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Medicinal Plant Research 2013, Vol.3, No.4, 20-36
http://mpr.sophiapublisher.com

Review Open Access

Current Updates on Centella asiatica: Phytochemistry, Pharmacology and
Traditional Uses
Dipankar Chandra Roy , Shital Kumar Barman , Md. Munan Shaik
Department of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Islamic University, Kushtia-7003, Bangladesh
Corresponding author email: munanbt2004@gmail.com; mmshaik@btge.iu.ac.bd; Authors
Medicinal Plant Research, 2013, Vol.3, No.4 doi: 10.5376/mpr.2013.03.0004
Received: 14 Jan., 2013
Accepted: 23 Jan., 2013
Published: 28 Jan., 2013
Copyright © 2012 Dipankar et al., This is an open access article published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted
use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Preferred citation for this article:
Dipankar C.R., et al., 2013, Current Updates on Centella asiatica: Phytochemistry, Pharmacology and Traditional Uses, Medicinal Plant Research, Vol.3, No.4
20-36 (doi: 10.5376/mpr.2013.03.0004)

Abstract Plants have been demonstrated extraordinary source of medicine, and recently focus on medicinal plant research has
increased. Centella asiatica is well known for its traditional uses and medicinal properties for the treatment of many diseases. The
published literatures mention the use of this plant as whole and bioactive compounds isolated are widely used in the treatment of
various human ailments. C. asiatica reported to possess various pharmacological activities: antimicrobial activity, anticancer activity,
wound healing activity, neuroprotechtive activity, immunomodulatory activity, anti-inflammatory activity, hepatoprotective activity,
insecticidal activity, and antioxidant activity. C. asiatica is also rich in flavonoids and terpenoids compounds among them asiatic acid,
asiaticoside, madecassoside is well characterized for its pharmacological value. The present review summarized widespread
information on phytochemistry, isolated and characterized bioactive compounds, pharmacological properties, in vitro propagation and
traditional uses of the important medicinal plant C. asiatica.
Keywords Centella asiatica; Medicinal Plants; Triterpenes; Terpenoids phytochemistry; Pharmacology; Neuroprotechtive activity;
Wound healing actitivty; Anti-inflammatory activity; Anticancer activity

Background
Medicinal plants are an important episode in the
medical sector. Around 5 000 species have specific
therapeutic value among 250 000 higher plant species
on earth (Joy et al., 1998). Centella asiatica has a long
history in ancient Ayurvedic remedy, used in wound
healing, cleansing for skin problem and digestive
disorders (Chevallier, 2001) and effective in treatment
of stomach ulcers, mental fatigue, diarrhea, epilepsy,
hepatitis, syphilis and asthma (Goldstein and
Goldstein, 2012). Such traditional uses and reputation
of this species cross over the boundary limit of
Bangladesh, India, and Srilanka and now extensively
used in the West (Chevallier, 2001; Meulenbeld and
Wujastyk, 2001). C. asiatica and Hydrocotyle asiatica,
belongs to family Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) are used
synonymously and commonly known as Thankuni
(Bengali), Bemgsag/Brahma-Manduki/Gotukola/Khu-
lakhudi/Mandookaparni (Hindi), Indian Pennywort/
Marsh Pennywort/ Gotu kola (English) (Singh et al.,
2010). C. asiatica is creeping, perennial herb with up
to 2m long slender and tender horizontal reddish
prostrate stolons, characterized by long rooting
internodes (Jamil et al., 2007; Koh et al., 2009).
Glabrous leaves, 1-3 arising from each node of the
stems, are green, fan-shaped or round renifrom,
1.4 cm by 1.7 cm with crenate or dentate margin
(Jamil et al., 2007; Koh et al., 2009). Flowers
occurring in July- September are umbels with 3-4
white or light purple-to-pink petals bearing 4mm long
oval to globular shaped fruit (Chauhan, 1999; Jamil et
al., 2007; Koh et al., 2009). The most used part for
medicinal purposes is dried whole plant, leaves and
stems. C. asiatica plant is indigenous to Bangladesh,
India, West Pakistan, China, Japan, America and the
pacific (Koh et al., 2009). This plant is commonly
seen in moist, sandy or clayey soils waste places
(Jamil et al., 2007).
Phytochemistry
C. asiatica is a rich source of amino acids, flavonoids,
terpenoids, essential oils, alkaloids etc. (Table 1).
Most of the phytochemical studies concentrated on
leaves and the constituents vary depending upon the
geographical distribution (Chong and Aziz, 2011).

