Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Edited by
Blackie
Glasgow and London
Distributed in Canada by ln the last fifteen years, significant advances have been made in
Nelson Canada understanding the behaviour of soils under cyclic loading and the
1120 Birchmount Road
Scarborough, Ontario MlK 5G4, Canada
influence of this behaviour on structures. This knowledge has not been
widely disseminated and as a consequence many geotechnical engineers
16 15 14 13 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 are still unfamiliar with the topic. It is our intention that this book
© 1991 Blackie and Son Ltd should provide a practical introduction to the subject which will be
First published 1991 principally of use to geotechnical design engineers concerned with
problems of earthquake, offshore and pavement engineering, and other
Ali rights reserved.
No part of this publication rnay be reproduced,
situations where an understanding of cyclic loading is important. It will
stored in a retrieval systern, or transrnitted, also be of use to lecturers and research workers with interests in these
in any forrn or by any rneans-graphic, subjects. The chapters have been written by a variety of authors who are
electronic or rnechanical, including photocopying,
recording, taping-without the
all well-known internationally and who have been involved in research
written perrnission of the Publishers into cyclic loading of soils and geotechnical structures as well as in
practical design and construction.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Chapter 1 sets the scene and provides an introduction to the chapters
Cyclic loading of soils: From theory to design. dealing with specific problems which follow. Chapter 2 then goes on to
I. O'Reilly, M. P. II. Brown, S. F. discuss the various approaches to modelling the stress-strain response of
624.101 soils under cyclic loading, and this is complemented by chapter 3 which
ISBN 0-216-92898-2 introduces the cyclic load testing of soils. The next four chapters deal
with the design of foundation systems for offshore structures, machines,
ln the USA and Canada
pavements, railtrack, and the design requirements for seismic loading.
ISBN: 0-442-30410-2 The last two chapters look at the effects of cyclic loading on the
Library of Congress CIP data available long"-term settlement of structures and the use of vibrational loading in
the construction industry.
We wish to express out gratitude to the authors for their co-operation
and hard work and to the publishers for their patience and attention to
detail.
M.P.O'R
S.F.B.
3.3 tests
In-situ 100 5.2.8 More advanced cyclic models 187
3.3.1
Introduction 100 5.2.9 Discussion 190
3.3.2
In-situ non-dynamic loading tests 100
5.3 Understanding static pile behaviour 190
3.3.3
Wave velocity testing 104
5.3.1 Introduction 190
Empirical tests considered to provide an indication of the mechanical
3.3.4
5.3.2 Initial ground conditions 190
characteristics of the ground 109
5.3.3 Constitutive relationships for the soils 191
3.4 Physical model testing 110
5.3.4 Effects of pile installation-cavity expansion analysis 192
3.4.1 Introduction 110
5.3.5 CEM analysis of post-installation equalisation 194
3.4.2 Centrifuge modelling 111
5.3.6 Strain path method 194
3.4.3 Earth gravity models 116
5.3.7 Experiments with instrumented piles 197
3.4.4 Dynamic characteristics testing 116
5.3.8 Summary for equalised stress conditions 200
3.4.5 Case histories 117
5.3.9 Pile loading-theory 201
References 117
5.3.10 Continuum analyses-elastic and elastoplastic 201
5.3.11 Simple shear analogies 202
4 Foundation design of offshore gravity structures 122 5.3.12 Residual fabric 203
5.3.13 Studying loading with instrumented piles-dilatant clays 204
K. H. ANDERSEN 5.3.14 Contractant clays 205
4.1 Introduction 122 5 .3 .15 Predicting full-scale foundation behaviour 206
4.2 Typical offshore gravity platforms and soil conditions 122 5 .4 Predicting field behaviour from soil element tests 209
4.3 Wave loads 129 5.4.1 Introduction 209
4.4 Soil stresses and relevant laboratory tests 130 5.4.2 Undrained cyclic behaviour of piles with a preformed residual
4.5 Bearing capacity 133 surface 210
4.5 .1 Cyclic shear strength 134 5.4.3 Cyclic soil behaviour 211
4.5.2 Calculation procedure 139 5.4.4 Interaction diagram 212
4.5.3 Verification by model tests 143 5.4.5 Permanent strains 215
4.6 Cyclic displacements and soil stiffness for dynamic analyses 146 5.4.6 Effects of varying soil properties 216
4.6.1 Stress-strain behaviour under cyclic loading 148 5.4.7 Effects of cyclic pile loading on non-sliding contractive soils 217
4.6.2 Cyclic shear modulus to calculate cyclic displacements 151 5.4.8 Permanent effects of slow cycling 218
4.6.3 Shear modulus to calculate soil spring stiffnesses 154 5.4.9 Effects of loading rate 221
4.6.4 Calculation procedure 157 5.4.10 Projecting full-scale behaviour 222
4.6.5 Verification by prototype observation and model tests 158 5.4.11 Applying the results 229
4.7 Settlements due to cyclic loading 158 5.5 Field studies of cyclic pile behaviour 230
4.7.1 Development of average shear strains during cycling 165 5.5.1 Introduction 230
4.7.2 Permanent pore pressure dueto cyclic loading 166 5.5.2 Tests at Cowden 230
4.7.3 Procedure to calculate settlements dueto shear strains under 5.5.3 Tests at Canons Park 232
undrained cyclic loading 166 5.5.4 The Haga programme 233
4.7.4 Calculation of settlements dueto dissipation of storm-induced 5.6 Summary 236
permanent pore pressure 169 Appendix 5 .1 Cyclic model for interface sliding study 239
References 171 5.1.1 Static loading curve 239
5.I.2 Cyclic test data-changes in mean effective stress 239
5.I.3 Additional assumptions for model 242
5 The cyclic behaviour of large piles with special reference to 5.I.4 Predictions for cyclic capacity 244
offshore structures 174 5.I.5 The development of permanent strain 244
5.I.6 Non-uniform cycles 245
R. J. JARDINE References 245
5 .1 Introduction 174
5.1.1 Nature of the loading 174
5.1.2 Special features of offshore foundations 175 6 The design of pavement and rail track foundations 249
5.1.3 Toe development of theory 176 S. F. BROWN and E. T. SELIG
5 .1.4 The contents of this chapter 177
6.1 Introduction 249
5.2 Existing empirical design methods 177
6.2 Principies of pavement design 253
5.2.1 Static capacity 177
6.2.1 Failure mechanisms 253
5.2.2 The alpha method 177
6.2.2 Toe traditional empirical approach 254
5.2.3 Toe American Petroleum lnstitute (API) codes 178
6.2.3 Toe two-layer system 256
5.2.4 The beta method 179
6.2.4 Summary of pavement design procedures 261
5.2.5 Prediction of static load-displacement behaviour 181
6.2.5 Basic analytical approach 267
5.2.6 Current methods of allowing for cyclic loading 184
6.3 Mechanical properties of soils 268
5.2.7 Cyclic T-Z analyses: Matlock and Foo type models 187 6.3.1 In-situ stress conditions 268
Xll CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CONTENTS xm
fail to identify many of those features of behaviour which differentiate Before discussing these three topics it must be pointed out that the
static from cyclic behaviour. While the occurrence of some phenomena, exposition which follows is a mere sketch of the behaviour of soils under
such as foundation resonance, is dependent on the frequency and cyclic loading, and the reader is encouraged to consult the specialist
regularity of the applied loading, the regularity of the loading is in many research reports in order to gain a fuller appreciation of this subject.
cases of little consequence; in these cases it is often stress reversais, The general review by Wood (1982), the papers on the small-strain
strain rate effects and drainage patterns which principally distinguish the dynamic stiffness of soils by Hardin and Drnevich (1972a,b) and the
cyclic loading behaviour of soils from that of static or monotonic paper by Ishihara et al. (1975) on liquefaction are recommended. ln
loading. It seems appropriate, therefore, to extend the scope of the term addition, as has already been noted, a substantial amount of useful data
'cyclic' to cover all situations which experience such phenomena. Ac- is presented in the design chapters.
cordingly, in this book the term includes multiple transient loading such
as imposed by earthquakes. It includes all repetitious loading as experi-
1.3.2 The effect of stress reversais
enced, for example, by highway and soil foundations, and even includes
vibration which is, in essence, merely high-frequency dynamic loading.
i
'Stress reversai' in this context refers not to a change in the sign of a
It can be seen then that the feature which characterises 'cyclic loading'
stress but rather to a change in the sign of the rate of stress increase.
in this sense is not so much its cyclic as its non-static or non-monotonic
For example, an increase in stress magnitude followed by reduction
nature. The word 'cyclic' thus appears to be something of a misnomer.
would, in this sense, be a stress reversai despite the fact that all stresses
It is, however, the term commonly used by engineers to describe
continue to act in the sarne direction. Terms such as 'stress increase' are
non-static repetitive soil loading. This may simply be because of the lack
difficult to define when considering three-dimensional stress states,
of a more appropriate generic term to encompass such behaviour.
particularly with principal stress rotation, but it is hoped that for present
Whatever the reason, it is felt that by adopting the sarne shorthand this
purposes the reader will appreciate without further explanation the
book is unlikely to mislead. general distinction between loading and unloading for simple stress
paths such as those experienced during triaxial tests at constant confin-
ing pressure.
1.3 Behaviour of soils under cyclic loading Figure 1.1 indicates the idealised behaviour of elements of dry
granular soil subjected to regular drained cycling during m:ress-controlled
1.3.1 General loading between two general stress states, SI and S2. Each cycle is
accompanied by a change in shear strain, some of which is recoverable
A review of current models of soil behaviour under cyclic loading is and some of which is not. The magnitude of the recoverable strain
presented in Chapter 2 and a good deal of data on the response of soils
to cyclic loading will be found in the specialist design chapters. It is shear stress
necessary, however, to outline the fundamental features of soil response
at this stage in order to provide a framework within which to establish S2
those respects in which soil response under cyclic loading differs from
that under static conditions. One point that should be emphasised at the
outset is that the behaviour of soils under cyclic loading appears to be
highly complex, and to date even the most sophisticated models have
failed to provide accurate predictions under generalised cyclic stress
conditions. It is nonetheless possible to identify a number of strands of
behaviour which appear to be exhibited in varying degrees by all soils.
These can be categorised into three distinct classes:
resilient shear
strain,"'ír
(1) The effect of stress reversais.
(2) Rate-dependent response of the soil. Figure 1.1 The typical development of shear strain during a repeated load test and
(3) Dynamic effects where static analyses become inapplicable. definition of resilient shear strain.
4 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC LOADING IN GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 5
remains fairly constant during each cycle. On the other hand, the
irrecoverable or plastic strain developed during each successive cycle ~ 1.51---~-l---.l.__-.j....,~:
tends to reduce with increasing numbers of cycles. Eventually, the soil ~
attains a form of equilibrium for this loading pattern, at which stage the a
~ 1.0 1----11---t---+--+-,,~+------,
magnitude of the recoverable strain experienced during any cycle greatly q=(o-; -a3J kPa e F
exceeds the plastic strain increment for that cycle and the behaviour can I ~ e
I ] 0.5 r-----i-+7!½-"':;;l~;....,,===iº
be described as quasi-elastic or 'resilient'. It is well established that the I
I
resilient stiffness of soils is stress level-dependent and is also dependent 500 I
I o L _ _ _ _ ~_ _j___ _j___.J....___J
on the magnitude of resilient shear strain. Figure 1.2 shows typical data I 1 10 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5
$1 No. oi cycles
(from Iwasaki et al., 1978) which illustrate these points. 400 ,§1
-~/ 1i) Permanent shear strain
While experiencing cyclic loading, the permanent strain developed ~
during each individual cycle will usually be small but, over a large I
I
300 ·5 •ve strains are
number of load applications, the magnitude of accumulated permanent I
I
~ 1.0 compressive 1---+---+---1
strains may be significant. Figure 1.3 shows typical data indicating the u F
I ºE C
/ A
long-term accumulation of permanent shear and volumetric (predomi- 200 I ~ A
nantly compressive) strains during cyclic triaxial testing of a uniform / B i 05r---r---t:;;r--t=::::tijj~o
I ~ ::.J..e-:+-~E
crushed limestone with particle size of about 3 mm (after Shaw, 1980). I
lf the material in Figure 1.1 attains resilient conditions for stress path
100
I
I
I
J ºr--r:ã:;:;;r=====+==:t=:::::::1
Sl-S2 and is subsequently subjected to some different stress path which I
-0.5~-~-~-~-~~
might be called S3-S4, plastic strains will again be generated, the 100 200 300 400 1 10 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5
magnitudes of which will be dependent not only on the independent p' =1131ir1' • 2ir3l kPa No. oi cycles
(ii) Permanent volumetric strain
characteristics of the new stress path, but also on the similarity between
lal Stress paths
Sl-S2 and S3-S4. This is because during cyclic loading the particle 1bl Permanent strains recorded relative to lhe strain
stale alter 10 cycles
Figure 1.3 The long-term accumulation of permanent shear and volumetric strains during
p'= 0.5kgf/cm 2 resilient cycling. (Adapted from Shaw, 1980.)
1.5
=~
pore pressures are not fully dissipated. Experimental evidence for
~
e, and G,G*aremeasured inkgf/cm 2 llkgf/cm 2"'100kPa) saturated soils subjected to undrained stress-controlled loading indicates
~ 0.5
:z
that, in some instances, failure will occur at stress states well below the
monotonic failure shear stress through the continued generation of
additional pore pressure during each successive cycle. A typical example
of such behaviour is illustrated in Figure 1.4 (after Ishihara et al., 1975),
10· 5 10· 4 10·3 10·2 which shows the behaviour of loose Niigata sand. At point 22 in the
Single amplitude shear strain, l stress history, the response of the soil undergoes a dramatic transforma-
tion with large pore pressure generation and loss of shear stiffness being
Figure 1.2 The influence of shear strain amplitude, mean normal effective stress and voids
ratio on the shear modulus of dry Toyoura sand. For resilient strain amplitudes less than
observed during subsequent cycling. ln other cases where the sample is
about 10- 4 , a resonant column device was used; for higher strain values a torsional shear cycled at fairly low stress leveis, an equilibrium condition is attained
(hollow cylinder) device was used. (Adapted from Iwasaki et ai., 1978.) similar to that experienced by the granular material in Figure 1.1. At
6 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC LOADING IN GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 7
100 paragraph will depend on the permeability of the soil in question and on
the boundary conditions. The faster the rate of cycling, the more the
~ 26 20 16 12 8 4
situation approximates to undrained conditions; for very slow cycling the
"b' 50
-.,' situation is akin to fully drained conditions. Seed and ldriss (1982) have
"
cr drawn attention to the situation which arises when pare pressures are
~- simultaneously accumulating as a result of continued cyclic loading and
~ dissipating along gradients of excess pare pressure. O'Reilly et al. (1991)
~ have reported tests on a clay subject to alternate cyclic loading and
~ -50
drainage which may, for instance, simulate the response of soils to
earthquake loading and offshore storms followed by drainage periods.
-1000 The continued generation of plastic strain during stress-controlled
50 100 150 200 250
Mean effective principal stress, p' 1kPa l cycling and the accumulation of permanent pare water pressure in the
1a) Stress path follawed
case of undrained loading which have been discussed in the above
paragraphs are two of the principal features which distinguish cyclic
behaviour from that exhibited during monotonic loading. These phe-
nomena present themselves even when the soils are cycled at slow rates
1-0 1 - - - - - - < - - - - - - + - - - - - t - similar to those experienced during many monotonic situations. Thus it
q / p' 20
o
appears that the disparity is explicable only in terms of the stress
1. / 160 reversals experienced.
0-5 ..___ _ limit ai shear strai1/ _ 120
8
Why are these reversals important? The answer lies in the behaviour
befare liquefactian
of the soil at the particulate scale. This can be explored by considering
two closely interrelated phenomena exhibited during cycling: changes in
soil stiffness and the dissipation of energy within a soil. ln Figure 1.5 the
stiffnesses exhibited during a sequence of cyclic loading are illustrated.
numbers carrespond to
stress paints shown in Ia) It can clearly be seen that immediately after each stress reversa! the
stiffness increases dramatically and subsequently decreases. Further,
during the stress cycle the stress sustained at any strain level of the
22
unloading phase is lower than that at the corresponding strain during
0 18 loading. This phenomenon, which is clearly observed in Figure 1.1,
means in crude terms that the soil element is not pushing back as hard
-1-0 1------<------+-----t----,
as it was pushed. This is known as 'hysteresis' and indicates that the soil
-3 -2 -1 O
11'(º/,) has failed to return all the energy put into it during loading. Hysteresis
1bl Shear strain response
Figure 1.4 The response of a loose sand (voids ratio 0.737) to co~stant-amplitude cyclic
stress. Note the onset of instability at point 22, leading to a substantial loss of stiffness and Stress Stiffness
eventual liquefaction. (After lshihara et ai., 1975.)
this stage, both strain and pare pressures which occur during the loading
phase of a cycle are predominantly recoverable. ln a third category of
behaviour, the soil appears to have reached an equilibrium when,
suddenly, the strain rate accelerates with failure ensuing shortly there- Stroin Time
after.
The definition of 'fast cycling' in the sense used in the above Figure 1.5 The effect of stress reversais on soil stiffness.
8 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC LOADING IN GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 9
in dynamic analyses is termed 'damping' and indicates the capacity of magnitude of cycling, the greater the force unlocked and, hence, the
the material or system to suppress its own vibration by absorbing more compliant will be the response. During the reloading phase,
energy. further interparticle slippage can occur with the consequent development
The phenomenon of increasing stiffness at the point of stress reversai of permanent strain.
and the hysteresis effect can be reproduced by the simple representative
soil model shown in Figure 1.6(a); consideration of the response of such
a model to cyclic loading indicates quite clearly why load reversais are 1.3.3 Rate-dependent response of soil
so important. ln this model sliding blocks represent interparticulate
sliding, and the springs represent the compliance between particles and Rate dependency is the influence of the rate of loading, or alternatively
groups of particles. The changes in the internai geometry of the soil as of the rate of strain, on the strength and stiffness of a soil. This
particle contacts are made, broken and, possibly, re-established are phenomenon can be attributed to two sources: first, the viscous inter-
represented by the variable direction and magnitudes of the normal particle action of the soil and, second, the time-dependent dissipation of
forces N. These variations in direction and magnitude are essentially excess pare pressures generated during loading in situations which
random about mean values which represent the inherent interparticle include the possibility of drainage.
geometry af the soil but are weighted to account for recent changes in 1t is generally recognised that the stress-strain response of clay soils is
geometry, representing the anisotropic fabric induced by the stress dependent upon the rate of strain, although there appears to be
history of the material. The plane of sliding slopes gently, representing considerable evidence which supports the view that rate dependency
the propensity of granular materiais to reduce their potential energy by plays very little role in the response of granular soils [see Bolton and
densification. The smoothed results of a typical series of load cycles are Wilson (1989) for recent confirmation of this]. Figure 1.7 illustrates the
shown in Figure 1. 6(b), which is similar to Figure 1. 1. The key to rate dependency of both strength and stress-strain response for clay
understanding the increase in stiffness immediately after a stress reversai soils. Figure l.7(a) shows the stress-strain response during a test on a
is the 'locked-in forces' at interparticle contacts. The greater the specimen of natural soil in which the strain rate is varied (from Graham
et al., 1983). The results indicate that a family of stress-strain curves
may be identified, each associated with a specific strain rate, such that a
slope oi stiffer and stronger response is predicted for higher strain rates. Figure
plane
1. 7(b) illustrates the effect of strain rate on the maximum undrained
J[ t shear strength of a silty clay (from O'Reilly et al., 1989). From this it is
'- horizontal
clear that the shear strength of clays increases when higher strain rates
are imposed. ln general, soils subject to cyclic loading typically experi-
1a l Conceptual ence higher rates of loading or strain than systems characterised as
Mudei monotonic. For example, traffic, machine, wave and earthquake loading
frequencies tend to be in the range 0.1-20 Hz and produce rates of
stress increase that are many orders of magnitude greater than is typical
for static loading situations; hence, the rate dependency phenomenon is
more significant when cyclic loading occurs. Consequently when design-
ing for cyclic loading conditions it is often appropriate to take the
viscous response of the soil into account.
Ibl Typical The second source of rate dependency is the time-related response to
Results
excess pare pressure generated during the cyclic loading of saturated
soils. Since rates of cycling can be high, permeability and the hydraulic
6 gradients set up within the system must be taken into account in
analyses, even for soils generally considered to be 'permeable'. As has
Figure 1.6 A simple spring and block model of soil behaviour under cyclic loading already been noted, the interaction between pare pressure dissipation
illustrating stress-strain non-linearity, the stiffness increases accompanying a stress reversai
and long-term accumulation of permanent strains. and its accumulation due to continuing cyclic loading may become very
10 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC LOADING IN GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 11
(a) 60 Compression
systems subject to construction vibration or impact loading. ln addition,
the foundations of relatively flexible structures subject to wind and wave
loading must also be designed with the possibility of dynamic amplifica-
tion in mind. Such structures include tall buildings, long-span bridges
0-05 and offshore platforms. Phenomena such as resonance of foundations
Axial slroin : '/, and the amplification of dynamic stress pulses by deep sediments of
= 0l-l----!---!-----:1~2-~1~6-.2~0 low-stiffness soils (for example see Hough et al., 1990) are typical
problems involving dynamic considerations. Dynamics tend to compli-
-20 cate analyses significantly as factors such as damping, realistic modelling
of boundary conditions and the stiffness of geological materials at very
-~O Exlension small strain leveis take on an enhanced importance.
1.3.5 Summary
t
-;;; 90
(1) Stress reversais.
(2) Rate effects.
i
-o 80
(3) Dynamic effects.
~
e
These aspects of behaviour are common to a wide range of loading
1 70 types, including those described as transient, dynamic and vibratory, and
hence indicate that foundation soils which experience such loading
0-001 0-01 0-1 1-0 belong, for purposes of analysis and design, to the sarne class. This class
Sheor slroin rote: '/,/min
may be identified by reference to the type of loading which may be
Figure 1.7 Some aspects of the rate-dependent response of clays. (a) The influence of called, for convenience, 'cyclic loading'.
strain rate on the stress-strain response of a natural clay. (After Graham et ai., 1983). (b)
Influence of rate of loading on the peak shear strength of a normally consolidated silty
clay. (After O'Reilly et ai., 1989.)
important in some cases. The liquefaction of sands during earthquake is 1.4.1 ldentifying situations where cyclic loading should be accounted for
a common example where the pore pressure builds up faster than it in design
dissipates.
All structures experience cyclic loading. This can be because of small
fluctuations in loading intensity, as, for example, in the case of wind
1.3.4 Dynamic effects loading upon, or live loading within, a building. ln such situations it is
often reasonable to ignore the cyclic or non-constant nature of the
Significant dynamic effects accompany many cyclic loading situations, loading. However, in other situations, such as wave loading on offshore
especially when the frequency of load is high. These add an extra degree structures, seismic loading, traffic loading of pavements and heavy
of complexity to the design. Dynamic phenomena are particularly machine foundations, the magnitude of the non-constant component of
important in earthquake engineering, machine foundation design and loading is large. Here the cyclic nature of the loading can be of very
12 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC LOADING IN GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 13
oÍ)
behave under cyclic loading and the effect of this on the overall =
-
'Õ
structure. "'
.9
Static analyses or analyses based on soil models derived from behavi- u
~
our during monotonic loading situations will be most appropriate when >.
u
the non-static component of loading is small and where the rates of E
loading are low. When the stress cycles increase in magnitude or when "'u
(.:1
·a
t~
the frequency of loading increases, static analyses become less appropri- OI)
·:;;
ate, possibly leading to unsafe, inefficient and uneconomic designs. <l}
u
·e=
<l}
<l}
o.
""
e
,; ><
<l}
1.4.2 Principal situations where cyclic loading is important "..,
.2 .!!l
-~
·~
During the design of systems of the type shown in Figure 1.8, namely ~ --=u
:a
offshore structures, structures in seismic regions, foundations subject to ~
1tt
instance, cites a case where the piles supporting a chimney might be //\'\
subject to cyclic amplitudes in excess of the mean static load.
Most structures are designed to attract as little wind as possible, but
lately there has been a marked increase in the construction of wind
turbines specifically designed to attract wind loads and which include (ai Forces acting on a (b) Forces acting onthe
tall building foundation
high-frequency rotating elements that impart cyclic loads to the founda-.
tions. This is particularly important in the case of vertical-axis wind Figure 1.9 The cyclic loading of foundations due to wind loading.
turbines which transmit a significant fluctuating downwind component
onto the supporting foundations at a typical frequency of about 0.7 Hz
(Clare and May, 1989).
Berthing
velocity
Lood at
Footing
A
r JL Winter
Element A
~ -=- woter
toble
Element B
1i l Single berthing event JL Summer
-=- water ~--'-----!-----'----L---'--_j__ Time
toble (Yeors)
Load ai
Footing
A Figure 1.13 The quasicyclic stress in soil elements adjacent to a footing with a seasonally
fluctuating water table.
M geometrical parameter for Cam clay yield (2.2.2) ll.Eqc cyclic triaxial shear strain (2.3.3)
surface E; strain variable (2.2.1)
M complex modulus (2.3.1) E;j strain tensor (2.3.2)
soil parameters (2.3.5.4) ç scaling variable (2.2.1)
M 1, Mg
m;i unit normal to plastic potential (2.3.5.1) T/ q/p' stress ratio (2.2.2)
mp, mq components of unit normal to plastic potential (2.3.5.4) T/ damping ratio (2.3.1)
N number of cycles (2.3.3) T/p peak value of stress ratio (2.3.5.1)
n number of stress and strain increment variables (2.2.1) T/t failure value of stress ratio (2.3.5.4)
na, nK soil parameters (2.3.3) T/U stress ratio at start of unloading (2.3.5.4)
n;i unit normal to bounding surface (2.3.5.1) 0 slope of unloading-reloading line in ln v:ln p'
n;i unit normal to loading surface (2.3.5.4) plane (2.2.2)
np, nq components of unit normal to loading surface (2.3.5.4) À* slope of normal compression line in ln v :ln p' (2.2.2)
p force (2.3.5.2) plane
Pa atmospheric pressure (2.3.3) À dashpot constant (2.3.1)
p' mean effective stress (2.2.1) ç internai variable (2.2.1)
PÓ size of yield surface (2.2.1) ç f ldt:ql (2.3.5.4)
p~, qa: centre of inner yield surface (2.3.5.3) a~, a; axial and radial effective stresses (2.2.1)
Pi, q; image point on outer yield surface (2.3.5.3) o', stress variable (2.2.1)
q deviator stress (2.2.1) a;f stress tensor (2.3.2)
R ratio of sizes of inner and outer yield loci (2.3.5.3) ã;j image stress (2.3.5.1)
S1, Sz spring stiffnesses (2.3.1) ai]· projection stress origin (2.3.5.1)
s scalar in translation mie (2.3.5.3) 01, 02, 03 principal stresses (2.3.4)
t time (2.3.1) aÍ, a2, a3 principal effective stresses (2.3.4)
u complementary energy (2.2.4) r shear stress (2.3.3)
u displacement (2.3.1) Ír shear stress at unloading point (2.3.3)
Uo amplitude of displacement (2.3.1) <P viscoplastic function of overstress (2.3.2)
u pore pressure (2.3.3) X scalar multiplier (2.2.1)
V specific volume (2.2.2) X size of bounding surface (2.3.5.1)
w strain energy (2.2.1) 1/J soil parameter (2.3.5.3)
y yield load for slider (2.3.2) O) angular frequency (2.3.1)
y yield load for slider (2.3.5.2)
Superscripts
lYc, lYK soil parameters (2.3.3) e elastic (2.2.1)
lY proportionality factor (2.3.5.1) L loading (2.3.5.4)
lYf, lYg soil parameters (2.3.5.4) p plastic (2.2.1)
/3 distance between current stress and image stress (2.3.5.1) u unloading (2.3.5.4)
/J vector linking corresponding points on vp viscoplastic (2.3.2)
successive yield loci (2.3.5.2)
f3o, /31 soil parameters (2.3.5.4)
y soil constant (2.3.2) 2.1 lntroduction
y shear strain (2.3.3)
Yr shear strain at unloading point (2.3.3) Philosophy of soil modelling
2.1.1
Yu soil constant (2.3.5.4)
ô phase angle (2.3.1)
(2.2.1) Modelling of soil behaviour, whether numerical modelling (usually using
Ea, Er axial and radial strains
volumetric strain (2.2.1) a computer) or physical modelling (using small volumes of real soils, or
fp
fpd damage volumetric strain (2.3.3) soil-like materiais, loaded in the laboratory at one gravity or, on a
Eq triaxial shear strain (2.2.1) centrifuge, at many times the earth's gravity), aims to reproduce the
22 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS MODELLING THE CYCLIC STRESS-STRAIN RESPONSE 23
vital aspects of the response of the soil while ignoring other features (t:) Models which can only be used to describe a pattern observed in
which are deemed to be less important. This chapter is concerned one particular form of test (for example, undrained triaxial
exclusively with numerical modelling of soils: representation of the compression tests, or constant-volume simple shear tests).
response of homogeneous single elements of soil according to some clear ( b) Models which use the principle of effective stress to link un-
theoretical constitutive framework. ln developing numerical models the drained and drained response observed with a particular test
choice of the aspects of soil response that will be deemed to be vital will apparatus (for example, drained and undrained triaxial tests, or
depend on the particular intended application of the model: the sarne all simple shear tests).
soil may be modelled in different ways depending on the application. ( y) Models which establish a link between tests performed in two
For example, the response of a soil to loading which applies only very different testing apparatus so that, for example, response in
small changes in stress might reasonably be described as elastic. Another simple shear tests can be predicted from results of triaxial tests.
application might load the soil so severely that many elements are (/3) Models which can be used to predict response to tests in which
brought dose to failure. ln this case, neglect of the elastic response of the three principal effective stresses or strains may all be different
the soil and description as a perfectly plastic material may provide an but the principal axes do not rota te.
adequate model. The response of a soil to a rapid change of load is ( a) Models which can be used to predict response to any general
often treated as an undrained problem. There may be no need to changes in effective stresses and strains, including rotation of
include in the soil model elements of behaviour which would be principal axes.
required if assessment of long-term deformations were required, for
example creep or secondary consolidation under essentially constant It may be felt that models in category (t:) are of little value, but in
effective stresses. fact much of the work on generating models for cyclic loading of soils
The art of soil modelling thus lies in being able to identify important has produced models which fall into this category, for example descrip-
characteristics while leaving the model as simple as possible. lt is clear tions of patterns of pare pressure generation in cyclic undrained triaxial
that the more elaborate or sophisticated a model becomes, the more soil compression tests. lt should be noted too that the fact that a model falls
parameters will be needed to describe it, the more elaborate will be the into category (a) and is capable of being used for completely general
site investigation operations needed to define these soil parameters, and stress and strain variations does not necessarily imply that the response
the more lengthy will be the analyses which make use of the model to that is calculate d for such variations will be particularly accurate:
predict the performance of a geotechnical structure. A careful balance isotropic elasticity falls in category (a) but may not be particularly
has to be maintained then between cost of testing and analysis on the successful in reproducing actual patterns of soil response. However,
one hand and accuracy of matching soil response on the other. There is numerical analyses using finite element programs will require models in
a law of diminishing returns as attempts are made to use progressively category (a) except in very simple situations, such as the one-dimen-
more sophisticated-and hence potentially more realistic (?)-models sional horizontal shaking of a column of soil which could be achieved
for design and analysis. using a category ( ô) model, based only on a complete statement of the
behaviour of the soil under conditions of simple shear.
Category (a) models can be subdivided according to their complexity,
2 .1. 2 Categorisation of models and the extent to which they are able to reproduce important features of
soil response. Wood (1990) has proposed a hierarchy developed from
There are a number of ways in which numerical models for soils can be one outlined by Vermeer and Borst (1984):
classified; two will be mentioned here, because it is instructive to see (al) Children's models, such as linear elasticity and perfect plasticity,
how the different models which will be discussed in later sections fit into which are rather simple to use (and which underpin many
different categories. classical soil mechanics calculations) but which are not particu-
A hierarchy of models can be proposed, similar to that suggested by larly successful in reproducing key features of soil response,
Palmer and Pearce (1973), related to the power and usefulness of particularly volume change characteristics and non-linearity un-
models, but also to the degree of difficulty and complexity involved in der working loads.
the theoretical formulation (and hence probably in the use) of the (a2) Student's models, such as elastic work-hardening plastic models
model: (for example, the Cam clay models), which are helpful in
24 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS MODELLING THE CYCLIC STRESS-STRAIN RESPONSE 25
explaining and bringing together apparently disparate aspects of controlled by effective stresses, and models which are intended for
soil response at a pedagogic level but do not necessarily match general application must be described in terms of history and changes of
any given set of data particularly successfully. effective stresses.
( a-3) Engineer's models, which go beyond the student's models,
introducing those extra features which the engineer, using his
judgement, reckons to be necessary for a particular application 2.2 Models for monotonic loading
(for example, non-linear elasticity, anisotropic elasticity, aniso-
tropic plasticity, viscous properties, etc.). 2.2.1 lngredients of a simple elastic-plastic model
( a-4) Philosopher's models, which aim to describe all aspects of soil
response but which will usually be too elaborate and sophisti- Before reviewing some of the models that might be adopted for
cated for their application to be contemplated in any but the describing the behaviour of soils under cyclic loading, it is helpful briefly
most sensitive projects-such as nuclear power stations or radio- to consider what can be achieved with relatively simple elastic-plastic
active or other hazardous waste disposal facilities-where un- models, and the ways in which these models break down when used for
foreseen geotechnical response may have extremely serious situations where cyclic loading is important. Several successful models
consequences. for behaviour of soils under cyclic loading have been proposed as
developments from such models for monotonic loading. A general class
There is an obvious need for pragmatism and expediency in selection of isotropic hardening elastic-plastic models will be described first.
of models which should be governed by a sort of quality assurance There are a number of basic ingredients which are required for all
procedure: an engineer needs to assure himself that the model or elastic-hardening plastic models.
models he is using are appropriate for the design or analysis that he has
(i) It is assumed that for some changes in effective stresses the
to achieve. A decision to use a model in category ( a-2) (or a:1) must be
response of the soil is entirely recoverable and elastic. A description of
made consciously on the basis that there are no special factors associ-
this elastic response is required-in its simplest isotropic form this will
ated with the particular project that might require the use of a model in
require the specification of two elastic parameters.
category (a-3) (or a-4).
