany that he instructed his successor, Tiberius, not to increase
further Rome's territories.

The machinery of empire consolidated by Augustus was inherited by his successors. Tiberius
(ruled AD 14-37) annexed the client kingdom of Cappadocia (annexation being a policy
commonly applied when clientage arrangements for any reason broke down). The next
significant territorial expansion, however, was the invasion of Britain, in AD 43,
under Claudius. Partly justified in commercial terms and partly as a move to prevent British
support of potentially rebellious Gaulish tribes, this adventure was probably largely a quest
for personal prestige by the emperor, who played an active personal part in the conquest and
consolidation. Although some difficulty was experienced in establishing a safe northern
boundary (eventually to be established by the building of Hadrian's Wall, which became the
ultimate northern boundary of the empire), Britain rapidly became drawn into the Roman
provincial modes of life, with several flourishing cities, including Camulodunum (now
Colchester), the original provincial capital, and many minor towns. Claudius took a close
interest in the provinces of the empire and did much to extend Roman citizenship by
founding coloniae and municipiae, especially in Gaul. He also introduced measures to draw
provincials into the higher ranks of Roman administration, particularly into the Senate: this
did much to underline the increasing parity of the provinces with the Italian homeland, to
which they were previously completely subordinate.

The Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end with the murder of Claudius's deranged
successor, Nero, in AD 68. The following year of dynastic struggle has been graphically
named "the year of the four Emperors". From the turmoil emerged the able Vespasian, first of
the Flavian Emperors. He and his sons Titus and Domitian ruled successively until 96, and
maintained the empire. New territory was added in Germany, east of the Rhine, and the
eastern frontiers were greatly improved and strengthened. The empire was not, however, to
grow for much longer: forces were at work, both internally and externally, which were to
bring about the protracted end of the Roman Empire.

2nd-Century Retrenchment

For a while, however, the provinces flourished. The dynasty of the Antonines began in 96
with the murder of Domitian and his succession by Nerva: when, two years later, the Imperial
purple passed to the Spanish-born Trajan (ruled 98-117), the Roman world had for the first
time a ruler who was himself a provincial. From this time, it is possible to see the empire
develop as a genuinely cosmopolitan community. Though, ultimately, it was Italy and Rome
which mattered and which were subsidized by provincial revenues, there was at the same
time a considerable amount of shared interest, as well as common culture and institutions.

Trajan tried to increase the extent of the empire and, indeed, it was under his reign that it
briefly reached what was to be its greatest size. His armies pushed as far as the shores of
the Persian Gulf and two new provinces—Mesopotamia and Assyria—were created. These
new possessions could not be consolidated, however, and were soon relinquished
by Hadrian (ruled 117-138), who was far more concerned with safeguarding the existing
provinces than with acquiring new ones.
Hadrian took a close, personal interest in the empire, and travelled extensively through every
part of Rome's dominions. He was an able and just administrator with an interest in
philosophy. His long reign was, by and large, a period of peace, stability, and prosperity.
Perhaps his most lasting gift to the empire was the system of formal, defended frontiers
which he established in Britain and along the Rhine and Danube. He was succeeded
by Antoninus Pius (ruled 138-161), a Gaul married to a Spanish wife: Antoninus Pius
continued the imperial policies of Hadrian, and the strongly garrisoned frontiers remained
intact.

Crisis was to come in the following reign, that of the Stoic philosopher Marcus
Aurelius (ruled 161-180). The expansion of Barbarian tribes outside the empire was
producing ever more pressure on available territory, and the productive lands of the Roman
provinces were irresistibly attractive not only to casual raiders and looters but, more
importantly, to expanding or dispossessed peoples looking for land on which to settle. For a
while the whole of the empire in the west was threatened when a host of Germanic tribes, the
most powerful of whom were the Marcomanni, smashed through the Danube frontier, overran
the adjacent provinces, and pushed as far as northern Italy, where they lay siege to Apuleia.
After a long and grimly fought war, they were pushed back, but the pattern of barbarian
pressure and incursion was to continue.