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Table 1 Chemical constituents of C. asiatica

Main groups Constituents References
Amino acids Alanine and serine (major components), aminobutyrate, aspartate, glutamate, (Barnes et al., 2007;
histidine, lysine, threonine, arginine, leucine, iso-leucine, valine, methionine, Chong NJ and Aziz,
tyrosine, phenylalanine, proline, cystine, glycine. 2011),
Carbohydrates Glucose, mesoinositol, centellose, pectin, arabinogalactan (Chong NJ and Aziz,
2011)
Phenols Flavonoids: Kaempferol, kaempferol-3-o-β-d-glucuronide, castilliferol, quercetin, (Bhandari et al., 2007;
quercetin-3-o-β-d-glucuronide, castillicetin, apigenin, rutin, luteolin, naringin Zheng and Qin, 2007;
Chong NJ and Aziz,
2011)
Phenylpropanoids: Rosmarinic acid, chlorogenic acid, 3,4-di-o-caffeoyl quinic acid, (Chong NJ and Aziz,
1,5-di-o-caffeoyl quinic acid, 3,5-di-o-caffeoyl quinic acid, 4,5-di-o-caffeoyl quinic 2011)
acid, isochlorogenic acid
Tannin: Tannin, phlobatannin (Chong NJ and Aziz,
2011)
Terpenoids Triterpenes, asiaticoside, centelloside, madecassoside, brahmoside, brahminoside (Barnes et al., 2007;
(saponin glycosides), asiaticentoic acid, centellic acid, centoic acid, madecassic Jamil et al., 2007)
acid, terminolic acid and betulic acid.
Volatile oils and Various terpenoids: β-caryophyllene, trans β-farnesene and germacrene D (Barnes et al., 2007;
fatty oils (sesquiterpenes), α-pinene and β-pinene. Jamil et al., 2007)
Fatty acids: linoleic acid, linolenic acid, lignocene, oleic acid, palmitic acid, stearic
acid.
Vitamins Ascorbic acid, nicotinic acid, β-carotene (Chong NJ and Aziz,
2011)
Mineral Calcium, phosphorus, iron, potassium, magnesium, manganese, zinc, sodium, (Chong NJ and Aziz,
copper 2011)
Other constituents Hydrocotylin (an alkaloid), vallerine (a bitter principle), phytosterols (e.g. (Barnes et al., 2007;
campesterol, sitosterol, stigmasterol), resin. ~14 different polyacetylenes Chong NJ and Aziz,
(8-acetoxycentellynol, cadiyenol, dotriacont-8-en-1-oic acid, 11-oxoheneicosanyl 2011)
cyclohexane).

Bioactive compounds equiseti CGMCC 3.3658, and Streptomyces griseus

C. asiatica is being used as a natural source of
medicine for long time. The main active constitients
of C. asitica are pentacyclic triterpenes (asiatic acid,
madecassic acid, asiaticoside, and madecassoside, etc.)
(Puttarak and Panichayupakaranant, 2012b). Two new
dammarane monodesmosides centellosides A (1) and
B (2), and two new natural products ginsenosides Mc
(10) and Y (11), were reported recently (Weng et al.,
2011; Han et al., 2012). An efficient microwave-
assisted extraction method was developed for asiatic
acid and a sensitive method for quantification of it and
madecassoside in rat plasma also reported (Han et al.,
2012; Nasir et al., 2012; Puttarak and Panicha-
yupakaranant, 2012a). Asiatic acid has shown
numerous therapeutic activities and biotransformation
of it by Penicillium lilacinum ACCC 31890, Fusarium
21
CGMCC 4.18 strains was investigated and structure
were deduced for all new derivaties (Guo et al., 2012).
The ELISA method was investigated as an analytical
tool for quality control and standardization of
pharmaceutical products containing asiaticoside and
madecassoside (Juengwatanatrakul et al., 2011;
Tassanawat et al., 2012). Bioactive compounds
isolated and characterized from C. asiatica are
summarized in Table 2 with their physical properties.
Pharmacological Activity
The primary constituents of C. asiatica is the
triterpenic fractions which showed wide range of
defensive and therapeutic effects, most prominently
influencing of collagen production and deposition in
wound healing. Titrated Extract of Centella asiatica
(TECA) is used to treat several microcirculatory problems,
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Table 2 Structure and biological activities of bioactive compounds isolated from C. asiatica
Name of the compounds Structure Biological activity References

Asiatic acid (C 30 H 48 O 5 ; Aids in generation of neuroglia; promotes wound (Huang et al.,

mw=488.71) healing, promotes cuticle cornification; stimulates 2011; Nasir et
granulation; induces gene expression changes, al., 2011a,
enhancing learning and memory properties, 2012; Zhou et
antinociceptive activity, anti-inflammation activity, al., 2011; Song
acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity, anti apoptotic et al., 2012;
activity Zhang et al.,
2012)
Asiaticoside (C 48 H 78 O 19 ; Anti-inflammatory; antioxidant induces gene (Tang et al.,
mw=959.15) expression changes, wound healing, reduces scar 2011a; Zhou et
formation, neuroprotective activity, improve collagen al., 2011; Lee
biosynthesis et al., 2012;
Nowwarote et
al., 2012;
Paolino et al.,
2012; Wan et
al., 2012; Xu
et al., 2012a)
Madecassic acid Induces gene expression changes, (Zhou et al.,
(C 30 H 48 O 6 ; 2011; Song et
mw=504.71) al., 2012)