(ii) It is assumed that there is a limit to the region of effective stress
space that can be reached with purely elastic response: this limit is a
2.1.3 lmportance of effective stresses yield surface and its location and size ( and perhaps shape) are expecte d
to depend on the history of changes in effective stress which the soil has
So long as models are only being developed in category (E) then there experienced. The nature of the yield surface and its link with stress
are restrictions associated with the testing and modelling processes history need to be defined.
which remove the need for any fundamental understanding of the soil (iii) Whether a change in effective stresses takes the soil outside or
response: the modelling involves nothing more than interpolation within inside its current yield surface will control whether or not irrecoverable
a tightly constrained test framework. As soon as any attempt is made to plastic deformations will occur. If plastic deformations occur and the soil
extrapolate beyond the known region of a set of experimental data, or yields, then the mechanism of plastic deformation -that is the relative
to establish rational links between different sets of data, then some feel proportions of the several components of plastic deformation-is usually
for the underlying bases of soil response is required. The principle of assumed to depend on the state of effective stress at which the soil has
effective stress has been found to provide the most vital clue to yielded (and not on the effective stress increment that causes yield).
understanding of soil behaviour-whether in monotonic or cyclic load- Description of this mechanism of plastic deformation is contained in a
ing-and although some models have been produced which attempt to flow rule, but it may sometimes be conceptually helpful to define the
associate soil response with total stress changes these are of extremely mechanism of plastic deformation with reference to a plastic potential
limited applicability and it is only through knowledge of effective function. A plastic potential function can be thought of as defining a
stresses that a coherent picture can be produced. There is obviously still family of surfaces in effective stress space. The normal to the plastic
a place for total stress analyses in some circumstances-equilibrium potential surface that passes through the current effective stress state
equations lead readily to assessments of total stress distributions-but all then indicates the direction of the corresponding plastic strain increment
experimental evidence supports the assertion that soil behaviour is vector-in other words the mechanism of plastic deformation.
26 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS MODELLING THE CYCLIC STRESS-STRAIN RESPONSE 27
ln its most general form to describe the complete stress state in a Observations of the strains associated with yielding of the soil can be
material n = 6, but in certain restricted situations a smaller number of used to establish a plastic potential function g such that plastic volumet-
variables may suffice. For example, for the conditions of the axisymmet- ric strain increments & / ( = &/ + 2&/) and plastic triaxial shear
ric triaxial test there are only two degrees of freedom and n = 2. strain increments &/[ = 2 (&/ - &/)/3] (which are chosen to be
(iv) The flow rule defines the mechanism of plastic deformation, but work conjugate with p' and q and the subscripts have been chosen to
the link between change in size (and/or position) of the yield surface emphasise this work conjugacy) are given by:
and the magnitude of the plastic strains requires the specification of a
hardening rule. &/ = xag/op' (2.3)
(v) For some models it may be necessary, in addition, to impose &/ = xag/aq (2.4)
some limit to the effective stresses that can be supported by the soil, in
the form of a failure surface. ln other models-such as Cam clay where x is a scalar multiplier whose value depends on the hardening
described in section 2.2.2-the form of a failure surface may be implicit characteristics of the soil. The plastic potential function g may also be
in the other assumptions of the model. assumed to have a shape that is independent of stress history so that a
family of plastic potential curves:
Observations of yielding of many soils under axisymmetric stress
conditions that can be reached in a conventional triaxial apparatus can g(p' /C, qfC) =o (2.5)
be used to describe yield loci in the p':q effective stress plane (mean (dashed lines in Figure 2.1) (where Cis a dummy scaling variable which
effective stress p' =(a~+ 2a;)/3, deviator stress q = a~ - a;, where a~ is similar to p 0 but, because g only enters the model through its
and a; are effective axial and radial stresses respectively. The rationale differential, has no direct role) form a second basic requirement for this
behind the choice of these effective stress variables is presented by class of soil model. The normal to the plastic potential curve through
Wood (1984). The variables p' and q can be related to the first and the current stress state indicates the ratio of components of plastic strain
second invariants, respectively, of the effective stress tensor and can be increment that will be generated by a stress increment which causes
used to extend to more general stress conditions models which have yield of the soil.
been developed with reference only to data from axisymmetric states of The third basic requirement of this class of model is some indication
stress and strain). If it is assumed that the shape of these yield loci is of the link between expansion of yield loci (change in pó) and
independent of stress history, then a family of yield loci can be development of plastic strains. ln general this will take some form such
established (solid lines in Figure 2.1) given an expression for the yield as:
loci of the form:
(2.6)
f(p'/pó, q/pó) =o (2.2)
where h 1 and h 2 may be separate hardening functions which may be
where p 0 scales the size of any particular member of the family of yield dependent on current stress state and, through the internal variable g
loci. This expression represents one basic assumption of this class of soil (which might, for example, be the current specific volume v of the soil),
model. on stress history.
28 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS MODELLING THE CYCLIC STRESS-STRAIN RESPONSE 29
The fourth basic requirement of this class of model is a statement (Figure 2.2a):
about the elastic properties of the soil, in order to define the strains that
will be generated for changes in stress within the current yield locus. ln f = g = (q/pó) 2 - M 2[(p'/p' o)(l - p'/pó)] =O (2.10)
general this will take the form: where M is a soil parameter. The model presented by Roscoe and
&/ = C 11 ôp' + C12ôq (2.7) Burland (1968) is called by them 'modified' Cam clay to distinguish it
from the 'original' Cam clay model described by Roscoe and Schofield
ôt:qe = C 21 ôp' + C 22 ôq (2.8) (1963). This 'original' model has been much less used for numerical
where C 11 . . . C 22 may also be functions of stress state and stress analysis than the 'modified' model and the qualifier 'modified' will be
history. For any elastic material C 12 = C 21 , and for an isotropic elastic omitted here.
material C 12 = C 21 = O, but there is no requirement of isotropy in 1t is assumed that hardening of yield loci depends only on plastic
writing eqns (2.7) and (2.8). volumetric strain so that h 2 = O and an expression is assumed for h 1
Putting the information about yielding, plastic flow and hardening of which results in straight normal compression lines in a logarithmic
the soil together, a plastic compliance expression can be produced:
af ag ~~ q
ÔEPP
-1
----
ap' ap' aq op'
ôp' -- --
&/ ~
opó
[h1 ~+
op'
h2~]
aq
af ~ af
--
ag ôq
ap' aq aq aq
(2.9)
/
If the yield loci and plastic potentials are identical, f = g, then this
plastic compliance matrix is symmetric (and the soil obeys the postulate ....... - -- - ,,./
/
and strain conditions (and thus falls in category a, though as noted ,/ '
/
above the fact that it can be applied to all stress and strain conditions
places no guarantee of accuracy of predictions of response for all stress
and strain conditions). 1 p' Eq
\ /
\
-
ln the Cam clay model (Roscoe and Burland, 1968) particular assump-
tions are made for all the unknown functions introduced in section 2.2.1
so that a rather simple pedagogic isotropic volumeric hardening elastic e. d.
-plastic model can be produced. lt is assumed that yield loci and plastic Figure2.2 Cam clay model. (a, b) Constant-stress-amplitude undrained cyclic loading.
potentials are identical and elliptical in the p': q effective stress plane (e, d) Constant-strain-amplitude undrained cyclic loading.
30 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS
MODELLING THE CYCLIC STRESS-STRAIN RESPONSE 31
compression plane (ln v:ln p') (Butterfield, 1979) where v is specific factors: the isotropic elastic soil has no further desire to change in
volume: volume as it is sheared.
Under cycles of constant amplitude of triaxial shear strain (Figure 2.2c
h1 = pó/().* - K*) (2.11) and d) a hysteretic stress-strain relationship is observed (Figure 2.2d)
(This is a slightly different assumption from that used by Roscoe and and the effective stress path moves progressively to the left, at a
Burland.) Because hardening of the soil is dependent only on plastic decreasing rate, but would ultimately (after an infinite number of cycles)
volumetric strain, it emerges from the form of the plastic potential stabilise between the criticai state points with q/p' = M in compression
curves (which are controlled by the parameter M) that plastic shear and extension where shear strain can develop without change in effect-
deformation can occur at a stress ratio 17 = q/p' = M without further ive stress.
change in effective stresses or specific volume. The soil is then said to
have reached a criticai state. 2.2.3 Response of soil on unloading-reloading cycles
Finally, the elastic properties are assumed to be isotropic but non-
linear so that C 12 = C 21 = O and: It is not necessary to look at the response to multiple cycles of loading
to discover an immediate deficiency of these simple elastic-plastic
C11 = K*/p' (2.12)
models. Real soil shows the typical hysteretic response shown in Figure
C 12 = 1/3G' (2.13) 2.3, and it is only in the smallest amplitude cycles that the unloading
and reloading responses could plausibly be described as elastic. Energy
ln these expressions À* and K* are the slopes of normal compression and is certainly dissipated on these cycles, but the simple models do not
unloading-reloading lines in the ln v: ln p' compression plane, and G' is include any mechanism for energy dissipation for states of stress lying
shear modulus. It will be assumed here that G' is a constant even within the yield locus.
though experimental evidence suggests that elastic properties possibly The remainder of this chapter, section 2.3, is devoted to describing
vary with mean stress levei. Care is, however, required in adopting ways in which mechanisms for energy dissipation can be introduced, but
variable moduli for cyclic loading applications-there is a danger that it is worth recognising that for monotonic loading situations the non-
thermodynamic restrictions relating to generation of energy may be linearity of the nominally elastic behaviour inside the yield locus will
violated (Zytynski et ai., 1978) (see section 2.2.4). only be important if the stress changes that are experienced by elements
The Cam clay model also falls in category (a), but a study of the
behaviour of normally compressed Cam clay in cycles of undrained
loading illustrates some of its deficiencies. Under cycles of constant 150 kPa
amplitude of deviator stress (Figure 2.2a and b), the yield locus is
expanded on the first loading and then remains at constant size, so that q
all further stress changes can be supported elastically. The predicted
strain response (Figure 2.2b) reflects this complete reversibility of
deformation after the first loading. If this undrained cycling is applied in
the standard way with constant cell pressure, then there will be implied
changes in total mean stress in every cycle, which will be directly
reflected in measured cyclic pore pressure changes: but these are a
consequence of the chosen applied total stress path and not of the
behaviour of the soil.
It is always important in interpreting the cyclic pore pressures that are
seen in soil tests to separate the pore pressure which results from total
stress change from the pore pressure which results from suppressed Eq
dilatancy and the effective stress response of the soil. Once the Cam
clay model is behaving purely elastically in Figure 2.2 then the pore Figure 2.3 Spestone kaolin: cycles of undrained loading. (After Roscoe and Burland,
pressures that are seen are entirely the result of the first of these 1968.)
32 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS MODELLING THE CYCLIC STRESS-STRAIN RESPONSE 33
of soil dose to a geotechnical structure do not reach the current yield Differentiating further, the stiffness matrix in the expression linking
locus at those elements. If significant amounts of yielding occur in these stress increments and strain increments must have the form:
criticai elements then the associated drop in stiffness will be so great
that an assessment of the performance of the structure will depend little 02 w o 2W
ôp' ÔEP
on the details of the assumed description of the response within the OE p 2 OEµOEq
yield locus. (2.16)
02 w 02w
ôq ÔEq
OEµOEq OE q2
2.2.4 Elasticity
Alternatively, a complementary energy function V can be defined such
While the emphasis in this chapter is on ways of modelling the that:
dissipation of energy in cyclically loaded soils-by introduction of ôU = Epôp' + Eqôq (2.17)
viscous or plastic soil properties - there is no particular reason why, in
certain circumstances, soils should not be modelled as simple elastic, leading to a compliance relation:
non-dissipative materiais. The response of the soil to changes in stress is
0 2v 0 2v
then controlled by elastic stiffness or compliance relationships which ÔEP --- ôp'
lead to unique, path-independent relationships between change of stress op'2 op'oq
and change of strain. (2.18)
ô2V o 2U
The simplest relationships would be those of isotropic linear elasticity, ÔEq --- ôq
in which just two soil constants are required to define the link between op'oq oq2
stresses and strains-for example, Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio implying a number of interrelationships between the elastic compliances
or shear modulus and bulk modulus. However, assumptions of isotropy C 11 , C 12 , C 21 , C 22 introduced in section 2.2.1:
and linearity are convenient rather than necessary, and they çan
certainly be relaxed if experimental data exist to support alternative 0C11 0C12 0C12
assumptions.
C12 = C21; ¾ op' , ¾ op'
(2.19)
For example, Graham and Houlsby (1983) propose a simple three- Boyce implicitly assumes a complementary energy function:
parameter form of linear elastic cross-anisotropy and demonstrate its 1
application to a natural clay from Winnipeg. Such a form of anisotropy (n+l) [
V = _P_ __ 1 + _/3_ (q/p')2 ] (2.20)
may be appropriate to natural soils which have been deposited one- K1 l+n l-n
dimensionally over an area of large lateral extent. so that:
On the other hand, Boyce (1980) proposes an isotropic but non-linear
p'(n-1)
elastic model to reproduce the resilient strains observed in cyclic triaxial C 11 = ~ [n + (2 - n)f3(q/p') 2] (2.21)
tests on crushed rocks and other granular materiais. It is important to
note that the form of elastic non-linearity that may be introduced cannot p'(n-1)
be chosen arbitrarily. The assumption of elasticity implies that the C12 = C21 = - ~ 2f3(q/p)
1
(2.22)
elastic stored energy is a unique function of the current strain state.
p'(n-1) 2/3
For example, under the axially symmetric conditions of the triaxial C22 = --- ·--- (2.23)
apparatus, the increment of strain energy per unit volume: K1 1- n
2.3 Models for cyclic loading t = O, the displacement u(t) at any time t consists of an immediate
deformation:
2.3.1 Viscoelasticity u(O) = F/(s 1 + s2) (2.25)
followed by creep at an exponentially decreasing rate tending to an
Energy can be dissipated in cycles of loading by introducing extra
asymptotic displacement (Figure 2.5a):
plasticity, or by introducing viscosity (or both). Viscosity will be
examined first. Viscosity is introduced as a real element of time-depend- u(oo) = F/s 2 (2.26)
ent soil constitutive response which will be observed even in a test on an
An equivalent response is found when a constant deformation u is
ideal homogeneous single element of soil. Not all time-dependent
applied at time t = O: there is an immediate force:
stress-strain responses of real soil samples are necessarily of viscous
origin: a sample, of finite dimensions, of soil of non-infinite permeability F(O) = (s 1 + s 2 )u (2.27)
will show time-dependent characteristics which are associated with the
which relaxes at an exponentially decreasing rate to the asymptotic value
rate at which flow of water can occur within the sample in arder to
re-establish equilibrium of excess pare pressures. These effects are not (Figure 2.5b):
F(oo) = s 2 u (2.28)
viscous in origin and can be explained through an inviscid constitutive
model in which soil behaviour is controlled by effective stresses. Under a sinusoidally varying load of constant amplitude:
Viscoelasticity introduces a time-dependent contribution into the F(t) = F 0 eiú,t (2.29)
elastic response of the material and can be conveniently described with
reference to the one-dimensional systems of linear springs and dashpots (where i = v-Tand the complex form makes simpler the study of the
shown in Figure 2.4: the Voigt parallel model (Figure 2.4a), the phase differences between excitation and response) the deformatio~ ~~ t)
Maxwell series model (Figure 2.4b) and the combined standard linear will also vary sinusoidally with the sarne frequency (after any m1tial
solid (Figure 2.4c). The linear spring produces a deformation propor- transients have died down) but with a different phase from the applied
tional to the applied load; the dashpot produces a rate of deformation load. Hence, if the deformation is written:
proportional to the applied load. All of these models will produce u(t) = Uoeiwt (2.30)
effects of creep (deformation under constant applied load) and relaxa-
tion (change of load at constant deformation). The basic equation then the ratio F 0/u 0 is the complex modulus M given by:
linking variation of force F and displacement u with time t for the
standard linear solid (Figure 2.4c) is: M = s2[1 + iwÀ (s1 + s2)] fi[1 + iwÀ] (2.31)
F + ~
S1
dF
dt
= 52 [u + À(s1 + s2)
S1S2
~1
dt
(2.24) The magnitude of this complex modulus is:
2 51 2
S1S2
2 2
/.
12
S1
2
where s 1, s2 are spring constants and À represents the velocity-depend- IMI -_ 5 2{[1 + w 2}i, ( 2+ 2s ) ]/[ 1 + w }i,2 ]} /
S1 Sz S1
(2.32)
ent resistance of the dashpot.
The Voigt model can be obtained from this by setting s 1 = oo, the
Maxwell model by setting s 2 = O. For a constant load F applied at time F
u
o f (J a. b. e.
Figure2.4 Viscoelastic models: (a) Voigt parallel model; (b) Maxwell series model;
(e) standard linear solid.
creep
t
a.
relaxation
t
b.
Figure 2.5 Viscoelastic response: (a) creep under constant load; (b) relaxation under
constant deformation.
36 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS MODELLING THE CYCLIC STRESS-STRAIN RESPONSE 37
and the phase difference between the exciting load and the responding The damping ratio is very clearly frequency-dependent even for constant
deformation is ô where: values of the model parameters s 1 , s 2 , À (Figure 2.4c).
tanô = w}:_
s2/I
~[1 + w 2 À2 (si: s 2 )]
s1s2
(2.33)
The elliptical shape of the load-deformation relationship for this
viscoelastic system may not resemble the cyclic stress-strain relation-
ships that are typically seen for soils, for which the peak load usually
The vanat10ns of IM I and tan ô with the frequency of excitation are coincides with the peak deformation, but a viscoelastic approximation
shown in Figure 2.6(a). may not be unreasonable for low levels of damping (narrow ellipses, low
Since both the force and the deformation are varying sinusoidally, the angles ô of phase difference between excitement and response). As will
force-deformation relationship will be elliptical (Figure 2.6b ), with the be seen elsewhere in this book, in many situations where the amplitude
area A 1 of the ellipse representing the energy dissipated in the viscous of cyclic soil deformations is rather small, treatment of soil response in
dashpot in each cycle. The damping ratio 17 is defined as: terms of a simple model composed of springs and dashpots is standard.
1 A1 It is also straightforward, particularly in comparison with the complexi-
11 =- - (2.34) ties associated with models which describe the behaviour of soils in
41r A 2
response to larger deformations more realistically, because in many
where A 2 is the area of a triangle with base equal to the deformation cases analytical solutions can be obtained and the need for numerical
amplitude and of height equal to the amplitude of applied force (Figure analyses can be obviated. The need to determine the value of damping
2.6b) (so that for low levels of damping A 2 is approximately equal to ratio at the correct frequency for the intended application must also be
the maximum elastic energy stored in the system). For the simple recalled.
viscoelastic system being considered here the damping ratio is: The character of viscoelasticity has been presented in a purely
n., -- l2 sin ô (2.35) one-dimensional form here, but extension to general stress states does
not require the introduction of any new concepts: typically, separate
WÀ
11 (2.36) superimposed viscoelastic models might be used for the distortional and
= 2IMI the volumetric response of the soil (matching the choice of stress and
so that, for small levels of damping: strain quantitites used in presenting the elastic-plastic models in section
2.2). For many situations where cycles of loading are applied rapidly it
(2.37) is only the distortional viscoelasticity that will be significant-and,
besides, volumetric effects may be dominated by phenomena associated
(a) with pore water flow rather than soil viscosity.
(b)
2
2.3.2 Viscoplasticity
IM! tanõ
52
Viscoelasticity has the advantage of simplicity if not of realism-closed-
1-5 0-2 form solutions can be rather readily generated and the response of
1anõ foundation-soil systems calculated. Plasticity is, however, a feature of
most soil response, and the effect of associating a viscous element with
the plastic behaviour of the soil will be considered here.
A one-dimensional elastic-viscoplastic element is shown in Figure
2.7(a). The inviscid elastic response is governed by the spring s 1 . The
o parallel spring s 2 , slider Y, and dashpot À introduce plastic and viscous
0-1 10 responses. The slider Y is a one-dimensional yield surface with the
WÀ
s, load-deformation property shown in Figure 2. 7(b ). lt is rigid for loads
Figure 2.6 Viscoelastic standard linear solid. (a) Amplitude and phase of response. below the yield point Y and offers no resistance to sliding at this load.
(b) Elliptical load-deformation relationship. Once the yield point is exceeded then the overall stiffness is governed
38 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS MODELLING THE CYCLIC STRESS-STRAIN RESPONSE 39
(a) (b) F cyclic loading has to be handled in two parts, depending on whether or
+Y1------ not the slider is currently sliding. Immediately on reversa! of loading or
y
deformation direction the slider stops moving and deformation is con-
trolled only by spring s 1 • The load has to change by 2 Y in arder to
u make the slider move in the opposite direction. The resulting cyclic
relationship between force and displacement for quasistatic cycles
----1-Y (À= O) is shown by the dashed line in Figure 2.8(a). For À= O this
response is independent of the frequency of loading and of the details of
(e) the loading waveforms.
F With À non-zero, and with finite frequencies of loading, the response
for monotonic loading in Figure 2.7(c) provides a guide to what the
response will be to, for example, the triangular loading waveform shown
in Figure 2.8(b ). Now there is again an elastic response, over a load
range of 2 Y, every time the direction of loading is reversed; once
yielding of the slider occurs the load-deformation response tends
exponentially to the asymptotic relationship (eqn 2.40) shown in Figure
u
2.7(c). The resulting cycle is shown in Figure 2.8(a).
Figure2.7 (a) Viscoplastic model. (b) Response of slider element. (e) Response of The detailed shape of the viscous part of this cycle will now depend
viscoplastic model under monotonic loading.
both on the frequency of loading and on the details of the loading
waveform. Values of damping ratio could be calculated from eqn
(2.34)-and will depend on the details of the loading. Comparison of
by the parallel spring s 2 so that for an infinitely slow loading process a
the cycles in Figure 2.8( a) with the elliptical cycles for the viscoelastic
bilinear response is observed (Figure 2.7c), with the stiffness dropping
material in Figure 2.6(b) shows that the shape is rather different; in
from s 1 to s 1s 2/(s 1 + s 2). (With s 2 = O then this post-yield response is
particular, the peak load and displacement occur simultaneously and the
perfectly plastic.) For finite rates of loading, however, the dashpot
cycles have clear tips. (Though, in detail, the shape will be influenced
comes into play.
by the relative values of s 1 , s 2 , Y, À.)
The constitutive equations for this element are:
The one-dimensional elastic-viscoplastic model shown in Figure 2. 7 (a)
for F < Y: F = s 1u (2.38)
F(s 1 + s2)
À dF dF
for F > Y: - - - - + - - = Y + s2 u + À-dt (2.39)
S1 S1 dt
For a test in which a constant rate of deformation u = kt is imposed,
I
the force-deformation relationship after yield tends exponentially to the 'f
line (Figure 2.7c): ?..=O
2 I
S1S2 s1 Àk /
F = Y + -- u + - - -2 (2.40)
s1 + Sz (s1 + s2) u
and there is a viscous contribution to the 'strength' of the material. A
similar result is found for a test in which the load is increased at a
,
I
I
I
., •----- ..
LlEpd (2.51)
It was found by Martin et al. (1975) that the volumetric strain increment
LlE pd in the simple shear apparatus is controlled by the amplitude ~f
0-6
0-4
........ •
---.
.~--·---
~ -1 ••
cyclic shear strain Ll y and the current level of accumulated volumetnc
0-2 ----------•-
strain E pct and is largely independent of the current stress level (Figure s-~o---L-_-;:;8--'-_-:::5___JL__-4--':--'---_-±2-J__....lo___J_
2.10b). The derived soil constants C 1, C2, C 3 , C 4 depend on the type ln(du/dN)
and relative density of the sand. Strictly, then, the damage parameter in (b)
this model is the volumetric strain, since it is the volumetric strain that
is directly linked with the cyclic loading. The pare pressure and hence
the effective stresses have to change in arder that elastic volumetric
strains develop to satisfy the overall constant-volume undrained con- o
straint.
This model must be regarded as a pragmatic attempt to incorporate
various features of observed soil behaviour rather than as a rigorous
constitutive model. The approach of linking drained simple shear data to
prediction of undrained response is likely to be most successful where
the predictions are made for an essentially one-dimensional system, for
example the response of a column of soil sediments to underlying
bedrock shaking. It is less likely to be successful for a thoroughly
Figure 2.11 (a) Development of excess pore pressure (du/dN) with normalised cyclic stress
three-dimensional prototype. levei i\.anl· (b) Development of cyclic shear strain t-.Eqc with normalised cyclic stress levei
A second example of a damage model is provided by the 'damage' t-.an2· (After van Eekelen and Potts, 1978.)
extension of Cam clay which is presented by van Eekelen and Potts
(1978), based on a general theory for such damage models described by where A, B, C are soil constants. The normalised stress amplitude Llan 1
van Eekelen (1977). The Cam clay model that they use is slightly is defined to take account of the nature of the stress path that is being
different in detail from that originally developed by Roscoe and Burland applied, and of the proximity to an appropriate undrained failure state
(1968), adapted to give a reasonable fit to the results of monotonic tests at each end of the cycle. This makes allowance for the experimental
on Drammen clay. ln stress-controlled cyclic loading, as seen in section observation that failure conditions in triaxial compression, plane strain,
2.2.2, the effective stress path does not come into contact with the yield and triaxial extension are governed by a Mohr-Coulomb criterion but
locus after the initial loading and so the elastic-plastic model has little with-it is assumed by van Eekelen and Potts-a mean effective stress
role to play except under conditions of variable-amplitude cycling where at the critica! state independent of the nature of the test. The shape of
yielding may once again occur. The model then becomes a pair of the Cam clay yield surface is adjusted in arder to achieve this general-
statements about the consequences of the cyclic loading, and the ised critical-state condition.
'damage' concept enters because the amplitude of the cyclic loading is The second statement then describes the development of strains in
defined in terms of effective stresses so that the current value of pare cyclic loading and links a current cyclic distortional strain amplitude
pressure is crucial. LlEqc with a different normalised cyclic effective stress amplitude Llan 2 .
One of these statements links the increase in pare pressure per cycle The definition of Llan2 is rather elaborate and differs from Llan 1 partly in
( du/dN) with the normalised cyclic effective stress amplitude Llan 1 that it depends on the failure states appropriate to the current mean
(Figure 2.lla): effective stress (rather than the current specific volume), but again takes
dujdN = A exp (Llan 1/B) for Llan 1 > C (2.52) account of the nature of the actual stress states that are reached at the
extremes of a cycle, and through its definition brings together data from
du/dN = O for Llanl < C (2.53) triaxial compression, triaxial extension and simple shear tests into a
46 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS MODELLING THE CYCLIC STRESS-STRAIN RESPONSE 47
single picture (Figure 2.11 b). Any given stress-controlled test will follow incremental rate in the numerical analysis for this constant updating of
outwards along the average relationship shown in Figure 2. ll(b) because properties to be economic, particularly where the loading involves large
the pore pressure builds up steadily so that the normalised cyclic numbers of cycles-as in traffic or offshore loading, compared with the
effective stress amplitude increases. (Evidently, as presented, this model more _transient cyclic loading resulting from an earthquake-is a sep-
contains a presumption that the stress changes are such that pore arate 1ssue.
pressures are expected to increase: this was an appropriate presumption The component that needs to be introduced into the constitutive
for the Drammen clay being modelled by van Eekelen and Potts but models, as evidenced by the experimental data of Figure 2.3, is a way
might be less appropriate for a very heavily overconsolidated clay for for the incremental stiffness of the soil to fall on any path after a comer
which negative pore pressures would be associated with undrained in stress space. The observation from cycles of undrained triaxial
shearing.) compression in Figure 2.3 can be generalised to other paths with
These damage models must be regarded as at best rather ad hoc comers. Figure 2.12 (a and c) shows sets of constant mean effective
attempts to improve the prediction of deformations under conditions of stress deviatoric stress paths which have been applied to sets of identical
cyclic loading. This second model, in which damage is tied to cycles of samples of kaolin (Wood, 1974) and of Leighton Buzzard sand (Alawaji
loading, will be useful for situations-such as the foundation loading of et al., 1990) respectively in true triaxial apparatus. The resulting
offshore platforms for which it was intended-where the cyclic loading stress-strain responses (plotted in terms of generalised change in
consists of very large numbers of cycles which, for much of the time, distortional stress and distortional strain) are shown in Figure 2.12 (b
can be regarded as having a rather steady amplitude so that treatment in and d). On all paths the stiffness falls steadily, but where the comer is
terms of batches of cycles is reasonably plausible. Treatment of cycles of slight the stiffness is already low. Sharp yield points are not seen on the
varying amplitude in terms of a single equivalent amplitude of cyclic stress-strain curves. An ability to model the types of response illustrated
loading may sound attractive in principle, but the transformation to the in Figure 2.12 will clearly prove useful in describing response to cyclic
equivalent amplitude may in practice be without strong empirical loading as more conventionally understood: cyclic loading consists of a
support. stress path with many comers, each of which produces a complete
switch of direction of stress increment.
-4
change of stiffness associated with passage of the stress state through a
150 kPa 3
/ yield surface is eliminated by making the stiffness fall steadily from a
stres / high (elastic) value at a point in the deep interior of the yield surface to
the low (plastic) value when the stress state reaches the yield surface.
/ The response for stress changes inside the yield surface is no longer
2 100
/ elastic, and the yield surface is accordingly rechristened the bounding
/, ~ surface.
ln isotropic hardening models the yield surface expands to accommo-
__, date stress states that lie beyond the current yield surface, and the size
of the elastic region correspondingly grows. Stress states beyond the
,
,, /
current yield surface can alternatively be accommodated by translation
,, ,, /
of the yield surface without change in size: this is described as kinematic
,/
,'/ hardening. The particular form of kinematic hardening model described
3 4
ºo 5 10 15% in outline in section 2.3.5.2 introduces a series of yield surfaces of
a. b. strain different sizes which translate and jostle for position in stress space
according to a definite rule. The stiffness associated with any particular
change in stress then depends on how many of these nested yield
surfaces have to translate to accommodate the new state of stress.
The 'bubble' model introduced in section 2.3.5.3 combines features of
isotropic hardening, kinematic hardening, and bounding surface plasti-
3 city. A small kinematic yield locus moves around with the current stress
state-this bounds a small region of truly elastic response. However, the
stiffness associated with changes in effective stress which require this
kinematic yield surface to translate depends on the proximity to an
outer bounding surface. Both the bounding surface and the yield surface
change in size according to a hardening rule. For this particular model
---1
this aspect of isotropic hardening is linked only with volumetric defor-
mation and the model degenerates to Cam clay under monotonic
5 loading.
/
(2.60)
H b describes the hardening that occurs when the current stress is on the
bounding surface.
The consistency condition requires that the image stress should
continue to lie on the bounding surface as it changes in size, that is:
Figure 2.13 Bounding surface f (solid), loading surface (dashed) and plastic potential 3f _ 3f
surface g (dotted) instress space.
- - da 1 +- dx = o (2.61)
ªªiJ ' 0x
52 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS MODELLING THE CYCLIC STRESS-STRAIN RESPONSE 53
q q
p' Eq
-1
a. b. a. b.
Figure 2.15 Possible ratcheting: build-up of permanent deformation (b) in small cycles
dose to bounding surface (a).
q kPa kPa q
(p~, q a:) (Figure 2.20): and the scalar S is found by substituting eqn (2.78) into eqn (2.74) (with
eqn 2.76):
Íi = (p' - p~) 2 + [(q - q a:)/M]2 - (Rpó/2) 2 = O (2.73)
S = (p' - p~)[c5p' - (c5pó/pó)p'] + [(q - qa:)/M 2 ][c5q - (c5pó/pó)q]
When the soil is yielding, a consistency condition can be generated from
(p' - p~)[(p' - p~)/R - (p' - pó/2)] + [(q - qa:)/M 2 ][(q - qa:)R - q]
differentiation of Íi, ensuring that the changes in q, p', q ,,, p ~' pó are
consistent with the stress state remaining on the shifting innner yield (2.79)
surface:
Clearly, then, for a given stress increment ( ôp', ôq) the translation
(q q) R 2 p'ôp' ( ôp ~, ôq a:) can be found once Dpó is fixed.
(p 1 - p ~) ( ô p 1 - ôp ~) + - 2 a: ( ôq - ôq a:) - o o =o
M 4 As in the Cam clay model of section 2.2.2 the hardening rule links
(2.74) ôp 0 with the plastic volumetric strain:
Because of the geometric similarity of the inner and outer yield (2.80)
surfaces, the coordinates (p[, qi) of the image point on the outer yield Plastic strain increments are assumed to be normal to the inner yield
surface, having the sarne geometric position as the current stress state surface at the current stress state, and this 'bubble' model degenerates
(p', q) on the inner yield surface, are given by the equations: to Cam clay when the yielding is occurring with the inner and outer
(p', q) - (p~, qa:) = R[(p[, qi) - (pó/2, O)] (2.75) yield surfaces in contact at the current stress state. After some manipu-
lation the expression for the plastic strain increments can be obtained:
The vector fJ which contrais the direction of translation of the inner
yield surface is then:
[&/]
&/
=
fJ = [(p' - p~)/R - (p' - pó/2), (q -qa:)/R - q] (2.76)
[(
Ji.*
-
K* h (
1
p - Pa:
1 )2
)/ ][ (p' - p~)(q - qa:)/M2
(p' - p~)(q - qa:)/M ][ôp']
[(q - qa:)/M 2 ]2
2
ôq
ln general, in this model, stress increments which cause translation of
the inner yield surface will also lead to some plastic hardening (or
(2.81)
softening) and hence incre ase (or decrease) in the size of the inner and
outer yield surfaces. When the two surfaces are in contact, fJ = O, then where h is a hardening function-somewhat analogous to Hb in eqn
this change in size causes the centre of the inner yield surface to move (2.55). This hardening function is formed of two parts:
and is the only movement that can occur:
h = h + H = (p' - p~)[p'(p' - p~) + q(q - qa:)/M 2] + H
0
(ôp~, ôqa:) = (Dpó/pó)(p~, qa:) (2.77)
(2.82)
The complete translation rule then requires that
where H is a function of separation of the inner and outer yield surfaces
(ôp~, ôqa:) = (Dpó/pó)(p~, qa:) + SfJ (2.78) which falls to zero when the two surfaces are in contact at the current
stress state. The first part h0 ensures Cam clay response on monotonic
loading, but it is not satisfactory merely to set H = O because then
q unlimited plastic strains occur at four singularity points, where h = O,
illustrated in Figure 2.20. Two points, g 1 and g 2 in Figure 2.20, lie at
the top and bottom of the yield surface with p' = p~; the other two
points lie at points g 3 and g 4 where straight lines from the origin touch
the yield surface. The vector (p', q) is then perpendicular to the normal
to the yield surface which has the direction [(p' - p~), (q - qa:)/M 2 ].