The Empire at its Height

At its greatest extent, the Roman Empire included all the lands bordering on the
Mediterranean Sea, and reached far into northern Europe and the Near East. The northern
limit was in Britain where, after an unsuccessful Antonine attempt to annex southern
Scotland, the frontier was eventually established on Hadrian's Wall, which stretched from the
Tyne to the Solway. The whole of the Iberian Peninsula was occupied, and divided into the
provinces of Tarraconensis, Baetica, and Lusitania. Gaul extended as far as the Rhine, and
comprised Gallia Narbonensis (Provence and the south); Gallia Aquitania (south of the
Loire); Gallia Lugdunensis (between Loire and Seine); and Gallia Belgica (northern France
reaching to Germania Inferior on the banks of the Rhine). Along the southern bank of the
Danube lay the provinces of Rhaetia, Noricum, and Pannonia. As well as the whole of Italy,
the whole of Greece was in Roman possession, with the Balkan provinces of Moesia, Thrace,
and Dacia. Virtually the whole of the coastal strip of northern Africa was part of the empire,
divided into the provinces of Africa, Mauretania, Numidia, Cyrenaica, and Aegyptus (Egypt).

In the east, Rome held the whole of Asia Minor (Bithynia, Galatia, Pontus, Cappadocia,
and Cilicia) as well as the province of Syria: further lands in Armenia and Iraq had been
given up by Hadrian. Roman influence spread even further than the far-flung boundaries of
this Empire: major trade routes, especially to the Orient, had been opened, and Roman goods
have been found as far east as India and as far west as Ireland.

Clearly, the empire included a bewildering racial mixture, from the shaggy, trouser-
wearing Celtic people of northern Britain to the sophisticated townsfolk
of Damascus or Alexandria. In practice, it is usual to think of a western Empire of Britain,
Gaul, Spain, and the provinces of the Rhine and the Danube; and an eastern Empire in
Greece, Asia, and Africa. The distinction became clearer as the east inevitably
adopted Greek as its main language while, for most formal purposes, the west was dominated
by Latin. National and regional identities were not, as a rule, suppressed by the empire:
rather, the multitude of provincials rapidly came to regard themselves as at least partly
Roman while maintaining their specific identity. An important turning-point came in 212,
when the Emperor Caracalla extended full Roman citizenship to all free-born subjects of the
empire, abolishing the distinction between Roman and provincial, and so doing much to
create a common sense of Romanitas (an identity with the traditions and institutions of the
Roman world).

The Spread of Roman Culture and Customs

The extent to which Roman culture and Roman institutions were eagerly adopted by the
peoples of newly acquired provinces is remarkable: even the Britons, remote inhabitants of a
semi-mythical island at the very edge of the known world, adopted with great speed the
cosmopolitan, provincial culture of the Roman Empire. In the earliest periods of
Romanization, much was probably due to social competition among the native people, whose
prestige might be enhanced by possessions or manners which might associate them with such
a powerful and successful society as that of Rome. This argument applies most convincingly
to the less developed native societies of the west: thus the upper classes of the Celtic peoples
of Gaul and Britain, even before Roman conquest, measured their social success in terms of
their access to wine from the Roman world, and to the paraphernalia of wine-drinking:
British chieftains were buried with jars of imported wine and with the cups and mixing-bowls
which formed part of the ritual of wine-drinking, and their armour and weaponry were
influenced by Roman technological development.

There was, then, a considerable taste for Roman material goods already established in some
provinces even before they were drawn into the empire. Once a province had become part of
the empire, and Romans were seen to be the dominant group, it is probable that the desire to
be associated with Roman ways and to seem to be Roman grew among the native people. The
Romans themselves were also anxious that natives should become civilized Roman
provincials (and, later, citizens): they were also, however, quick to adopt provincial styles
and customs which they found attractive, so that the empire became a melting-pot of cultural
influences.

In the east, the situation was rather different. Here were existing, highly structured societies,
usually based around networks of towns and cities, and with traditions of civilization which
reached back for centuries. Rome found it relatively easy to administer these provinces: the
basic structure of government, of urban life, of taxation, communications, and administration
was already in place. In cultural terms, however, the ancient societies of the east did not
become Romanized to the same extent as the "barbarian" societies of the west: they were
already secure in an ancient identity, the culture and institutions of Rome (themselves largely
derived from ancient Greece) were less of a novelty, and, because things already worked with
a fair degree of efficiency, the Romans felt less compulsion to impose change in order to be
able to exploit and administer.