Madecassoside Induces gene expression changes, protection of (Zhou et al.,

(C 48 H 78 O 20 ; endothelial cells from oxidative injury. 2011; Bian et
mw=975.14) al., 2012)

Quercetin (C 15 H 10 O 7 ; Anti-HIV-1, antiasthmatic, antibacterial, (Chong NJ and

mw=302.24) antihepatotoxin, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, Aziz, 2011;
antitussive, antiviral, coronary vasodilator, Zhou et al.,
antihypercholesterolemic, 5-HT inhibitor, smooth 2011)
muscle relaxant, platelet aggregation inhibitor,
3’,5’-cAMP-phosphodiesterase inhibitor, fatty acid
synthetase inhibitor, aldose reductase inhibitor (eye
lens), protein kinase C inhibitor; antihypertensive,
reduces blood capillary brittleness, antioxidant

Kaempferol (C 15 H 10 O 6 ; Anti-HIV-1, antibacterial; anti-inflammatory, (Chong NJ and

mw=286.24) antitussive to cure trachitis, antioxidant, ∆5 Aziz, 2011;
-lipoxygenase inhibitor; iodinate thyronine Zhou et al.,
deiodinase inhibitor; aldose reductase inhibitor 2011)

Apigenin (C15H10O5; Antibacterial, antiulcerative, antispasmodic (smooth (Bhandari et

mw=270.24) muscle), diuretic, aldose reductase inhibitor, al., 2007; Zhou
antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, et al., 2011)
nodulation signal for metabiosis of pea and
Rhizobium leguminosarum,

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Continuing table 2
Name of the compounds Structure Biological activity References

Rutin (C 27 H 30 O 16 ; Anti-inflammatory, antiviral, aldose reductase (Bhandari et

mw=610.53) Inhibitor, insect antifeedant (Heliothis zea), insect al., 2007; Zhou
phagostimulant (Gastrophysa atrocynea), et al., 2011)
antioxidant, inhibits cancer cell invasion, reduces
blood capillary permeability and brittleness

Luteolin (C 15 H 10 O 6 ; Antiallergic, antibacterial, antifungal, cytotoxic, (Bhandari et

mw=286.24) anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, antitussive, al., 2007; Zhou
antiviral, enhances arterial tension and lowers et al., 2011)
intravenous tension, enhances blood capillary
permeability, immunoenhancer, increases coronary
flow; dihydrocoenzyme I (NADH) oxidase inhibitor,
iodine-induced thyronine deiodinase inhibitor, aldose
reductase inhibitor, anti-inflammatory, anti-HIV
activity

Quercitrin (C 21 H 20 O 11 ; Antibacterial, antineoplastic, antihepatotoxin, (Bhandari et

mw=448.39) anti-inflammatory, antimutagenic, antiviral, diuretic, al., 2007; Zhou
Hemostatic, aldose reductase inhibitor, antioxidant, et al., 2011)
insect antifeedant (Bombyx mor), insect
phagostimulant (Gastrophysa atriocyaea),
hepatoprotective

Naringin (C 27 H 32 O 14 ; Antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, aldose (Zheng and

mw=580.55) reductase inhibitor, passive cutaneous anaphylaxis Qin, 2007;
inhibitor Zhou et al.,
2011)

Betulic acid (C 30 H 48 O 3 ; Antineoplastic, cytotoxic, antitubercular, antibacterial (Jamil et al.,

Mw=456.72) 2007; Zhou et
al., 2011)

α-Pinene (C 10 H 16 ; Antifungal, antitussive, irritant. (Barnes et al.,

mw=136.24; 2007; Zhou et
al., 2011)

β-Pinene (C 10 H 16 ; Antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antitussive (Barnes et al.,

mw=136.24; 2007; Zhou et
al., 2011)

Β-caryophyllene (C 15 H 24 ; Flavorant (Barnes et al.,

mw=204.36); 2007; Zhou et
al., 2011)

Linolenic acid Nutrient, inhibits cancer cell invasion, 5α-reductase (Jamil et al.,
(C 18 H 30 O 2 ; inhibitor 2007; Zhou et
mw=278.44) al., 2011)

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Continuing table 2
Name of the compounds Structure Biological activity References

Oleic acid (C 18 H 34 O 2 ; Increases absorption through skin, dermatitis, inhibits (Jamil et al.,
mw=282.47) cancer cell invasion 2007; Zhou et
al., 2011)

Stigmasterol (C 29 H 48 O; Antihypercholesterolemic, antimutagenic, cytotoxic (Barnes et al.,

mw=412.71) inactive, antileishmanial, antimalarial, 2007; Zhou et
antitrypanosomal, platelet aggregation inhibitor, al., 2011)
antiviral

Ascorbic acid (C 6 H 8 O 6 ; Antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-infective, antidote, (Chong NJ and

mw=176.13) antihypercholesterolemic, inhibits production of Aziz, 2011;
Carcinogen, induces tissue to produce collagen, Zhou et al.,
hematopoietic activity 2011)

