Philosophy 2 – Logic Class Notes

UNIT I
Part I

Introduction to Philosophy

Contents

I. Introduction
II. Meaning of Philosophy
a. Etymology
b. Real Definition
III. Branches of Philosophy

I. Introduction

 Man can only philosophize

o “Philosophy begins in man and ends in man” – Kong Zi
 Philosophy begins in wonder
o Wondered at obvious difficulties, the changes in stars, moon and sun, and the origin of
the universe.
o A man who is puzzled and wondering is IGNORANT.
o As an ignorant, there is a natural desire to “find answers for his questions” and thus,
philosophize.
o As a rational and intelligent individual, man has a natural capacity for knowing.
 ALL MEN BY NATURE DESIRE TO KNOW – Aristotle

Why is there a need to philosophize?

 It is because life itself is permeated with difficult questions that need to be resolved and
answered.
 These questions are derived from the condition of the human life and the mysteries that
surround human existence, and thereby push man to question.
 Man wonders about:
o Human life as a great PARADOX.
 A paradox to be born human
 Man is born without his knowledge , and die against his own volition
 We were never asked if we wanted to be born .

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Philosophy 2 – Logic Class Notes

 We have no freedom to be born, but there is a freedom to die (to some

extent).
 We are BEING-THROWN.
o Human life is an incomprehensible CONTRADICTION
 From the moment of birth, we start to die
 Life is a journey towards DEATH
 Likewise, man always dies before he is fully born.
 Death is a passage to a higher plane of existence, to a higher life or a new life.
o Human life is a great TRAGEDY.
 Man is born in order to suffer and experience pain .
 Man is condemned to die.
 As soon as man is born, he is old enough to die.
 At birth, man begins to suffer, and he will suffer until he dies.
 The greatest unbearable suffering is to witness the death of a loved one.
 Life is a disturbing question rather than an answer in itself.
 It is indeed a great wonder.

 In order to resolve and reconcile these seeming tensions and conflicts in human existence, one must
pause and reflect as one is also invited to think deeply into the very core of one’s life. It is only
through philosophy that one is able to encounter one’s being and penetrate the deepest questions
that surround human existence. Through philosophizing, these irreconcilable dualities in human life
are understood in its ultimate meaning, and interpreted in the most significant sense that appeals
our current situation. Philosophy illumines the obscure understanding of man towards human life,
world, humanity, and God. Philosophy creates meaning amid meaninglessness, provides purpose
amid purposelessness, and brings hope amid hopelessness. It is simply because Philosophy is in itself
“a quest for meaning.”

II. Meaning of Philosophy

Etymological Definition:

 Pythagoras is the first one who coined Φιλοσοφο (philosopho)

 Philosophy came from the Greek word, philosophia, which is a compound of two root words,
philos and sophia:

“Φιλοσοφια”
Φιλος (philos) o Which means “TO LOVE”

Φιλειυ (philein)

Σοφια (Sophia) o Which means “Wisdom”

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Philosophy 2 – Logic Class Notes

 Literally, philosophy is then the “LOVE OF WISDOM.”

Real Definition

Philosophy is the science of all things and beings in their ultimate causes and principles
as known by the light of natural reason alone.

 Philosophy is a “science” because it is a body of knowledge derived from reasoned

demonstration of causes and reduced to a system. It is not based on mere opinions or
hypotheses.
 It is a science of “all things or beings” because it studies all things or realities which can be
reached by human mind. It studies among others, man, God, nature, the world, the nature of
knowledge etc.
 It is the science of all things or beings “in their ultimate causes and principles” because it studies
and tries to understand the underlying reasons and causes of things. It tries to explain the
fundamental essence or nature of reality.
 It is the science of all things of beings in their ultimate causes and principles “known by human
reason alone” because it bases its knowledge solely o man’s reasoning power and not on
authority or faith.

III. Branches of Philosophy

1. Metaphysics - is the study of Being in general.

2. Cosmology - is the study of the nature of the universe or the cosmos.
3. Epistemology - is the study of the nature and possibility of human knowledge.
4. Rational Psychology - is the study of the principle of man as a composite of body and
soul.
5. Logic - is the science and art of correct inferential reasoning.
6. Ethics - is the study of human actions and its implication to goodness and
evilness.
7. Aesthetics - is the study of the principle of art and the appreciation of the
beautiful.
8. Theodicy - is the study the nature and attributes of God within the measure
of human reason.

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Philosophy 2 – Logic Class Notes

UNIT I
PART II

What is Logic?

Contents

I. Definition of Logic
a. Etymology
b. Real Definition
II. Three-fold Intellectual Acts

I. Definition of Logic
Etymological Definition

 Zeno the Stoic first coined the word “logic.” Logic came from the Greek term:
λογικε (“logike”) which means “thought”

 Etymologically, logic means a “treatise pertaining to thought”

 Aristotle considered Logic as the “organon” or the tool or instrument of the sciences.
o Logic is the instrument for gaining knowledge or the tool for correct thinking.

Real Definition

Logic is the science and art of correct inferential reasoning.

 Logic deals with the laws, methods and principles of correct thinking. Thereby, logic
distinguishes correct from incorrect reasoning.
 It is a science because it is a systematized body of knowledge about the principles and
laws of correct inferential reasoning. It follows certain rules and laws in arriving at valid
conclusions.
 Logic is also considered art, the art of reasoning. As an art it requires the mastery of the
laws and principles of correct inferential thinking.
o Through logic we acquire the techniques and skill of thinking correctly
whereby our mind is able to proceed with order, ease and is able to
avoid error.

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Philosophy 2 – Logic Class Notes

Formal and Material Logic

Formal Logic discusses the conceptual patterns or structures needed for a valid and
correct argument or inference. It deals with the correct patterns of argumentation.

Material Logic deals with the nature of the terms and propositions that are used in the
different types of inference. It discusses the types ad meanings of terms or words and sentences
or propositions used in the arguments.

II. The Three-fold Intellectual Acts

Intellectual Acts Mental Product External Sign

Simple Apprehension Idea Term

Judgment Enunciation Proposition

Reasoning Argument Syllogism

The three acts or operatons of the intellect are Simple Apprehension, Judgment, and Reasoning.
These three specific mental or intellectual acts serve as the bases for the different inferential relations.
For every operation, there is a corresponding mental product which is the result of intellectual
operation. The mental product of simple apprehension is the idea, while enunciation is the mental
product of reasoning. These mental products are manifested or expressed by their external signs. The
external sign of idea is the term, while the proposition manifests for enunciation and syllogism manifests
for argumentation. Logic is centered or focused on these three external signs.