With H = O the edge of the yield surface would be divided into four
p~ regions as marked in Figure 2.20: two stable regions (g 1 g 4 and g 2 g 3 ) in
p'
which increase of distortional strain ( &/ > O) is associated with in-
Figure 2.20 'Bubble' extension of Cam clay: inner yield locus centre (p;,, qa:) size Rp;· crease in distortional stress (ôq > O), and two unstable regions (g 1 g 3 and
62 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS MODELLING THE CYCLIC STRESS-STRAIN RESPONSE 63
b = (p' - p~)[(p' - p~)/R - (p' - pó/2)] + [(q - q")/M 2 ][(q - q")/R - q] -0-5
{(p' _ p~)2 + [(q _ q")/M2]2}1/2
(a) {b)
(2.83)
The distance b has to be normalised with respect to its maximum Figure 2.21 Response of 'bubble' extension of Cam clay to drained cycles of loading at
constant mean effective stress. (After Al-Tabbaa, 1987.)
possible value bmax· lt is convenient to work in a (p', q/M) plane-
which then forces elliptical yield surfaces to be circular-because there is
then no ambiguity about the value of bmax:
Pastor and Zienkiewicz (1986). A slightly simplified exposition will be
bmax = PÓ(l - R) (2.84) given here.
The choice of a monotonic function H(b/bmax) is quite open subject Instead of a yield surface dividing stress space into elastic and plastic
to the constraint that it falls to zero when the inner and outer yield regions, a field of unit vectors n;1 is defined in order that unloading
surfaces are in contact at the current stress state: Al-Tabbaa (1987) uses processes (which are not necessarily elastic processes) and loading
processes can be distinguished. On a loading process:
(2.85)
3 n;1 da;jHL > O (2.86)
where 'ljJ is an additional soil parameter and the factor p 0 is introduced
to give dimensional consistency. and on an unloading process:
A typical example of the form of cyclic response computed using this
model is shown in Figure 2.21 taken from Al~ Tabbaa (1987). This is a
n;1 da;jHL < O (2.87)
computation for a series of drained cycles with increasing amplitude of The presence of the hardening modulus H L in these expressions allows
deviator stress !),,q applied at constant mean effective stress p' to a loading processes to be strain-softening ones (for which both HL and
sample of speswhite kaolin (with values of soil parameters chosen n;1 da;1 are negative).
accordingly). Instead of a plastic potential, two fields of unit vectors m/, m;t
are
defined, which specify the flow rules for loading and unloading proces-
2.3.5.4 Generalised plasticity. The term 'generalised plasticity' was in- ses respectively (but of course a plastic potential only enters into the
troduced by Zienkiewicz and Mróz (1984) in an attempt to provide a calculation of plastic strains through the direction of its normal). Then
basis for the formulation of general plastic models without the need to for loading:
think in terms of yield surfaces and plastic potentials-although the
models that emerge have ingredients of their own which are rather (2.88)
similar to these. Classical elastic-plastic models can be seen as special
cases of these generalised plasticity models, which in tum also have and for unloading:
close similarities with bounding surface plasticity models. Examples of
the application of generalised plasticity to the generation of models for (2.89)
the cyclic loading of sands are presented by Pastor et al. (1985) and
64 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS MODELLING THE CYCLIC STRESS-STRAIN RESPONSE 65
where HL and Hu are plastic loading and unloading moduli. ln because the final component:
addition some elastic properties may be specified.
Evidently, if Hu = oo and m/ = n;1, then the model reverts to H q = f3o/3 1 exp ( - f3ol;) (2.97)
classical plasticity with associated flow. However, the framework allows with:
much more flexibility than such classical models are able to introduce.
For example, non-associated flow enables experimentally observed un- (2.98)
drained effective stress paths for sands containing peaks to be repro-
duced; a non-infinite unloading modulus allows the possibility of plastic becomes vanishingly small as the total length of the strain path í;
deformations on unloading, and hence hysteresis on cycles of unloading increases. H 0 , {30 , {3 1 are further soil constants.
and reloading. The model described by Pastor et al. (1985) and Pastor For unloading, the flow rule is:
and Zienkiewicz (1986) is applied to computation of response of sand in
axisymmetric triaxial tests. For these tests stress states are defined in (mpu, mqu) = (-JdgJ, -1)/(1 + d/) 1/ 2 (2.99)
terms of p' and q and strain increments in terms of ôEP and DEq. The with dg defined as before (eqn 2.93). The plastic hardening modulus for
field of unit vectors n;1 distinguishing loading and unloading now just has unloading processes is given by:
two components np, nq:
Hu = Hou(11u/Mg)-ru (2.100)
(np, nq) = (d1, 1)/(1 + d/) 1!2 (2.90)
where 17u is the stress ratio from which unloading has taken place, and
where: H Ou and Yu are additional soil constants. The form of eqn (2.100)
(2.91) acknowledges the experimental fact that the amount of plastic deforma-
tion that occurs on unloading depends on the proximity to failure
where o:1 and M1 are soil constants (M1 is made a function of relative reached in the previous loading.
ratios of principal stresses so that, in particular, different responses in It is noted by Pastor et al. (1985) that the performance of the model is
compression and extension triaxial tests can be introduced). strongly controlled by the ratio Mrf Mg, which affects the relative stress
The field of unit vectors defining the flow rule for loading processes is ratios at peak failure and criticai state conditions-failure occurring at a
defined similarly: stress ratio greater than M1 according to eqn (2.95). Pastor et al. (1985)
(2.92) suggest that a simple way of defining M1 is to set:
where: M1/Mg = /0 (2.101)
(2.93) where I O is the relative density of the sand. It might, however, be more
appropriate - having established the link between model performance
and o:g, Mg are soil constants [which need not be identical to o:1 and M1
and Mrf Mg-to allow this ratio to vary according to the current value of
in eqn (2.91)]. This flow rule predicts zero rate of plastic volume change
state parameter of the sand, as defined by Been and Jefferies (1985).
whenever 17 = Mg, and this stress ratio will correspond to criticai state
An example of the complex form of undrained effective stress path
(Roscoe et al., 1958), characteristic state (Luong, 1980), or phase
that can be predicted with this model for a cyclic triaxial compression
transformation (Ishihara et al., 1975).
test on loose sand is shown in Figure 2.22(a), together with the
(2.94) corresponding stress-strain relationship in Figure 2.22(b) (both taken
The stress ratio: from Pastor et al., 1985). This detail of response has been obtained at
the expense of the introduction of a number of extra soil constants.
(2.95)
defines a limiting condition at which the plastic modulus falis to zero.
The hardening parameter: 2.4 Concluding remarks
(2.96)
This survey of constitutive models for cyclic loading of soils has
forces ultimate attainment of criticai state conditions with 17 = Mg inevitably been incomplete and partial: hardly an issue of a major
66 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS MODELLING THE CYCLIC STRESS-STRAIN RESPONSE 67
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Luong, M. P. (1980) Stress-strain aspects of cohesionless soils under cyclic and transient
loading. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Soils under Cyclic and Transient
Loading, Swansea, eds. Pande, G. N. and Zienkiewicz, O. C., A. A. Balkema,
Rotterdam, 315-324.
Martin, G. R., Finn, W. D. L. and Seed, H. B. (1975) Fundamentais of liquefaction under
cyclic loading. Proc. ASCE 101(GT5): 423-438.
Mróz, Z. (1967) On the description of anisotropic workhardening. J. Mech. Phys. Solids
15: 163-175.
Mróz, Z., Norris, V. A. and Zienkiewicz, O. C. (1979) Application of an anisotropic
hardening model in the analysis of elasto-plastic deformation of soils. Géotechnique
29(1): 1-34.
Palmer, A. C. and Pearce, J. A. (1973) Plasticity theory without yield surfaces. Proceed-
ings of the Symposium on Role of Plasticity in Soil Mechanics, Cambridge, 188-200.
Pastor, M. and Zienkiewicz, O. C. (1986) A generalised plasticity, hierarchical model for
sand under monotonic and cyclic loading. Numerical Models in Geomechanics, NUMOG
II, eds. Pande, G. N. and van Impe, W. F., M. Jackson & Son, 131-150.
Pastor, M., Zienkiewicz, O. C. and Leung, K. H. (1985) Simple model for transient soil
loading in earthquake analysis. Part II. Non-associative models for sand. Int. J. Num.
Anal. Methods Geomechanics 9: 477-498.
Prévost, J.-H. (1977) Mathematical modelling of monotonic and cyclic undrained clay
behaviour. Int. J. Num. Anal. Methods Geomechanics 1(2): 195-216.
Prévost, J.-H. and Griffiths, D. V. (1988) Parameter identification and implementation of
a kinematic plasticity model for frictional soils. Proceedings of the Workshop on
Constitutive Laws for the Analysis of Fill Retention Structures, ed. Evgin, E. Department
of Civil Engineering, University of Ottawa, 285-358.
Prévost, J.-H. and Hughes, T. J. R. (1978) Analysis of gravity offshore structure
foundations subjected to cyclic wave loading. Proceedings of the 10th Annual OTC,
Houston.
Roscoe, K. H. and Bmland, J. B. (1968) On the generalised stress-strain behaviour of
'wet' clay. ln: Engineering Plasticity, eds. Heyman, J. and Leckie, F. A. Cambridge
University Press, 535-609.
Roscoe, K. H. and Schofield, A. N. (1963) Mechanical behaviour of an idealised 'wet'
clay. Proceedings of the 2nd European Conference on Soil M echanics, Wiesbaden 1:
47-54.
Roscoe, K. H., Schofield, A. N. and Wroth, C. P. (1958) On the yielding of soils.
Geotechnique 8(1): 22-52.
Tatsuoka, F. and Ishihara, K. (1974) Drained deformation of sand under cyclic stresses
reversing direction. Soils and Foundations 14(3): 51-65.
Vermeer, P. A. and de Borst, R. (1984) Non-associated plasticity for soils, concrete and
rock. HERON 29(3): 1-64.
Wood, D. M. (1974) Some aspects of the mechanical behaviour of kaolin under truly
triaxial conditions of stress and strain. PhD Thesis, Cambridge University.
Wood, D. M. (1984) On stress parameters. Géotechnique 34(2): 282-287.
Wood, D. M. (1990) Soil Behaviour and Criticai State Soil Mechanics. Cambridge
University Press.
Zienkiewicz, O. C., Humpheson, C. and Lewis, R. W. (1975) Associated and non-associ-
ated visco-plasticity and plasticity in soil mechanics. Géotechnique 25(4): 671-689.
Zienkiewicz, O. C. and Mróz, Z. (1984) Generalised plasticity formulation and applica-
CYCLIC LOAD TESTING OF SOILS 71
stresses. This will be the case whenever the cyclic component of load
(b)
imposes a change (increment) of stress state which is not 'co-axial' with
the stress state under the mean or static load. This is illustrated in
Figure 3.2 for the case of a road pavement structure. The static principal
stresses are aligned in the horizontal-vertical directions. The incremental
st~esses imposed by a wheel load are not co-axial with this system, and
th1s affects the overall stress state in the pavement, as shown, so that
the principal stresses rotate as the wheel load passes.
Of the test arrangements that will be discussed, the triaxial test and
consolidometer (which are the most commonly used <levices) do not
per~it principal stress rotation, although in each case a 'stress-flip' is
poss1ble wh_ere the major principal stress becomes a minar principal
Figure 3.1 Two alternative methods of describing the six independent components of stress stress and vice versa. The other tests described do allow principal stress
acting on an element of material: (a) three normal and three independent shear stresses rotation, although in some instances (e.g. the simple shear apparatus)
acting in a fixed coordinate system; (b) three principal stresses acting in three orthogonal the shear rotation may not be controlled independently.
directions specified by three angles.
ameliorates the friction problem considerably. Hight (1982) shows the literature. The primary problem here stems from the inability of the
result of a finite element prediction of the stress conditions within a apparatus to impose the appropriate complementary shear stresses at the
triaxial test specimen using an elastoplastic soil model. Figure 3.3 shows sample ends (see section 3.2.3.3 below), but other problems such as
contours of vertical stress expressed as a percentage of the axial load per unwanted friction along the sample side boundaries may also cause
unit sample cross-sectional area for a specimen with fixed ends. As can difficulty.
be seen, the stress non-uniformities are significant at the ends of the One further point that requires mention here is inhomogeneity within
sample. ln the simple shear apparatus, problems of stress non-unifor- the sample itself. Such variations in the test element may be due to
mity are more serious and have received considerable attention in the testing natural soils with a natural structure such as laminations and
pre-existing shear surfaces; or they may arise from processes occurring
within the element during the testing process, such as shear band
formation. When such conditions occur the test 'element' is not accur-
ately described as such. However, natural soil features and shear bands
are important aspects of soil behaviour and must be accounted for in
design. Accordingly, inhomogeneity must be accepted during testing,
and this affects the assumption of uniform response throughout the
specimen, hence creating some difficulty when evaluating the test data.
triaxiol
somple
(bl
1o)( i ) poor design : lo)lii) good design:
friclion source between lood cell belw•en
lood cell ond somple friction source ond somple
Figure 3.4 Examples of difficulties with load measuring systems. (a) The development of
friction in the system requires the proximate measurement of loads, in this case in a
triaxial apparatus. (b) Possible problems with cross-sensitivity when a single load cell unit
is used to measure more than one load, in this case a cell in an SSA measures both normal
and tangential loads.
often significant in cyclic loading tests as fast response times are often
necessary. Some difficulties relate to the test arrangement itself and
some are due to problems with the pore pressure measuring transducer
and include the effect of stress non-uniformities (both in drained and
undrained tests), unwanted gas in the pore space and time lag in
transducer response.
Figure 3.5 shows a number of techniques for measuring pore pressures
in a test sample, in this example a triaxial specimen:
(a) A porous probe, for example a porous ceramic or sintered bronze
disc forming the end face or part of the face of the sample; this is
the simplest arrangement, but problems of establishing good .,
ã.
hydraulic continuity between the porous element and the sample
may be experienced. A porous insert pushed into the sample (or
E
. .,
5l
..e ..
(c) A miniature pore pressure probe is located at the centre of the .....
~~
c,C
Such methods are appropriate only for reconstituted or heavily compressibility in some regions of the sample, such as the interface
reconsolidated samples, as the process of installing the device in a between the soil and the end platens. This compliance, researchers
recovered sample is likely to involve a high degree of disturbance. observed, could be avoided by mounting lightweight instruments directly
on the specimen. Meanwhile, in the field of cyclic loading it had been
Figure 3.6 gives an indication, in terms of Skempton's pore pressure recognised that soils are very stiff under cyclic loading, and high-resolu-
coefficient B, of the response times recorded for instruments consoli- tion on-sample instrumentation had been developed in the mid-1970s to
dated into the sample compared with those from a base-located porous measure this (Boyce and Brown, 1976; Brown et al., 1980).
insert during tests on reconstituted Keuper mar!, a silty clay (Overy, These various studies show that on-sample instrumentation is neces-
1982). This figure indicates that even for good installation using <levices sary if one proposes to perform analyses in which the soil stiffness at
consolidated into the sample, one must have regard to the response low strains is of importance. One instrumentation system developed for
characteristics during cycling at fairly slow rate~ in the region of 0.05 Hz small-strain measurements of granular materials, namely the LVDT and
for consolidated probes and 0.001 Hz for the base probe. Soils with a strain hoop system devised by Boyce and Brown (1976) for triaxial
higher permeability will give a more rapid response. specimens, is illustrated in Figure 3. 7.
(iii) Deformation measuring devices. The vital importance of good Many other systems have been developed, including the induction
deformation measuring equipment has come to light in the last decade. radial deformation system devised by Brown et al. (1980), the inclin-
Traditional methods of soil deformation instrumentation, such as moni- ometer system devised by Burland and Symes (1982) and Symes and
toring the displacement of the loading ram in a triaxial apparatus, were Burland (1984), the Hall effect axial deformation transducer (Clayton
previously considered adequate for stiffness measurement. When used in
analyses, however, the measured stiffnesses produced substantial over-
predictions of ground movement. By the early 1980s (e.g. Jardine et al.,
1984), it had become apparent that soils exhibited very high stiffnesses lond cell
at low strain levels. Previously this had not been accurately measured
because of the relatively high compliance of the loading system and high
brnss studs in intimnte
contnct wilh lhe specimen
Frequency ( Hz 1 to which instruments ore
nllnched
0.001 0.002 0.005 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5
100
90
' \ cosi epoxy resin
strnin gnuged
B Volues 80 '' rings
('/,) ''
''
........... _ (shown tilled
for clnrity)
LVDT to mensure
nxinl deformntion
70 '
60
. _.... __ _
D ........ .. _
50
Centre probe - -
---· ....., ..._........ _________
- ------_
Base probe
Figure 3.6 Comparison of the response time of two pore pressure measuring systems
(shown in Figure 3.5(a and e) during cycled confining pressure tests on Keuper mar! (a
silty clay) over a wide range of frequencies. The letters identify specimens, each of which Figure 3.7 A triaxial sample with on-sample axial and radial deformation instrumentation.
had both central and base probes. (Adapted from Boyce and Brown, 1976.)
80 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC LOAD TESTING OF SOILS 81
and Pukrash, 1986) and the induction strain coil prox1mtty transducer
system for radial strain measurements (O'Reilly, 1985).
The system which is best suited to any particular application will
depend on the soil type, the loading amplitude and frequency and so on.
For example, the inclinometer system devised by Burland and Symes
(1982) compensates for sample deformation when large strains are
anticipated. On the other hand, because it operates using a fluid levei
transducer it is not suitable for loading frequencies above about 0.01 Hz.
Many commercial testing laboratories as well as universities now offer
on-sample instrumentation, and this should always be insisted upon if
accurate stiffness measurements are required (pace Atkinson and Evans,
1985).
One of the prerequisites of on-sample instrumentation is that one has
direct access to the specimen. This is readily achievable in the triaxial
and hollow cylindrical devices. However, this requirement causes a
difficult problem for enclosed devices, such as the simple shear ap-
paratus. Radiographic and similar 'remate sensing' techniques, while in
theory providing the possibility of on-sample instrumentation, are only
applicable for strains in the millistrain range. The 'direct' devices are,
however, typically capable of resolving strains significantly less than
0.1 me, and often an arder of magnitude smaller again. A number of
examples of stress-strain plots obtained using on-sample instrumentation
are given in Figures 3.8 and 3.9, which display not only the high
resolution available but also the need to have it available.
lt is worthwhile mentioning, during this discussion on the measure-
ment of the small-strain stiffness of soils, a development suggested by
Bates (1989). This involves installing a system for generating pulses in
___J~
triaxial samples during routine testing and measuring the velocity of
compression and shear waves within the soil. These velocities can be
~
related to the stiffness properties of the soil under test as explained
-...
u
below in section 3.3.3. Bates's suggested technique involves very low "" '
strains within the soil and hence provides a measure of the very
small-strain stiffness of the soil which is appropriate for many design
situations.
3.2.2.4 The state of the element and the in-situ ground conditions. lt is
well established that the response of soils depends upon their state and
stress history, and so it is generally appropriate that the element to be
tested is in a similar state to the conditions which exist in the ground.
Two distinct types of test may, in principie, be identified:
(1) Testing recompacted or reconstituted soil, for instance soil taken .
........
from a dredged sample and recompacted into a test cell.
(2) Testing nominally undisturbed samples, for example large-dia-
meter piston-sampled cohesive soil.
82 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC LOAD TESTING OF SOILS 83
study the results of recent research work, including the publications damage some bonded soils (Bressani and Vaughan, 1989). The back-
referenced here. It is easy to be misled by the description 'undisturbed': pressure technique is readily applicable in devices where a fluid sur-
in reality there is no such thing. The real questions are: 'how disturbed rounds the test element such as the triaxial and hollow cylindrical tests
is the sample?' and 'what effect does that disturbance have on its configurations. A number of researchers have studied the problem of
properties?'. the imposition of back-pressure and the time taken to establish satura-
tion (e.g. see Black and Lee, 1973). It should of course be noted that
some natural soils are partially saturated or contain gas bubbles in situ
3.2.2.5 Pare pressures. Soil behaviour is primarily governed by effect-
(e.g. see Wheeler, 1988) and these in-situ characteristics must be
ive stresses. Consequently it is vital to have good control and under-
maintained, rather than destroyed, in a truly representative undrained
standing of the pare pressure and pare fluid regimes which exist within test.
the sample. ln arder to have as great a certainty over the pare fluid
(ii) Leakage. Testing devices, especially those which consist of a
regime as possible, element tests are usually performed in one of two
mechanism (e.g. the simple shear apparatus), are prone to leakage and
reference conditions, either:
the formation of trapped water at the location of moving parts and
(1) Full dissipation of excess pore pressure allowed-fully 'drained' hinges. Such problems are often difficult to detect but may have a
condition. significant effect.
(2) No flow allowed into or out of the sample-fully 'undrained' (iii) Sample non-uniformity. This arises either from non-uniformities
condition. in the specimen when placed in the testing devices or from non-uniform
applied stress conditions. Figure 3.3 [Hight (1981), already discussed
While the stress paths experienced by soils in situ during any imposed above] shows an example of vertical stress non-uniformity during an
loading is likely, in general, to involve partial drainage rather than undrained test. A similar degree of non-uniform instantaneous pore
either of the above reference cases, results from such tests enable pressure change may be anticipated, hence causing hydraulic gradients
behaviour over the full range of potential drainage states to be esti- to be generated within the specimen. ln some situations hydraulic
mated. gradients will be caused by inhomogeneities in the sample. For example,
ln the case of a fully drained test it is important to change stress where shear zones or other features exist in the sample, pore pressure
levels slowly enough to allow any excess pare pressure which develops non-uniformity will be caused by local drainage in these zones (Atkinson
to dissipate. The rate of change in stress should therefore be related to and Richardson, 1987).
the permeability of the material and the boundary drainage conditions (iv) Membrane penetration. When a flexible membrane is used to
provided in the test. A number of researchers have addressed the stress the soil element, differential pressure changes across the flexible
problem of the proper rate of testing to ensure that pare pressures are boundary cause deformations of the membrane which, in tum, changes
adequately dissipated (e.g. Gibson and Henkel, 1954; Carter, 1981). the volume of pores within the sample. Again, because of the high bulk
It is very difficult, in practice, to maintain fully undrained conditions modulus of pore fluid, this may lead to significant changes in pore
in the case of a saturated soil but it is important to do so. Because of pressure which are not connected with the sample behaviour. The
the high ratio between the bulk modulus of the pore fluid and that of problem of membrane penetration increases as the particle size increases
the soil skeleton, any movement of pare fluid can cause a substantial and as the effective stress state in the specimen decreases. These effects
change in the pore pressure and an equivalent change in the effective are clearly shown in Figure 3.10. Pappin et al. (1991) carried out drained
stress. Difficulties relating to pare pressure control may be classified saturated cyclic load resilient testing and found very substantial effects
under a number of headings: even using well-graded crushed limestone with particles down to silt-
size, typical of the grading of granular material used in road sub-bases.
(i) Jnitial lack of saturation. The ma1onty of soils are saturated in . The concern over the problem of membrane penetration, particularly
situ, and therefore procedures for re-establishing and maintaining satur- m the case of liquefaction of soils, has produced a number of develop-
ated conditions during testing have been developed. The standard ments designed either to mitigate the effects of membrane penetration
technique used for this is the application of a back-pressure to the pore during the test or to account for it after the test. Seed et ai. (1989) have
fluid system, the confining pressure being increased by an equal amount attempted to eliminate the effect altogether by establishing the mem-
to maintain the sarne effective stress state, although this procedure may brane penetration susceptibility of the particular test specimens and then
86 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC LOAD TESTING OF SOILS 87
(a 1
apparatus, the cyclic loading system is fundamental to the operation of
0.02
the whole apparatus. The frequency attainable in the devices described
~ below depends principally on the electro-mechanical design of the
1
e
16 mm maximum
particle size
loading system employed. The loading systems available are briefly
o
described in section 3.2.4.
i. 0.01
3.2.3.1 Triaxial testing
~
~
E
(i) lntroduction. The triaxial test involves applying a three-dimen-
;g sional (hence triaxial) total stress state to a sample of soil. The triaxial
test may thus be distinguished from the unconfined compression test in
50 200 500 1000
Cell pmsure ( kPal which a uniaxial system of total stresses is imposed. Two types of
triaxial test may be distinguished: the axisymmetric triaxial test and the
true triaxial test. True triaxial devices apply three independently con-
~
( bI
trollable principal stresses. They have rarely been used except for
l. I
I
research. Most arrangements of the true triaxial device utilise complex
,
0.02
e
.. '4I (and often ingenious) mechanisms and are difficult to operate; hence
~ I ..
e
they are not suitable for commercial testing except in very special
~ I circumstances. During research, such devices have been used to illus-
~
E 0.01 ◊ / ~ Thearetical relationship trate important aspects of soil behaviour when each of the three
ll ♦ , proposed by Nova and
~ / Baldi (198' I principal stresses are independently controlled (e.g. Wood, 1974;
.._ ~•,"
I
~ Reades and Green, 1976).
:z
o
. . .......
.,
L..c.__~......,,.,,-c:::-=----------'---------::---
The axisymmetric apparatus, commonly known simply as the triaxial
test, operates using a simple and convenient arrangement. A fluid is
0.01 0.1 10
Mean grain size d50 ( mm 1 used to provide an isotropic all-round stress and a vertical deviator
stress is applied through platens at the top and bottom of the sample.
Figure 3.10 Membrane penetration effects. (a) The 'unit membrane _penetration' V:ith units Little friction is generated between the loading system and soil. The
cm3 /cm2 for a variety of filter-grading materiais used at the 160 m-h1gh Gran_d Ma1son dam
in France. The data are fitted to straight lines of slope S, where S 1s termed the
stress state is fairly uniform and its magnitude is straightforward to
'normalised membrane penetration'. (After Dendani et al. 1988.) (b) The nor?Ialised calculate. These advantages have made the triaxial test extremely
membrane penetration versus mean grain size for a range of laboratory values obtamed by popular. ln the following sections, references to 'triaxial' tests refer to
a number of researchers and collected by Baldi and Nova (1984).
the axisymmetric triaxial apparatus.
(ii) Description. The triaxial test involves applying axial and hori-
using a computer-controlled water injection system to maintain constant zontal stresses to a cylinder of soil. The stresses and strains are generally
specimen volume. This technique is not without its drawbacks: for assumed to be axisymmetric and homogeneous, although as has been
instance it assumes that the membrane penetration compliance of the noted already this is not always the case in reality. Figure 3.11 shows a
specimens remains constant throughout the test. It is not available for typical triaxial cell illustrating the basic principies of operation.
commercial work as yet but may be adopted in the near future. (iii) Consolidation. Undisturbed samples recovered from the field will
be subject to sampling disturbance and stress relief during their remova!
from the ground and installation in the triaxial cell. ln arder to regain as
3.2.3 Specific element test arrangements fully as possible the in-situ soil characteristics, it is prudent to recon-
solidate samples before testing. Two types of reconsolidation may be
A number of laboratory testing devices used for testing soils under cyclic available:
loading are described below. These were almost ali developed, in t~e
first instance, for monotonic testing and have been adapted for cychc (1) lsotropic consolidation.
loading, though in some instances, in particular the resonant column (2) One-dimensional consolidation.
88 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC LOAD TESTING OF SOILS 89
though side wall friction may cause it to reduce at lower levels). To vertical
load cell
determine the horizontal pressure a load cell may be installed in a
consolidometer flush with the confining ring. Results from such a load
cell can be of use when the value of K O during cyclic loading is required
[see for instance Dyvic et ai. (1985) and Al-Tabbaa (1987)].
roller
Vertical settlements are measured using a dial gauge above the b•arings
specimen. This is not an on-sample instrumentation techniq~e, and ~ata
obtained using this method should generally be treated w1th cautton.
Often, however, large vertical strains are of interest, and when vertical ....... ,.____ wire - r•inforc•d
rubb•r membrane
settlements in excess of 2 or 3 mm are recorded the externally measured
values can usually be used with greater confidence. 7
horizontal
load cell
LVDT to measure
shl!tlr displacements
sample core currently available for commercial testing except through universities,
but in future it may come to be used more widely for the determination
of soil properties for design.
(ii) Description and instrumentation. The basic arrangement is de-
scribed in Figure 3.15. The sample is in the form of a hollow cylinder
with internal and outside radii ri and r 0 • Up to four independent
loads/pressures may be applied, namely the internai and outside pres-
sures, pi and p O , an axial load, W, and a torque, T. ln order to
(a) Arrangemenl of load colls in lhe circular simple
shear appamtus monitor the strain conditions in the specimen, four independent
measurements are required: the cross-wall strain Ew, the overall radial
strain t: 0 the axial strain t: 3 , and the torsional strain y.
Figure 3.16 shows the Nottingham University cyclic loading HCA.
The specimen is 500 mm high and has externai and interna! diameters of
280 and 224 mm respectively. Vertical and torque loads are supplied by
servo-controlled hydraulic actuators with feedback from the load cell
inside the test cell. The torque is supplied simply by the actuator B
operating through a lever arm with a slip coupling. The instrumentation
used was (with the exception of the strain coil system) developed for
w
(11) Conslanl volume test
pore
pressure ,u
r;
( b) Rocorded sheor stross distributions
internai
Figure 3.14 The arrangement of load cells along the 'principal third' and the resulting membmne 1
1
shear stress distributions reported by Airey and Wood (1987). 1
externai 1
membrane
1
1
,✓-
------ ~,,
<,_ '
3.2.3.4 The hollow cylinder apparatus
(i) lntroduction. To date the hollow cylinder apparatus (HCA) has
been used almost exclusively as a research device. It allows principal
stress rotation, which has been shown to be important in soil testing (see
w
section 3.2.2.1), and exhibits many advantages over devices such as the
commonly used SSA and triaxial arrangements. These are discussed Figure 3.15 Basic arrangement of the hollow cylinder apparatus showing the sample
below after the apparatus itself has been described. The HCA is not enclosed by internai and externai membranes and acted upon by various loads/pressures.
94 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS
CYCLIC LOAD TESTING OF SOILS 95
triaxial testing (see Figure 3. 7) and has simply been modified to suit the
new apparatus.
(iii) Stress conditions. The stress conditions in the sample may be
represented in Mohr circle form, as shown in Figure 3.17. The rubber
membranes enclosing the sample are incapable of transmitting a shear
stress to the internai or externai cell fluid, and hence the radial direction
corresponds to a principal direction. Generally it is found to be the
intermediate principal stress o 2 • Since one principal stress remains in the
radial direction, it is evident that to maintain mutual orthogonality of
principal stress axes, the direction of both o 1 and o 3 must rotate in a
direction perpendicular to the sample radial direction, tangential to the
sample wall, and by the sarne angle, denoted a. The stress conditions in
the hollow cylinder wall (including the sources of stress non-uniformity)
are discussed in detail and with clarity by Hight et al. (1983), to which
reference should be made.
As well as the ability to rotate the principal stresses, the intermediate
principal stress may take a value other than that of the major or minor
principal stress. A statement of the value of the intermediate principal
stress may be expressed in a number of ways, one being the use of the
parameter b = (o 2 - o 3) / ( o 1 - o 3 ). Under general loading conditions in
the HCA, the value of b will not be constant, but may vary in the range
a-,
-~ ..,
e:
.2-g-
- o
:2
Axes used
"'U Õ..c:
o"'
.,,
E :, ... o;,
r
E
O-r
lil
~ l
c::i E "(
ciii
......
1,.
e:
1i
...,., 1 li!
_g ~ l"' (ii)
(a) Stresses acting on an element of woll 1b) Mohr - Circle represl'fllotion of stress in lhe HCA wall
Figure 3.17 Stresses acting on elements of the wall of a hollow cylinder apparatus sample.
96 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC LOAD TESTING OF SOILS 97
Four main sources of stress and strain non-uniformity may be identi- (v) Applications. The main areas of application for the HCA (apart
fied: from its important role in fundamental research) are likely to be:
(1) Sample imperfection. (1) Testing redeposited and reconsolidated coarse-grained soils.
(2) End restraint from the platen. ln the standard triaxial apparatus, (2) Testing of nominally undisturbed clay specimens. This will involve
various methods are used to reduce friction and restraint at the obtaining larger diameter samples than has been common for
platen. ln the HCA, however, some form of restraint is obliga- commercial testing hitherto (up to 500 mm in diameter) and/or
tory, otherwise the torque cannot be transmitted across the block samples, and trimming them internally and externally. The
platen-sample interface. Hight et al. (1983) performed finite potential for sample disturbance is obvious.
element analyses to determine the degree of non-uniformity
caused by end restraint in a specimen with a height to overall 3.2.3.5 Resonant column apparatus (RCA). This apparatus consists of
diameter ratio of 1.2. They concluded that little non-uniformity a cylinder (hollow or solid) which is subject to a cyclic electromagnetic-
extended to the central part of the specimen. ln an undrained test ally imposed torque at the cylinder head and which vibrates in a
this non-uniformity will of course still be important, causing fundamental torsional mode (although longitudinal vibration tests have
hydraulic gradients to be generated within the sample. also been devised). Measurements of the resonant frequency and
(3) Variation in shear strain across the sample wall. If the sample amplitude are made. From these data and a knowledge of the polar
remains as a hollow cylinder, the resulting shear strain in the moments of the soil column and the top-cap assembly (which vibrates
sample wall will be proportional to the distance from that element with the soil) the shear stiffness of the soil can be computed. The
to the shear centre (i.e. the vertical axis of symmetry). There will damping characteristics can be determined by the rate of decay of free
thus be a linear strain gradient across the wall. vibrations or from the power required to maintain torsional vibration.