Nicotinic acid (C 6 H 5 NO 2 ; Antihypercholesterolemic, vasodilator (peripheral) (Chong NJ and

mw=123.11) Aziz, 2011;
Zhou et al.,
2011)

β-Carotene (C 40 H 56 ; EBV-EA activation inhibitor, anti-tumor promoter, (Chong NJ and

mw=536.89) ultraviolet screen, pigment, food additive Aziz, 2011;
Zhou et al.,
2011)
Alanine (C 3 H 7 NO 2 ; Food additive, reverses glucopenia and ketosis (Barnes et al.,
mw=89.09) caused by starvation, glucagon secretion promotor 2007; Zhou et
al., 2011)

Chlorogenic acid Antioxidant, antineoplastic, cytotoxic, antimutagenic, (Chong NJ and

(C 16 H 18 O 9 ; mw=354.32) antiviral, choleretic, hemostatic, leukopoietic, Aziz, 2011;
antimalarial, Zhou et al.,
2011)

Irbic acid Strong radical scavenging, collagenase inhibitory (Antognoni et

(C 28 H 26 O 15 ; mw=602) activity al., 2011)

skin inflammation (eczema, atopic dermatitis, leprosy, asiatica exerts diverse pharmacological activities such
varicose ulcers, etc.) fever, intestinal problems and as antibacterial, antidepresent, antiemetic, antineo-
genitourinary conditions (Belcaro et al., 2011). C. plastic, antioxidant, antithrombotic, anxiolytic,
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gastroprotective, immunomodulatory, antigenotoxic, the proliferation of human gastric adenocarcinoma