The first contact which most people in the "barbarian" western provinces had with the Roman
world was with the army, and the army became one of the most important early forces behind
Romanization of the provinces. From an early date, provincials and members of conquered
nations were enlisted into the Roman army (although the elite regiments, the legions, were
reserved for Roman citizens). By the end of the 1st century, the army was mostly non-Italian:
in the later Empire, troops of Germanic origin became increasingly important. The army
brought many native people into contact with Roman ways and Roman money and, after
discharge, a soldier could be eligible for Roman citizenship. The practice of settling retired
legionary troops in coloniae, model towns often situated in newly conquered territory, was
also important, providing shining examples of the advantages of civilized (that is to say,
Romanized) life. On a smaller scale, native people were encouraged to settle in vici, small
civil settlements on the margins of forts, where they would be in close contact with, and be
economically dependent upon, the occupying garrison.

Towns and Cities

Despite the obvious economic importance of the countryside, Roman life was
characteristically the life of the cities and towns. Romans considered the city an essential part
of civilization, and it is certainly true that, especially in the west (where settlement had
previously been almost entirely rural), the creation of cities and towns was one of the most
dramatic effects of Roman rule. Native people gravitated towards the towns: not only the
upper classes, who were often enrolled as councillors and magistrates, but also the artisans
and craftsmen who rapidly adopted the new styles and technologies.

Provincial towns could be of great magnificence, and were regularly distinguished by fine
public buildings, temples, and other amenities. As early as the reign of Augustus, the city of
Augustodunum (Autun), in central Gaul, was given walls and magnificent gates in a
distinctive North Italian style which would not be disgraced by any building in Rome itself.
The recently recognized basilica (the administrative headquarters) of Roman London was one
of the largest in the empire. Public buildings such as the theatre at Arausio (Orange) or the
amphitheatre at Arelate (Arles) are, even today, of breathtaking magnificence, and testimony
to the importance, not solely of the provincial towns, but of communal, urban life.

Life in the Country

The effects of Romanization were also felt in the countryside. An immediate factor was the
need to meet the demands of Roman taxation, and to produce a surplus to feed the non-
productive populations of the towns. In northern Britain the amount of land under cultivation
increased dramatically at about the time of the arrival of the Roman army: this probably
reflects the new demands that were being placed on the productive capacity of the
countryside. A major transformation of the rural landscape was brought about by the
introduction of the centralized and highly capitalized villa system of agriculture, which in
some areas seems to have dominated the farming economy. Elsewhere, however, the impact
of Roman rule upon the peasantry was probably less than it was upon those living in the
towns. Individual farmsteads often continued to function without a break in much the same
way as before Roman conquest, though the material possessions of the people were usually
transformed, with pottery, glass, pins, and small metal objects, all in Roman provincial style,
appearing at an early date at most rural ites. There is evidence that Latin (in the west) was
adopted almost universally,

both in town and in the country.

Religion

As Roman rule and Roman culture spread, so did Roman religion. The Romans were
remarkably eclectic in religious matters: while there were certain observances which had to
be made, they were reluctant to exclude any other religious belief, and happy to accept most
of the gods and practices of the subject peoples of the empire. Rare exceptions were made in
such cases as those of the Druids of Gaul, considered politically dangerous as well as
unacceptable on account of their practice of human sacrifice, and of the early Christians, who
insisted on the exclusive truth of their belief and so challenged the divine authority of the
emperor. Usually, however, the Romans were content to apply a doctrine known
as interpretatio Romana (literally "Roman translation"), under which native gods were seen
as equivalent to, or as aspects of, the more familiar gods of Rome. In this way the Celtic war-
god Camulos was considered as being equivalent to Mars, and Brigantia, tutelary goddess of
the northern Britons, was represented as Minerva Victrix.

