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ENGLISH SYNTAX
WORKBOOK
Fourth Edition
Revised and Updated
811.111'367(075.8)
DOMNICA ŞERBAN
RALUCA HATĂGAN DENISA DRĂGUŞIN
ENGLISH SYNTAX
WORKBOOK
Fourth Edition
Revised and Updated
Foreword …………………………………………………………… 9
Acknowledgements …………………………………………………. 10
SECTION I
Introduction…………………………………………………………. 11
Objectives of the English Syntax Course…………………………… 11
I. Theoretical Preliminaries………………………………….……. 12
A. Survey of G approaches…………………………………….… 14
B. Generative Transformational Grammar (GTG)………………. 16
C. The Constituent Structure of the Sentence. Phrase Structure
Rules and Phrase Markers. The Lexicon………………………… 17
D. Subcategorization Rules and the Lexicon……………………. 18
E. The Transformational Subcomponent…………………….….. 20
SECTION II
Grammar…………………………………………………………….. 62
Constituent Structure………………………………………………... 64
Transformations…………………………………………………….. 66
Representations of Syntactic Structures…………………………….. 67
Syntactic and Lexical Categories…………………………….……... 72
Alternative Theories and Representations (X-Bar Convention)……. 74
Thematic Relations………………………………………………….. 77
SECTION III
SECTION IV
Applications………………………………………………………… 87
Sentence Structure………………………………………….……… 87
Copulative Predication…………………………….……….……… 93
Be-predications………………………………………………….. 93
Copula-Like Verbs ……………………………………………… 96
Predicatives……………………………………………………… 99
6
Bibliography……………………………………….………………… 163
DOMNICA ŞERBAN
Mădălina Crivoi
Oana Ionescu
Ana Maria Ivănescu
Irina Vasilescu
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Introduction
The course supplies the description of categories and functions
at the syntactic level. After introducing essentials of the theoretical
frame in the preliminary lectures, we focus on the syntactic categories
sentence and phrase, whose properties and possible representations
are discussed in terms of the Standard Generative-Transformational
Grammar, as well as the Government and Binding Model. The second
part of the course is a detailed account of verb subcategorization that
provides a thorough picture of the syntactic behaviour and logico-
semantic features of intransitives and transitives in the Lexicon of
English.
The course addresses the 2nd year students whom we
recommend to refresh their knowledge of basic linguistic concepts
having as a main source the Lingvistică Generală course covered in
the 1st year. Besides they are required to study particular sections from
Concepts of Modern Grammar by Alexandra Cornilescu (see
Bibliography). For the central and final parts the students have to go
through English Syntax, volume I, by Domnica Şerban.
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12
2. Categories
13
A. Survey of G approaches
14
16
Rule The
Semantic
Component
Base
The Syntactic DS
Component Lexicon
The
The Transformational Phonological
Subcomponent SS Component
NP VP
Det N AUX MV
Art T M V NP
[+def] [+N] [+V]
[+common] [+__ NP] Det N
[+human] [-state] [+N]
[-sg] Poss [+common]
[+abstract]
[-sg]
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The Lexicon
In the general frame of GTG the Lexicon appears as part of the
Base. It is an overall list of the words (lexical items) that form the
vocabulary of the respective language. It includes lexical entries that
supply complete information (phonological, morphological, semantic
and syntactic) about each item. This information is provided under the
form of a Complex Symbol (CS) including the inherent and contextual
features characterising each item, e.g. inherent semantic features
pertaining to Nouns: [+ common] in opposition with [-common], the
latter being specific to Proper Names, [+ animate] versus [-animate],
[+human] versus [-human] etc. For contextual features see section
above.
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21
MV V’
V NP V° NP (Complement
position)
N’
N0 PP (Complement position)
P’
P0 NP
creation of a model
N’’
Spec N’
Poss N0 PP
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1) S 2) IP
NP VP NP I’
N V NP N0 T Agr V0 NP
He -ed create a model He -ed [+sg] create a model
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a) V’ b) P’
V0 NP P0 NP
meet people/them by people/them
In both cases the two lower nodes are part of the same
constituent, which singly dominates the two constituents. This is a
relation called constituent-command/‘c-command’, which can be
defined as follows:
α c-commands β if,
every branching node dominating α dominates β
This is the configurational key to structures based on
government like a) and b). The head governor X0 and the governed
term are within the same maximal projection. To sum up we shall
supply below the complete definition of Government that contains 3
clauses:
Government
α governs β if,
a. α is X°, i.e. lexical head, for some X
b. α c-commands β
c. for all maximal projections γ, if γ dominates β, then it
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3. Levels of Structure in GB
The two levels of syntactic structure are D-Structure (roughly
the same as in GTG) and S-Structure, which results from movement
rules (move-&). These often produce semantic changes if the linear
string is rearranged – e.g. the effect of semantic operators (manner
adverbials, quantifiers, negators, modal adverbs etc.) with a variable
scope.