nerve regenerative, reproductive, wound healing etc. (MK-1), human uterine carcinoma (HeLa), and murine
due to the presence of several saponin constituents, melanoma (B16F10) cells (Yoshida et al., 2005).
including asiaticoside, asiatic acid, madecassic acid
Anticonvulsant activity: Oral administration of
and some other bioactive compounds (Craker and
different extracts from C. asiatica for 1 week at a dose
Simon, 1986; Koh et al., 2009; Kim et al., 2011).
of 200 mg/kg of body weight of in pentylenetetrazol
Anti-inflammatory activity: Asiatic acid and (induces seizure) induced rats increased the level of
madecassic acid showed anti-inflammatory effect by acetylcholine (neurotransmitter) and decreased the
the inhibition of enzymes (iNOS, cyclooxygenase-2 activity of acetylcholinesterase, causes perceptible
(COX-2)), interleukins (IL-6, IL-1β), cytokine tumor changes in the cholinergic system which indicates the
necrosis factor (TNF-α) expression through the anticonvulsant activity (Visweswari et al., 2010).
down-regulation of NF-κB activation in lipopoly-
Antidepressant activity: Total triterpenes from C.
saccharide (LPS) induced RAW 264.7 murine
asiatica showed reduced immobility time and
macrophage cells (Yun et al., 2008; Won et al., 2010).
ameliorating the imbalance of amino acid levels in
Madecassoside prevented collagen II (CII)-induced
forced swimming mice indicate antidepressant activity
arthritis (CIA) in mice (Liu et al., 2008). Ethanolic
(Chen et al., 2003). Total triterpenes from C. asiatica
extract of C. aiatica at dose 100 mg/kg of body weight
also ameliorated the function of hypothalamic-
showed anti-inflammatory activity in rats similar to
pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis), increased the
standard Ibuprofen (George et al., 2009).
contents of monoamine neurotransmitters in rat brain
3,5-dicaffeoyl-4-malonylquinic acid, extract from C.
and reduced the corticosterone level in serum (Chen et
asiatica demonstrated beneficial effect on
al., 2005).
inflammatory bowel disease in rats (Di Paola et al.,
2010). In experimental animal asiaticoside dose Antioxidant activity: C. asiatica possesses potent
inhibited LPS induced fever and inflammatory antioxidant activity, which can exerted neuropro-
response, including serum TNF-α and IL-6 production, tective effect and effect against age related oxidative
liver myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity, brain COX-2 damage in rats brain (Subathra et al., 2005). The
protein expression and prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2) ) anti-oxidant enzymes, like superoxide dismutase
production (Wan et al., 2012). Asiaticoside G was also (SOD), catalase and glutathione peroxidase (GSHPx)
reported having anti-inflammatory property in were significantly increased, and anti-oxidants like
LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells (Nhiem et al., 2011). glutathione (GSH) and ascorbic acid were decreased
in lymphoma-bearing mice after oral treatment with
Anticancer activity: A large number of experimental
50mg/kg of body weight per day of crude methanol
reports proved that different solvent extracts of C.
extract of C. asiatica for 14 days (Jayashree et al.,
asiatica has anti-cancerous activity. In vitro study on
2003). Administration of aqueous extracts of C.
HeLa, HepG2, SW480 and MCF-7 cell lines showed
asiatica showed to counteract lead-induced oxidative
that methanolic extract had induced apoptosis in
stress male rats (Sainath et al., 2011). Flavonoid
human breast cancerous MCF-7 cells (Babykutty et al.,
compounds were present in aqueous extract of C.
2009). Water extracts induced apoptosis in colonic
asiatica, showed highest antioxidant property (Pittella
crypts and exerted chemopreventive effect on colon
et al., 2009). The antioxidant properties of essential
tumorigenesis in male F344 rats (Bunpo et al., 2004).
oils and various extracts of this plant may be a great
Asiatic acid induced apoptosis in human melanoma
interest in food industry, since their possible use as
SK-MEL-2 cells (responsible for skin cancer) and
natural additives. To study the antioxidant properties
SW480 human colon cancer cells (Park et al., 2005;
and phenolic compounds present in C. asiatica, the
Tang et al., 2009). Asiaticoside enhanced anti-tumor
optimum brewing procedure was studied to use as
activity of vincristine in cancer cells (Huang et al.,
herbal teas (Ariffin et al., 2011).
2004). Constituents in the methanol extract inhibited
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Antiulcer activity: C. asiatica showed significant
protection against ethanol, aspirin, cold restraint stress
and pyloric ligation induced gastric ulcers in rats when
200 mg/kg and 600 mg/kg of body weight of fresh
juice was given orally twice daily for five days
(Sairam et al., 2001). Water extract of C. asiatica
containing asiaticoside were found to reduce the size
of the acetic acid induced gastric ulcers in rats (Guo et
al., 2004).
Anxiolytic activity: 12 g oral single dose of C.
asiatica after 60 minutes significantly attenuated the
acoustic startle response (ASR) in human (Bradwejn
et al., 2000). The elevated plus maze (EPM) test for
5 minutes revealed that administration of standardized
extract, methanol and ethyl acetate extracts as well as
pure asiaticoside had imparted anxiolytic activity in
rats (Wijeweera et al., 2006; Wanasuntronwong et al.,
2012). Medication of 500 mg/capsule (concentrated
lyophilized of 70% hydro-ethanolic extract of C.
asiatica), twice daily, after meal for 60 days in 33
patient (18 male and 15 female; average age 33
years) in Kolkata (India) demonstrated that C.
asiatica not only significantly had attenuated
anxiety related disorders but it also significantly
had reduced stress phenomenon and its correlated
depression (Jana et al., 2010).
Cardioprotective activity: Administration of alcoholic
extract of C. asiatica at a dose of 1000 mg/kg of body
weight in Laboratory bred Sprague–Dawley rats
significantly reduced the necrosis of the myocardium
(Pragada et al., 2004). C. asiatica extract
demonstrated the cardioprotective effect at a dose of
200 mg/kg of body weight in adult male albino rats of
Wistar strain on antioxidant tissue defense system
during adriamycin induced cardiac damage (Gnana-
pragasam et al., 2004). Madecassoside showed protective
effect on myocardial ischemiareperfusion injury in
rabbits and rats (Li et al., 2007; Bian et al., 2008).
Hepatoprotective activity: Total glucosides extract of
C. asiatica showed significant anti-liver fibrosis effect
in dimethylnitrosamine induced liver fibrosis in rats
(Ming et al., 2004). Asiaticoside revealed hepatopro-
tective effect against acute liver injury induced by
lipopolysaccharide/D-galactosamine in mice (Zhang et
26
al., 2010).
Effect on Skin: Asiaticoside stimulated skin aging
inhibitor type 1 collagen synthesis in human dermal
fibroblast cells and potential use in the treatment
and/or prevention of hypertrophic scars and keloids
was recommended (Lee et al., 2006; Tang et al.,
2011b). Alcoholic extract of C. asiatica showed useful
effects in pruritis and other skin disease (Gohil et al.,
2010). Hydroalcoholic extract of C. asiatica was used