This doctrine made the spread of Roman religion throughout the empire remarkably easy. At
the same time, Roman society absorbed many religious trends from the provinces: the cults
of Mithras, Isis, Osiris, and, eventually, Christianity were all imported. Particularly important
was the way in which religion, either as the cults of deified emperors or of those associated
with living emperors (such as that of the Unconquered Sun in the 3rd century), was used to
reinforce and to legitimize the secular power of the imperial dynasties.

Decline and Fall

From the beginning of the 3rd century, the Roman Empire was on the defensive, beset by
economic and social problems from inside and faced with barbarian pressure from outside.
Septimius Severus (ruled 193-211), after fighting bloody civil wars to establish his power,
managed to extend Roman possessions in Mesopotamia, but was occupied in turning back a
tide of barbarian invaders in northern Britain when he died in York. Under his reign, Italy lost
many of its privileges, and had to pay provincial taxes: this was a symptom of the pressure
which the demands of a huge army and growing civil service were placing upon the empire's
revenues.

The accession of Septimius Severus marked the beginning of a period in which the relatively
ordered, hereditary imperial dynasties began to break down. Real power lay with the army,
and it was up to the army to approve, or even to appoint, a new emperor. At times, this could
reduce the succession to a squalid auction, at which the candidate who offered the greatest
cash bribe to the troops was likely to take control. Costly and damaging civil wars between
competing claimants became increasingly common. The effect could only be to damage the
stability of the empire and to divert military attention from external threats.

In 238 came massive attacks by Germanic tribes on the Black Sea area. By 253 the Goths and
the Heruli had ravaged the shores of the Aegean, and in 267 Athens was taken. At the same
time, the Danube frontier came under great pressure, and the province of Dacia was
effectively abandoned. In 259 the Allemanni, a huge confederacy of German tribes, attacked
eastern Gaul, penetrated as far as Spain, and linked up with other Germanic groups in the
west. German tribes occupied northern Italy. In the east came renewed trouble with the
Parthians, culminating in the ultimate humiliation of the Emperor Valerian being captured by
the forces of the Parthian king, Shapur, who pushed the Roman Empire back to the
Euphrates. In 270 Zenobia, queen of the formerly friendly Syrian city-state of Palmyra,
invaded Egypt and adjacent territories. Some recovery from these disasters was achieved
by Aurelian (ruled 270-275), who defeated both Palmyra and the German tribes, but the
situation continued to be volatile, and the position of the empire precarious.

Major reorganization of the empire was undertaken by Diocletian (ruled 284-305), who
formally divided Roman territory into a Western Empire and an Eastern Empire, each
administered by an Augustus (senior emperor) and a junior Caesar (subordinate emperor)—a
system known as the Tetrarchy. Imperial power, increasingly absolute and arbitrary, was
enforced by a large secret police force (the agentes in rebus). Diocletian also undertook
radical reforms of the army, and of the defences of the provinces. The twin empires were
again united by Constantine (ruled 306-337), who adopted Christianity (formerly a relatively
unimportant cult) and who moved the centre of imperial government from Rome to the new
city of Constantinople, in Asia Minor. This last was an extraordinary move: it recognized that
the empire in the east was now the primary concern, and broke a chain of historical and
political continuity which had been, for immemorial ages, at the heart of Roman identity. On
Constantine's death the empire was again divided formally into Eastern and Western, between
his sons Constans and Constantius II.

The second half of the 4th century was a time of military reverses. Picts and Scots invaded
Britain in 360 and, though the barbarians were temporarily defeated by Theodosius in 370,
the legions were forced to begin their abandonment of the province in 383 (a process
completed by 410) in order to reinforce the severely pressed frontiers elsewhere. Huns and
Goths were invading Europe from several points, and in 378 the Emperor Valens was
defeated and killed by Visigoths at Adrianople (now Edirne), in Thrace. The Emperor
Theodosius (ruled 392-395) briefly reunited the empire and tried to rally Roman forces
against the barbarian tide, but nothing could be done. In 396 Alaric, king of the Visigoths,
began a campaign that was to sweep through Greece and the Balkans to Italy: in 410 he
sacked the city of Rome itself and, though Italy was briefly to be reconquered by the
Byzantine general Belisarius in 535, the ancient heartland of the empire was now lost.