( 4) Non-uniformity due to differential interna! and externa! pressures. Like the HCA, the RCA may impose a principal stress rotation on the
Differential pressures across the sample wall may be applied for a test specimen provided that axial loads are applied in addition to the
number of reasons. For example, if the interna! and outside confining pressure. This rotation is not normally as controllable as in the
pressures are equal, the principal stress ratio and directions are standard HCA.
related by: b =sina. ln some instances it might be considered A short historical bibliography of the RCA is given in Richart (1975),
appropriate to keep the ratio b constant, and this may be done and a number of publications <leal with the more recent developments of
using differential interna! and outside pressures. The magnitude of resonant column testing apparatus, their use in practice, and with the
this differential will, in most cases, be small, at most about 15% computation of material characteristics [see for instance Chung et al.
of absolute pressures but this will cause a degree of non-unifor- (1984), lsenhower et al. (1987) and Chen et al. (1988)]. Most apparatus
mity across the sample wall. to date has been used for small samples (usually very much less than
(iv) Advantages and disadvantages of the HCA relative to other pieces 150 mm in diameter). Heiniger and Studer (1985), however, give details
of apparatus. The advantages of the HCA include control over the of a resonant solid cylinder for coarse-grained materials.
principal stress direction, the potential to apply intermediate principal A typical cross-section through a resonant column <levice is shown in
stresses which are independent of the major and minor stresses, and Figure 3.18 (from lsenhower et al., 1987). ln this case the sample is
simple shear tests with proper application of complementary shear. hollow, which produces more uniform strain conditions than a solid
Further, the specimen boundary conditions promote relatively good specimen. A confining pressure is imposed by placing the apparatus in a
stress uniformity and access for instruments similar to those which have pressure cell, axial load is provided through the vertical tie running
been developed for on-sample measurements using the triaxial ap- along the central axis of the apparatus which is connected to a
paratus. pressure-controlled jack (not shown) below the base plate, and a
The principal disadvantages of the HCA test are the high cost of periodic torque is supplied at a known frequency by the magnetic drive
developing the apparatus, the difficulty of sample preparation (particu- system. The vertical and torsional deformations are monitored by the
larly if 'undisturbed' specimens are to be tested), and the large surface- L VDT and accelerometer respectively.
to-volume ratio, which is likely to introduce significant membrane lt should be noted that Bolton and Wilson (1989) have recently
penetration effects. questioned the need for a dynamic system. They argue that the
98 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC LOAD TESTING OF SOILS 99
the displacement caused by the displacement pressuremeter. Ex- Yeung and Carter (1990) for a study of the errors likely to be caused by
amples of this type of <levice have been described by Baguelin et this assumption]. If a simple incompressible soil analysis is performed
al. (1972) and Wroth and Hughes (1973). (which may be appropriate for the quick undrained loading of a
saturated clay), it may readily be seen that the shear strains experienced
Deformation measurements are made using a number of techniques.
by the element of soil around the expanding membrane are inversely
ln the original predrilled pressuremeters the liquid inflow into the test
proportional to the distance from the soil element to the pressuremeter
cell was measured and equated with the cavity volume change. More
axis.
recently, mechanical gauges have been developed to measure radial
A soil model must be assumed to derive the stress-strain characterist-
displacements more accurately, but there is concern that the compliance
ics, and analyses have been developed using a variety of stress-strain
of the <levice is too great to give accurate results (Bellotti et al., 1990;
laws [see for instance Gibson and Anderson (1961), Baguelin (1972),
Fahey and Jewell, 1990), and it has been suggested that deformation
Ladanyi (1972), and Palmer (1972)). Mair and Wood (1987) give a
measurements using an integral contact with the soil body should be
useful description of the range of analytical techniques which have been
used to improve this (O'Reilly, 1990). Typical pressure-cavity strain
developed to date. A technique often used to determine the small-strain
plots from a SBPM in clay and sand are illustrated in Figure 3.20
stiffness of soils is to perform small unload-reload cycles. Severa! of
(Wroth, 1984).
these are illustrated in Figure 3.20. If the cavity pressure change during
(ii) Analysis of pressuremeter test data. The pressuremeter is not an
this unload-reload cycle is small and insufficient to cause 'yield', and it
element test, that is to say the stress and strain experienced by soils
is assumed that the response is perfectly elastic, then the secant shear
loaded during the test are not uniform, even in principie. The closer the
modulus G sec for the stress increment represented by the cycle is given
soil is to the pressuremeter body, the larger the shear strain it
by (Wroth, 1984):
experiences. Consequently, the raw data from the pressuremeter test
require analysis in order for fundamental stress-strain information to be 1 ~ (cavity pressure)
extracted. G,ec = 2 X ~ (diametral cavity strain)
Pressuremeter data are generally analysed using plane strain cavity
The comments made above concerning the compliance of the system
expansion theory; in other words it is assumed that the pressuremeter is
should be borne in mind when deriving small-strain moduli. Jamiolkow-
infinitely long so that all displacements are radial and axisymmetric [see
ski et al. (1985) and Mair and Wood (1987) provide additional informa-
tion on the determination of soil moduli from pressuremeter tests.
The pressuremeter test is generally used to measure horizontal rather
2000
600 than vertical properties which are, for many analyses, more important.
However, pressuremeter tests may be performed in any direction from a
500 shaft (Clarke and Allan, 1990), into an inclined slope or even using
1500
~ LOO
directional drilling from a horizontal surface into a horizontal position.
~
~
ln such arrangements the assumption of axisymmetry can, however, no
i_ 1000
~ 300 longer be maintained.
]::-
-~
200
3.3.2.2 Plate and other static loading tests. Plate loading tests involve
500
100
irho the application of load to the ground through a plate, often using cyclic
w loading. The settlement of the plate is measured, thus enabling soil
stiffnesses to be calculated. A number of variants on the standard plate
loading tests have been developed, such as the 'screw-in plate test' (Kay
L 6 10 12 -2 6 10 12 and Parry, 1982). Larger tests involving the use of a skip which when
cavily slrain ('!.) cavily slrnin ( '!.)
filled may apply loading over a substantial area (Charles and Driscoll,
(ai Tests an clay ai a depth oi LJ. L m ( bI Tesls on sand ai o deplh oi 10. 6 m 1981) may also be of assistance in determining the repeated load
Figure 3.20 Self-boring pressuremeter tests including unload-reload loops in a borehole in
behaviour of soil. The use of water in the skip which may be pumped in
Zeebrugge. (After Wroth, 1984.) and out is a convenient means of providing cyclic loading data.
104 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC LOAD TESTING OF SOILS 105
Plate loading tests may be used to determine the basic mechanical trated in Figure 3.21. This shows a half-space of an isotropic, homogen-
properties of the ground, although in order to do this a soil model must eous medi um with waves radiating from D. The P wave produces
be assumed. A further difficulty with this is that the drainage conditions ground motion in the direction of propagation, while the slower S wave
are not well controlled and, for fine-grained soils, tests performed in the produces ground motion tangential to the direction of propagation. The
usual hours-weeks timescale will be neither drained nor undrained, and R waves produce ground motions which describe an elliptical trajectory
assumptions will be required concerning this. Often, an elastic analysis is dose to the surface and which have a negligible amplitude at distances
used to determine the soil stiffness properties, using the relationship: greater than one wavelength from the surface.
Figure 3.21 also shows geophones (indicated by G 1 , G 2 and G 3 ),
f...q 1T
G sec = - p x - (1 - v)SB placed into the ground at various distances ri, r 2 and r 3 from the
8 disturbance. These detect the ground motions created by the passage of
where p is the plate settlement under a change in plate pressure of f...q, the waves resulting from the seismic disturbance. Typically geophones
v is Poisson's ratio, S is a factor dependent on the depth of the plate contain a coil which has some freedom to oscillate in a particular
and B is the plate diameter; S is 1 for a plate loaded on the ground direction within a permanent magnet. Ground motions cause the coil to
surface and approximately 0.85 for a plate at the base of a deep displace relative to the magnet which induces a current into the coil,
borehole (e.g. see Marsland and Randolph, 1977). which is then converted into a measure of ground velocity. Accordingly,
ln addition to its use in determining stiffness values, plate loading a time-velocity history may be recorded.
data are also used on a semi-empirical basis, the actual settlements An idealised record of a surface geophone output is shown in Figure
observed being scaled up to provide an indication of the anticipated 3.22(a). As can be seen, the P wave arrives first, followed by the S and
prototype settlement. the R waves. A series of geophone records plotted against geophone
One important consideration when designing a plate loading test is the distance from the seismic disturbance D is shown in figure 3.22(b ). The
need to minimise bedding errors due to an uneven fit between the plate wave velocities are related to the slopes on the graph as illustrated.
and the ground. Bedding problems will cause the initial stiffness to be (Note that the actual geophone transducer output will depend both on
significantly underestimated, and considerations might be given to the directions in which it is allowed to oscillate relative to the ground
designing tests with deformation instrumentation in intimate contact oscillation direction and also upon its internai damping mechanism.
with the ground. These characteristics should be discussed with the testing contractor to
ensure that the correct device is being used for the particular applica-
tion.)
3.3.3 Wave velocity testing
+
Ground
molion
Time
Y/Ys
lol
s
/ S Wnves
r3 R Wnves
~
!li 0.1 0.2 0.3 o.~ 0.5
Poisson's rntio, v
] rz
.,u
Figure3.23 The relationship between, P, S and R wave velocities in an elastic half-space .
!:;; (From Richart, 1962.)
lz
<:>
r1
have been developed, and the reader is advised to consult one of the
specialist texts on soil dynamics (e.g. Richart et al., 1970) and the
Time state-of-the-art report on dynamic stress-strain relationships for soils by
lbl
Richart (1977). Two important matters, the location of sources and
receivers and the enhancement of recorded wave signals, will, however,
Figure 3.22 Ground motion-time records and the computation of wave velocities. (a) be discussed briefly below.
Typical ground motion-time record indicating the arrival of the P, S, and R wavefronts.
(b) A series of ground motion-time records spaced in accordance with geophone distance (1) Location of sources and receivers. The simple surface layout
from the source of the disturbance. Three Jines are drawn showing the arrival times of the
P, S and R waves. The slopes of these lines give the wave velocity. illustrated in Figure 3.21 is commonly used. However, a variety of
techniques are used in order to obtain additional information. For
instance, the cross-hole technique shown in Figure 3.24(a) enables
For a linear elastic, non-viscous soil the shear modulus G is related to the velocity to be measured at a variety of depths. The up-hole
the S-wave velocity by: and down-hole techniques, shown in Figure 3.24(b), allow the
average velocity over the height of the borehole to be readily
G = pV/ determined with the formation of only one borehole.
where p is the bulk density. The relative velocity between S, P and R (2) Enhancement of wave signals. Modem instrumentation arrange-
waves is affected by the Poisson ratio of the soil, as shown in Figure ments may allow time-velocity records to be stored and enhanced
3.23 (Richart, 1962) for a semi-infinite elastic medium. By measuring by a variety of techniques so that a clearer determination of the
the velocity of any two waves the value of Poisson's ratio, v, may be arrival times of the various waves can be made. For instance, the
calculated. For instance if P and S waves are measured: arrival of the S wave may be masked by the wake of the
preceding P wave. ln order to emphasise the S-wave component,
v = (½ R2 - l)/(R 2 - 1)
a seismic disturbance source which is rich in these may be used;
where R = V p/V s· See Abbiss (1981) for a practical application of this Figure 3.25 shows an arrangement suitable for this. ln this case a
technique. block in good ground contact is subject to an impact in direction
(iii) Aspects of testing techniques. A wide range of testing techniques A. The relative amplitude of S to P waves is greatest along the
108 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC LOAD TESTING OF SOILS 109
/(• :. \ .,... .-·· . . ~ :· :.-·: ··. ·:·.--.;._... :'· :-:-·:<·:~~.: .'}_:·:~.-:;·-:· block in good
/ ground contoct
•.
:?: ...
,,.
: ~
,·.
-=\
.,·.. lmpoct ~ . , _ lmpoct
•,,'
:-:
.·:: A ~ B
""• ...
.,. o 1·:) ?
·.,
G::. :'.
• line perpendicular
~ - /todirectionsAondB
sou/ .)) receiver i
_.,.
~I :;
:,.;::.:-:·.
~ r: : :::
X
\·
·--~""
(-}.:: :::::-
!nl Cross-hole technique
-'. ,.· velocity tests. This involves measuring the damping characteristics of the
'· )'
::; G '.'•:
soil and equating the damping energy loss with the energy loss com-
source'.~ receiver · ·,. puted for the hysteresis area of a non-linear stress-strain load-unload
·_,·;:l ~.: {/,,,•. ;:) cycle. Abbiss, in bis paper, gives details of the test procedures used and
• · 1bI Up- hole nnd down-hole llchnique
makes good class A predictions of footing settlements using the damping
Figure 3.24 Location of sources and receivers using boreholes. method for correction of small-strain moduli.
line perpendicular to direction A. Geophones installed along this 3.3.4 Empirical tests considered to provide an indication of the
line are able to detect the arrival of S waves with clarity. Further mechanical characteristics of the ground
enhancement of the S waves is also available with the set-up
shown in Figure 3.25 by storing the time history of the passing A large number of tests are currently used as index tests, that is to say
wave and subtracting it from the time history of a wave system their results have been correlated with aspects of the mechanical
produced by an impact in direction B. This cancels out the P characteristics of the ground including its cyclic load response. For
waves while reinforcing the S-wave pattern. Further discussion of example the N value of a standard penetration test (SPT) or the cone
these and other techniques can be obtained from Abbiss (1981) resistance of a cone penetration test is often correlated with soil strength
and Richart (1977). and stiffness. ln this section two such correlations which have been
proposed are briefly outlined and discussed as illustrations of this
(iv) Interpretation. Seismic wave velocity testing must be interpreted
approach.
by experienced engineers, geologists or geophysists, as the recorded
traces are likely to be contaminated with reflected waves and disturb- (i) Liquefaction potential correlated with penetration resistance. Soil
ances from other sources. Even when the velocities have been accurately density is an important factor in determining liquefaction potential.
determined the non-linear stress-strain response of the soil should be Since density also governs the penetration resistance of a probe, it is
accounted for when quoting soil moduli for design purposes. Since the natural that researchers should search for a link between penetration
strain levels generated during seismic testing will be small (about 10- 5 ), resistance and liquefaction potential. A number of correlations have
the values of stiffness will be higher than those applicable to many been proposed and reference should be made to the expositions in Seed
design situations. Abbiss (1986) has suggested a method for computing (1979), Seed and ldriss (1981) and the useful discussions in Seed (1985).
the relevant modulus at strains larger than those imposed by the wave This subject is covered in Chapter 7.
110 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC LOAD TESTING OF SOILS 111
(ii) California bearing ratio - clay stiffness correlation. For design (3) Those that use simple and well-defined geometry in order to gain
purposes, pavement subgrades are generally characterised by the Cali- an insight into a class of problems [e.g. the behaviour of unlined
fornia bearing ratio (CBR). This is a penetration test developed for use tunnels in homogeneous clay deposits (Mair, 1979)].
with empírica! pavement design methods and is not directly applicable to
Useful discussions on the subject of physical modelling for geotechnical
the analytical approach to design. However, since the CBR test is in design purposes may be found in Bassett et al. (1979).
widespread use, correlations with elastic stiffness have been proposed
(e.g. Powell et al., 1984) and are used in design computations in the 3.4.1.2 Stress leveis in the model and in the prototype. Soils have
absence of more reliable data. The validity and the general philosophy
stress-dependent properties: their strength and stiffness and hence their
of correlating a penetration índex test with a resilient stiffness has been deformations and failure mechanisms are determined by the overall levei
criticised (e.g. Hight and Stevens, 1982). However, Brown et al. (1990) of applied effective stress. Therefore, models which experience different
performed a series of CBR and triaxial tests on recompacted specimens;
stress leveis from those which will be experienced in the prototype
their results show that while the stress-resilient strain relationship is
cannot provide an accurate representation of prototype behaviour.
very non-linear a correlation does indeed exist, but it depends on the . Suction, and other factors which tend to produce a cohesive effect in
soil type. This matter is discussed in Chapter 6. soils such as cementing, electrostatic forces in fine grained soils, ageing
and so on, have a disproportionately high levei of influence on models
at low stress leveis.
3.4 Physical model testing While these difficulties suggest that small models will be of little
assistance, larger models also have drawbacks, in terms not only of cost
3.4.1 Introduction and inconvenience, but also the time taken for excess pore pressure
dissipation to occur if long-term behaviour is of interest. ln order to
3.4.1.1 When is model testing appropriate? ln many cases the determi- take advantage of small-scale models the centrifuge technique has been
nation of the mechanical properties of the ground does not enable the developed. Models are accelerated and tested at prototype effective
design problem to be solved with a sufficient degree of accuracy or stress leveis, hence eliminating some of the difficulties associated with
certainty. ln such situations it may be appropriate to perform physical modelling which have been outlined. Centrifuge testing is not without its
model tests to assist in the following cases: own problems, and consequently models at normal gravity (1 g) are still
used often with corrections (Hettler and Gudehus, 1985). Modelling
(1) Where existing soil models are insufficiently developed to provide may thus be conveniently divided into two, namely centrifuge techniques
good predictions. and Earth gravity (1 g) techniques.
(2) Where the boundary conditions make the analysis prone to error.
(3) Where the analysis requires the simultaneous solution of a
number of problems (e.g. where pore fluid flow and soil failure 3.4.2 Centrifuge modelling
mechanisms must be simultaneously considered in dynamic formu-
lations for seismic analyses). 3.4.2.1 Principies of centrifuge modelling. The operating arrangement
of the centrifuge is shown in Figure 3.26. An Nth-scale model (i.e. all
A number of classes of physical model types may be identified. dimensions are N times shorter but with all angles maintained) is
(1) Those that attempt to model a specific and individual prototype, constructed and instrumented in the test package container which is
such as a particular reservoir dam, attempting to reproduce the installed on the horizontal arm pivoted at the central axis. The arm is
individual soil layers and other geological features [e.g. the then rotated around the centrifuge axis from stationary up to some
Grimwith Reservoir dam (Rowe, 1972)]. angular velocity w radians per second. The package swings up as the
(2) Those that seek to model a range of configurations with the horizontal component of the package weight increases. The inward
intention of gaining a wider insight into the influence of certain acceleration on the package due to the constant inward force which the
parameters on the behaviour of a particular prototype [e.g. the arm imposes on the package and the model cause an artificial field,
study of the mechanics involved in the collapse of levees along the equivalent in all respects to a gravity field. The angular velocity is
Mississippi River (Schofield, 1980)]. increased until the acceleration field at the model is Ng.
112 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC LOAD TESTING OF SOILS 113
//
' .
-~ ;;_· test package which
the discussion on Bolton and Powrie (1987).
1---,--~---'-s-~~~~~-,...,-~,-,t"" · •. swings up into 11 (iv) Slip plane characteristics. Slip planes are generated during the
~~:.::_=_t~!t~t~~t~~-"--'----'--'~~.______;a~~~~~
· P • : ... ~"'-.".;,. •~_.-:-:~.. -:--ª->~~--;~;_~.",..-'!:::'.. -:~-.4·;.
contrnl /monitoring
hori_zontal ~osition
durmg testmg deformation of soil structures constructed from granular materials and
overconsolidated clays. lt is believed that the principal determinant of
cables
the thickness of the slip band is the particle size and that the overall
Figure 3.26 General section through a geotechnical centrifuge during testing. geometry is not of great influence (Malhaus and Vardoulakis, 1987).
Accordingly, if the sarne soil is used in the model and the prototype, the
slip bands will be N times oversized in the model. If, on the other hand,
The acceleration (a) of the model located at distance r from the the soil grading in the model is scaled down, then the properties
centrifuge axis rotating at frequency f (revolutions per second) is given (especially the permeability characteristics) will be altered.
by: (v) Boundary effects. Since the centrifuge test is performed in a box
a = roi = 41T 2 rf 2 with rigid side walls, friction stresses will be developed along the
sample-wall interface which would not be present in the prototype
For instance, a 100-g field may be produced by rotating a package at a (Whitman and Lambe, 1987). Furthermore, in dynamic tests waves will
radius of 4 m at 2.5 revolutions per second. ln principle the stress also be reflected back from the boundary which would, in the prototype,
conditions existing at any location within a 1/100 scale model at 100 g be radiated away.
are identical to those in the geometrically equivalent location in the (vi) Instrument response times. One effect of using small-scale models
prototype. Hence its deformations, etc. will be identical, and hence the is that the time in which various processes occur is greatly reduced, and
response of the model as a whole will be similar to that of the this makes considerable demands on the instrument transducers and
prototype. their associated recording systems. Significant problems arise for pore
pressure measuring systems in particular. ln Figure 3.6, for instance, the
3.4.2.2 Experimental shortcomings of the centrifuge test response of miniature pore pressure transducers consolidated into a silty
clay soil is shown to be less than complete even at moderate frequencies
(i) Stress non-uniformity. The stress conditions within the model itself of 0.1 Hz. Dynamic vibrations with a frequency of about 100 Hz may be
are only approximately uniform. For instance, the gravity field increases important for centrifuge model tests in some circumstances (e.g. earth-
in intensity towards the base of the model (since the radius of rotation, quake simulations), and the response capability of the pore pressure
r, increases towards the base) and the 'horizontal plane' is curved in the transducers at these high frequencies must be questionable, particularly
model. Substantial uniformity of stress condition can be achieved by in low-permeability soils.
locating the model package at a large distance from the axis of rotation
rela tive to the model size. Ao important technique that can be used to assess and quantify the
(ii) Similarity. The appropriate scaling factors may be determined effect of these problems on the model performance is to 'model models'
from similarity considerations and have been published extensively in (Schofield, 1980). This involves testing two models representing the
the literature (see, for instance, Kutter and James, 1989). One problem sarne prototype at two different scales, say N = 40 and N = 100. This
that arises is that timescales are dependent on the type of event assists greatly in extrapolating model results to the prototype (N = 1)
considered. For instance, the timescales for diffusion (excess pore situation.
pressure dissipation) and dynamic events are 1/N 2 and 1/N respectively.
ln many cases, in which the model is subject to repeated loading, the 3.4.2.3 Examples of centrifuge use. The centrifuge has been widely
interaction between diffusion and dynamic phenomena is important. 1t is used for modelling cyclic loading situations. Ao example is the model-
clear that similarity cri teria for both may not be satisfied simultaneously. ling of earthquakes.
114 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC LOAD TESTING OF SOILS 115
Lee and Schofield (1988), for example, tested sand embankments, Accelerometer ACC 988 is used to measure the reference input motion.
shown diagrammatically in Figure 3.27(a). Also shown is the disposition The models were tested at 40 g and 80 g so that the equivalent model
of the pore pressure (PPT) and accelerometer (ACC) instrumentation. scale N was 40 and 80 in each case, corresponding to prototype
embankment height of 3.6 and 7.2 m respectively. ln each case the pore
flui d use d was silicone oil with viscosity N centistokes ( cSt), the
viscosity of water being 1 cSt at 20 ºC. Some of the models were formed
by pluviating sand through silicone oil, others by pluviating it through
air and then saturating the dry model with oil. The 'bumpy road'
mechanism employed enabled earthquake-type accelerations to be ap-
plied to the package. Figure 3.27(b) shows the recorded response of
-i.----------------120mm---------->l
-re1erence various instruments for a particular earthquake event indicating liquefac-
nccelerometer
ln) General nrrnngemenl of test embnnkment indicnting instrument locntions lcircles represent pore •cc 988 tion at the top of the embankment (e.g. note the rise in pore water
pressure trnnsducers nnd nrrows represent nccelerometersl. pressure and the change in frequency spectra during the event). The
effect of this liquefaction on the distribution of vibrations within the
v-..--_J
PPT 2338
20.0
embankment is seen in Figure 3.27(c).
An example of model tests on clay embankments is given by Kutter
and James (1989), who instrumented their tests using threads of lead
particles suspended in water-soluble oil injected into the specimen to
provide deformation markers.
Tests performed by other researchers have often involved a 'soil
system' rather than an identifiable prototype structure. For instance
150 200 Hushmand et al. (1988) used an instrumented 'laminar box' to model the
performance of a column of soil during earthquake-induced liquefaction.
(b) Selected instrument records during n pnrticulnr enrthqunke event
º·'°
036
rt 3.4.2.4 Use of the centrifuge as a design technique. While the cen-
trifuge may be used as a design tool in the broad sense that it provides
li I Fourier spectrn for first 75ms A lii) Fourier spectrn for lnst 70 ms an indication of phenomena and trends for which a designer must
,1
0.32 ,11
,,, account, it is not a design tool in the narrow sense of being an accurate
028 ~ 0.28
/1\
,11
means of determining individual prototype behaviour.
1~1~ !:! Schofield (1980) states that 'the limitations of centrifuge models
O 24
f: Hnrmonics ~024 li'
:1: remain serious', citing the examples of fine control of water content of
/,,\ j
- - - ACC 1225
N
:e 0.20
1l 0.20
li'
:1:111
-ACC 731.
low-plasticity soils, the limitation of the prototype size that may be
---Acc121s handled in existing centrifuge package arrangements, and the different
\
1
-ACC 734
:i.:
,,,
0.16
,: cn 0.16
'1'
:1:
timescales required to model different types of event. Ananderajah and
1
1 1 3rd Arulanandan (1984) state that 'we believe that the centrifuge model
11 l
1
0.12 1 4th
3rd : 1 : 2nd 1 1 5th technique is very powerful in verifying theories and studying various
1 1 11 1 1 1 1
1 o.os • 1 1 1 t, 1 1 phenomena associated with the behaviour of structures but cannot be
1 4th Sth '\ f \ ~ /1 ~ 1 ,,. I ,.
used at present for accurate prototype predictions'. Bolton (1979),
:
1
1
1
0.04 \ "./ I
i.f
t,11),~~\ 11 \
11 1.. r ~\
1 ,,\ ~-, ,,.
l ~ 11 'f\
1 1 -,
1
11
1 'J 'v 1 '~' 1
~f V ' \/ however, points out that the value of predictions of the 'most likely'
20Ó 300 400 500 600 behaviour of the prototype is sometimes of little practical importance,
Frequency: Hz
but that 'it is usually much more important to determine and thereby
1e) Fourier spectrn for two time segments during lhe enrthqunke illustrnting lhe chnnging response
with time control the 'relatively unlikely, but possible', behaviour'. lt is in this
region of investigation that the centrifuge arrangement may yield the
Figure 3.27 Centrifuge test on a model submerged island. (Adapted from Lee and
Schofield, 1988.)
most valuable insights.
116 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC LOAD TESTING OF SOILS 117
3.4.3 Earth gravity models testing. lf a structure is loaded at its natural frequency, even small input
loadings may be amplified to produce large oscillations which are likely
3.4.3.1 Introduction. Because of the limitations mentioned in section to damage the structure. ln instances where resonance is a possibility,
3.4.1.2 above, it is important that the stresses in the model are similar for example machine foundations and structures in seismically active
to those in the prototype. This means that for Earth gravity models to regions, engineers need to know the dynamic response of their designs
behave in a similar way to the prototype small scaling ratios N must be in order to ensure that the predominant frequencies which may be
used. Sometimes, however, a model with a moderate scale (e.g. N = 3) imposed are not those at which the structure will resonate. A common
may usefully be constructed and tested in the Earth's gravity. Although means of determining the resonance characteristics of an existing struc-
the stresses are, say, one-third of those in the prototype, and hence the ture is to impose a pulsed excitation at one point and measure the
mechanisms may not truly represent those in the prototype, a good <leal resulting displacements [e.g. Petrovski et ai. (1974), who performed
of useful data may be produced, particularly if the soil in the model is vibration tests on the 56-m-high Mavrovo dam in West Macedonia]. The
placed at a higher void ratio than that anticipated in the prototype to pulse frequency is altered so that an excitation plot ( displacement as a
attempt to simulate the dilation suppression characteristics of the greater function of frequency) may be determined, and hence various vibration
stress levels in the prototype. Difficulties such as the disproportionate modes and damping characteristics for the structure can be determined.
effects of cementation, suction and so on will remain, as will the
different time factors regarding diffusion and dynamic events. And, of
3.4.5 Case histories
course, the loading systems may be impracticably large and expensive.
But a one-third scale model contains only 4% of the volume of the
One source of 'model' test data which should briefly be mentioned is
prototype and may be economic in many situations. lt may also be
published case histories, although the scale is N = 1 in such cases. These
possible to make a correction for the lower stress state in a 1- g model as
provide a convenient way of establishing modes of behaviour, but the
noted above (Hettler and Gudehus, 1985).
quality of monitoring, the lack of detailed information typically provided
lt is impossible to say generally what significance should be given to
and other factors will affect the reliability of such data.
the results from Earth gravity models, but in some circumstances a
one-third scale Earth gravity model may have significant advantages
over a small scale centrifuge model. These advantages may include:
References
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118 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC LOAD TESTING OF SOILS 119
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October 1990: 27-31. developments in field and laboratory testing of soils-theme lecture. Proceedings of the
Burland, J. B. and Symes, M. (1982) A simple axial displacement gauge for use in the 11th lnternational Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, San
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Carter, J. P. (1981) Predictions of the non-homogeneous behaviour of clay in the triaxial Jardine, R. J., Symes, M. J. and Burland, J. B. (1984) The measurement of soil stiffness
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Charles, J. A. and Driscoll, R. (1981) A simple in situ load test for shallow fill. Ground Kirkpatrick, W. M. and Khan, A. J. (1984) The reaction of clays to sampling stress relief.
Engineering 14(1): 31-36. Géotechnique 34(1): 29-42.
Chen, Y.-C, lshihara, I. and Jenkins, J. T. (1988) Dynamic shear modulus and fabric. Part Kirkpatrick, W. M., Khan, A. J. and Mizra, A. A. (1986) The effect of stress relief on
I. Depositional and induced anisotropy. Part II. Stress reversais. Géotechnique 38(1): some overconsolidated clays. Géotechnique 36(4): 511-525.
33-37. Kjellman, W. (1951) Testing of shear strength of clay in Sweden. Géotechnique 2 3:
Chung, R. M., Yokel, F. Y. and Drnevich, V. P. (1984) Evaluation of dynamic properties 225-232.
of sands by resonant column testing. ASTM Geotech. Testing J. 7(2): 60-69. Kutter, B. L. and James, R. G. (1989) Dynamic centrifuge model tests on clay
Clarke, B. G. and Allan, P. G. (1990) Self-boring pressuremeter tests from a gallery at embankments. Géotechnique 39(1): 91-106.
220 m below ground. Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium on Pressuremeters, Ladanyi, B. (1972) ln situ determination of undrained stress-strain behaviour of sensitive
Oxford, April 1990. Thomas Telford, London. clays with the pressuremeter. Can. Geotech. J. 9(3): 313-319.
Clayton, C. R. I. and Pukrash, S. A. (1986) A new <levice for measuring local axial strains Lee, F. H. and Schofield, A. N. (1988) Centrifuge modelling of sand embankments and
on triaxial specimens. Géotechnique 36(4): 593-599. islands in earthquakes. Géotechnique 38(1): 45-48.
Dendani, H., Flavigny, E. and Fry, J.-J. (1988) Triaxial tests for embankment dams: Mair, R. J. (1979) Centrifugai modelling of tunnel construction in soft clay. PhD Thesis
interpretation and validity. ln: Advanced Triaxial Testing of Soil and Rock, ASTM STP Cambridge University: described by Schofield (1980).
977, eds. Donaghe, R. T., Chaney, R. C. and Silver, M. L. American Society for Mair, R. J. (1990) The 3rd lnternational Symposium on Pressuremeters, Oxford, April
Testing and Materiais, Philadelphia, 486-500. 1990-General Report. Ground Engineering July/August 1990: 34-43.
Dyvik, R., Lacasse, S. and Martin, R. (1985) Coefficient of lateral stress from oedometer Mair, R. J. and Wood, D. M. (1987) Pressuremeter testing. ln: CIRIA Ground
cell. Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Report. Butterworths, London.
Engineering, San Francisco. Marsland, A. and Randolph, M. F. (1977) Comparisons of the results from pressuremeter
Fahey, M. and Jewell, R. (1990) Effect of pressuremeter compliance on measurement of tests and large in situ plate tests in London Clay. Géotechnique 27(2): 217-243.
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Oxford, Apnl 1990. Thomas Telford, London, 115-124. materiais. Géotechnique 37(3): 271-283.
120 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC LOAD TESTING OF SOILS 121
O'Reilly, M. P. (1985) The mechanical properties of granular materiais for use in thermal Shibuy~, S. and Hight, ?· W. (1989) Predictions of pare pressure under undrained cyclic
energy stores. PhD Thesis, University of Nottingham. prmc1pal stress rotatJon. Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Sai/
O'Reilly, M. P. (1990) Discussion on R. Bellotti, V. Ghionna, M. Jamiolkowski, P. K. Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Rio de Janiero 1: 123-126.
Robertson and R. W. Peterson (1989) Géotechnique 40(3): 527-529. Symes, M. J. and Burland, J. B. (1984) Determination of local displacements on soil
Overy, R. F. (1982) The behaviour of anisotropically consolidated silty clay under cyclic samples. ASTM Geotech. Testing J. 7(2): 49-59.
loading. PhD Thesis, University of Nottingham. Symes, M. J., Gens, A. and Hight, D. W. (1988) Drained principal stress rotation in
Palmer, A. C. (1972) Undrained plane-strain expansion of a cylindrical cavity in clay: a saturated sand. Géotechnique 38(1): 59-81.
simple interpretation of the pressuremeter test. Géotechnique 22(3): 451-457. Tan, T.-S. and Scott, R. F. (1985) Centrifuge scaling considerations for fluid-particle
Pappin, J. W., Brown, S. F. and O'Reilly, M. P. (1991) Effective stress behaviour of systems. Géotechnique 35(4): 461-470.
saturated and partially saturated granular material subjected to repeated loading. Paper Wheeler, S. J. (1988) The undrained shear strength of soils containing large gas bubbles.
submitted to Géotechnique. Géotechnique 38(3): 399-413.