to be made herbal creams along with four medicinal
plants (Curcuma caesia, Areca catechu, Cinnamon
zeylanicum and Tamarindus indica) which showed
increased skin hydration, sebum levels, viscoelasticity,
and decreased melanin content (Saraf et al., 2012).
Asiaticoside promotes skin cell behaviours involved
in wound healing by increasing migration rates of skin
cells, enhancing the initial skin cell adhesion, inducing
an increase in the number of normal human dermal
fibroblasts (Lee et al., 2012). Aqueous extract of C.
asiatica was nano-encapsulated with gelatin and
efficiently reduced the expression of matrix
metalloproteinase (MMP)-1 in UV-irradiated cells and
inhibited hyaluronidase expression in mouse skin
(Kwon et al., 2012).
Immunomodulating activity: Triterpenoid saponins
of C. asiatica showed immunomodulatory effect
(Plohmann et al., 1997). Methanolic extract of C.
asiatica dramatically increased phagocytic index and
total WBC in Swiss Albino mice (Jayathirtha and
Mishra, 2004). Administration of water extract of C.
asiatica significantly increased proliferation and the
production of IL-2 and TNF-α in human peripheral
blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) but ethanol extract
had inhibitory effect (Punturee et al., 2005). Asiatic
acid and C. asiatica ethanol and dichloromethane
extracts showed inhibitory effect on three major
cDNA, which expressed human cytochrome P450
(CYP2C9, CYP2D6 and CYP3A4) isoforms (Pan et
al., 2010).
Radioprotective activity: Aqueous extract C. asiatica
showed more radioprotective effect than standard drug
“ondansetron” against conditioned taste aversion
(behavioural perturbation) induced by 60Co-γ
irradiation at low dose 2Gy in male rats (Shobi and
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Goel, 2001). Administration of 100 mg/kg of body
weight of aqueous extract of C. asiatica, just 1 hour
before irradiation with 8Gy 60Co- γ rays was found
most radioprotective in Swiss Albino Mouse (Sharma
and Sharma, 2002) and further study revealed that
100mg/kg of body weight of dried powdered extract
of C. asiatica had found to be effective against
modified 60Co-γ irradiation induced damage in the
mouse liver (Sharma and Sharma, 2005). 70%
ethanolic extract of C. asiatica significantly reduced
radiation-induced damage to DNA (Joy and Nair,
2009). microRNA (miRNA) expression profiling
analysis was used to evaluate the protective effects of
C. asiatica against Ultraviolet B damage in human
keratinocytes, disclosed that miRNAs with altered
expression were functionally related with cell
proliferation and inhibition of apoptosis, may prevent
the skin damage (An et al., 2012).
Wound healing activity: A large number of reports
have been found about the wound healing activity of
C. asiatica (Temrangsee et al., 2011). Aqueous extract
of C. asiatica was used to formulate ointment, cream
and gel, which evaluate for wound healing in rats
showed faster epithelialisation and higher rate of
wound contraction (Sunilkumar et al., 1998).
Dexamethasone suppressed wound in Wistar Albino
rats could be healed by ethanolic leaf extracts as like
as normal model (Shetty et al., 2006). In a recent
study in 200 diabetic patients revealed positive result
with C. asiatica extracted capsule without any adverse
effect in the department of Surgery, Thammasat
University Hospital (Paocharoen, 2010). Wound
healing activity of asiaticoside was also reported in
guinea pig model at dose 1 mg/kg of body weight and
in the chick chorioallantoic membrane model at
concentration 40 µg/disk (Shukla et al., 1999). The
effects of asiaticoside in human periodontal ligament
cells (HPDLs) proliferation, protein synthesis, and
osteogenic differentiation were investigated and
showed enhanced periodontal tissue healing
(Nowwarote et al., 2012). At low concentrations
aqueous extract of C. asiatica promote epithelium
wound healing in rabbit corneal epithelial (RCE) cells
(Ruszymah et al., 2012). Ultra-fine cellulose acetate
fiber mats containing asiaticoside (in crude extract or
27
pure substance) were prepared and evaluated for
wound dressings and loaded herbal substances were
found stable up to 4 months, promotes proliferation
and upregulating the production of collagen of the
seeded (Suwantong et al., 2010). The clinical efficacy
and side effects of the oral C. asiatica extract capsule
in the diabetic wound healing was investigated
(Paocharoen, 2010). Madecassoside showed enhance
wound-healing and diminish keloid formation in
primary keloid-derived fibroblasts, originating from
human earlobe keloids (Song et al., 2012).
Memory enhancing Activity: Since the ancient time,
C. asiatica is used to enhance intelligence and
improve cognitive function. Oral administration with
200 mg/kg of body weight aqueous extract during
postnatal development stage increased brain function
in juvenile and young adult mice (Rao et al., 2005).
Enhanced working memory and improved self-rated
mood were observed in 28 patients after higher dose
administration of C. asiatiac extract preparations
(Wattanathorn et al., 2008). Asiatic acids isolated from
C. asiatica showed enhancing learning and memory
properties in male Spraque–Dawley rats (Nasir et al.,
2011b).
Burns: C. asiatica extract and its active constituents
are very effective against burns caused by boiling
water, electric current or gas exploitation.
Combination of C. asiatica extract with an antibiotic
was anti-infectious beside healing burns (Salas et al.,
2005). Low dose 10−8% to 10−12% (w/w) of
asiaticoside application facilitated repairing in mice
burned wound (Kimura et al., 2008).
Anti-psoriatic Activity: C. asiatica shows anti-
psoriatic effect on SVK-14 keratinocyte due to the
presence of triterpenoid glycosides (Sampson et al.,
2001).
Antimicrobial Activity: C. asiatica shows
antibacterial activity on both Gram positive and Gram
negative bacteria. Growth inhibition of Gram positive
Bacillus subtilis and Gram negative Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, P. cichorii and Escherichia coli was
observed in the disc diffusion test of hexane and ethyl
acetate extracts of C. asiatica (Escop and
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Phytotherapy, 2003). 1 000 µg/disc of hot methanolic
extract is moderately effective on Staphylococcus
aureus and Methicillin Resistant S. aureus (Wild Type)
(Zaidan et al., 2005). Micobacterium tuberculosis and
M. leprae were reported to be more sensitive to
liposomal asiatocoside than free asiatocoside (Fugh-
Berman, 2003). Higher antiviral activity was also
reported with aqueous extract of C. asiatica against
type 2 Herpes simplex virus (Escop and Phytotherapy,
2003).
Lervicidal Activity: Haemaphysalis bispinosa (the
adult cattle tick), Paramphistomum cervi (sheep fluke),
Anopheles subpictus and Culex tritaeniorhynchus
showed sensitivity to hexane, chloroform, ethyl
acetate, acetone, methanol extract of C. asiatica but
methanol extract was the most effective on P. cervi
and A. subpictus (Bagavan et al., 2009). 3-O-[a-L-
arabinopyranosyl] 2 a, 3 ß, 6 ß, 23-a tetrahydroxyurs-
12-ene-28-oic acid, a triterpenoid glycoside, exhibited
inhibitory activity against larvae of Spilarctia oblique