Compare:
The gangsters shot the nigger cheerfully.
The nigger got shot cheerfully.
The manner adverbial (cheerfully) has the Agentive Subject
‘gangsters’ in its scope in the active S (it shows how their action was
performed). In the second S (with a ‘get’ –passive predicate) the same
adverb refers to the way the Passive Subject, a Patient, underwent the
shooting.
I won’t paint the President.
The President won’t be painted.
Hence semantic interpretation should apply after the T rules.
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Move-α
S-Structure
D-Structure S-Structure
IP IP
NP I’
NP I’
I° VP
I° VP
AvP V’ AvP
V’
V(o) NP
[e] V° NP
Other roles:
Experiencer — the participant experiencing a psychological
process (cognitive, affective etc., with Vs like enjoy, love, dislike,
think, remember etc.);
Goal — the location or entity in the direction of which
something moves;
Benefactive — the entity that benefits from the action or event
denoted by the predicate;
Source — the location or entity from which something moves;
Instrument — the medium by which the action or event is
carried out;
Locative — the specification of the place where the action /
event takes place.
Thematic roles form hierarchies, depending on the degree of
prominence of the θ-roles involved (for details see A. Cornilescu,
Concepts of Modern Grammar, p.155- 183).
1. Syntactic Properties
According to Classical Analytical Structuralism (CAS), the
Sentence (S) is an independent grammatical unit, the highest in the
hierarchy of such units. It is described as a ‘structured string of
words’, occurring as a linear sequence of items grouped round a Noun
head to the left and a Verb head to the right. S is viewed as a binary
construction, in which S immediately dominates the two phrases NP
and VP, which dominate in their turn the lexical categories. At the
bottom there is a terminal string made up of lexical items that belong
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2. Logico-semantic Properties
The IP is interpreted semantically by the Logical Form (LF)
Component, which inter-relates the syntactic configuration with the
corresponding logical proposition P, made up of a logical predicate
(realized as V or A) and a set of arguments (realized as NPs). The
predicate expresses an event, a state-of-affairs (or a change of state),
while the arguments represent the participants in the event, in terms of
the roles they play. The meaning of S is also determined by the
presence of logical operators, such as Quantifiers, Modals, or
Negators, which contribute to sentential meaning, even at the level of
S-Structure. LF assigns meaning to sentences in isolation from
context.
3. Phonological Properties
The IP is interpreted phonologically by the Phonological Form
(PF) Component, whose task is to assign the respective string the
proper intonational contour, including the pitch and the junctures. The
intonational contour is specialized for each of the four S types:
declaratives, interrogatives, imperatives and exclamatives.
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29
When the guide realized that the Etna had erupted again
and that there were still tourists left behind near the crater, he
walked back to rescue them, but the dark prevented him from
advancing too fast.
30
Stop complaining!
31
Besides, the negative question form may be used with the force
of an exclamative, expressing admiration or surprise, as in:
32
IP
Spec I’ I’
NP I° VP
a) unergative intransitive:
34
c) transitive
VI. Intransitives
35
d) He is to arrive tomorrow.
modal Be
37
The class also includes the verbs sound, feel, look. All sense
perception Vs are basically [+state], but they may recategorize as
[-state] and shift from intransitives to transitives, e.g.:
The lilac smelled sweet. (smell: [+state], copula-like V:
[__Pred AP])
and
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Complex Intransitives
1. Prepositional Intransitives
This subcategory includes Vs with obligatory preposition, such
as: to look at, to wait for, to do with. The subcategorization frame is
[__PP], the obligatory PP having the syntactic function of PO
(Prepositional Object). Prepositional intransitives can undergo
passivization, e.g.: Jack insisted on that proposal. ÆThat proposal
was insisted on.
40
a. The eventive type: verbs like happen and befall take Dative
NPs expressing the Experiencer of an event, e.g.: What's happened to
the old man?
41
6. Reciprocal Intransitives
Inherently reciprocal Vs occur in two alternative configurations:
(a) with a phrasally conjoined and NP or other types of [+set] NPs as
Subject; and (b) in a prepositional construction, if the Subject is a
[+sg] NP. In the latter case the Preposition is indicated for each
reciprocal V in its lexical entry.