Petrovski, J., Paskalov, T. and Jurukovski, D. (1974) Dynamic full-scale test of an earthfill Whitman, R. V. and Lambe, P. C., (1986) Effects of boundary conditions upon centrifuge
dam. Geotechnique 24(2): 193-206. experiments using ground simulation. ASTM Geotech. Testing J. 9(2): 61-71.
Potts, D. M., Dounias, G. T. and Vaughan, P. R. (1987) Finite element analysis of the Withers, N. J., Howie, J., Hughes, J. M. O. and Robertson, P. K. (1989) Performance
direct shear box. Géotechnique 37(1): 11-23. and analysis of cone pressuremeter tests in sands. Géotechnique 39(3): 433-454.
Powell, W. D., Potter, J. F., Mayhew, H. C. and Nunn, M. C. (1984) The Structural Wong, R. K. S. and Arthur, J. R. F. (1986) Sand shear by stresses with cyclic variations in
Design of Bituminous Roads. TRRL Report LR 1132. direction. Géotechnique 36(2): 215-226.
Reades, D. W. and Green, G. E. (1976) Independent stress control and triaxial extension Wood, D. M. (1974) Some aspects of the mechanical behaviour of kaolin under truly
tests on sands. Géotechnique 36(4): 551-576. triaxial conditions of stress and strain. PhD Thesis, Cambridge University: reported in
Richart Jr, F. E. (1962) Foundation vibrations. Trans. ASCE 127(1): 863-898. [Toe graph Wood (1982).
forming Figure 3.23 herein is also reproduced in Richart et ai. (1970).] Wroth, C. P. (1984) The interpretation of in situ soil tests. Géotechnique 34(4): 449-489.
Richart, F. E., Hall, J. R. and Woods, R. D. (1970) Vibrations of Soils and Foundations, Wroth, C. P. and Hughes, J. M. O. (1973) An instrument for the in situ measurement of
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. the properties of soft clays. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Sai!
Richart Jr, F. E. (1975) Some effects of dynamic sai! properties on soil-structure Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Moscow 1.2: 487-494.
interaction Proc. ASCE, J. Geotech. Eng. Div. 101(GT12): 1193-1240. Yeung, S. K. and Carter, J. P. (1990) Interpretation of the pressuremeter test in clay
Richart Jr, F. E. (1977) Soil dynamics and its application to foundation engineering- allowing for membrane end effects and material non-homogeneity. Proceedings of the
dynamic stress strain relationships for soils. Proceedings of the 9th International International Symposium on Pressuremeters, Oxford. Thomas Telford, London, 199-203.
Conference on Sai/ Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Tokyo 2: 605-612. Yoshimi, Y., Hatanaka, M. and Oh-Oka, H. (1978) Undisturbed sampling of saturated
Roscoe, K. H. (1953) An apparatus for the application of simple shear to soil samples. sands by Freezing. Soils and Foundations 10(3): 59-73.
Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Sai/ Mechanics, Zurich.
Rowe, P. W. (1972) The relevance of soil fabric to sai! investigation practice. Géotech-
nique 22(2): 195-300.
Rowe, P. W. and Barden, L. (1966) A new consolidation cell. Géotechnique 16(2):
162-170.
Santamarina, J. C. and Goodings, D. J. (1989) Centrifuge modelling: a study of similarity.
ASTM Geotech. Testing J. 12(2): 163-166.
Sayao, A. S. F. and Vaid, Y. P. (1989) Deformations due to principal stress rotation.
Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Sai/ Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering, Rio de Janiero 1: 107-110.
Schofield, A. N. (1980) Cambridge geotechnical centrifuge operations. Géotechnique
30(3): 227-268.
Seed, H. B. (1979) Soil liquefaction and cyclic mobility evaluation for levei ground during
earthquakes. Proc. ASCE 105(GT2): 201-255.
Seed, H. B. (1985) Discussion on 'A note on earthquake induced liquefactions' by Morris,
D. V. (1983) Géotechnique 35(3): 369-370.
Seed, H. B. and ldriss, I. M. (1971) Simplified procedure for evaluating sai! liquefaction
potential. J. Div. Sai/ Mech. Found. Engng, ASCE 97(SM9): 1249-1273.
Seed, H. B. and ldriss, I. M. (1981) Evaluation of liquefaction potential of sand deposits
based on observations of performance in previous earthquakes. ln: ln situ testing to
evaluate liquefaction susceptibility. Proceedings of the ASCE National Convention, St
Louis, Missouri, October 1981.
Seed, R. B., Anwar, H. A. and Nicholson, P. G. (1989) Elimination of membrane
compliance effects in undrained testing. Proceedings of the 12th International Conference
on Sai/ Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Rio de Janiero, 1: 111-114.
Sherif, M. A. and Burrous, C. M. (1965) Temperature effects on the unconfined shear
strength of saturated cohesive soil. Proceedings of the International Conference on
Effects of Temperature and Heat on Engineering Behaviour of Soils. HRB Special Report
103.
FOUNDATION DESIGN OF OFFSHORE GRAVITY STRUCTURES 123
-lf --~•
the in-situ stresses as closely as possible and to provide the soil base in dry dock (b) Slipforming of (e) Slipforming of
parameters required for the foundation design analyses are discussed. caisson walls shafts
Emphasis will be put on offshore gravity platforms, but the founda-
tion design aspects are similar for the various types of gravity structures,
1
_sraelde~
and the sarne design procedures can be applied. These design pro-
cedures are also applicable to structures subjected to cyclic loading in
general, and not only offshore.
Figure 4.1 Construction sequence for concrete gravity structures (Mo, 1976).
Offshore gravity platforms may serve several different purposes, e.g.
124 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS FOUNDATION DESIGN OF OFFSHORE GRAVITY STRUCTURES 125
40cmK_f4oc~
H H
30 cm 20 cm
.e 10 Fine sand
rn~
m E
e~
20
Fine sand .
Stiff sandy cla,r·--:·7--2r"-f-l--+--+----+--I
15 o
o • o
30
Section !-! Section II-II Hard clay
-E 2 40
a} ro
Figure 4.2 Horizontal and vertical sections of the Ekofisk oi! storage tank (Clausen et ai., O ~ 50
1975)
60
The submerged weight of the Ekofisk tank was 1900 MN at the end of
installation. This weight is likely to have increased since then because of UU triaxial
the installation of more equipment. • Unconfined compression test
o Pocket penetrometer
The Ekofisk tank was designed for a characteristic wave height of
24 m. The corresponding characteristic wave forces are a cyclic hori- Figure 4.3 Soil profile, Ekofisk oi! storage tank (Clausen et ai., 1975).
zontal force of 786 MN anda cyclic moment of 28000 MNm. The waves
will also cause cyclic water pressure variations on the seafloor outside
the tank. First-order wave theory gives a characteristic cyclic water
pressure of 60 kPa for a 24-m wave.
The seabottom beneath the Ekofisk tank consists of fine sand to a Silt Sand Gravei
100
depth of 26 m. Interbedded in this sand layer at a depth of about
16-18 m is a layer of stiff clay with low plasticity. Below 26 m, hard
clays are interbedded with sand layers to great depth. A soil profile is
e
Cll
-5
ai
75 í
shown in Figure 4.3, and grain-size distributions and maximum and
minimum porosities of the upper sand are shown in Figure 4.4. Cone
e
.;::::
EQ) 50
/
penetration tests carried out before the tank was installed indicated that
I
(.)
the sand was very dense with a relative density of the upper metres of ai
Cl..
25
about 100%.
The Ekofisk tank was instrumented to measure oceanographic data,
pore pressures in the soil foundation, and the settlement and tilt of the o ./
V
0.002 0.06 2.0 60
tank (Clausen et al., 1975). The Ekofisk tank has been subjected to
several major storms since its installation. The most severe occurred on Grain size diameter (mm)
19 November 1973 and is believed to have caused a cyclic moment of
about 73% of the characteristic force. The most severe storm in which Maximum porosity, ílmax = 48 %
foundation performance was measured occurred on 6 November 1973. Minimum porosity, nmin = 34 %
The maximum wave height was about 16 m, and the cyclic horizontal Figure 4.4 Grain-size distribution for the upper 1-2 m of sand beneath the Ekofisk oi!
force was estimated to be about 48% of the characteristic force. storage tank (Clausen et ai., 1975).
126 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS FOUNDATION DESIGN OF OFFSHORE GRAVITY STRUCTURES 127
(ii) The Brent B Condeep platform was installed in 140 m water in the 1 1
British sector of the North Sea in 1975 (Eide et al., 1976). The upper M.W.L ., EI + 145.3 m
45 m of the foundation soil consists of stiff to hard clay with a few thin ,,
-
layers of dense sand (Figure 4.5). Geophysical investigations indicated
sand to great depth below 45 m.
The Brent B platform has a base composed of 19 cylindrical cells
penetrating 4 m into the soil (Figure 4.6). The equivalent diameter of
the platform base is 90 m.
The submerged weight of the platform is about 2000 MN. It is
designed for a characteristic wave height of 30 m. The corresponding
El+6 O.O m
----3 - 1
- -
characteristic wave forces are a cyclic horizontal force of 500 MN and a -
cyclic moment of 20 000 MN m.
EI+ 4.2m
d!
-
EI O.O m <, Dome
-= /' // u number
100 m
---·-
..
.
~
measured occurred in December 1975. The maximum wave height was
about 20 m. The cyclic horizontal force was about 34% and the cyclic
moment about 43% of the characteristic values.
20 . ____.
.,......_
(iii) The North Sea deep-water platform in Figure 4.7 is one of the
Depth
.
(m)
30 -,.__,
..
40
H
50
..
60
Figure4.7 Wave data, geometry, and Joads for a typical North Sea deep-water gravity
Figure 4.5 Soil profile, Brent B (Andersen and Aas, 1980). platform concept on soft clay.
128 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS FOUNDATION DESIGN OF OFFSHORE GRAVITY STRUCTURES 129
Condeep SP concepts that has been designed for the large water depths lndia and Japan and in the Gulf of Mexico, dense soils offshore Canada
and the soft clay in the Norwegian Trench. The water depth for the and calcareous soils offshore Australia.
concept in Figure 4. 7 is 330 m, and the soil consists of soft, normally
consolidated, clays to great depths (Figure 4.8).
The Condeep SP concept in Figure 4.7 has a base composed of a
number of cylindrical cells penetrating 30 m into the soil. The equivalent 4.3 Wave loads
diameter of the platform base is 150 m and its submerged weight is
2500 MN. The platform is designed for a characteristic wave height of The soil beneath an offshore gravity platform is subjected to a static
30 m. The corresponding characteristic wave forces are a cyclic hori- load due to the submerged weight of the platform and cyclic loads as a
zontal force of 600 MN and a cyclic moment of 100 000 MN m. result of the wave action. The wave action causes a large number of
These examples show that gravity structures can be designed for cyclic horizontal, vertical and moment loads and will in addition cause
various soil conditions, even when they are subjected to severe cyclic cyclic water pressure variations on the seafloor outside the platform.
loading and situated in waters several hundred metres deep. From a The North Sea platforms are generally designed for wave forces and
geotechnical point of view, gravity structures are thus feasible for most storms with a 100-year return period. Examples of characteristic (i.e.
situations in which offshore structures are currently planned, including, maximum) wave loads for typical platforms were given in the previous
for example, the soft soil conditions existing at sites offshore China, section.
A design storm composition recommended by the Norwegian Petro-
leum Directorate (NPD, 1987) for the North Sea consists of an 18-hour
I-
I
generation period with the significant wave height increasing from 0.5 to
1.0 times the characteristic significant wave height, and a 6-hour peak
UNDRAINED SHEAR
º
w
s"" period with the significant wave height equal to the characteristic one,
and an 18-hour reduction period. Examples of wave load compositions
WATER CONTENT, % t: E STRENGTH, kPa
Zz for the 18-hour generation period and the 6-hour peak period are given
. - ..,..
20 40 60 80 ::::, ..>:'. O 50 100
in Table 4.1. ln the examples in Table 4.1, the wave loads have been
·:,. ..
.. 15.0
-~ -.
.... 16.0 \ divided into groups. ln reality, the wave loads will vary from one wave
to another in an irregular manner. The design storm composition is
\Vt -
10
:., -.
~
i ' 1 • .. (compression)
expressed in terms of loads, and it depends on the composition of wave
heights and wave periods in the storm. lt also depends on the load
<(
w 17.3 dependent. Both the characteristic loads and the design storm composi-
1 >- --"--1 ~assive
(/)
i 19.6 (extension) tion must include dynamic amplification of the loads due to flexibility of
i+i
S 30 1 20.0
o the platform and the soil foundation. The determination of the soil
_j
w
co
I
l-
o..
40 ~ : i
1
- 1
50
1 1 20.7 cyclic wave loading throughout its lifetime, and the effect of storms over
i
60
1 J 1 1 20.8
periods longer than the design storm must be considered in foundation
design. For platforms on soft clay with no continuous high-permeability
layers, approximately undrained conditions may prevail during the
whole 30- to 50-year lifetime of a platform. However, if there are
1 .
i .. 21.0 continuous high-permeability layers within the clay, or if the clay is stiff
70 1 1
instead of soft, some pore pressure dissipation will occur, but cyclically
Figure 4.8 Borehole profile in the Norwegian trench (Eide and Andersen, 1984). induced pore pressures may still accumulate from one storm to another.
130 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS FOUNDATION DESIGN OF OFFSHORE GRAVITY STRUCTURES 131
Table 4.1 Example of design storm compositions. to formulate a soil model which properly accounts for these complicated
(a) Composition of 18 hours' storm generation.
stress conditions. This chapter therefore follows the stress path philo-
Load in % of Number of cycles sophy previously used for static loading situations (e.g. Lambe, 1967;
maximum load Bjerrum, 1973). The stress path philosophy is based on performing
0-10
laboratory tests which simulate the stress conditions in the foundation
2228
10-20 1450 soil. The soil parameters at locations between those simulated are
20-30 645 determined by interpolation. A simplified picture of the shear stresses in
30-40 324 a few typical elements along a potential failure surface is shown in
40-50 161
50-60 74 Figure 4.9. The elements follow various stress paths [which may be
60-70 34 approximated to triaxial or direct simple shear (DSS) types of loading],
70-80 11 and they are subjected to various combinations of average shear
80-90 4
90-92.5 1.4 stresses, Ta, and cyclic shear stresses, 'l'cy·
For element 2, the weight of the platform gives higher vertical than
Total number of cycles 4932 horizontal static normal stresses. (This corresponds to a positive Ta with
the definitions used in Figure 4.9.) Element 2 will therefore during
(b) Composition of 6 hours' peak duration. cyclic loading tend to compress vertically. Element 4 is in the passive
zone, and the weight of the platform causes higher horizontal than
Load in % of Number of cycles
maximum load
vertical static normal stresses. During cyclic loading, element 4 will
therefore tend to compress horizontally and extend vertically. Element 2
20 900 is therefore best represented by a triaxial compression test and element
37 500
49 200
4 by a triaxial extension test.
58 90 ln elements 1 and 3 the shear surface will be horizontal. These
64 50 elements are therefore best represented by DSS tests, and DSS tests
70 30 should be run to establish the shear strength on the horizontal plane,
77 15
83 8 i.e. the horizontal shear stress at failure.
89 4 Since both the shear strength and the deformation properties of soils
96 2
100 1
under cyclic loading are anisotropic, triaxial compression, triaxial exten-
sion and DSS tests should normally be included in the laboratory test
Total number of cycles 1800 programme for a gravity structure of some importance.
For platforms on sand, some drainage may occur during the design
storm, and it is unlikely that pore pressures will accumulate from one
storm to another.
The long-term load distribution over the entire lifetime of the
platform may be derived from a long-term cumulative load distribution
reflecting the average occurrence of sea states over a duration which is
at least 10 times as longas the platform lifetime (e.g. Inglis et al., 1985).
ln this chapter, T denotes the shear stress on the 45º plane in the history. This redistribution of Ta will occur under undrained conditions
triaxial test and the shear stress on the horizontal plane in the direct in clays, but might be partly drained in sands.
simple shear test. The stress conditions described above are valid for an offshore gravity
The average shear stress, Ta, is composed of: platform, but similar stress conditions will exist for the other examples
of foundations subjected to combinations of static and cyclic loads
(1) the initial shear stress in the soil prior to the installation of the mentioned in the lntroduction. The main difference between cyclic
platform, To= 0.5(1- K 0)pó, and loading from waves and the other types of cyclic loading is the load
(2) an additional shear stress, A Ta, which is induced by the sub- period and the number of cycles. The wave loads have a period of 5-20
merged weight of the platform, seconds, and a sea storm contains thousands of cycles, whereas an
earthquake induces cyclic · stresses with a period of about 0.1-1.0
where PÓ is the vertical effective overburden pressure, and K 0 is the seconds and generally contains only 10-100 cycles. These differences
coefficient of earth pressure at rest. will not influence the fundamental behaviour of soils under cyclic
The initial shear stress, To, is acting under drained conditions, and the loading, but may influence the numerical values of the soil parameters.
soil is consolidated under this stress. The shear stress due to the weight To determine the soil properties needed in the foundation design
of the platform, A Ta, will first act under undrained conditions, but as analyses, laboratory tests should be performed which are first consolid-
the soil consolidates under the weight of the platform this shear stress ated to the in-situ effective stresses and then subjected to shear stresses
will also act under drained conditions. that simulate the stress conditions of the various elements in-situ during
ln the case of sand foundations, drainage will occur relatively rapidly, cyclic loading as closely as possible. With the existing types of labora-
and it is reasonable to assume that the soil consolidates under the tory equipment, it is not possible to reproduce all the different in-situ
weight of the platform before the design storm arrives. As an example, stress conditions. However, triaxial and DSS tests simulate some impor-
pare pressure measurements in the sand beneath the Ekofisk tank tant stress conditions, and when run with appropriate combinations of
during ballasting which increased the vertical pressure by 60 kPa in the average and cyclic shear stresses the results from these tests can be used
course of approximately 55 days did not show any excess pare pressure to determine the soil properties required to analyse the behaviour of soil
in the sand as a result of this operation (Eide et al., 1979). foundations under combined static and cyclic loads.
For clays, consolidation occurs much more slowly. For the Brent B
Condeep platform on silty, sandy, stiff to hard clay interbedded with
layers of fine, silty sand, pare pressure and settlement observations have 4.5 Bearing capacity
shown that consolidation was completed during approximately 10
months (Andersen and Aas, 1980). For the Statfjord A Condeep An essential part of the foundation design of an offshore gravity
platform on silty, sandy, very stiff to hard clay with only one sand layer platform is to ensure that the foundation soil has sufficient capacity to
at a depth of 31-35 m, observations have shown that consolidation has carry the large static and cyclic loads with an adequate safety margin
taken more than 3 years to complete (Lunne and Kvalstad, 1982). For without excessive deformations. Failure during cyclic loading may be
soft clays it is expected that consolidation may take much longer than 3 associated with large horizontal or rotational cyclic displacements, large
years to be completed. cyclically induced average displacements (e.g. settlements), or a combi-
The amount of consolidation and the corresponding increase in nation of large average and cyclic displacements.
effective stresses may be calculated by ordinary consolidation theory as Plate loading tests have shown that the bearing capacity under
for structures on land. Experience from the North Sea is that consolida- combined static and cyclic loads may be significantly smaller than under
tion tends to occur faster than assumed in design (Lunne and Kvalstad, purely static loads (e.g. Stenhamar and Andersen, 1982; Dyvik et al.,
1982). 1989). One example is shown in Figure 4.10. It is therefore important
The cyclic shear stress, Tcv, is caused by the cyclic wave loads. ln a that the cyclic effects are properly accounted for in the evaluation of the
storm, the wave height and the period vary continuously from one wave soil strength and in the stability analyses.
to another, and the cyclic shear stress will also vary from cycle to cycle. Previously, the foundation design has often been performed using a
The cyclic loading will cause a redistribution of the static stresses in static shear strength reduced for effects of cyclic loading. However,
the ground, and Ta will thus also vary with time during the cyclic load analyses based on such a post-cyclic static shear strength may not always
134 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS FOUNDATION DESIGN OF OFFSHORE GRAVITY STRUCTURES 135
'!a
'!01--1........i'---'......-l......- -
'!
a
Time !iya Ya Time Time
Figure 4.11 Development of shear stress, shear strain and pore pressure during cyclic
loading (general).
Figure 4.10 Comparison of results from model tests with static and cyclic loading (Dyvik
et al., 1989).
Failure
give a realistic measure of the safety margin against foundation failure envelope
under combined static and cyclic loading (Andersen et al., 1982). A
more realistic approach will be obtained by using a shear strength which
is determined under combined static and cyclic loading, similar to that
which the soil experiences in the field. A procedure where this 'cyclic
shear strength' is used to calculate the bearing capacity under combined
static and cyclic loads has been proposed by Andersen and Lauritzsen
(1988). The procedure can be used both for undrained and partly
drained cyclic loading conditions. o
The following sections define the cyclic shear strength, describe how
this strength can be determined from laboratory tests, and explain the
procedure to calculate bearing capacity under combined static and cyclic
loads. Comparison of calculated and measured bearing capacity for
model tests of gravity platforms on soft clay is also presented.
Failure
envelope
4.5.1 Cyclic shear strength
A soil element which is subjected to a combination of average and cyclic Figure 4.12 Effective stress path for a soil element brought to failure by cyclic loading.
136 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS FOUNDATION DESIGN OF OFFSHORE GRAVJTY STRUCTURES 137
The cyclic shear strength is not a material constant, but depends on Ta, (a) (b)
the cyclic load history (e.g. the number of cycles) and the stress path. 0.30
The failure may occur either as large cyclic shear strains, large
average shear strains, or as a combination of the two, depending on the
values of Ta and Tcy· If the values are such that the stress path during a
cycle is dose to the failure envelopes on both the compression and
extension sides, the failure mode will involve large-amplitude shear
strain ( y cy). If the stress path is closer to the failure envelope either on 0.10
the compression or on the extension side, the failure mode will involve 0.05
either large-compression or extension average shear strains (Ya)-
The number of cycles to failure and the failure mode can be o.ao
determined from a series of triaxial and DSS laboratory tests subjected
-0.1 O.O 0.1 0.2 0.3 o.o 0.1 0.2
to various combinations of Ta and Tcy· The results from such tests can be + 'tal cr'vc
t 'tal cr'vc t
plotted as functions of Ta and Tcy, as shown for DSS tests in Figure ~ -,-
SuC suDSS
4.13(a). Each point represents one test, and the numbers written beside cr'vc (J vc cr'vc
each point identify the number of cycles to failure and the failure mode, Figure 4.14 Number of cycles to failure, N 1, and shear strains at failure in tests on
i.e. the average and the cyclic shear strains at failure for that test. normally consolidated Drammen clay with OCR = 1: (a) triaxial; (b) DSS.
Failure is in this example defined as being when either Ycy or Ya reaches
15%. By interpolation and extrapolation of the test results, curves shear strain of 3-4.5% per hour. The results in Figure 4.13 and 4.14 are
defining the combinations of Ta and Tcy that cause failure after various from tests on Drammen clay, which is a marine clay with a plasticity
number of cycles can be drawn (Figure 4.13b). The failure mode can índex of 27%. The specimens were anisotropically consolidated with a
also be defined by symbols along the curves. The diagram in Figure ratio of horizontal to vertical effective normal stresses, K 0 , represent-
4.13b is transformed to normalised form in Figure 4.14(b). A diagram ative of one-dimensional consolidation to simulate in-situ consolidation
for triaxial tests is established in the sarne way (Figure 4.14a). The a~c is stresses. The specimens were consolidated above the in-situ preconsoli-
the vertical effective stress at end of consolidation. The su oss, sue and dation stresses to produce normally consolidated conditions. Further
Su E are the DSS, triaxial compression and triaxial extension undrained details on the testing conditions and the consolidation procedures are
static shear strengths, measured in strain-controlled tests with a rate of given in Andersen et al. (1988a), which also presents soil data for
overconsolidated clay.
The diagrams in Figure 4.14 show that, in DSS tests, the failure mode
a) will be large Ycy for small to moderate Ta values, and large Ya for Ta
values approaching the undrained static shear strength. ln the triaxial
80 80 tests, the failure mode will be large-compression Ya for Ta approaching
9 (20±3) =Nt (YaT'fcy ) the static compression shear strength, large-extension Ya for Ta ap-
'tcy 30 (0±15) •2s (16±6) 'tcy
(kPa) 150 1
proaching the static extension shear strength, and large Ycy for small and
> (o± ~J • 20 (23±1.5) (kPa) moderate values of Ta. The intersection of the curves with the Ta axis
105(19±1) lll.J-V-,,.__.
40 40 depends on the duration of Ta. ln Figure 4.14 the intersection is set
10000 5
> (0±~ ) • >15200 (2.9±0.1) equal to the undrained static shear strength in tests sheared with a rate
>10000 (0.9±0.1) Static (15±0) of shear strain of 3-4.5% per hour.
o _______.__________
o L--1..-__._ __._.....L,;...,_ The cyclic shear strength, defined previously as Tt,cy = (Ta + Tcy) 1, is
o 40 80 o 40 80 established by replotting the data in Figure 4.14. The result is shown in
'ta (kPa) 'ta (kPa) Figure 4.15, which shows that the cyclic shear strength and the failure
mode depend on Ta, the number of cycles, and the type of test. For
Figure4.13 Number of cycles to failure, Nt, and shear strains at failure, Ya ± Ycy, in cyclic triaxial tests, there is a difference between cyclic shear strengths in
DSS tests on normally consolidated Drammen clay: (a) individual test results; (b) curves
based on the individual test results. compression and extension. The compression failure occurs with Ya > O
138 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS FOUNDATION DESIGN OF OFFSHORE ORA VITY STRUCTURES 139
(a) (b) keep track of the pore pressure in the computations. Drainage will have
0.50 ,------,----,----,----,------,-, a positive effect in the sense that some of the permanent excess pore
15±0.25 pressures generated by cyclic loading may dissipate during the storm.
Cyclic loading accompanied by dissipation of permanent pore pressures
0.40 ('precycling') may also change the structure of the sand and increase the
resistance to excess pore pressure generation during subsequent cyclic
Extension loading. On the other hand, one needs to be cautious about relying
~ 0.30 upon the beneficial effect from reduced pore pressures which may
-t::)
--
()'
~ 0.20
develop in dense dilating sand deposits during individual cycles, since
these cyclic pore pressures may also dissipate.
The irregular loading in a storm is taken into account by keeping
track of the development of the permanent pore pressure during the
cyclic load history. The pore pressure accumulation calculation is
0.10
performed using a pore pressure contour diagram established from cyclic
N1=100
stress-controlled laboratory tests. The dissipation of the permanent pore
N1=1000 pressure, due to both drainage towards free drainage boundaries and
o.o
-0.1 o.o 0.1 0.2 0.3 o.o 0.1 0.2 redistribution, may be determined by finite element analysis or, for
♦ ♦
SuE 'tal a'vc sue 'tal a'vc s +DSS
_u__
idealised situations, by closed-form solutions.
-,- ln addition to the drainage and redistribution of the permanent pore
0 'vc CT vc a'vc pressure during the storm, the pore pressure variations within individual
Figure 4.15 Cyclic shear strengths of normally consolidated Drammen clay with OCR = 1: cycles may also be influenced by drainage and redistribution. For dense
(a) triaxial; (b) DSS. sands which tend to dilate during shear, this may mean that a part of
the pore pressure reduction that prevents the sand from developing
at failure, and the extension failure occurs with Ya < O. The cyclic large shear strains may be lost. The cyclic shear strength may then be
compression strength would be applicable for element 2 in Figure 4.9 less than with fully undrained conditions. The redistribution of the pore
and the cyclic extension strength for element 4. pressure within individual cycles may be determined by finite element
Diagrams for Drammen clay with an overconsolidation ratio (OCR) analyses or from closed-form solutions.
of 4 and some other soils are presented in Andersen (1988), which also ln principle, the cyclic shear strength could also be computed for clays
presents a plot for DSS tests which were allowed to drain under the by accumulating the permanent pore pressure. ln practice, however,
application of ~Ta· laboratory pore pressure measurements are more difficult to perform
The diagrams in Figure 4.15 give the cyclic shear strengths for with good accuracy in clays than in sands. Since drainage will not take
elements where the shear stresses are constant during the cyclic load place in clays, it is, therefore, preferable to use the shear strain to
history. ln a storm, however, rcy will vary from cycle to cycle. The determine the cyclic shear strength for clays. For situations where the
equivalent number of cycles of the maximum shear stress, N eqv, that cyclic shear strength and the cyclic shear moduli under undrained
gives the sarne effect as the actual cyclic load history must therefore be conditons are of primary interest, the shear strain will also be a more
determined. Procedures to determine N eqv are presented by Andersen direct parameter than the pore pressure.
(1983). For clays (i.e. undrained conditions) N eqv may be computed by
keeping track of the cyclic shear strain during the cyclic load history.
This 'strain accumulation' procedure is described by Andersen (1983) 4.5.2 Calculation procedure
and by Andersen et al. (1978). For sands, Neqv may be computed by
accumulating the permanent pore pressure generated during the cyclic The procedure for calculating the cyclic bearing capacity of a gravity
load history (Andersen, 1981, 1983). The reason for using the accumu- platform subjected to a combination of static and cyclic loads will be
lated pore pressure for sands is that drainage is likely to occur during explained by means of the simplified general example illustrated in
the design storm in sands. To account for the drainage, it is necessary to Figure 4.16. For simplicity, it is assumed that the normalised cyclic shear
140 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS FOUNDATION DESIGN OF OFFSHORE GRAVITY STRUCTURES 141
strength diagrams are valid for the whole soil profile. The cyclic load shear strength diagrams as points 1 A, 2A, 3A and 4A in Figure 4.16. The
history is expressed by an equivalent number of cycles, N eqv, with values of •a prior to cyclic loading could, for instance, be calculated by
constant cyclic loads. finite element analyses. The cyclic shear strength diagrams indicate that
With the •a
distribution that exists in the soil prior to cyclic loading, in the active zone with triaxial compression type of cyclic loading (point
the cyclic shear strengths of the four elements are indicated in the cyclic 2A) the soil will tend to develop a failure with large Ya and only very
small Ycy· ln zones with DSS type of cyclic loading (points 1A and 3A ),
the elements tend to develop failure with large Ycy· The Ya will be very
small in element 1, but in element 3 some Ya will tend to develop. ln
the passive zone (point 4A ), the soil tends to develop large Ycy· The
different elements along the potential failure surface will thus try to fail
in quite different ways. This will not satisfy strain compatibility along
the potential failure surface and cannot occur. The average stresses must
therefore redistribute such that the failure mode (i.e. the combination of
Ya and Ycy at failure) is approximately the sarne in all the elements along
the potential failure surface. An example of a stress redistribution which
fulfils strain compatibility is shown in Figure 4.16 by points 1B, 2B, 3B
and 4B_
To determine the stress redistribution and the values of •a at failure,
one can specify that:
(1) The combination of Ya and Ycy at failure is the sarne along the
whole potential failure surface.
(2) •a along the potential failure surface must be in equilibrium with
the platform weight.
0.3 With these two conditions the distribution of Ta, the cyclic shear
(.)
>
strength along the potential failure surface, and the safety factor can be
-1::) determined by iteration. The safety factor may be expressed by the
---- 0.2 Compression material coefficient, Ym, which is defined as the ratio of shear strength
[)' ~1
_r p to applied shear stress. The iteration includes the following steps:
0.1 0.1 DSS
N = Neqv (i) Assume a combination of Ya and Ycy at failure (e.g. points 1B, 2B,
3B and 4B with Ya ± Ycy = 15 ± 3% in Figure 4.16).
o.o '---..J._------1..-'---..J.__L_L.._..J.__L__._..J..__J o. o L.._..J.__L_L.._..J.__J
(ii) Read off the values of •a corresponding to the assumed Ya and Ycy
-0.2 -0.1 o.o 0.1 0.2 0.3 o.o 0.1 0.2
from the cyclic shear strength diagrams (Figure 4.16). The values of •a
tal cr'vc taf cr'vc should be determined for triaxial compression, DSS and triaxial exten-
'•
lf~c
1"t,cy
cr;. sion types of loading.
(Step (ii))* (Step (iv))* (iii) Determine the location of potential failure surfaces that give
For Ya ± Ycy = 15±3 %
Compr. 0.14 0.31 equilibrium with the weight of the platform. This can be dane by
DSS
Ext.
o.os
0.02
0.26
0.14
specifying the •avalues determined in step (ii) as strengths in limiting
equilibrium stability analyses with the weight of the platform as the
Figure 4.16 Simplified general calculation example. Cyclic shear strengths before and after driving force. The value of •a at each point can be determined by
redistribution of 'ª
due to cyclic loading, assuming a shear strain combination
Ya ± Ycy = 15 ± 3%. IA, zA, 3A and 4A indicate conditions for'ª values prior to cyclic
interpolation between •a for compression, DSS and extension condi-
tions, depending on the inclination of the potential failure surface at
loading. 1 8 , 2 8 , 3 8 and 4 8 indicate locations after redistribution of 'a as a result of cyclic
loading. *Refers to iteration steps described in the text. that point. (With the sign convention used in the laboratory tests and in
142 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS FOUNDATION DESIGN OF OFFSHORE GRA VITY STRUCTURES 143
the diagrams in this chapter, the sign of the extension value of from •a lnstitute (NGl) later extended to a family of programs which can
the diagrams should be changed when used in this analysis.) analyse a variety of different types of failure surfaces.
The location of surfaces that fulfil equilibrium with the platform ln addition to giving the partial safety factor, Ym, and the location of
weight (i.e. with a safety factor of 1.0) can be expressed by the location the critical failure surface, the calculations also indicate whether the
of the circle centre, as illustrated in Figure 4.17. critical failure mode will be large average platform displacements (e.g.