(Shukla et al., 2000).
Anti-hyperglycemic effect: Oral administration of
asiatic acid and glibenclamide to streptozotocin
induced diabetic rats for 45 days prevented the altered
activities of key enzymes (glucose-6-phosphatase and
fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase) related with hypergly-
cemia (Ramachandran and Saravanan, 2012).
Neuroprotective Activity: Aqueous extract showed
neuroprotective effect by increasing the antioxidant
enzyme level in mice corpus striatum and
hippocampus (Haleagrahara and Ponnusamy, 2010).
Fresh leaf extract of C. asiatica was investigated on
dendritic morphology of amygdaloid neurons on adult
rats, one of the regions concerned with learning and
memory, showed a significant increase in the dendritic
length and branching points (Rao et al., 2012). Water
extract of C. asiatica inhibit the activity of subtypes of
phospholipase A2 (PLA2), which is related with
neurodegenerative disease (Defillipo et al., 2012).
n-hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, n-butanol extract
of C. asiatica showed anticonvulsant and neuropro-
tective activity in male albino rats (Visweswari et al.,
2010). D-galactose induced oxidative and mitochon-
drial dysfunction and cognitive impairment in mice,
28
which could be significantly improved in six weeks by
administration of C. asiatica (150 and 300 mg/kg of
body weight) (Kumar et al., 2011). Chronic aluminum
exposure in rat induce cognitive dysfunction, apoptosis,
oxidative stress and mitochondrial enzyme alteration
and administration of C. asiatica found significantly
decreased aluminum concentration, improved memory
performance, oxidative defense, acetylcholinestrease
activity, caspase-3 and reversal of mitochondrial
enzyme activity as compared to control (Prakash and
Kumar, 2012). The psychoactive and antioxidant role
of ethanolic extract of C. asiatica in middle cerebral
artery occlusion (MCAO) in rats was evaluated and
revealed that administration of C. asiatica extract
restored histological morphology of brain, diminished
infarction volume, greatly improved the
neurobehavioral activity (Tabassum et al., 2012).
Asiatic acid possess neuroprotective effects in vitro
and in vivo (Xu et al., 2012b), nootropic activity with
therapeutic implications for patients with memory loss
(Shinomol et al., 2011). Increased dendritic length and
branches was observed in rat after fresh leaves extract
administration (Mohandas Rao et al., 2006). Three
derivatives of asiatic acid were significantly effective
in protecting excess glutamate exposed neurons on
cultured cortical cells (Lee et al., 2000; Xu et al.,
2012b). Non-polar fraction of ethanolic extract
containing asiatic acid which found to be increased in
neurite outgrowth in human SH-SY5Y cells in the
presence of nerve growth factor and administration of
ethanolic extract through drinking water demonstrated
axonal regeneration in Male Sprague-Dawley rats
(Soumyanath et al., 2005). Asiatic acid was reported
for the treatment of cerebral ischemia in mice
(Krishnamurthy et al., 2009). Asiatic acid showed
potential neuroprotective activity against
C2-ceramides-induced cell death in primary cultured
rat cortical neuronal cells (Zhang et al., 2012) and
asiaticoside significantly attenuated 1-methyl-4-
phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) induce
Parkinsonism in rat model (Xu et al., 2012a).
Asiaticoside was recommended for epilepsy, stroke,
multiple sclerosis and other neuropsychiatric disorders
(Barbosa et al., 2008).
Venous insufficiency Activity: Patients suffering
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from venous hypertension were positively effective to
an oral preparation of total triterpenic fraction of C.
asiatica (TTFCA) in the improvement of microcir-
culation and edema (leg volume) in venous
microangiopathy (Cesarone et al., 2001). C. asiatica
exract regulated mucopolysachharide metabolism in
connective tissue in patient with varicose veins
(Arpaia et al., 1990). However, a large number of
similar studies were reported on venous insufficiency.
Others: Asiaticoside was revealed as protective
against cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) induced
lung injury in mice (Zhang et al., 2010). This plant
also increases vigority (Mato et al., 2011). C. asiatica
extract in combination with Punica granatum
significantly improved clinical signs of chronic
periodontitis in 15 patients (Sastravaha et al., 2005).
Whole gene expression level were analyzed using
microarrays in human dermal fibroblasts (HDFs) to
determine whether H 2 O 2 -induced senescence is
affected by C. asiatica extracts to characterized the
activity of extract in stress-induced premature
senescence (SIPS) and found that 39 mRNAs are
expressed differentially includes genes that regulate
cell growth, apoptosis, DNA replication, transcription,
gene silencing, senescence and the spindle checkpoint
(Kim et al., 2011). Oral administration of water extract
of C. asiatica protected the toxicity induced by
exogenously added and endogenously generated
β-amyloid in the Tg2576 mouse, which is a murine
model of Alzheimer’s disease with high β-amyloid
burden in SH-SY5Y cells and MC65 human
neuroblastoma cells from (Soumyanath et al., 2012).
Contradictions: Clinical study in patients suffering
from jaundice showed that all patients had improved
with C. asiatica discontinuation and deteriorated after
retaking due to having hepatotoxic effect (Jorge and
Jorge, 2005). This plant is not applicable for children,
pregnant and lactated women (Koh et al., 2009).
Traditional uses
Traditionally C. asiatica is used to treat differents
aliments in different countries for over a long time.
Traditional uses of C. asiatica are summarized in
Table 3.
29
In vitro propagation
Optimum shoots development of C. asiatica were
achieved in Duchefa medium supplemented with
2 mg/L 6 benzylaminopurine (BAP) and 0.1 mg/L
1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) (Moghaddam et al.,
2011), Murashige and Skoog medium supplemented
with 2.5 mg/L kinetin (Prasad et al., 2012). Rooting
can be done on full-strength MS medium containing
0.5 mg/L indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) (Moghaddam et
al., 2011). Varying level of asiaticoside content in
shoot could be achieved with the varying ratio of
NH4+-N:NO3--N or Cu2+ concentration in the medium
(Prasad et al., 2012).
Conclusion
Since the time of immemorial C. asiatica is being
used for the treatment of wide range of maladies. So
far, the reports on bioactivity and clinical trials in
different models and human concern the asiaticoside
and its derivatives. Recent studies have confirmed the
efficacy of this plant and its constituents and extracts
to injury, leprosy, tuberculosis, cancer, aging,
gastrointestinal disease, skin disease, neurological
disorder, cardiovascular problems, ulcer, radiation,
respiratory problems and so on. However, further
clinical research are essential which can establish the
C. asiatica as a potential source of standard drugs.
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Table 3 Traditional uses of C. asiatica in different regions for different purposes