E.g.: (a) 1. The train and the bus / they / the trains collided (with
each other).
2. The married couple has recently separated.
(b) The train collided with the bus. The bus collided with the
train.
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We can see from the formulae above that the role marking the
Subject consists, actually, of a possible co-relation between an Agent
that initiates and carries out the transfer and a Source of the transfer.
Sometime, in particular in the case of for-Datives we only have an
Agent, in case the dative predicate renders an activity performed to the
benefit of another person, e.g.:
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Pass: IO --- -Su Henry was offered the grant (by X).
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51
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Will you teach Sarah’s pupils for her ? (i.e. instead of her)
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TOPIC FOCUS
54
Jim was looking for the lost luggage ----- The lost luggage was
being looked for (by Jim)
The board insists on the new proposal ----- The new proposal is
insisted on (by the board)
The villagers will talk about the rumour very much ---- The
rumour will be very much talked about (by the board).
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Napoleon has slept in the bed. ----- This bed has been slept in by
Napoleon.
Has anyone sat on this sofa? ----- Has this sofa been sat on (by
anyone)?
Nobody seems to have lived in this cottage. ---- This cottage
hasn’t been lived in (by anyone).
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Optional Bibliography:
1. Aarts, B., English Syntax and Argument Structure, Macmillan
Press Ltd, 1997.
2. Downing, A & Locke, Ph., A University Course of English
Grammar, Prentice Hall, 1992.
3. Haegeman, L., Gueron, J., English Grammar, A Generativist
Perspective, T.J. International, Padstow, Cornwall, 1999.
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A. Notional definitions
B. Formal definitions
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Rules
Semantic
Base Component
Syntactic Lexicon
Component
Transformational Phonological
Subcomponent Component
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move-α
S - STRUCTURE
PHONOLOGICAL SEMANTIC
COMPONENT COMPONENT
(LOGICAL FORM)
GRAMMAR
Phonology
Morphology
Syntax
Semantics
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Early Structuralism,
Traditional Grammars,
Phrase Structure Grammar,
Transformational Grammar.
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CONSTITUENT STRUCTURE
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a tree
stone wall
afraid of the dark
old car dealer
if he comes home
last long
a) They were looking at the old man who was just entering
the room.
b) After the breakfast the children left the living-room
in a great hurry.
c) Whenever he felt lonely he returned to his books.
d) The scar on his face was from a battle.
e) The news that he was finally getting married surprised
everybody.
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That nice young boy in the corner probably will fall off his
bed onto the cold hard floor early one morning.
TRANSFORMATIONS
a) He is reading.
b) It happens that I like this music.
c) A proposal was made, which bothered me.
d) We showed the rooms to the guests. \ We showed the
guests the rooms.
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HIERARCHY:
text
We have made some minor corrections.
sentence
some minor corrections
phrase
corrections
word
correct-ion-s
morpheme
sounds
Examples:
a) I know Fred is in the army.
b) I am very pleased you could come
c) at the corner of the street.
d) treetop; goldsmith; blackbird.
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S - NP’Aux’MV
MV - V’NP
NP - D’ (AP)’N
AP - (AvP)’A
AvP - Av
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3. What and which are the parts of speech? In what way are
the parts of speech relevant for syntax? Analyse sentence one of
exercise 2 in terms of its parts of speech.
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N, V, A, Av, P, Det.
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a) V”
V’
V NP
b) P”
P’
P NP
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V’ PP
V NP
d) NP
NP N’
John’s
N PP
story
about Paris
e) V”
V S’
prefer
Comp S’
for
NP VP
her
Aux V’
to do it
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THEMATIC RELATIONS
theme
path
benefactive
patient
goal
experiencer
source
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a) The bird flew from above the house to above the tree.
b) John ran below the deck.
c) He fell and rolled down the hill.
d) Alan released the bird from the cage.
e) The bird flew out of the cage.
f) His money seemed to melt away in London.
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(AGENT(EXPERIENCER(GOAL/SOURCE/LOCATION(THEME)))
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Traditional Grammar
-diachronic ( the study of language from a historical perspective)
-normative ( a grammar that imposes norms of usage with focus
on written language)
-atomistic conception of language (a grammar that considers
languages as atomistic collections of items which can be studied
independently)
-notional (freely use meaning in the definition of grammatical
concepts; therefore they define linguistic concepts in substantial
extralinguistic terms).
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Linguistic Level
A linguistic level L is a system in which one constructs a
unidimensional representation of an utterance. Representations may be
phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic.
Chomsky’s dichotomy:
Competence = internalized grammar, the speaker’s tacit
knowledge of his language.