Over the following century, the Western Empire fell steadily into barbarian hands.
Desperately short of troops, Rome had adopted the despairing policy of allowing some
Germanic foedorati (people with whom the Romans, by treaty, had agreed friendly
association or alliance in perpetuity) to settle in the European provinces in return for
guaranteeing the borders against other, more hostile, tribes: in this way, much of Europe was
to fall under barbarian rule and occupation by clandestine means. Vandals were settled in
Spain; Ostrogoths in Dalmatia; and Huns in Pannonia and other parts of eastern Europe. In
443, the Vandals took Rome's last possessions in northern Africa. The final end of the
Western Empire came in 476 with the death of its last emperor, Romulus Augustulus,
ironically named after one of the twin founders of Rome, and the proclamation of the German
barbarian general Odoacer as king of Italy.

In the east, the empire was to continue, in one form or another, for many centuries, but the
days were over when the empire could be called Roman: the lands governed from
Constantinople are usually referred to as the Byzantine Empire, and were eventually to fall to
the Muslim Turks in 1453.

The causes of the collapse of this mighty Empire are more complex than the simple series of
military defeats outlined above. In essence, the empire had grown too big for its resources.
Extended frontiers required a huge army, always a vast drain on revenues, and in turn
generating an increasingly unwieldy bureaucracy: too many unproductive mouths were being
fed by too few farmers and peasants. This situation was worsened in the areas most exposed
to barbarian invasion, where conditions were most unstable. Political competition between
rivals for power resulted in continual civil wars, which drained the exchequer, depleted
manpower, and exhausted the countryside. Massive rates of inflation, following debasement
of the coinage in order to increase the money supply to pay the army and administrators,
reduced confidence in the currency and inhibited economic production. Roman society had
become inflexible and fossilized, caught in a cycle of economic depression and bureaucratic
stagnation. All these factors were exacerbated by the ceaseless pressure on the frontiers of the
empire, and by the constant need for more troops and more taxes.

The Roman Inheritance

By the Europe of the early Middle Ages, the Roman Empire was remembered, though
sometimes dimly, as an age of stability, power, and achievement: it was Rome which largely
shaped the culture and institutions of medieval Europe, and bestowed a lasting legacy.

The Germanic people who gained the western Roman Empire were conscious of the
achievements of Rome, but were unfortunately not always organized in a way that would
allow them immediately to build upon the inheritance. Their adoption of Roman culture and
institutions was, therefore, far from uniform, and the lasting legacy of Rome can be difficult
to perceive. In Italy, in Iberia, and to a lesser extent in France and some of the Balkan states,
the language spoken is still based closely upon Latin: all the Germanic invaders were
illiterate in their own tongues, and such learning and higher culture as was to survive in
Europe in the centuries following the fall of the empire was conducted in Latin. Moreover,
the very survival of that learning is owed to the Christian Church, itself a Roman institution
which was to outlive the empire that produced it.

It was the Church, more than anything, that was the real heir of the empire, and which was
able to provide a measure of continuity after the collapse of temporal power and civil
administration. The papacy continued to be based in Rome and to exert enormous authority
over most of Europe, keeping alive not only many of the ideas of the Roman world but also a
sense of a wider community which looked to the ancient city for support and leadership.

Besides the Church, some of the most important institutions of the medieval world had their
origins in the Roman Empire. The feudal system, which was to govern not only the holding
and administration of land but also the web of relationships and obligations that held together
medieval society, has been seen as developing from the late Roman system of land law. In
places, other traditions of Roman law and administration survived, and the courts of the more
sophisticated Germanic peoples—Franks, Goths, Burgundians—were modelled upon the
imperial courts of Rome. Five hundred years after the fall of the city, Roman styles continued
to dominate material culture, art, and, in particular, architecture. The barbarian races had
coveted Rome and what the empire represented: it is true to say that they did not destroy the
Roman legacy, but used it, adapted it, and integrated it into their own cultures.

Contributed By:

Percival Turnbull