Regions Traditional Uses References
Brazil Elephantiasis, uterine cancer, leprosy (Leonard,
2006)
China Bleeding, scabies and tinea / ringworm, skin ulcers, rash, and redness, abdominal pain, diarrhea, (Leonard,
dysentery, vomiting, red eyes, swollen throat, tonsillitis, nosebleeds, jaundice, infectious 2006; Koh et
hepatitis, boils, fistulas, furuncles and carbuncles with toxic swelling, fever, trauma, falls, al., 2009)
contusion, fractures, childhood tidal fevers, measles, asthma, bronchitis, respiratory problems,
tuberculosis, pleurisy, urinary difficulty with stones or bleeding, arsenic poisoning, fear of cold,
dizziness, leprosy, scrofula, improve of appetite, digestion
Europe Varicose veins (Leonard,
2006)
Fiji Skin ulcers, rash, and redness, pimples, stomachache, bleeding ulcer, constipation, hemorroids, (Leonard,
eye problems, fractures, painful and swollen joints, rib pain, hildhood convulsions, post partum 2006)
weakness, unwanted pregnancy
Hawai'i Blotchy skin, cold extremities, white fingers, poor memory, impotence due to vascular disease, (Leonard,
2006)
India Eczema, skin ulcers, rash, and redness, abscesses, peptic ulcer, cataract, eye problems, fever, (Leonard,
cholera, abdominal tumor, anxiety neurosis, insanity, poor memory, general debility, blood 2006; Koh et
disease al., 2009)
Indonesia Wounds, colic (Koh et al.,
2009)
Malagasy Leprosy (Leonard,
2006)
Malaya Dermatosis (Leonard,
2006)
Mauritius Cancer (Leonard,
2006)
Nepal Indigestion, rheumatism, poor memory, syphilis, general debility, leprosy (Leonard,
2006)
Philippines Dysentery, headache, fever, wounds (Leonard,
2006)
Samoa Eye problems, migraines, boils, fistulas, furuncles and carbuncles with toxic swelling, venereal (Leonard,
disease, leprosy 2006)
Tonga Juiced for eye ailments and nasally for migraines, convulsions, delayed closure of the fonatel, (Leonard,
navel infection in babies 2006)
Turkey Spasms, leprosy (Leonard,
2006)

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