Performance = the actual use of language.
Grammatical Categories
Grammatical categories correspond to phrases or units larger
than phrases.
Examples of grammatical categories:
-S (sentence grammar)
-NP (noun phrase - a phrase whose only obligatory element is a
noun: a boy, birds
-VP (verb phrase - a phrase whose main obligatory constituent is
a verb: running away, to give it to Mary
-AP (adjectival phrase - a phrase whose only obligatory element
is an adjective: very smart)
-PP (prepositional phrase - on the desk, for me)
-AvP (adverb phrase - a phrase whose only obligatory element is
an adverb: fairly well, rapidly)
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B. X’- Theory
Phrases are built round lexical heads, they are projections of
structure round lexical categories:
1) The Principle of Endocentricity
a. Every phrase XP has a X° lexical head (lexical category).
b. Every lexical head X° projects to a maximal projection XP.
2) The First Projection Principle
The first projection of some X°, X’ contains all and only
subcategorized constituents, called complements of that head, i.e.:
X’ - X°’ Complements
Examples:
V’ - V° ’ NP We are nearing the meadow.
P’ - P° ’ NP Near the meadow they built a house.
A’ - A° ’ PP The house was nearer to the meadow now.
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Derivation
A derivation is a sequence of strings of symbols, each of which
is formed from the preceding by applying some rule of the grammar.
Phrase marker
The L-marker of the phrase structure level is called a phrase
marker (PM) or derivational tree; it is assumed to contain every
syntactically relevant information on some given utterance.
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θ - Criterion
Each thematic-role of an a-structure must be assigned to one and
only one syntactic position, and conversely, each position should bear
one and only one thematic-role. (Chomsky, 1981)
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SENTENCE STRUCTURE
I shall see you next spring. I shall see you next spring then?
'Well, you know where Papplewick Street is, don't you?' the
copper asked taking no notice of mom.
'Ain't it off Alfreton Road?' I asked him back, helpful and bright.
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10. Point out the constituent types that share the same
distributional properties in the Sentence configuration; specify the
CP type:
90
11. Spot the errors (if any) and try to account for the ill-
formedness of the sentence in terms of the rule(s) that should have
been applied:
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BE-PREDICATIONS
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94
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COPULA-LIKE VERBS
a) Copular verbs are also called link(ing) verbs; they link their
subject to their complement.
b) Subject and complement may refer to the same person or
thing.
c) Verbs of perception are often used as copula-like verbs.
d) Copula-like verbs copy only one Agreement marker from
the Subject NP [person].
e) From a syntactic point of view, copula-like verbs do not
evince the same combinatorial possibilities as the verb ‘BE’.
f) All copula-like verbs are charged with meaning.
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”It is a terrible thing for a man to find out that all his life he has
been speaking nothing but the truth.”
Oscar Wilde, The Importance of Being Earnest
”A critic is a man who knows the way but can't drive the car.”
Kenneth Tynan, New York Times magazine
PREDICATIVES
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100
101
102
a) My dog is sleeping.
My dog is sleeping in his kennel.
b) The child was crying.
The child was crying for his mother.
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TRANSITIVE PREDICATION
MONOTRANSITIVE CONFIGURATIONS
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107
108
a) The children realized that they were all alone in the house.
The children ...all alone in the house.
b) Have another cake.
... to another cake.
c) Spoiled kids don’t know how to behave properly.
Spoiled kids don’t know how to....
d) The teacher kept on saying the same thing again and again.
The teacher kept....
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DO AND MAKE-
MULTIPLE REGIME TRANSITIVES
111
a) I had a very bad headache but I feel better now- that aspirin
... the trick.
b) He ... me several good turns.
c) The past is obliterated to ... way for the present.
d) Anyone can apply to join the six-month course - and those
who ... the grade will be allowed to apply for professional
licenses next year.
e) We are not ... much headway with this new scheme.
f) The team arrived at the match determined to ... or die.
g) He feels he has been ... out of a day’s holiday.
h) We had hoped to reach home before night, and we were ...
good time until the bad weather delayed us.
i) When we saw the police car coming towards us we ... tracks.
j) Come on, fair ... ’s - it’s your turn to cover up for me.
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CAUSATIVE VERBS
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115
6. Compare:
RECATEGORIZATION
116
117
118
119
120
a) People told the press agents that nobody had paid the taxes.
b) We explained to Sarah that Daddy couldn’t join us at the
party.
c) Rev. Jones preached to his parishioners that they should
abide by the old rule.
d) They apologised to us that they were inadequately dressed.
e) She cabled us that nobody could meet her at the airport.
f) He agreed with us that there was no other way out.
a) The workers/ the storm/ the axes have felled ten oak-trees in
the forest.
b) Mother made a toy for her little son.
c) I have eaten my elevenses in a hurry.
d) His family took great care of the newly born baby.
e) The gangster will have it in the nick of time.
f) George Washington slept in this bed.