(iv) Determine the cyclic shear strengths, •t,cy, corresponding to the settlement), large cyclic platform displacements, or a combination of the
combination of Ya and Ycy in step (i) from the cyclic shear strength two. This can be deduced from the relative value of Ya and Ycy for the
diagrams (Figure 4.16). The values of •t,cy should be determined for critical condition.
triaxial compression, DSS and triaxial extension types of loading. The procedure assumes that all soil elements are subjected to the
(v) Perform stability analyses with the cydic shear strengths from step sarne shear stress history. The redistribution that occurs during cyclic
(iv) and with cyclic wave loads and weight of platform as driving forces. loading may cause the stress history for the most severely loaded
•t
The value of ,cy at each point can be determined by interpolation elements to differ from the shear stress history assumed when the cyclic
•t
between ,cy for compression, DSS and extension types of loading, shear strength curves were established. This could possibly lead to a
depending on the inclination of the potential failure surface at that progressive failure mechanism with greater cyclic degradation in the
point. The analyses should be made for the surfaces which were found most severely loaded zones. One reason why model tests have been
to fulfil equilibrium with weight of the platform in step (iii). The critical performed is to see whether this could have a significant effect. Based
surface is the one which gives the lowest material coefficient, Ym· This is on model tests in the laboratory (see section 4.5.3) and in the field, it is
illustrated in Figure 4.17. concluded that this effect generally is insignificant for clays, even in the
(vi) Return to step (i) and repeat the calculations for another case of soft clays with a sensitivity of about 10.
combination of Ya and Ycy· This iteration should be continued until the
combinaton of Ya and y cy which gives the lowest calculated material
coefficient in step (v) has been established. 4.5.3 Verification by model tests
The calculations are relatively simple and fast to perform. An
example of a convenient limiting equilibrium computer program is CAP The procedure for calculating the cyclic bearing capacity has been
(Lauritzsen and Schjetne, 1976) which the Norwegian Geotechnical checked against the results from model tests on clay. The model tests
include field tests, centrifuge tests and 1-g laboratory tests.
All the model test projects were aimed at checking the calculation
procedures and none of the projects was intended to provide results
which should be scaled directly to prototype conditions for design
7
purposes. With this aim it is believed that 1- g laboratory tests are as
/
/ valid as centrifuge tests for modelling the behaviour under undrained
/
/ cyclic loading. ln the case of direct modelling of a prototype, 1-g
/
laboratory model tests may have some limitations, such as the possibility
R
----
---- ', ......... __ .,,,..,. / /
/
of formation of an open crack along the outside of the skirts and the
Location oi circle 7
possibility of cavitation in the pore water in the case of large normal
centres which give 7 ·'S<'s
·'S<'o
stress reductions. When the purpose is to check the validity of a
equilibrium with the ,'.3$ calculation procedure, the tests can either be run such that these
platform weight l ~ ..
(from Step (iii))
·c10-m1nimum
1-:Js limitations are avoided, or the limitations can be accounted for in the
'-<to calculations.
'é weight
Material coefficient, Ym, for platform The different types of model tests all verified the validity of the
and cyclic wave forces calculation procedure. At present, most information has been released
(Step (v)) from the 1-g laboratory model tests, and it is therefore the results from
Figure 4.17 Determination of criticai failure surface and minimum material coefficient for these model tests that are used for documentation in this section.
one combination of Ya ± Ycy· The 1-g laboratory model tests simulated the conditions of an offshore
144 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS FOUNDATION DESIGN OF OFFSHORE GRA VITY STRUCTURES 145
gravity platform with long skirts situated on soft clay in deep water
(- 300 m), and were carried out at the NGI (Andersen et ai., 1989;
Dyvik et al., 1989). The project contained static, cyclic, and static after
cyclic model tests, and back-calculation by the procedure described in
section 4.5.2. Q)
"O
The model had a diameter of 400 mm and a skirt length beneath the o
clay surface of 95 mm. The clay bed was reconstituted and reconsolid- s
ated clay with a depth of 200 mm. The applied platform weight, W,
corresponded to W = 2.2Asu e, where A is the base area of the model,
and sue is the undrained static triaxial compression shear strength at
skirt tip level. The cyclic load was applied with successive load parcels
of varying amplitude and number of cycles under undrained conditions
(short test duration). The predominant order of cyclic amplitude for
+I +I +I
successive load parcels-increasing (largest load last) or decreasing o o o
(largest load first)-is specified in Table 4.2. The distance from the clay
surface to the point of horizontal load application on the model
(moment arm) was varied. The actual values are given in Table 4.2.
The results from the calculated and measured cyclic bearing capacities
for the three cyclic model tests are shown in Table 4.3. Two types of
-
o
failure surfaces (CARL and CARV) were used in the cyclic bearing
capacity calculations for each model test (Figure 4.18). For the CARL
type of failure surface, the soil beneath the structure moves in the sarne 8 8
o ó
direction as the applied horizontal load with the centre of rotation below 1
the lower boundary of the structure. For the CARV type of failure
surface, the underlying soil moves in the opposite direction with the
centre of rotation at or above the lower boundary of the structure.
The calculated failure loads agree well with the corresponding
measured values (second column of Table 4.3). The predicted failure
load is the lowest of the failure loads calculated with the two failure
surfaces (CARL and CARV).
As the third and fourth columns of Table 4.3 show, there is
agreement between the calculated most critical type of failure surface
and the measured behaviour (CARL, Zr < O; CARV, Zr > O) for model
tests NGI2 and NGI5. For model test NGI4, the CARL and CARV
types of failure surfaces are almost equally critical, and the measured
centre of rotation is dose to the skirt tip level.
"'~o°'I r--. . . . .\OI. . ,NO
.......+O'I . , \OI
.......+.......+
.....;~
Table 4.2 Moment arm and cyclic load order in the cyclic model test.
CARL CARV
Figure 4.18 Illustrations of the CARL and CARV types of failure surfaces.
The calculations predict that the failure mode is large cydic displace- observed displacements
' 1
ments (i.e. cydic horizontal displacements or cydic rotations) for all the o ±2 ±4 ±6 ±8
mc;del tests. This is seen from the combination of average and cydic Horizontal displacement, max (cm)
shear strains which produce the most critical conditions in the calcula-
tions (Ya + Ycy, fifth column of Table 4.3). The last column of Table 4.3
shows the ratio of measured cydic vertical displacement at the platform E
z
base periphery (0.5D0cy) to the measured cydically induced settlement, ~
±1.5
Dv, at failure. Some settlements are observed in all the model tests, but à
~
the numbers in the last column dearly show that cydic displacements X
Cll ±1.0 f---.f--.---1,-,,,<..--Calcu lated-+-------1
were predominant in all the tests, in agreement with the calculations. E
ln summary, the comparison of measured and calculated results for E 1
Q)
the model tests show that the design procedure for stability analysis is E H--F-:-,....=+-~ Calibrated to
o
capable of predicting cydic failure load, type of failure surface and ~ observed displacements
failure mode.
o ±2 ±4 ±6 ±8
Rotalion, max (1 Q·4 rad)
4.6 Cyclic displacements and soil stiffness for dynamic analyses Figure 4.19 Cyclic displacements at sea bed elevation during storms for the Brent B
Condeep platform. Design forces are a horizontal force of 500 MN and a moment of
2 x10 4 MNm. (From Andersen and Aas, 1980.)
Cydic deformations in the soil and cydic displacements of the platform
induce stresses in the oil wells, risers, and pipeline connections. Large
cydic platform displacements and high accelerations may also become platform if the cydic horizontal displacements at the seafloor elevation
unpleasant for the crew and damage the equipment on board. reach approximately 150 mm.
Soil spring stiffnesses are required in the dynamic analyses of the The observed first resonance periods for the Condeep Brent B
platform. The dynamic analyses must ensure that the resonance periods platform were 1. 78, 1. 71 and 1.19 seconds (Figure 4.20) and are well
of the platform are sufficiently far away from the wave periods with below the predominant wave periods. For platforms in deeper water,
significant energy. However, even if the load period is not dose to any however, the resonance period may increase to more than 4 seconds.
of the resonance periods, dynamic amplification of the wave loads may This is dose to the periods of the smaller waves and may lead to high
occur and must be considered in design. amplification of the wave loads, especially for the small waves. Since
The Condeep Brent B platform may be used as an illustration. A there is a large number of the small waves, fatigue becomes an
combination of measurements and calculations gives an expected cydic important design consideration.
horizontal displacement of 90 mm at seafloor elevation and a cydic To calculate cydic displacements under storm loading and to deter-
rotation of 6.5 x 10- 4 radians for a design storm occurring during the mine the soil stiffness for use in the dynamic analyses, it is necessary to
first winter after platform installation (Figure 4.19). Theoretical calcula- determine the stress-strain behaviour (i.e. the shear modulus) under
tions have shown that yielding may occur in oil wells underneath the cydic loading. The following sections will first present examples of shear
148 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS FOUNDATION DESIGN OF OFFSHORE GRA VITY STRUCTURES 149
a) Shear stress,
60 1: (kPa)
Load cycle No.:
1 40 1 700 884
1. Mode r- 2. Mode 3. Mode
1
1
1
•1
'1
1
-4 J,---t 1 2
Shear strain,
'1
,' 1,
~y
y(%)
1
-40
'
o 0.5
b) Shear stress,
Frequency (kPa)
1:
60 Load cycle No.:
Figure 4.20 Acceleration spectra for the Brent B condeep platform as calculated from 10 5000
measured accelerations (Hansteen, 1980). The two first modes of 1.78 and 1.72 seconds
40 Tcy
(0.56 and 0.58 Hz) represent bending in the two horizontal directions. The third mode of
1.19 seconds (0.84 Hz) is torsion about the vertical axis.
20
Ta Tcy
o
strains measured under different conditions in the laboratory. This will o.o 0.2 0.4 0.6
illustrate the importance of modelling various parameters correctly. It Axial strain,Ea (%)
will also be shown how laboratory tests can be used to determine cyclic
shear moduli for calculating cyclic displacements under the wave forces
e) Shear stress,
and for calculating soil stiffnesses for use in dynamic analyses, and how
the analyses can be performed. Numerical values of soil parameters to 1:(kPa)
40
be used for a 6-hour storm on Drammen clay are included. Comparisons
between calculated and measured cyclic displacements in prototypes and 20
model tests are also presented.
Axial strain,
-4 2 Ea (%)
4.6.1 Stress-strain behaviour under cyclic loading
Load cvcle No. 25 -40
0.2 O.OS
a) b)
O.O o.ao
80 O.O
80
2.87±0.78 '!,, / s, ,oss
• •27±4=rcr+rcy
-0.06 1.07±0.38 Figure 4.23 Average and cyclic shear strains in DSS tests on Drammen clay with OCR = 1.
'!cy ±0.251-i-4±0.255. 76±0.58 (a) N = l (b) N = 10. (e) N = 100.
(kPa) 4 º
0.03±0.~52 • 0.64±0.08
0.35±0.10 Goulois et ai. (1985) presented similar plots for DSS tests which were
o .___...____._ ___.______.__ allowed to drain under the application of ~ Ta.
o o .......---~--................~ -
40 80 o 40 80
'!a (kPa) '!a (kPa) 4.6.2 Cyclic shear modulus to calculate cyclic displacements
Figure 4.22 Average and cyclic shear strains, Ya and Ycy, after 10 cycles in DSS tests on
Drammen clay with OCR = 1. (a) Individual test results. (b) Curves based on the To calculate the cyclic displacements and soil spring stiffnesses, the ratio
individual test results. between cyclic shear stresses and cyclic shear strains is required, i.e. the
152 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS FOUNDATION DESIGN OF OFFSHORE GRAVITY STRUCTURES 153
1 a I a'vc 0.20
-0.15 -0.1 O -0.05 0.00 0.05 0.1 O 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.8
0.8 0.15
0.25 0.6
rl
cn o
0.6 0.20 cn 0.10 '<
q---
ü
o ::::, 0.4
:::, (/)
rl
cn o<
...___ 0.15 .Q...___ ---p >-
ü o.os
p
o>- 0.4 o 0.2
0.1 O ci -
o.o o.o
0.2 1 10 100 1000 10000
0.05
No. of cycles
O.O
Figure 4.25 Contour diagram of cyclic shear strain for DSS tests with symmetrical cyclic
0.6 loading on Drammen clay with OCR = 1.
0.15
ü
For Drammen clay, the values of Ycy in the triaxial tests in the range
cn
:::,
o'"" around the initial shear stress, i.e. Ta = To, are relatively similar to the
...___ 0.10 ":___
>- o_ values of Ycy in the DSS tests. It has, therefore, in many cases been
o
p
ci found acceptable to assume that the Gcy from DSS tests with Ta= O can
0.05
be used to represent the entire soil foundation. For more accurate
0.00 calculations, the effect of Ta and type of test should be taken into
account. The effect of Ta may be more important for other soils.
0.15 The cyclic shear modulus from DSS tests with symmetrical cyclic
ü
:::,
loading on Drammen clay is shown in Figure 4.26. The curve for
cn OCR = 1 is established from the data in Figure 4.23. The figure
...___ ...___
p
~ 0.2 illustrates that the cyclic shear modulus depends strongly upon cyclic
shear stress, number of cycles and overconsolidation ratio.
Cyclic displacements and soil spring stiffnesses are the results of shear
strains integrated over the entire soil foundation, and it is essential to
know the cyclic moduli over the full shear stress range. At some
distance from the platform, the cyclic shear stresses and the cyclic shear
Figure 4.24 Average and cyclic shear strains in triaxial tests on Drammen clay with strains become small, and the accuracy of the ordinary laboratory tests
OCR = 1. (a) N = l. (b) N = 10. (e) N = 100.
may not be sufficient. This problem can be overcome by determining
the initial shear modulus Gmax and interpolating as shown by the dashed
cyclic shear modulus, Gcy = Tc/Ycy· The data in Figures 4.23 and 4.24 curves in Figure 4.26. G max can be determined in the laboratory by
show that in DSS tests Ycy is essentially a function of Tcy, with a resonant column tests (e.g. Richart et al., 1970) or by shear wave
relatively small influence of Ta. ln triaxial tests, Ycy is somewhat more velocity measurements (Dyvik and Madshus, 1985). Measured Gmax
influenced by Ta but is still mainly a function of Tcy· The variation of Ycy values for Drammen clay are given in Andersen et al. (1988).
with Tcy can be presented in contour diagrams of the type shown in The diagrams in Figure 4.26 are valid for cyclic loading with constant
Figure 4.25. The contour diagrams can be established from diagrams cyclic shear stress during a storm. However, the cyclic shear stress will
like those in Figures 4.23 and 4.24 or directly from the test results. The normally vary from one cycle to another in a storm (Table 4.1). The
contour diagrams are valid for one given Ta, and a series of such equivalent number of cycles at a constant cyclic shear stress, N eqv, that
diagrams are needed to fully define the shear strain response. gives the sarne effect as the actual cyclic load history must, therefore, be
154 CYCLIC L0ADING 0F S0ILS F0UNDATI0N DESIGN 0F 0FFSH0RE GRAVITY STRUCTURES 155
,' ºo~'0's,<t
', '-
-----1
11,:
S>7,
(/) Oo,
(/) '~7, li,:~ V
o ::, ' o
'-n
~7, ..__""'::::---.::-..
>,
(.)
(9
30
Ct,
10
o 0.2
1
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.4
0.3
0.2 • ------ -
T.cy / suDSS
0.1
Figure 4.26 Secant cyclic shear modulus in DSS tests on Drammen clay with symmetrical
cyclic loading. O.O j====::;===~===
0.8
0.4
0.2
·----.-- -
ing at the end of the storm is normally assumed. o.o~======;:===~=======
For calculation purposes, the relationship between cyclic shear stresses
and strains may be expressed in terms of the tangent shear modulus, the
variation of which may be put into a mathematical form. One formula-
tion that has been used is shown in Figure 4.27. The numerical values of
the constants for Drammen clay subjected to the 6-hour storm in Table
0.6
0.4
0.2
·---- •
-- -- --
4. l(b) are presented as functions of the overconsolidation ratio. o.o 1~----~4----,J10_ _ _ ___.40
Subsequently, the distribution of maxima, including the expected ex- assumed that the waves occur with shear stresses in ascending order.
treme value, are found from probabilistic considerations. One alterna- The shear strains at the end of each of the load pareeis are determined
tive to following every cycle in the load history is, therefore, to from the laboratory test data by using the strain accumulation procedure
determine equivalent linear soil spring stiffnesses. referred to in section 4.5.1.
These equivalent linear soil spring stiffnesses may be calculated as the The shear modulus, Gcy,so, can be determined for load histories
ratio between the standard deviation of the forces and the standard scaled to various values of •cy,max/su, and expressed as a function of
deviation of the corresponding displacements during the design storm Tcy,SD·
(O. E. Hansteen, personal communication). The aim is to arrive at the For calculation purposes, the relationship between standard deviations
most realistic results for the standard deviation of the response, i.e. the of cyclic shear stresses and strains may be expressed in terms of a
general levei. An underlying assumption is that the subsequent statistical tangent shear modulus, in analogy with the shear modulus for calculat-
computations are not invalidated by the non-linearity and non-station- ing the maximum cyclic displacements (section 4.6.2). The mathematical
arity of the actual foundation. form used in Figure 4.27 may also be applied for the standard deviation
The equivalent stiffness obtained in this way is higher than the values.
expected stiffness during the few most extreme load cycles. If a
sufficient number of such extreme load cycles should follow immediately
upon each other, such that resonance has time to develop, the standard 4. 6.4 Calculation procedure
deviation approach may underestimate the extreme response.
To calculate the equivalent linear soil spring stiffnesses, one may use The maximum cyclic displacements and the equivalent linear soil spring
a shear modulus of the soil defined as the ratio of the standard deviation stiffnesses can be calculated by the finite element method using the soil
(SD) of cyclic shear stresses in the cyclic load history to the correspond- properties described in the two previous sections.
ing standard deviation of the cyclic shear strains, G cy,so • Table 4.4 The finite element analysis accounts for stress distribution and may
shows how this modulus is calculated for the load history in Table 4.l(b) also account for soil layering and non-linear stress-strain properties.
with a maximum shear stress of •cy,max = 0.7su. ln the example, it is Proper modelling of these factors is essential. Closed-form solutions
(e.g. Gazetas, 1983) have a limited ability to account for soil layering
and non-linear stress-strain properties, and must be used with caution.
Table 4.4 Example showing calculation of cyclic shear moduli for the load history in Table
4.l(b) with a maximum cyclic shear stress of •cy,max = 0.70su.
The finite element analyses can be performed with a three-dimen-
sional model [e.g. INFIDEL (Hansteen, 1988)] or, more approximately,
•cy
No of cycles % of max. load Ycy (%) with a plane strain model.
Su
If using a plane strain model, the transformation from the actual
900 20 0.141 0.07
500 37 0.262 0.13
three-dimensional situation may be done by first constructing a rectangle
200 49 0.344 0.16 with the sarne area and the sarne moment of inertia as the real platform.
90 57 0.400 0.19 This rectangular base is then modelled in the plane strain finite element
50 64 0.447 0.22
30 70 0.493 0.25
analysis with the sarne width and the sarne forces per unit length as for
15 77 0.538 0.32 the rectangle.
8 83 0.580 0.39 Since the soil model assumes that the cyclic shear modulus is a
4 89 0.622 0.42
96 0.669 0.46
function of cyclic shear stress only, independent of Ta and stress path,
2
1 100 0.700 0.49 the initial soil stresses and the platform weight may be disregarded in
the analysis, and only the cyclic loads need to be applied.
SD = 0.181 0.091 For platforms with skirts that are long compared with the platform
diameter, it is important to model the flexibility of the skirts in the finite
(-SuG) SD
= (•cy)
-
Su SD
X -1-
Ycy,SD
= 0.181 100
X - -
0.091
= 199
element model. lt may also be important to model the flexibility of the
cantilever part of the caisson.
(G)
Su max.wave
= (.E9'..)
Su max
X _ l _ = 0.70
Ycy,max
X lOO = 143
0.49
The soil may be modelled by the mathematical expressions in the
previous section. To ensure that ali the elements lie on the curve that
158 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOJLS FOUNDATION DESIGN OF OFFSHORE GRAVITY STRUCTURES 159
they are supposed to follow, the loads may be applied in increments E 40 , - - - , - - - - , - - - , - - - - , •
with one iteration at each increment. Other procedures, e.g. secant
modulus iteration technique, may yield similar results, even if they are
.s
6'; 30
different in principle, and may be affected by convergence problems 'O •
'O • ...--- Measured
when part of the soil volume is yielding in shear. êi5 20
The cyclic displacements under the maximum wave are calculated by Q)
~
applying the maximum (characteristic) wave forces using the soil model .E 10
described in the previous section and in Figure 4.27. The results from cii
"E
o
the analysis are maximum cyclic horizontal and vertical displacements at .!::! o 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0
various points in the soil and on the platform base. õ
:r: Horizontal displacement,
The equivalent linear soil spring stiffnesses for dynamic analyses are
Std. dev. (mm)
calculated by applying the standard deviation of the wave forces in the
design storm and using a soil model as described in the previous section.
The output from the analysis gives displacements in terms of standard E 2.5 ,---,---,---..,.....--,
z
deviations. For the spring stiffness calculations, it is important to be ~ 2O
aware that, in general, horizontal displacement is a function of both s·
horizontal load and moment. Likewise, rotation is a function of both -;-1.5
Q)
moment and horizontal load. One way of decoupling the two equations 'O
"'O 1.0
is to give the elevation where horizontal displacement is a function of u5
horizontal load only and rotation is a function of moment only, and to 0.5 '------ Calculated
"E
Q)
give the spring stiffness values at this elevation. E o
o
~ o 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
Rotation
4.6.5 Verification by prototype observation and model tests Std. dev. (1 o- 4 rad)
Figure 4.28 Measured and calculated cyclic displacements of the Condeep Brent B
The procedure to calculate cyclic displacements described above has platform during six storms. (From Andersen and Aas, 1980.)
been used to calculate the cyclic displacements measured in a prototype
(Figure 4.28) and in model tests (Figure 4.29), and the agreement is
encouraging. The prototype is the Brent B platform described in section ments will cause stresses in oil wells, pipelines, etc. Overloading of these
4.2, and the model test is test NGI2 described in section 4.5.3. elements may have serious consequences, and stresses induced in them
Model tests have in several cases shown that it is important to model by the soil deformation must be evaluated. These stresses will depend
the shear modulus at small shear strain levels correctly. One example is not only on the total displacements, but also on the distribution of
the plate loading tests on overconsolidated stiff clay at Haga (Andersen displacements with depth. The vertical settlement will also reduce the
and Stenhamar, 1982). The test results showed that, unless the shear free-board between the deck and the sea.
modulus at small shear strain levels is modelled correctly, calculations To provide the necessary information, the geotechnical design ana-
may overestimate the displacements and underestimate the soil stiffness lyses have to include calculations of the settlements. Both total values
by an order of magnitude. and variations with depth and time are of interest.
The settlement of a gravity platform may be separated into different
components. These components are not independent mechanisms. Sev-
era! of them occur simultaneously and influence each other. However,
4. 7 Settlements due to cyclic loading separation into the components listed in Table 4.5 may be useful when
attempting to predict settlement.
The static weight and the cyclic loads will cause permanent deformations The first three components will also occur in the case of a structure
in the soil beneath and outside the platform. The permanent displace- on land without cyclic loading. Components 4 and 5, however, are
160 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS FOUNDATION DESIGN OF OFFSHORE GRAVITY STRUCTURES 161
1000
800
o o o
38 o
li A
600 õ;, t.:::
e
::, ;,
Hcy ..
(NI
400
'·';-•
<l
__ ,. [D-::,"~-~:
"
-,,,.-,,
.-;..t
'
-1~·:·,
~ '". ,
<l <l
[]]
,-,,
.· ,~! -~-1 ~
,•.
;-,; .·.,
r.:•.I,
\
--
'_.,,
200
o (l)
o 5 10 15 20 25 1..,
o
o.
Rotation 0cy (1 o- radians)
3
"'"'
1000 u
(1)
><
(l)
"Cl
(l)
800 14 17 u
::,
"Cl
38 38 .a
2226
29 b
600
Hcy 21
Neqv= 10
"'ü
.Sl
>.
INI Neqv= 10
Calcu1ated u
400 (l)
200
Measured
-
-5
o
e
.s
~
o.
·;;;
o L----'--------''------'----' "'
O 0.5 1.0 1.5 -1.0 -0.5 O.O 0.2 'Õ
2
8H,cy at clay surface (mm) 8 H,cy at skirt tip (mm) (1)
::,
"Cl
Figure 4.29 Calculated and measured cyclic displacements in a model test of a gravity ~
.cil
platform on clay (Andersen et ai., 1989; Dyvik et ai., 1989).
ºo
e
(l)
t:
"'u
·;::
so
u
ô,
a
::, ~
"'
(l)
1..,
caused by cyclic loading and seldom occur to the sarne extent on land as õ (1)"'
ºa > o. 1..,
(l)
For structures with cyclic loading, however, the settlement often does _g"' _g"'
"Cl .Sl .Sl
not slow down, but continues at the sarne rate. This is illustrated in "'o ~ ü
>.
Figure 4.31 for a tower subject to cyclic wind loading, which shows that ,..J vi u
162 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS FOUNDATION DESIGN OF OFFSHORE GRAVITY STRUCTURES 163
o
Lon on e ay: .1_
T
water content, w = 26-28% 12.2m 36m
31m
plastic limit, Wp = 25-27% -2 Fix point
liquid limit, wL =75-80% Plan
shear strength, Su = 100 - 200 kPa 38m
1
c~ffi~en.!_of ~l~e_ch~ng~ mv = 0.8 •1o-2 m2/kN 174m
38m
9m Sand q101 =220 kPa
• Observation point
qunload= 85 kPa
Rock qnet =135 kPa Plan
Section
4.5m+----L_
1 1.5m
Stiff fissured clay:
Time in years water content, w = 30-35%
36m
50 100 plastic limit, wp = 28%
2 5 10 20
liquid limit, WL = 75%
r' 6m _ _ Dense sand _ _ _ _ -
~ 400 6.5m _ _ Sandy clay . ___ _
-o· ..___,
1
ro
~ Section
_.:l 200
Time in years
o 0
o o2 o5 2 5 1O 20 50 100
t:::::=- t-- 1
"f'-.._.__ 1
40
-1\"'\\ 50 .,......__
E
E \ ~" r---.._
-,, Pier 1
E
E 100
1 ~ ....
~ 80
\ \' ~ 1 Ê ~
'<\ 1,-----Yearly
Í'\ settlement
Q)
E \ ' ~ ........_ 1
........_ t"----o Pi e r 2
Ql
E
Ql
150 1
Monument
\8mm--
"'
Q)
-- ~
:;::: i--...., Pier3 finished 1937
w
1
"- 200
120 l\
(f) r----,, Pier 4
(f)
i '.
250
1
160 1
1
300
Figure 4.30 Settlement record for the Waterloo Bridge, London. (After Cooling and
Gibson, 1955; reproduced from Bjerrum, 1966.) Figure 4.31 Settlement record for the San Jacinto Monument, Texas, which is subjected to
cyclic wind loading. (After Dawson, 1947; reproduced from Bjerrum, 1966.)
the settlement curve bends downwards in the semilogarithmic plot. more difficult to calculate. This is a load situation which seldom occurs
Similar observations have been made on other structures. to the sarne extent on land, and there are no generally accepted
The components 1, 2 and 3 in Table 4.5 occur under constant static calculation methods to predict these settlement components. ln the case
load and can be evaluated by the sarne procedures as used for structures of the existing North Sea gravity platforms, the prediction of these
on land. Even if there are uncertainties related to the calculation of settlement components has often been made on an empirical basis by
these components, the procedures are relatively well established for assuming that the rate of vertical settlement after the end of consolida-
calculating total settlement, distribution with depth and time sequence. tion with be 10-15 mm/year. This number includes settlement compon-
The vertical settlement due to cyclic loading (components 4 and 5) is ents 3, 4 and 5 (Table 4.5) and is in good agreement with the
164 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS FOUNDATION DESIGN OF OFFSHORE GRAVITY STRUCTURES 165
observations shown in Figure 4.32. However, this empirical design tests, actual numerical values for Drammen clay will be given, and it
practice cannot be uncritically used to predict settlement of gravity will be shown how the calculations can be performed.
platforms or other gravity structures in general. lt is limited to single-
base platforms on stiff clays and dense sands in water depths less than
150 m and is not necessarily vali d for conditions with soft clay, greater 4. 7.1 Development of average shear strains during cycling
water depths, other geometries, other static loads or other cyclic load
histories. The average shear strain, Ya, which develops during undrained cyclic
One way of calculating the settlement due to cyclic loading under loading is a function of the initial static shear stress, To, the additional
undrained conditions (components 4a and 4b) would be to perform average static shear stress, ~Ta, the cyclic shear stress, Tcy, and the
finite element analyses with elastic-plastic cyclic soil models where the number of cycles, N. This is illustrated for a triaxial specimen in Figure
stress-strain curve depends upon the number of cycles. Every load cycle 4.33. The static curve defines the shear strain, ~Ya, which occurs when
should then be applied and followed in the analyses. Computer pro- the additional average static shear stress, ~ Ta, is applied.
grams capable of doing this exist (e.g. Prévost et al., 1981). However, as Cyclic loading will cause increased average shear strains. As an
mentioned in section 4.6, there are uncertainties involved in such example, if the triaxial specimen in Figure 4.33 is loaded to Ta = Ta,1' it
computations, and the analyses may become very costly. will experience an average shear strain ~ Ya,l during the static load
An alternative calculation approach is to perform simplied finite application. When it is afterwards subjected to N 1 cycles with a cyclic
element analyses along the sarne lines as the simplified finite element shear stress, Tcy,i, it will suffer additional average shear strains and end
analyses described to calculate cyclic displacements and soil spring with an accumulated average shear strain of y a,l. The dotted curve
stiffnesses. defines Ya as a function of Ta after N 1 cycles of Tcy,l· Since Ya is a
The volumetric strains due to dissipation of the cyclically induced pare function of To, ~Ta, Tcy and N, there will be one Ta-Ya curve for each
pressure (component 5) may be calculated in the sarne way as conven- set of Tcy and N. The data to construct Ta-Ya curves for different values
tional consolidation settlement, but with the reloading compressibility of of Ta and N are contained in the diagrams in Figures 4.23 and 4.24.
the soil. The stress change causing settlements is set equal to the The diagrams in Figures 4.23 and 4.24 are valid for cyclic loading with
cyclically induced excess pare pressure. a constant cyclic shear stress. ln a storm, the cyclic shear stress will, as
The following sections describe the type of soil data needed to mentioned previously, vary from one cycle to another. The equivalent
perform the simplified analyses to determine components 4a, 4b and 5. number of cycles at a constant cyclic shear stress, N eqv, that gives the
lt will be described how the data are evaluated from the laboratory
Static strength
MONTHS AFTER PLATFORM INSTALLATION I
5 1o 15 20 25 ~o 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
1 1
Beryl 'A'
I
I Ya
N cycles ,'
,..•cy = 'tcy ,__
i' -i --- - -~
300~~---------'---'-----'-------'-_j_-L_____j__ _j__-'----
Figure 4.32 Summary of measured settlement for five North Sea gravity platforms ( exclud-
ing initial settlement) (Lunne and Kvalstad, 1982). Data about the geometry and the soil Figure 4.33 Relationships between average shear stress and average shear strain for static
conditions for the various platforms are given in the references. and cyclic loading.
166 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS FOUNDATION DESIGN OF OFFSHORE GRAVITY STRUCTURES 167
sarne effect as the actual cyclic load history can be predicted from the 'Cal cr'vc
tests with constant cyclic shear stress by the procedures described in 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15
section 4.5.1.
Like the average and cyclic shear strains, the permanent pore pressure,
up, generated by undrained cyclic loading depends on the combination
of average and cyclic shear stresses, the number of cycles, and the type
of test. 1t is therefore convenient to plot the permanent pore pressure in
the sarne type of diagram as the shear strains. Pore pressure diagrams
for Drammen clay with OCR = 1 after 1, 10 and 100 cycles are shown in 0.00
Figures 4.34 and 4.35. The pore pressure diagrams were constructed 1.0 o
based on the individual test results in the sarne way as the shear strains
(f)
(f)
o ::::, -~--~eo, (b)
0.20
-t)
>
(Figure 4.22). The permanent pore pressure, up, includes the pore
pressure change, ~up, that occurred when the average shear stress was
cn
-- o>-
o.8
"'-19-·
o·<?o C?.z'~
-<'
, 1v
0.15 --t>
p
p 0 '\ 0
changed from -r0 to •a· For the triaxial test data, ~uP does not include \'?,t. 0.10
\%
the pore pressure due to the change in octahedral normal stress, ~aoct· \::,,0
When considering pore pressures, one should bear in mind that pore \ 0.05
\
\
pressure measurements are difficult to perform with a high degree of 0.00
accuracy on clay specimens in cyclic tests. There will be stress concen- 0.15
trations in the specimens, and the pore pressure needs time to reach
equilibrium within the specimen. The requirements regarding the com- 0.10
pliance of the pore pressure measuring system are also stringent. It is
believed, however, that reasonably accurate values of permanent pore 0.2 0.05
pressures may be obtained provided care is taken to obtain high-quality o.o L-....1...J.___.~...1....l......L.l...-UÜ,OO
measurements. o.o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
'ta/ SuDSS
4. 7.3 Procedure to calculate settlements due to shear strains under Figure 4.34 Permanent pore pressure in DSS tests on Drammen clay with OCR = 1.
undrained cyclic loading (a) N = l. (b) N = 10. (e) N = 100.
0.10
0.2 platform due to the combined effects of submerged weight and cyclic
o.os loading. The effect of cyclic loading on the Ta-Ya relationship may
influence the distribution of Ta. The new distribution of Ta will be given
O.O 0.00
by this analysis.
0.15 (iv) lf the calculated settlement and the distribution of Ta have
0.4 (e)
changed noticeably compared with the distribution used to determine
0.10 the moduli in step (iii), step (iii) should be repeated. This iteration
0.2 should be continued until convergence of both settlements and distribu-
o.os tion of Ta is achieved.
O.O 0.00 (v) The settlements due to the shear strains which are caused by
·0.4. ·0.2 o.o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 cyclic loading under undrained conditions can now be determined as the
difference between the settlements calculated in step (iii) and the initial
-rafsl
settlements calculated in step (i).
Figure 4.35 Permanent pore pressure in triaxial tests on Drammen clay with OCR = 1.
(a) N = l. (b) N = 10. (e) N = 100.
4. 7.4 Calculation of settlements due to dissipation of storm-induced
permanent pare pressure
finite element analyses like the one used to calculate cyclic displace-
ments under the maximum wave in the storm. The analyses performed to give settlements due to shear strains under
(iii) Steps (i) and (ii) will give the values of Ta and Tcy for each soil undrained conditions in the storm also give the distribution of i1 Ta, Ta
element. The calculated stresses will also indicate whether triaxial and Tcy in the soil. They also show whether triaxial compression, triaxial
compression, triaxial extension or simple shear type of behaviour is most extension or simple shear type of behaviour is most representative for
representative for the various elements. From diagrams like the ones in the various elements. When this information is available, the permanent
Figure 4.23 and 4.24, it is then possible to determine new values of G pore pressure in each soil element can be read directly from diagrams of
G y and Ty for each element. A new finite element analysis in which the ª' the type presented in Figures 4.34 and 4.35.
submerged platform weight is applied again is then performed with these The pore pressure generated by the undrained cyclic loading will lead
new soil parameters. This analysis gives the vertical settlement of the to a reduction in effective normal stresses in the soil. This corresponds
170 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS FOUNDATION DESIGN OF OFFSHORE GRAVITY STRUCTURES 171
to going from point A to point B in the load settlement plot in Figure VERTICAL EFFECTIVE STRESS, cr'v (kPa)
4.37. As drainage occurs and the excess pare pressure dissipates, the 1 1O 102 1o3 10 102 103 1Q4
effective normal stresses increase again, and the soil element will follow 1 .4 r--,:::-----,----,---~.----=---r---..------,-
(a) (b)
a reloading curve from point B to point C. At point C the effective Q)
stress has reached the sarne value as before the start of cyclic loading.
Q 1.2 Virgin
From Figure 4.37 it can be seen that the vertical compression due to
the dissipation of cyclically induced excess pare pressure can be calcu-
lated as:
~
a:
o
ô 1.0
compression line
(1 ho"' l0ãd)
increments)
j
Startof
> cycling
e =- uP
= -Cr- log [ a~c ]
V Mr l+eo ª~e up 0.8 ..___....__ ___.._ _J__;__ _J End oi 5th
series
End of 1St
series
where uP is the permanent pare pressure generated by cyclic loading, \
'
M r is the secant value of the reloading constrained modulus in the range
from point B to point C, Cr is the recompression index in the range Figure 4.38 e-log a~ paths for tests with five series of unloading and reloading on
from point B to point C, e0 is the void ratio at the start of cyclic Drammen clay with OCR = 1. (a) Consolidation test. (b) Cyclic DSS test.
loading, and a~c is the vertical effective stress at the start of cyclic
loading. The settlement can be found by integrating Ev over the soil periods, the total recompression settlements are the sum of those for
depth beneath the platform base. each series. This is different from a conventional consolidation test with
ln a study on Drammen clay, Yasuhara and Andersen (1989) found several series of unloading and reloading, because swelling occurs during
that the recompression modulus (and the recompression índex) was unloadlng in a conventional consolidation test (Figure 4.38). Owing to
influenced by the cyclic loading, and that the settlements due to this swelling, the total settlement will be smaller in a conventional
dissipation of cyclically induced pare pressure could be calculated by consolidation test than the sum of the recompression settlements for the
using the recompression modulus from a conventional oedometer test various reloading series.
multiplied by 2/3. The compression index for consolidation past the initial consolidation
Yasuhara and Andersen (1987) also concluded that, if the clay is stresses was also found to be influenced by cyclic loading (Y asuhara and
subjected to several series of undrained cyclic loading and drainage Andersen, 1989). The compression índex decreases with increasing
values of the cyclically induced pare pressure and with increasing values
of the cyclic shear strain at the end of cyclic loading.
VERTICAL EFFECTIVE STRESS, cr'y (kPa)
~
~------------------------,
o > References
w + Vertical effective stress at start
z· oi cycling
o Pare pressure due Andersen, K. H. (1981) Discussion of R. Dyvik, T. F. Zimme and P. Schimelfenyg, Cyclic
u5
Cf)
w
a:
a..
::E
-----
to cycling, up
Andersen, K. H. and Stenhamar, P. (1982) Static plate loading tests on overconsolidated the cyclic degradation of clay. Strength Testing of Marine Sediments: Laboratory and
clay. Proc. Am. Soe. Civ. Engrs. 108 (GT7): 918-934. in-Situ Measurements: a Symposium, Special Testing Publication 883, American Society
Andersen, K. H., Hansteen, O. E., H!l)eg K. and Prévost, J. H. (1978) Soil deformations for Testing and Materiais, Philadelphia, PA, 336-351.
due to cyclic loads on offshore structures. Numerical Methods in Offshore Engineering, Hansteen, O. E. (1980) Dynamic performance. Proceedings of the Shell Brent B In-
ed. Stagg, O. C. J. Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 413-452. Also published in Norwegian strumentation Project, Seminar, London, 1979. Society for Underwater Technology,
Geotechnical Institute, Publication 120. London, 89-107. Also published in Norwegian Geotechnical Institute, Publication 137.
Andersen, K. H., Lacasse, S., Aas, P. M. and Andemes, E. (1982) Review of foundation Hansteen, O. E. (1988) Description of INFIDEL-a non-linear 3-D finite element program.
design principies for offshore gravity platforms. Proceedings of the International Confer- Norwegian Geotechnical Institue, Report 514090-1, 13 Sept 1988.
ence on the Behaviour of Offshore Structures, 3 Cambridge, Ma Hemishpere Publ,, Inglis, R. B., Pijfers, J. G. L. and Vugts, J. H. (1985) A unified probabilistic approach to
Washington D.C./McGraw-Hill, London a.o.pi. 1: 243-261. Also published in Norwe- predict the response of offshore structures, including the extreme response. Proceedings
gian Geotechnical Institute, Publication 143. of the Conference on Behaviour of Offshore Structures, BOSS'85, Delft I: 95-109.
Andersen, K. H., Kleven, A. and Heien, D. (1988a) Cyclic soil data for design of gravity Lambe, T. W. (1967) Stress path method. J. Geotech. Engng, Proc. ASCE 93 (SM6):
structures. J. Geotech. Engng, ASCE 114(5). 309-331.
Andersen, K. H., Lauritzsen, R. Dyvik, R. and Aas, P. M. (1988b) Cyclic bearing Lauritzsen, R. and Schjetne, K. (1976) Stability calculations for offshore gravity structures.
capacity analysis for gravity platforms; calculation procedure, verification by model tests, Proceedings of the Offshore Technology Conference, 8 Houston, TX 1: 75-82. Also
and application for the Gullfaks C platform. Proceedings of the International Conference published in Norwegian Geotechnical Institute, Publication 113.
on Behaviour of Offshore Structures, BOSS'88, Trondheim I: 311-324. Lunne, T. and Kvalstad, T. J. (1982) Analysis of full scale measurements on gravity
Andersen, K. H., Dyvik, R., Lauritzsen, R., Heien, D., Hàrvik, L. and Amundsen, T. platforms: Final report. Foundation Performance During Installation and Operation of
(1989) Model tests of gravity platforms: lnterpretation. Proc. ASCE, J. Geotech. Engng North Sea Concrete Gravity Platforms. Norwegian Geotechnical Institute and Det
115 (GTll): 1550-1568. Norske Veritas, Oslo, 92 pp.
Bjerrum, L. (1966) Secondary settlements of structures subjected to large variations in live Marion, H. A. (1974) Ekofisk oil storage tank. Proceedings of the Symposium on Ocean
load. International Symposium on Rheology and Soil Mechanics, Grenoble 1964. Berlin, Engineering, London. The Royal lnstitution of Naval Architects, London, 83-94.
Springer, 460-471. Also published in Norwegian Geotechnical Institute, Publication 73. Mo, O. (1976) Concrete drilling and production platforms, review of construction,
Bjerrum, L. (1973a) Geotechnical problems involved in foundations of structures in the installation and commissioning. Proceedings of the Offhore North Sea Technology
North Sea. Géotechnique 23(3): 319-358. Also published in Norwegian Geotechnical Conference and Exhibition, Stavanger, technology volume, 14 pp.
Institute, Publication 100. Norwegian Petroleum Directorate (1987) Forskrifter for beregning og dimensjonering av
Bjerrum, L. (1973b) Problems of soil mechanics and construction on soft clays. State-of- faste brerende konstruksjoner pa den norske kontinentalsokkel-Regulations for the
the-art report to Session IV. Proceedings of the International Conference on Soil structural design of fixed structures on the Norwegian Continental Shelf. Var. pag.,
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering 3: 111-159. Stavanger, Text in Norwegian and English.
Clausen, C. J. F., DiBiagio, E., Duncan, J. M. and Andersen, K. H. (1975) Observed Prévost, J. H., Cuny, B., Hughes, T. J. R. and Scott, R. F. (1981) Offshore gravity
behaviour of the Ekofisk oi! storage tank foundation. Proceedings of the Offshore structures: Analysis. Proc. Am. Soe. Civ. Engrs. 107 (GT2): 143-165.
Technology Conference, 7 Houston, TX, 3: 399-413. Also published in Norwegian Richart Jr, F. E., Hall Jr, J. R. and Woods, R. D. (1970) Vibrations of soils and
Geotechnical Institute, Publication 108, and in J. Petrol. Technol. 1976 (March): foundations. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 414 pp.
329-336. · Stenhamar, P. and Andersen, K. H. (1982) Fundamenters brereevne p~ leire reduseres ved
Cooling, L. F. and Gibson, R. E. (1955) Settlement studies on structures in England. syklisk belastning. Bygg 30(7): 26 pp. Also published in Norwegian Geotechnical
Conference on the Correlation between Calculated and Observed Stresses and Displace- Institute, Publication 141.
ments in Structures, Papers, Institution of Civil Engineers, London, Vol. 1, 295-317. Yasuhara, K. and Andersen, K. H. (1987) Clay behaviour under long term cyclic loading.
Dawson, R. F. (1974) Settlement studies on the San Jacinto monument. Proceedings of the Proceedings of the 22nd Conference JSSMFE 2: 535-538.
Texas Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 7 Austin, TX. Yasuhara, K. and Andersen, K. H. (1989) Post-cyclic recompression settlement of clay. 4th
Dyvik, R. and Madshus, C. (1985) Laboratory measurements of Gmax using bender International Conference on Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, Mexico, 1989.
elements. Paper presented at: American Society of Civil Engineers National Convention,
Detroit, MI. Also published in Norwegian Geotechnical Institute, Publication No. 161.
Dyvik, R., Andersen, K. H., Madshus, C. and Amundsen, T. (1989) Model tests of
gravity platforms: Description. Proc. ASCE, J. Geotech. Engng 115 (GTll): 1532-1549.
Eide, O. and Andersen, K. H. (1984) Foundation engineering for gravity structures in the
northern North Sea. Proceedings of the International Conference on Case Histories in
Geotechnical Engineering, St Louis, MO, IV: 1627-1678.
Eide, O., Larsen, L. G. and Mo, O. (1976) Installation of the Shell/Esso Brent B
Condeep production platform. Proceedings of the Offshore Technology Conference, 8
Houston, TX 1: 101-114. Also published in Norwegian Geotechnical Institute, Publica-
tion 113, and in J. Petrol. Technol. 29: 231-238.
Eide, O., Andersen, K. H. and Lunne, T. (1979) Observed foundation behaviour of
concrete gravity platforms installed in the North Sea 1973-1978. Proceedings of the
International Conference on the Behaviour of Offshore Structures, 2 BOSS'79, London 2:
435-456. Also published in Norwegian Geotechnical Institute, Publication 127.
Gazetas, G. (1983) Analysis of machine foundation vibrations: State-of-the-art. Int. J. Soil
Dynam. Earthquake Engng 2(2): 2-42.
Goulois, A., Whitman, R. V. and H!l)eg, K. (1985) Effects of sustained shear stresses on
CYCLIC BEHA VIOUR OF LARGE PILES 175
L sustained , 140 MN
100 yr storm , 354 MN
T sustained, 35 MN
5.1 Introduction
=:>
HEADING go·wAVE HEAOING
5.1.4 The contents of this chapter
WAVE PROFILE 1
1
'
~----'<)--~--(>'
The aim of this chapter is to provide a rational explanation of how piles
:E
!: behave under cyclic loading and to set out an approach to cyclic design.
,-. 125 +--------1,~---+------ll'------+
TETHER
TENSION
n
V
:i:
e, To do this a sound fundamental understanding of static piles must first
~ 100-1----,-+-~~-+----!----+ be established. Many aspects of basic pile-soil mechanics remain con-
I
~ 75 +-----+--,--==---,<--+-~------t
troversial, so the contending theories and the available experimental
:, evidence must be reviewed before launching into a discussion on cyclic
cr
~ 50 +---1---H-+------'~---4---------t
response.
"ocr The remainder of the chapter is therefore divided into four parts. The
ffi 25-f--"--"'+--\-=-,'-+----+--------t first describes the present empirical design methods, including the
:i:
,-. routines used to compute cyclic response. The second part reviews
~ º+----,----+----~
10 15 20 recent research into fundamental (non-cyclic) pile behaviour and asses-
WAVE PERIOD (SECS)
ses what progress has been made. The third explores how these
Figure 5.2 Effects of environmental forces on TLP foundation loads. (After Bradshaw et improvements form the basis of a more rational approach to cyclic
ai., 1984.) analysis. The final part summarises the results obtained in three recent
cyclic-pile field testing programmes; the framework developed in the
earlier sections is used to interpret the data and draw some preliminary
With onshore projects it is usually possible to check design assump- conclusions.
tions by carrying out loading tests on piles and by monitoring the As the scope of the chapter is so broad, attention will be focused on
full-scale service performance of the foundations. If necessary, amend- the area where most progress has been made - axially loaded driven
ments can be made during construction or remedia! works carried out at piles in clay.
a later stage. This is generally not feasible with offshore structures.
The development of reliable design procedures is therefore vital if the
correct balance is to be struck between economical construction and 5.2 Existing empirical design methods
good performance in service.
5.2.1 Static capacity
5.1.3 The development of theory
It is usual to consider the overall pile capacity in compression, QtotaI, as
the combination of two components:
A range of computational tools and numerical models has been devel-
oped for the design of offshore piles. However, progress in understand- Q total = Q shaft + Q tip
ing the basic mechanisms of pile behaviour has been relatively slow, and
ln most offshore piles (in clay) the shaft resistance Qshaft far exceeds
the approved calculation procedures are based largely on empiricism.
Qtip and therefore concentration will focus on shaft capacity.
Relationships for global pile behaviour have been suggested on the basis
of simple (total stress) interpretations of a limited number of (mainly
onshore and relatively small-scale) pile tests. 5.2.2 The alpha method
Paulos noted (in the 1989 Rankine lecture) that 'A number of
significant aspects of pile behaviour lack a proper theoretical frame- The most widely used formula for shaft capacity is based on a simple
work'. Experience in other areas of ground engineering, including slope correlation proposed by Skempton (1959). This relates the peak shaft
stability and earth pressures, warns that design methods that do not shear stress •rz that can be developed at any point on the shaft (in a
178 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS
CYCLIC BEHA VIOUR OF LARGE PILES 179
static test) to the initial undisturbed undrained shear strength Cu0 so that Cu ' kPo
O 0.2 04 0.6 08 10 12
-10
Pile loading tests, carried out with different pile types in a range of -20
soils, have been used to estimate typical values of a by relating average
values of r,, to average shear strengths. A value of Qtip must be -30
assumed; the equation given below is used for compression piles, but for
tension tests Q1ip is usually taken as zero. -40
º
Strictly, the force F = rrD 2 (NcCu - YsaiZ)/4 should be calculated first. ~ -60
If F > O a positive contribution can be added to the tensile capacity "
w
Qtip = rrD 2 (YwZ + Pv)/4 (where Pv is the saturated vapour pressure of -70
water). If F < O, the earth pressures acting on the base may push the -80
pile upwards at failure with a force equal to F.
The practical limitations of the method include: -90'--'--~--'-----'--..L-~
(1) The sensitivity of the calculations to the interpretation of Cu test Figure 5.3 Undrained shear strength profiles for Boston blue clay at MIT campus site,
various test methods. Key: U, unconfined compression; UU, unconsolidated undrained
data. compression; CIU, isotropically consolidated undrained compression; CKoTC, Ko consolid-
(2) The usual assumption that the bearing capacity coefficient N e is ated undrained compression; CK0 UDSS, Ko consolidated undrained direct simple shear.
about 9.0 can give considerable underestimates of Qtip, so leading (After Morrison, 1984.)
to errors in the calculation of a (Bond, 1989).
(3) The fact that shaft capacity can vary with time (e.g. set-up in soft Following further interpretation by Dennis (1982), Semple and Rigden
clays), rate of testing and loading patterns (e.g. tension/compres- (1984) and others, the code was revised to allow for variations in the
sion). apparent over consolidation ratio (OCR) by replotting a as a function of
Cu/a~, as shown in Figure 5.7 where a~ is the vertical effective stress. ln
An appreciation of the first difficulty can be obtained by considering the this procedure an average ratio must be assigned to each pile test, which
shear strength profiles presented by Morrison (1984). The profiles can be difficult with overconsolidated soils where Cja~ can vary rapidly
shown in Figure 5 .3 all represent the sarne layer of Boston blue clay, with depth.
but each profile was determined using a different method of testing. The latest API revisions (API RP2A) have an improved theoretical
Undrained strength evidently depends on many factors including basis (Randolph and Murphy, 1985). But, as noted by Windle and
sampling method, laboratory (or in-situ) test stress path, reconsolidation Lawrence (1988), the procedures used to define soil strengths in the
procedure (if any) and loading rate to failure. Figure 5.4 shows the database are not compatible with current práctice, and many of the tests
impact of these variations in Cu on the a values assessed from full-scale were carried out in soils quite different to those of typical North Sea
and model pile tests at the sarne site. platforms.
5.2.3 The American Petroleum Institute (API) codes 5.2.4 The beta method
The API codes, which govern the design of many offshore structures, Following work by Chandler (1968), Burland (1973) proposed an
specify a values that depend on soil strength. Tomlinson (1950, 1980) alternative formula for the local peak shaft friction. This assumes a
had noted a trend for lower a in stronger soils, and the 1977 API codes linear relationship between r,, at static failure and the initial effective
were based on a similar line drawn through a scatter plot derived from overburden pressure a~0 •
42 test piles-'the API database'-as shown in Figure 5.5. •rz = f3°~o
180 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC BEHA VIOUR OF LARGE PILES 181
a = 1rz / Cu 1.2 - - - - - - - - - ~ - - ~ - - ~ - - ~ - - - - - - .
60
80
100
- •
• •
•
•
• 1
1
• 0.8
•
1977 API RecolMlendation
(
;::: •
g
-~w
120
.,
...______ >--+--<
0,4
• •
...
• •
•
"'
~
CJ
140 •
e-< 0.2
4.1
160
OL----J...,__ _.J...__ _.J...-_ _..,__ ___.__ _.....___ _
180
~
240
Strength Profile Type of shear with PLS cell
com pression tens1on 1 ..
••
uu
Field strength
•
■
o
o
O. 7
'•
Shan se p ko plane
stroin compressIon
• 'v
Cl
Pile load tests in BBC (after Trnw 1984) ♦ O5 •
Figure5.4 Sensitivity of a to Cu test method. (After Morrison, 1984.)
0.5
Points to note are:
-,
(1) A constant /3 implies that •rz
is approximately proportional to Cuoiíl'vo
depth. This is only compatible with an a approach for soils where Figure 5.6 Trend of a with Cu 0 /a~o for API database.
Cu/z is approximately constant (i.e. clays at OCR = 1).
(2) Load tests show that f3 varies strongly with soil type, OCR and
other factors; Randolph and Murphy (1985) interpreted the vari- deduced. This may be illustrated by Figure 5.7, which presents a scatter
ation between f3 and Cu/a~ and showed that f3 increases with diagram of a against the duration (t) between driving and testing (the
increase in Cu/a~. 'set-up time'). Set-up time appears to have as strong an influence as Cu
(3) It is inconsistent mathematically to assign local f3 values (in or Cja~. Without a fundamental understanding it is impossible to know
layered profiles) on the basis of average f3s deduced from pile which factors are the controlling ones.
load tests.
The fundamental problem with the a and f3 approaches [and the 5.2.5 Prediction of static load-displacement behaviour
lambda method of Vijayvergiya and Focht (1972)] is that there are many
variables that could affect shaft capacity; the apparent trends of simple A range of methods has been developed to compute pile load-displace-
scatter diagrams do not allow the basic governing relationships to be ment relationships. The simplest analytical methods are based on the
182 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC BEHA VIOUR OF LARGE PILES 183
1.2
OJ,
ri::
♦T1-Sheor stress transter
tunctions
10 ~J,♦T2
t Oúr3
~ 0.8
Sheor lli♦ri. i =N
iij ,,,..,,,. 7 I stresses Qi♦rs Oshaft = L T;
_,,... .,..,.,,.
> i =1
ti Compressible _u· ♦T
a, 0.6 •
y - elements n.:'. ·6
-- -
~ ... y _,,... ••
Q)
.,,,,.-•• ----- ~J,JT7
~ --- •
. -..!-- Dú
0.4
1♦ 01;p
model pile is enclosed within a stressed cylinder of soil to find transfer (2) Fast static loading tests were used to prove the effects of loading
functions. Bea (1975), Holmquist and Matlock (1976) and Grosch and rate. These tended to give higher ultimate capacities and stiffer
Reese (1980) give examples of tests of this type. More sophisticated cells load displacement curves than slow tests (see Figure 5 .10).
have also been used [see Steenfelt et al. (1981) or Chandler and Martins (3) A rough indication of the influence of cycling level on the rate of
(1982)]. General guidelines for T - Z curves were presented by Vijayver- permanent displacement accumulation was given by the scatter
giya (1977), and these have been used extensively in offshore pile plot shown on Figure 5 .11.
design.
Bea and Audibert (1979) also noted that, when combined with large
Theoretically, the T - Z approach represents a local approximation
horizontal cyclic loads, the pile and soil may separate at the ground
and not a true continuum analysis; the method does not consider the
surface, leading to further reductions in ultimate capacity (see Figure
stresses and strains developed in the soil mass. It therefore ignores any
5.12). This phenomonen is referred to as 'slotting' or 'post-holding'.
interaction between the horizontal soil layers and cannot be extended to
The cycles imposed by storm loading are relatively short; the implied
consider pile group action, without being coupled to some form of
displacement rates at failure (10 to 100 mm/s) far exceed those for static
(usually elastic) continuum analysis.
An alternative approximate method is the 'substructuring' procedure 2 . 2 - - - - - - - ~ - - - ~ - - - ~ - - - - - - ~ - - - ~ 2.2
described by Paulos (1989). ln this, the non-linear aspects of pile PileC
behaviour (i.e. yield, failure, etc.) are modelled as a series of special 2.0 2.0
-
1.8 1.8
continuum.
Trendlor/\}ç~
\! 1.6
Pile A ------------ - 1.6
5.2.6 Current methods of allowing for cyclic loading t:t t::." 1.4
~---------- ~
, PileA ~-
', - --------- - 1.4
~
1
~-~ 1
It has been appreciated for some time that the response of piles tested
1
1.2 ~ 1 1 1.2
~~----------- f'ile8 • ~
under cyclic conditions may be quite different to that for static loading. --- .• [_ J
1.0 L _ . . . . d ~ ~ - - - = - - - - ~ - - - ~ - - - ~ - - ~ - - - ~ 1.0
The three main aspects listed by Paulos can be illustrated qualitatively
using data presented by Bea and Audibert (1979): conventional static tests
rate of loading
waves earthquake ------
(1) The reductions of pile capacity due to cycling (found in a limited Figure 5.10 Effects of loading rate on shaft capacity. (After Bea and Audibert, 1979.)
collection of tests) are indicated on Figure 5.9.
10 -------.--,--,---,--,---r,-.-----.----,---.-----,--,----,,---,--,
9 C'l'CLIC LOAO LEVEL
<)- 20 - 35%
* 35 - 50%
~ 6 S:, 50 - 65%
• 65 - 80%
~ 5 ◊ 80 - 90%
>,
.-.-:-----
♦ 90 - 100%
(.) 4
z - 0.9 ãl
~ ., ..9
u,.,
ü,.,
u u <
õ õ ~
j 2
1,1.1 SN = N0.12
1.4
1.2 .
o Q
'é<;
t • ,1 SN =No.019
1 t-===:;1:;;;,=b4db==rl===:=ii:=:!::Jc::::C:=:i.:~~
o. 7 '------'---'---'----'---'--'--'-.1..-L----'----'---'---'---'--'--'-'-' 1 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 50 K)Q
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 70 100
Number oi Load Cycles, (N)
NUMBER OF CYCLES !Nl
Figure 5.11 The accumulation of permanent strains due to cyclic loading. (After Bea and
Figure 5.9 Effects of cycling on shaft capacity (Tu)- (After Bea and Audibert, 1979.) Audibert, 1979.)
186 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC BEHAVIOUR OF LARGE PILES 187
1.5 to 3'. Alterna tive explanations for the unexpectedly low incidence of
in-service problems for offshore pile groups include (1) untoward
foundation movements may not have been detected and (2) environ-
mental forces may be overestimated systematically. Hamilton and Murff
(1988) therefore urged against incorporating the apparent bias into any
design procedure before the underlying reasons for the trend were
understood.
Figure 5.12 Cyclic degradation dueto slotting. (After Bea and Audibert, 1979.)
5.2. 7 Cyclic T-Z analyses: Matlock and Foo type models
load tests. It might therefore be thought that a positive rate effect could
counteract, or even overcome, the negative features of cyclic loading. Although cyclic loading analyses for offshore piles in clay are not often
It appears that designers often rely on this trade-off; it is common carried out, extensions have been made to the existing numerical
practice to design piles to have sufficient static capacity to carry the procedures to allow cyclic T-Z analyses to be performed.
loads estimated from simplified dynamic analyses of the interacting Matlock and Foo (1979) described a computer code in which simple
structure and foundation subjected to environmental loading. For exam- T-Z curves could be specified that were hysteretic and produced plastic
ple, Rigden and Semple (1983) concluded (in their account of the deformations once a local yield stress had been exceeded, as shown in
Magnus foundation design) that 'assessing the load capacity of offshore Figure 5.13.
piles on the basis of static capacity is conservative. However, the degree The model also included a simple two-parameter cyclic degradation
to which this is so cannot be determined with great accuracy on the law. The maximum skin friction value attainable gradually decreases
basis of existing information'. The factors of safety adopted for Magnus with the number of cycles from the initial peak value rmax to a
were 1.25 for the worst loaded pile in a group and 1.5 for the average prespecified minimum value rmin. The effect of each additional cycle is
group load. given by:
ln the case of the Hutton TLP, the use of piles as purely tension Ímax(N + 1) = [rmax(N) - Ímin] (1 - Ã) + Ímin
anchors was novel. The unusual foundation arrangements led to special A cycle-by-cycle solution can be carried out for the whole pile, starting
emphasis being placed on the possible long-term effects of cyclic with N = O. Depending on the combinations of input parameters, the
loading. overall pile behaviour could either be completely stable (no degradation,
Bradshaw et al. (1984) describe how cyclic laboratory tests (simple no hysteresis), stabilise after a certain number of cycles (showing no
shear and model pile experiments) were carried out to assess the further increases in pile head displacement) or cycle to failure (when the
possible effects of cyclic degradation. These tests and analyses of degraded pile capacity can no longer support the applied loads).
possible strain-softening, slotting and sustained tension loading were
used to define a worst possible (in storm) shaft resistance. The design
factors of safety (for the 100-year storm) applied to the worst possible 5.2.8 More advanced cyclic models
capacity were 1.5 for the most heavily loaded pile and 2.0 for the
average load. This amounted to a group factor of safety of about 2. 7 on More complex cyclic models have been suggested for offshore piles. St
the unmodified static axial capacity. Foundation safety was also con- John et al. (1983) proposed T-Z curves which could be hysteretic and
firmed by centrifuge model tests studies and by monitoring the field vary with the duration of loading. These are illustrated in Figure 5.14,
behaviour (see Jardine et al., 1988). and it was recommended that the static curve should be formulated in
ln summary, the industry makes different allowances for cyclic load- three parts.
188 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC BEHA VIOUR OF LARGE PILES 189
8___4 3
Complete curve
!a)
Sub-element 2
(d)
Figure 5.14 T-Z curve allowing for strain softening, hysteresis and cyclic degradation.
Sub-element 3
8 4 Note 'Y = 1/Tpcak· (After St John et ai., 1983.)
(e)
5 7 ------ The degraded shear stress that could be mobilised after N cycles was
Figure 5.13 Cyclic T -Z analysis showing contributions to pile head load-displacement
related to the value developed (at the sarne displacement) in a static test
curve (a) under an imposed cycle of vertical displacement (b) of three subelements; the ( Ístatic) by:
deepest (c) responds almost elastically, whilst the shallower elements (d) and (e) show
large plastic displacements and hysteresis. (After Matlock and Foo, 1979.)
Ciz
Cyclic models have also been incorporated into substructured bound-
ary element analyses, using both the rate and degradation laws de-
scribed above and the Matlock and Foo approach (Paulos, 1982, 1989).
5.2.9 Discussion
5.3 Understanding static pile behaviour other than their mechanical stress history. The nature of deposition (for
example marine sedimentation or till formation by grounded ice) and
5.3.1 Introduction the processes that follow deposition can be of equal importance. Thus a
high apparent OCR for a clay (indicated from oedometer curves or Cu
The starting point for investigating pile behaviour is the division of the values) might not signify that a deposit has been preloaded, that K O is
problem into seven principal areas: large, or that the clay will dilate when sheared.
(1) The initial ground conditions. The soil's genesis and stress history must be considered when asses-
(2) Constitutive relationships of the soils. sing K 0 • Direct in situ tests are not feasible at present at deep-water
(3) Pile installation. sites, and use is often made of Brooker and Ireland's (1965) charts or of
(4) Equalisation after installation. equations such as that given below (Mayne and Kulhawy, 1982):
(5) Pile loading. K 0 = (1 - sin cj))OCRsinq,
(6) Group behaviour.
(7) Cyclic and dynamic loading. Strictly, this approach is only valid for sediments with a simple history
of monotonic mechanical overconsolidation (see Jardine and Potts, 1988).
The symbols and coordinate system appropriate to this axisymmetric
problem are shown in Figure 5.16.
5.3.3 Constitutive relationships for the soils
5.3.2 Initial ground conditions Recent research on a range of sediments [see Gens (1982), Hight
(1983), Jardine (1985) and Tika (1989) for summaries of work at
The first vital task at any site is to establish the sequence of strata and Imperial College and Jamiolkowski et al. (1985) for a more wide-ranging
the nature of the principal layers. High-quality sampling and testing are review] has lead to a number of conclusions relevant to the present
required, but it is also important to recognise the limitations of current problem including:
site investigation procedures and to be aware of how research on similar
soils can be used to help interpret the collected data. (1) Soil behaviour is most easily understood if interpreted within the
The properties of offshore clays can be influenced by many factors framework of elastoplastic, critical-state soil mechanics.
192 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC BEHA VIOUR OF LARGE PILES 193
(2) This said, the simpler critical-state soil models (e.g. modified Cam
clay) do not predict many aspects of real soil behaviour.
1
(3) ln particular, K O consolidated sediments have properties that <l>cs Magnus
30
• Till
differ considerably from those of isotropically consolidated mater-
27.5
ial (i.e. anisotropy, brittleness at low OCR, etc.). 0.5 <1>'
(4) Most soils are strongly non-linear before yield, and clays can show 25 degrees
very high stiffness at small strains. • <l>~s London 22.5
(5) Plastic strains can be developed within much of the stress space O. 4 Clay
20
that is usually considered to be elastic. Soil is only truly elastic at
17.5
very small strains. O. 3 ~----Magnus Till
(7) Many clays form zones of reoriented, residual fabric when sheared 12.5
0.2
to large strains. Shearing soils against a hard interface (e. g. a steel 10
- - - - - - - - - - L o n d o n Clay
pile) can accelerate the development of such a weak zone-or 7.5
initiate one in soils that would not normally exhibit residual O.1
behaviour. alter Lemos 11986)
and Tika 11989)
(8) The frictional characteristics shown in interface tests depend on º,L--------'-,0------..,,10,..,.0--------,-10~0..,...o-
interface type and roughness and the shearing history of the test
Displacemenl (mm)
(i.e. displacements, rates, stress leveis, etc.).
Figure 5.17 Interface ring-shear tests to simulate pile failure; slow shear following fast
Figure 5 .17 illustrates the significance of conclusions 7 and 8 using data installation and equalisation.
from special ring shear apparatus tests of (1) remoulded [low plasticity
index (PI)] Magnus till and (2) London day. The tests simulated the Pile position
shearing history of soil dose to a pile shaft, with rapid initial shearing to
5
large displacement against a roughened steel interface ( driving) followed t \ \\~) \)\\.~
by consolidation to a higher normal stress (set-up) preceding either slow 1
or fast shearing stages (loading to failure). Under these conditions, the
frictional characteristics were brittle and gave </JresiduaI values far below
their corresponding critical-state <p values.
4
3
pH•{j.:-Tz
2
k,,, ;f." J ~ soil particle
5.3.4 Effects of pile installation-cavity expansion analysis t',
Pile driving (or jacking) involves complex stress paths, steep gradients in
~" "D'~ ~:t,
\a \b '- ~ Radial offset of field point
stresses, and strains with very high strain rates dose to the pile (Baligh, O \ 1\ 2' 3 4 5 6 r /r0
1984). o t \ \ '),. \ ~~~
~ . '"'t'. H
. . '
Laboratory X-ray experiments have been carried out to study the " • i=,<;
displacement fields around penetrating piles. As shown in Figure 5.18, -1
t F t: F,<;
soil is displaced vertically and radially as the tip advances. With such ',)\\\)\\~
(a)
a;= Cu Y3M
0
Stress
where M = 6 sin </J/(3 - sin </J) for triaxial compression and Cu (o)
M = \/3 sin </J for plane strain.
(5) Large pore pressures (3-6Cu0 ) are set up at the pile face for a 6
wide range of soil types and OCRs.