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122
Active Passive
Present simple John makes coffee Coffee is made by
John
Present John is making coffee
continuous
123
124
125
126
127
128
16. Finish the sentences so that the meaning stays the same:
129
130
132
27. Turn into the passive all active sentences that allow it
and supply the active variants of all passive sentences in the text
below:
133
SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS
134
135
136
a) … appeared to be mistaken.
b) … was declared …
c) … issued a new copy of the book.
d) … seemed …
e) … must be the postman.
f) … was … in the distance.
g) … is snowing with big flakes.
h) … are arguing about their fortune.
i) … washed herself in a hurry.
j) … resemble each other.
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138
140
141
“Confession may be good for my soul, but it sure plays hell with
my reputation.”
(Mark Twain)
143
an adverb phrase
a prepositional phrase
a noun phrase
a finite clause
an infinitive clause
an -ing participle clause
an -ed participle clause
a verbless clause
time
place
manner
comparison
reason or cause
purpose
result
condition
concession
145
c) Whatever......,
If..................,
Since.............,
Much as........., please don’t tell anybody.
Although.........,
Whether..........,
Lest................,
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147
148
Analyse syntactically:
149
8. “It was in the cab with Jim that impressions really crowded on
Strether, giving him the strangest sense of length of absence from
people among whom he had lived for years. Having them thus come
out to him was as if ha had returned to find them; (...) Whoever might
or mightn’t be suited by what was going on among them, Jim, for one,
would certainly be: his instant recognition of what the affair was for
him gave Strether a glow of pleasure.”
(Henry James, The Ambassadors)
150
11. “It was easy to make sure that as yet he knew me no more
than if he had never seen me in his life. He looked across at me, and
his eye appraised my watch-chain, and then he incidentally spat and
said something to the other convict, and they laughed and slued
themselves round, and looked at something else. The great numbers
on their backs, as if they were street doors; their ironed legs,
apologetically garlanded with pocket-handkerchiefs (...) made them a
most disagreeable and degraded spectacle.”
(Charles Dickens, Great Expectations)
12. “The Russians did not make that effort because they were
not attacking the French. At the beginning of the battle they stood
blocking the way to Moscow and they still did so at the end of the
battle as at the beginning. But even had the aim of the Russians to
drive the French from their positions, they could not have made this
last effort, for all the Russian troops had been broken up, there was not
part of the Russian army that had not suffered in the battle, and though
still holding their positions they had lost one-half of their army.”
(Leo Tolstoy, War and Peace)
151
Test 1
3. Enlarge upon:
a) The meaning and structural peculiarities of copula-like verbs;
b) Copulative predication- the equative type.
153
154
155
156
157
4. Analyse syntactically:
a) They insisted on Tom’s introducing himself to the stranger so
that they might make friends in the future.
b) Although they were living a quiet life, they found it proper to
go out daily and buy newspapers for their next-door neighbours.
c) It was announced that there was no doubt about John’s having
been appointed chairman by the members of the committee.
158
4. Analyse syntactically:
a) On hearing about the event next week, she mentioned to her
sister that people who marry each other often find out that
their sentimental life falls short of their expectations.
b) It is quite likely that her relatives have put about some
rumours about her of late so that her prestige might be
completely ruined eventually.
c) Fred happened to find the chairs uncomfortable, which
surprised the fanciful designer.
159
4. Analyse syntactically:
a) It surprised me that there were no mistakes in the article
printed by the students.
b) He suggested to us that we should take a walk.
c) Quite surprisingly, he turned out to be a hero.
d) Playing games was what he was mainly interested in.
160
4. Analyse syntactically:
a) George happened to pass by when the kid was knocked down
by the motor-bike.
b) Collecting stamps was what he was mostly concerned with.
c) It was suggested by the doctor that the patients should have a
walk through the park.
d) We were amazed that no one had done away with that unjust
law.
161
3. Analyse syntactically:
a) We were amazed to find out that Mike had been appointed
President of our society.
b) Galloping horses in the afternoon was their greatest pleasure
during holidays.
Test 12
3. Analyse syntactically:
a) I wondered where he was coming from and what his hidden
purpose might be.
b) It turned out that the teacher worked his pupils cruelly.
162
163
164