5
Cylindrical expansian strain , E2 'lo (3) The solutions were highly sensitive to the details of the adopted
;;! O 50 100 150 elastoplastic soil models.
As with the cavity expansion analyses, changes in the stress state during
dissipation were simulated by coupled consolidation analyses. These
were limited to considering the events at points distant (i.e. 100-200
radii above) to the pile tip in low-OCR clays.
SPM predictions [made with the MlT E3 model (Whittle et ai., 1988)]
for piles installed in Boston blue day show:
z
ii (1) Effective radial stresses dose to zero after undrained installation
2 (with large positive excess pore pressures).
-z (2) Gains in a; as a result of dissipation, but far lower final radial
o -v stresses than predicted by the CEM.
E2 '!.
100 150 (3) The principal stress acts radially, with, p~, the final value of mean
-x
effective stress, approximately equal to 0.8a;c at the end of
-2
consolidation.
A
4
5.3. 7 Experiments with instrumented piles
5.3. 7.1 Tests in Boston blue clay. ln parallel with these theoretical
Deviatoric Strains
developments, experiments have been carried out by a number of
E1 = E ZZ
E2 =(Err-Eee)//j workers to measure the stresses developed at the pile-soil boundary.
E3=2·E,,l ✓l Unfortunately, there are very few studies which include reliable
measurements of the effective stresses acting on the pile shaft, and
1
attention will be concentrated on just two recent sets of experiments.
The first case is the extensive programme of field tests carried out by
f Morrison (1984) in Boston blue clay with the MlT piezo lateral stress
y
(PLS) probe. The Cu profile for one of these sites is shown in Figure
FigureS.20 Strain path method (SPM). (After Baligh, 1989.) 5.2. Figure 5.21 depicts the <levice and summarises the measurements
made at a number of depths of the radial effective stress recorded after
the deviatoric strains calculated for three points (G, F and A) in the complete pore pressure dissipation ( a;c) after holding tests performed
ground that are displaced by the installation of a 'simple' pile (Baligh, after jacking to each levei. ln this particular profile the OCR decreases
1986). The resulting stress conditions at the end of installation are from approximately 4 at 10 m to about 1.3 at 40 m; the day is both
assessed by using soil models to calculate the ground's response to the sensitive and highly contractant.
imposed strains. The sarne diagram plots the SPM predictions by Whittle (1987), the
SPM parametric studies presented by Kavvadas and Baligh (1982), CEM predictions made by Randolph et ai. (1979) and the present
Levadoux and Baligh (1982) and Whittle (1987) lead to three conclu- author's best estimate of the in-situ K 0 profile. For points located 100
sions: radii above the 'pile' tip:
(1) The strain components (E 1 and E 3 ) ignored in the CEM were (1) a;c is dose to the K 0 profile.
large and important. (2) The SPM predictions are reasonable.
(2) Phases of strain reversai (shown as the pile tip advances past (3) The CEM analysis overpredicts a;c by = 400%.
leveis X, Y and Z) lead to large reductions in the total stresses
after the pile tip has passed a given horizon. 5.3. 7.2 Tests in London clay. The second case described here is the
198 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC BEHA VIOUR OF LARGE PILES 199
Canons Park series of field pile tests, which was carried out using
extensively instrumented (100 mm-diameter steel) piles in the strongly
E E e dilatant, medium to high plasticity, high-OCR London Clay [see Bond
<.O E E=
14
<.O
d
.,~1-"" ~~
·1
and Jardine (1989) for details of the site, instruments and test results].
The piles were equipped with the specially developed instruments
shown in Figure 5.22 mounted at at least three leveis on the shaft.
E
E Considering just the a; measurements, the most important features
= were:
"'
li
....
e
....
~
~ ~
e
V, V,
e (1) The soil showed strongly dilatant characteristics during penetra-
e.
3r::
tion. Large increases in ar were found, whilst u plunged to
õ e.
negative values.
~
....
e;:, b"' °',.....00
°'
--
-u o
,:
b'"' "'
·e
....
o
~
....CI.)
,t::
E $
....o
;,'.,
"'e ü"'
~
.... CI.)
::,
C>
-:z:
\ ~ :õ
e: 1Axial lood cellJ Pore pressure unit Surfoce stress tronsducer
... b
", ,-!" E
. -
~ .....
V, "'
o Cambridge earth
:=e:,
CI •
• ÇQ
Thinned woll with Port-hole for pressure cell '\Oe,~
~ ,-
o
:a:
• " "'-
~ ·=
~
stroin gouges on it
C)~
:o
--e
w,
•
-- -------- -~
~
.
trÍ
CI.)
::,
""
.:!!
.;
E
-~
:e
Rubber .. Nuiip .. rubber Pore- pressure '----Window
O-ring O-ring block pane
·-:::>
....
CI"
e;:,
e;:,
....
e;:,
(woter seol ) ( s oi I sea 1)
,- E Figure 5.22 Instrumentation used on Imperial College rnodel pile showing fast-acting pore
pressure units , surface stress transducers (for a, and ~rz measurement), axial load cell and
temperature sensor. (After Bond and Jardine , 1989.)
200 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC BEHAVIOUR OF LARGE PILES 201
(4) The final profiles of a;c (shown in Figure 5.22) show a tendency the CEM lead to large non-conservative errors. It also appears that the
to swing from values dose to the K O profile at the top of the pile, a;c profiles are not directly related to the K O stresses.
towards the CEM predictions at the pile tip. The strain path method gave reasonable predictions for the limited
(5) Independent measurements of the mean effective stresses dose to PLS data. But before the method can be accepted as a design tool its
the pile shaft suggest that aí acts radially and that p~ = 0.7a;c. ability to predict the stress conditions over the entire shaft length (in a
range of soil types) must be demonstrated.
The Canons Park tests showed the important point that the stresses
5.3.8 Summary for equalised stress conditions
developed at a particular horizon depend not only on the initial soil
properties, but also on the relative depth (Z/R) of the pile tip (the 'Z/R
~he two examples demonstrate the difficulty of making accurate predic- effect'). This condusion can be used to try to extract more information
tlons for the stresses around driven piles. The simplifying assumptions of from the existing database of instrumented pile tests. Bond (1989) has
developed useful charts that allow the distributions of a;c acting on the
cr/c kPa Equilibrium effective radial stress shafts of piles to be estimated from the piles' relative depth ratios and
oº.----~2roo'-_-~40To'----"6~00~--~ªºº the profiles of a~0 and initial OCR.
~
...
e.
Clay 5.3.9 Pile loading-theory
= and
Gravei The starting point for pile loading analyses is noting that the soil must
adhere to the pile until rupture occurs. Neglecting any straining in the
CEM Prediction o"r'c = 5. B Cu I Ol pile body, this means that there can be neither circumferential nor
i vertical strains at the pile interface, i.e.:
Head
Eg = E2 = 0
The radial strain E, can be found from the equation below:
Oisturbed
3 London
Clay
Thus E, = O for undrained loading, whilst for drained conditions
E, = Evol ·
The stresses ( a,, a 0 , 0 2 and r,2 ) developed dose to the shaft
when the pile is loaded depend on the soil's response to shearing under
these severe kinematic restraints. There is no a-priori reason to suppose
4 that a; will remain constant. Similarly at failure, the soil-pile friction
angle ô= tan- 1 (r,2 /a;) need not equal <P at failure.
lntact
London
Clay
5.3.10 Continuum analyses-elastic and elastoplastic
Potts and Martins (1982) analysed the problem from a critica! state 'tHV 'trz
- ,- ~ MIT -E3 Predictions - OCR•s 1 to 4 !Boston Blue Cloy)
viewpoint and arrived at opposite condusions. They predicted that a; O~c a;c OSS Test, OCR =1 . O I Boston Blue Cloy l
could change considerably during loading, depending on drainage condi- Interface Sliding Model I Hutton Cloy 1
O. 6
tions, K and OCR. They also showed that ô would be constant in all
cases (where there had been no fabric disturbance) and equal to: ~ ~max
º~
□:__--~□~.2----□~.4---~□-~6----t,-----:-.---,12
5.3.11 Simple shear analogies
Randolph and Wroth (1981) adopted an alternative continuum approach Figure 5.24 Loading stress paths for low-plasticity clays; predictions of three pile loading
by drawing an analogy between the soil circumferentially disposed models.
around a pile shaft during pile loading and the strain conditions in
undrained simple shear laboratory tests. Following from the CEM
soil element (dose to the shaft) that had undergone the full stress
analyses they anticipated that, dose to the pile shaft, all days-at all
history predicted by an SPM analysis of installation and equalisation (for
initial OCRs-would become normally consolidated with:
a level 200 R above the pile tip).
The fan of stress paths predicted for Boston blue day, at initial OCRs
between 1 and 4, undergoing undrained pile loading is reproduced in
These stress conditions are exactly those of an ideal simple shear test at
Figure 5.25. The normalised paths all plot within a narrow band dose to
OCR = 1, but rotated through 90º.
the curve followed by a DSS test on K O consolidated day at OCR = 1.2.
When tested in simple shear, days often show quite different behavi-
our to that seen in conventional triaxial tests. Figure 5.24 shows a
typical normalised stress path from an undrained direct simple shear 5.3.12 Residual fabric
(DSS) test on Boston blue day at OCR = 1; notice in particular that
failure, in terms of peak shear stress r, is attained long before the peak The continuum theories assume that shaft failure involves the plastic
stress ratio r/a~. De Josselin de Jong (1971) suggested that this might be failure of the soil mass. However, as mentioned earlier, there is strong
because of failure first developing on surfaces oriented at 90º to the evidence suggesting that interface sliding on residual surfaces (initiated
direction of shearing. during installation) is the governing mechanism in certain types of day.
Randolph and Wroth (1981) considered that the sarne mechanism The effect of a thin surface on which the ratio of •rz/a; is limited by
would apply for undrained pile shaft failures in day. If so, a; and •rz highly ordered fabric was considered by Potts and Martins (1982). They
should follow paths similar to normally consolidated DSS tests, irre- conduded that sliding would occur on the surface long before the soil
spective of the day's initial OCR. continuum reached failure. The stress paths predicted by the continuum
As an alternative to carrying out DSS tests, an approximate equation models would therefore be truncated with, probably, smaller changes in
was proposed that leads to: a; and lower peak shaft shear stresses.
The stress path expected for a low-plasticity day (like Boston blue
•rz/Cu
0
= cos q>(3 - sin q>)/2 day) which fails by interface sliding is illustrated on Figure 5.25 using an
Whittle et ai. (1988) analysed the loading process with the MIT E3 soil interface sliding analysis of the (similar) Hutton till, which may be
model. The simple shear/pile loading strain conditions were applied to a compared with the pile loading stress paths predicted for Boston blue
204 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC BEHA VIOUR OF LARGE PILES 205
•rz,kPa The tests were essentially undrained; both sets of stress paths rise
almost vertically-with a slight trend to the left for compression and vice
100
versa in tension. The unload-reload stages of the tension test (stages
-- -------- 7 --
µ .010 - - - -
__i::----
50 1
--~--
'A
-
300
---------
--
2
A
"'º
µe010 - - ~ : - ~ -
soo 600
A
'ºº 800
BCD) showed stable, 'elastic', behaviour. Notice also that the peak
values of c:5 fell far below <Pcs (22º) and that the fast-installed pile showed
higher values than the slow-installed one. There are also differences
between tests in compression and tension. But, in each case, the
a; , kPa measurements showed a gradual post-peak degradation of c:5 with dis-
placement giving an ultimate residual value of 8º.
These results, and the associated fabric studies, confirm that residual
1rz, kPa (interface) sliding controls the shaft capacity in this high-OCR clay.
200
Furthermore, the measured frictional characteristics are in excellent
agreement with the special ring-shear interface tests shown in Figure
5.18. Further field evidence is given by Coop (1987), who interpreted
100
residual sliding from instrumented pile tests in Gault clay, and by fabric
studies associated with the Cowden till test series (Ove Arup and
3
Partners, 1986).
200 A 300
600 700 800
5.3.14 Contractant clays
a-,', kPa
·50
(b) The picture for contractant clays is less clear. ln cases where c:5 is
relatively high and the soil is strongly contractant, the rotation of the
Figure 5.25 Pile loading stress paths from two Canons Park tests (starting from point A) principal stress axes that accompanies shaft loading may induce un-
for points 1, 2 and 3 located, respectively, 52, 28.2 and 8.4 radii behind the pile tip. (a)
Slow-installed pile-compression test. (b) Fast-installed pile-tension test, incorporating drained instability (and peak rr,) at stress ratios ( rr,/a;) well below tan </>
unloading stage B to C. (After Bond and Jardine, 1989.) (or even tan c:5). This may also lead to a brittle rr,-Yrz curve.
Morrison (1984) obtained data from rapid loading tests on the
contractant Boston blue clay with his PLS cell that appear to support
clay by the above two continuum models. Notice that the continuum the simple shear analogy and the MIT loading model, but the measure-
models predict lower peak values of rr,/a;c, but higher values of true c:5. ments may not be very reliable as the tests were stress-controlled and
were performed very quickly.
The Boston blue clay has a relatively low DSS undrained shear
5.3.13 Studying loading with instrumented piles-dilatant clays strength. But interface shear experiments show relatively high c:5 at low
effective stresses (Hight, 1983; Whittle, 1987). These observations
The only sure way to prove how and when residual sliding operates is to suggest that a residual surface need not always be formed when piles are
carry out a wide range of field tests. Although very few pile instrumen- installed in contractant low-PI clays.
tation systems are capable of measuring effective stress changes accur- Karlsrud and Haugen (1985) also found no physical evidence of
ately during pile loading, some reliable data from the Canons Park residual fabric surfaces in their test series on the low-plasticity, sensitive,
programme are available. Haga clay. However, the effective stress measurements made with their
Results taken from two static (first-time) tests are reproduced in instrumented pile appeared to show some similarities with the stress
Figure 5.25, using µ = tan c:5; the upper plot shows the stress paths for paths recorded at Canons Park. 'Typical' data from a first-time tension
three points on a (compression) pile previously installed by relatively loading test show that the stress path is practically vertical over most of
slow jacking (at about 100 mm/min), and the lower plot gives the sarne its length and moves to the right, i.e. the value of the effective radial
data for a (tension) pile which had been installed at 500 mm/min. stress, a; increases, shortly before failure. The peak value of c:5 typically
206 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC BEHAVIOUR OF LARGE PILES 207
observed is well below the triaxial criticai state </>, and dose to the 200 ...I_Ultimatecapacity
values of r/a~ found in soil-on-interface DSS and shear box experi- atter300mm displacement
ments.
160
However, there was scatter between pile tests, and undrained soil-soil
DSS tests showed similar peak ratios of r/a~ to the interface tests. ln
addition, other tests in the series showed reductions in a; after yield,
and it is difficult to judge whether residual interface friction had any
120
l 2.13m
I
significant effect on the shaft capacities of the Haga piles. Glacio-Marine
clays and so.nds
80
ln summary, the published database of reliable experiments remains Residual surface assumed
(a) and below specified strain limits. A similar function was used to relate
bulk modulus to volume strain.
OCR Further aspects of these analyses will be discussed in section 5.4. The
benefits of using the non-linear effective stress approach are clearly
1
14 indicated by Figure 5.28. Comparisons with field measurements show
\ Values 1OQ1) that the new method provides much better predictions of group behav-
iour than conventional T-Z and linear elastic analyses.
Eu,
kPa x 10 5
~~t"
5.4 Predicting field behaviour from soil element tests
a~ed~
5.4.1 lntroduction
3500
(b)
3000
• Observed full sente
1. 5 behaviour
L{E}= Eu { E 1
Eu{ll01 I 2500
oeR's
1. O 2000
1500
0.5 .,e
~
--- ---
e 1000
o
ti.n~\~s\s - - - - -
"'
e,
t\\\ot\a.\ - - -
-- to~'----
0
500
0"-:--,-:-----~-----~------~--
0.001 0.01 1.0
~
]í
J -- -- -- -- --
Axial strain, E {º/, 1 ºo 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 U 1.6 1.8 2.0
6mm { Total group displacement)
Figure 5.27 Secant stiffness-strain curves from undrained compression tests on K 0 -con-
solidated Magnus till (a~c = 400 kPa). (a) Natural secant stiffness. (b) Normalised secant Figure 5.28 Comparison between predictions of non-linear FE analysis and field measure-
stiffness curves. ments; Hutton Tension Leg Platform foundations. (After Jardine and Potts, 1988.)
210 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC BERA VIOUR OF LARGE PILES 211
empirical rules for static design. This section of the chapter explores element is shown on Figure 5.29. Also shown are the peak and ultimate
how this new understanding may help the development of a more friction ratios that limit the continuum shear strain to 0.2% in static
rational approach to cyclic analysis. tests. Failure occurs by (non-dilating) sliding, and a relative slip of about
First the probable undrained behaviour of piles subjected to slow 50 mm is required to reduce ô to its residual value.
regular cycles will be considered. However, bear in mind that offshore
storm loads cover a far wider spectrum of frequencies and amplitudes.
5.4.3 Cyclic soil behaviour
Compression
lo-a-crrl 12 0 _4 trz/CT;c Static loading curve
Peak 6
kPa
20 _ _ _ _ ÔULT
50 1 cycle N!!
100 10
vCA ,,,•.,:
/T 1!''x,,1-' •
1 . . . at·
"{V'----Direction oi cychc stra,n m,gr ,on
jl }!/ ,/
o li /1/ f 1
j/ ! 11(.!.
Yrz, % 1
0.5
!f I i!l ! / - 0.5 -0.4 -0.2 0.2
Yrz,%
0.4
11ií////
-20
-~~·
ii ~ ~ii i /
-0.3
-40~-~--~--~-~--~--~-~~-~--~-~
o 50 100 "trzlC1)c
1t2lcrJ+cr}l lkPal Peak 6 -0.4 Tension
Figure 5.30 Undrained triaxial effective stress paths from cyclic test on Ko consolidated (a)
Lower Cromer til!. Test C-136, OCR = 7. (After Takahashi, 1981.)
Compression
'trz I a-;c
The first aspect to consider is the way that shaft capacity can be lost 0.4
Peak6
through the reductions in p' ( and hence a;) that are caused by cycling,
Stotic loading curve
in this case well within the outer state boundary surface. To do this, a -----ôuLT
simple model is set out in Appendix 5.I that relates changes in p' to the
shear strain developed during the first cycle (Ecyciic) and the number of
cycles experienced, N. Soil parameters are derived for this illustration
using the LCT cyclic triaxial tests described by Takahashi (1981).
The expected reductions in p' lead to proportionate changes in the
soil stiffness characteristics, which are simulated by an extended version
of the non-linear model described in section 5.3.15. Cycling therefore 0.2 0.4 0.5
Cycle with
leads to a gradual softening of the pile's load-displacement curve as well Ycyclic = E criticai
Yrz•¾
1
-02
5.4.4 lnteraction diagram r--Ycyclic=0.3%
Linking the simple cyclic soil model to the interface failure criterion
allows prediction of the effects of cycling on shaft capacity.
The calculation routine is set out in Appendix 5.I, where the full
~ Peak 6 ,/
-0.3
'trz la~c
-0.4 Tension
(bl
range of combinations is considered, including the one-way (i.e. entirely
compressive or entirely tensile) cycling and two-way (mixed) cycling Figure 5.31 Examples of cyclic load prediction for low-plasticity clay interface model,
illustrated in Figure 5.31. ln this context symmetrical cycling refers to N = 1: (a) One-way cycling. (b) Two-way cyclmg.
214 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS
CYCLIC BEHA VIOUR OF LARGE PILES 215
two-way cycling with the average shear stress ( Tav) equal to zero. static capacity will not induce failure within 1000 cycles, provided
The results are illustrated in Figure 5.32 in an interaction diagram. that displacements remain small.
Curves are shown defining the limiting combinations of r cyc11c. and r av (2) A further loss of capacity can take place if slip occurs at the
that would cause cyclic failure within N cycles. Such diagrams are often interface because of the overall pile movements becoming large;
used in cyclic studies and points to note include: the maximum additional reduction in this case (tan Dresictuai/
(1) I~ the system (a soil sample, a pile element or even a complete tan Dpeak) would amount to 0.83 after 50 mm of relative displace-
pile) behaves similarly in tension and compression (as with our ment.
simple model) then the diagram is symmetrical. (3) The shaded area at the base of the diagram indicates the static
(2) The two diagonal lines radiating from the origin represent the region, when cyclic loading leads to Ecyclic < EcriticaI and therefore
boundaries between one-way and two-way cycling. has no effect.
(3) The other, orthogonal, pair of diagonal lines represent the limit- (4) Grading from the static to the failure region, the combinations of
ing condition that cyclic capacity = static capacity. Tcyclic and Tav lead to progressively larger permanent strains and
(4) Contours for N show the combinations of r cyc11c- and r av at which reductions in shaft capacity-but not failure. Paulos (1988) has
failure is predicted for the indicated number of cycles. called this the 'metastable' region.
(5) The axes are normalised by dividing Tcyclic and rav by the max-
imum Static Capacity, Tpeakstatic· 5.4.5 Permanent strains
For the particular example described, one-way loading does not lead to
failure provided the maximum load is kept below = 90% of the static Cyclic triaxial tests also indicate how permanent strains may develop
capacity and no sliding occurs. The 1000-cycle contour is assumed to under repeated loading. The sign and rate of change of the permanent
bou?d th~ 'failure' region of this diagram. Reductions in a; caused by strains depends on the relative magnitude of the average and cyclic
cychng wdl tend to recover with pore pressure dissipation. But this shear stresses. It is important to be able to model straining because the
process will be relatively slow in the field and it is assumed here that losses in overall stiffness may allow ôpeak to fall towards ()residual as a
pore pressure generation is more rapid than drainage until N = 1000. result of slippage. As will be shown later, local stiffness reductions and
Other results for this particular pile-soil element are: the accumulation of permanent strains can also lead to more severe
cyclic stress conditions over the top parts of the pile and so encourage
(1) Two-way cycling degrades capacity more substantially than one- any tendency for the pile to fail progressively.
way loading, but it is predicted that cycling to within 70% of the Appendix 5.I also gives expressions linking N, Tcyciic and Tav to the
generation of permanent strains. The model is based on the scheme
shown in Figure 5.33, which differentiates between (1) strains induced
by loading and unloading and (2) strains developed when Tr, is positive
and negative. Quantitive use will not be made of the model's equations
here, but note that:
(1) Permanent strain development is linked to the difference between
the two strain components y 1 , y 2 (or E 1 , E 2 ) shown on the figure.
Tension Compression (2) One-way loading gives y 2 = O, and the maximum value for
y 1 = 0.2% (from Figure 5.30). Permanent strains should therefore
be expected to develop in the one-way metastable region (see
Figure AS), but at a relatively slow rate.
(3) Provided that cyclic failure is not approached, the permanent
strains after 1000 cycles are projected to be less than four times
0.5 0.8 1.0
'av /1: p•ak 'tav./'t peak static
Ycyclic ·
(4) Only small ( < 10%) changes in cyclic stiffness are expected in the
Figure 5.32 Cyclic interaction diagram predicted by low-plasticity clay interface model. one-way metastable region.
216 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC BEHA VIOUR OF LARGE PILES 217
1, 5-' g
0.3 /
,,T
/ London Clay
/
/ Ôpeak
/
/
0.2 /
/
I ÔULT
Lcyclic / CT~c I
I
L-f
Exemple ot a static cycle
Yrz,%
Ycyclic=Ycritical
- 0.4 -0.2 0.2 0.4
/ 1 Yrz %
/ LavlCTrc Ycritical = 0.08 %
6 6 ULT -0.1
Yrz
P•ak 6 -0.2
Tension
STAGES OF CYCLE 2 'trz I crie
-0.3
5- 6 Unloading (stitter by X)
7-8
________ ....,, //
/
0.3 , - - - - - - , , - - - - , - - - - , - - - - - , - - - - ,
0.6 0.2
{a)
--- -----
'rz ler/e _,,/
0.1 /' -------
Stress ;:,aths ter static
O.O 1-------',---"io,,,a""d"'-in=---t---t--t-++tt+H-Hlttttttttt+t--t---t---t----t
0.4
Low plasticity clay { Interface sliding model)
Cyclic stress _/·
path
Ôresidual - 0.1
--------::: /
-0. 2 'cyclic =D. 5 . ------- . ------._ . ____,- /
Boston Blue Clay
1MIT- E3 Mede\ ) 7:max slatic ---.._ · - ---- ·
alter Whittle {1987)
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
a/ I cr~c
O.ô Yrz, %
o.a 1.0 1.2 O. 3 .--r---.----,,------,-----,--,--,--,---,-7
{b)
Figure 5.35 Predicted shear stress-shear strain relationships for static pile loading; low-
plasticity clays-interface sliding and continuum shear (MIT E3) models.
0.2
7:rz/fJ"r'c .
/-·-·r-- Curve for
static loading
0.1
the pile tip. The soil model is complex and will not be reviewed here,
but it should be noted that it incorporates 'realistic' features such as
stress induced anisotropy, undrained brittleness and small-strain non-
linearity into a critical-state type framework. As a result, the model is -0.1
able to reproduce, with reasonable accuracy, the results of (slow) cyclic / ,: cyclic
DSS tests.
Whittle's predictions for the cyclic stress paths and stress-strain curves
-0.2
- O. 3L..___J_
·------------
__j__ __J__
'max sta1ic
= 0.6
_ l _ _ - 1 - _ . . L _ _ , _ _ _ 1 - _ _ . __ _ _
80
Rapid Static
lf =10s
º· Q
70
(kN)
60
- --
50
40
a-; I a-/c
Figure 5.38 Permanent effects of undrained cycling for a (non-sliding) contractant soil. 30
Key: A, initial condition; B, end of cycling; C, after dissipation; D, peak capacity after
dissipation.
even if a; does not fully recover its original value, the peak static
capacity will increase and the element's susceptibility to further cycles
will be reduced. The figure shows that a local hardening of this kind will
increase the criticai value of r:r,/a;c for continuum failure. As o o. 5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
(mm}
tan ô ( r:rz/a;) remains constant, the pile element could switch, when
reloaded, from the contractant continuum failure mode to a mechanism Figure 5.39 Effects of rate on static pile behaviour-Haga tests. (After Karlsrud and
that involved interface sliding. Haugen, 1983.)
222 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC BEHAVIOUR OF LARGE PILES 223
l
clays of low clay content) can show the opposite trend. This is illustrated
by the test data shown in Figure 5.40(a), on fast loading the Kalabagh
soil showed an initial peak that increased with velocity, but this fast
peak degraded rapidly with continuing displacement to reach a surpris- lnitial peak for
tast loading _.,,. _.,,.
.,,. .,,. _.,,.
0.4
ingly low residual value. This implies a particularly low resistance to pile
1--------------------
driving.
Figure 5.41(b) shows the more typical behaviour of London clay; the ---- Displacement sottening
rate effect is minimal at low speeds, but becomes very strong when the a t fast rates
slow residual
velocity exceeds about 50 mm/min. lt is possible to divide the phenome- 0.2 tast residual
non into two components:
(1) A viscous component that disappears when the sample is retested
-1-
drained undrained
slowly.
(2) A fabric component related to the shearing mode changing from
(slow) sliding to (fast) transitional shear as defined by Lupini et 10 10 2 10 3 10 4
ai. (1981). This gives a rougher textured shear surface and a Displacement rate mm/ minute
higher peak ô on slow retesting.
Field evidence of the sarne positive rate effects was found in the
Canons Park London clay pile tests. Friction was measured during the
installation of a number of piles jacked a range of rates. The data are
shown in Figure 5.41 as plots of mean a and /3 against absolute velocity. (b)
The characteristics mirrored the ring-shear tests; driven piles behaved
like fast-jacked ones.
ln arder for any kind of pile to experience a strong rate effect it must 0.4 Fast peak
be moving quickly. That is, the loads must have exceeded the slow resistance
Cl = lrz iCuo 50
0.B
o.• --T--------+
5% increase in , 12 per log cycle
- - A P I design capac.ity
o.olL_ ___,_ ___,__ _L . __ __J__ _L __ _..L_ _ _.,___ __.__ ___,
30
3.0 ~ - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
~ ='t,z I êi.:O
20
2.0
""
:E
1.0 - 10 L; = sustainrzd tension load
---------+
o.o.LL_ ____,_ _...J,o',---2'=-o-------=so'=----:,~00:-------:2=00;:-----;:soto;:----;lCI00;:!;:;;;--~2000
Rate of lnstallation (mm/min) 12 16 20 24 28 32
6mm
Figure 5.41 Effect of displacement rate on shaft friction for Canons Park piles. (After
Bond and Jardine, 1989.) Figure 5.42 Predictions for load-unload curves of single Hutton TLP piles. (After Jardine,
1985.)
the interface sliding pile element model-more severe effects would be
head movements start to show significant irrecoverable components
predicted by the continuum model. . from L/ Lu1t = 0.3. This means that some tension loads remain locked
Figure 5.42 shows the static tension loading curve for a smgle Hutton
into the lower portions of the pile and that the sign of the shear stresses
pile; also shown are the sustained load Li, the API design capacity and
acting on the uppermost sections reverse during unloading, producing
a series of static unloading curves. The distributions of skin friction at the general scheme in Figure 5.46. The effect on the ground surface
three values of displacement (for first-time loading) are shown in Figure displacement profiles is indicated in Figure 5.47; there is an increasing
5.43. These show that the capacity of the uppermost layers is fully tendency for soil dose to the pile to be dragged down below its original
mobilised at a very early stage and that failure spreads down the pile level as the tension loads are released.
shaft progressively as the load factor increases. Extrapolating this trend to consider sustained one-way tension load-
Similar patterns may be seen in the contours of ground strains given ing, it can be seen that the pile can be divided into the four sections
in Figure 5.44. At both load levels, the strains in the soil mass remain
(1-IV) shown on Figure 5.46, the relative size of which depends on the
very low; at the sustained load level (LJ the strains ~nly exceed _Ec:i1ic~1 tension loads Qcyclic and Qav· The cyclic conditions in each zone can be
over the top few metres of the pile face, but when L 1s 0.5Lu1t th1s hm1t characterized as shown in Table 5 .1.
is exceeded along two-thirds of the pile shaft. The interaction diagram shown on Figure 5.32 can be used to gauge
Sliding between the pile and soil starts in the upper layers and is most the potential effects on the local capacities in each section. Other effects
clearly identified from the normalised ground surface displacement include:
profiles shown in Figure 5.45. The uppermost layer experiences 8 mm of
relative slip before the pile head has moved 10 mm-when the pile's (1) Increasing movements during individual cycles - due to changes in
load factor is only 0.5. This slip increases by another 30 mm before the p' over sections 1-111 and shifts in the rr2 -depth distribution.
pile reaches overall failure. (2) Further degradation of capacity through reductions in ô with slip
It is clear that one-way cycling to Li should have little effect, but displacement over the failed sections.
examination of the unloading stages from higher loads shows some (3) The steady growth of permanent shear strains over sections II - III
surprising results. The curves shown in Figure 5.42 indicate that the pile of the pile shaft.
226 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC BEHA VIOUR OF LARGE PILES 227
1:n (kPa)
É
s
Ê
40
50
e,
e,
e,
60
Figure 5.43 Predictions for shaft friction distributions at three pile head displacements ( ó)
for Hutton TLP piles. (After Jardine and Potts, 1988.)
~
0.6 e: 4
o
:;::
~
">
0.5 QJ 3
ãí
o:; 1
1
0.4 2
0.3
1
0.2
_+--
,, _x_
-- --
X....- -+-
0.1
-1 _- X +---
~ _-x __,,+---- ---
"-X_-
-+---- ---- ----
Radial distance fro m pile, metres -2 \.._
-- +-
Figure 5.47 Predictions for vertical ground surface movements caused by loading up to
Figure 5.45 Predictions for vertical ground surface movements at three pile head displace- four load factors before unloading to L;nitial· Single Hutton TLP piles. (After Jardine,
ments (b) for single Hutton TLP piles. (After Jardine and Potts, 1988.) 1985.)
TableS.1
1Upwards resistance positive)
I
-
---
--{
/
,
Stress distribution
Section
I
II
Cyclic stress conditions
IV The simple conclusions set out above suggest how cyclic loading effects
could be allowed for in design by specifying partial factors of safety.
These would be additional to those already estimated to allow for soil
variability, loading uncertainty and displacement limitation and should
Figure 5.46 Effect of load cycles on r,2 distributions for long piles. be applied to the static capacity deduced by a realistic effective stress
230 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC BEHAVIOUR OF LARGE PILES 231
method (which may differ from the 'API' capacity). For the two efficiency of both displacement and grouted piles as tension anchors;
example platforms a cyclic partial factor of about 1.33 might be further details are given by Gallager and St John (1980), McAnoy et al.
considered appropriate. (1983) and Ove Arup and Partners (1986). Attention here will be
Such rules of thumb should, ideally, be substantiated by full-scale concentrated on the results obtained in cyclic tests on steel piles
cyclic pile analyses. 1t is possible that reasonable predictions could be (approximately 10 m long and 305 mm diameter) driven in the firm to
made for complete piles by using element studies of the type described stiff Cowden till. lt may be assumed that residual sliding was the
above to derive input parameters for the existing numerical methods dominant failure mechanism, as polished shear surfaces were proven by
(cyclic T - Z or substructured boundary integral analysis). exploratory trenches dug dose to the piles.
An iterative procedure would be required. Preliminary estimates of Dealing first with the effect of cycling on the load-displacement
the local values of Tpeab TresictuaJ, the T-Z curves and degradation relationships, Figure 5.48 shows the closed loops observed for individual
parameters p or À (see sectons 5.2.6 and 5.2.7), could be made from the cycles over a range of cyclic amplitudes (ali giving Qmaxcyc1;c/Qmaxs1a1ic of
element studies; these might be modified progressively to account for about 0.9). The effects of stress-strain non-linearity are evident; the
the local variations in cycling conditions (i.e. one-way or two way, shape of the loops is in good agreement with that assumed for the cyclic
Tav, Tcyciic) predicted by the analysis of the complete pile. pile element model.
ln the longer term, however, most progress will be made by incorpor- Figure 5 .49 illustrates a typical testing sequence in which progressively
ating realistic cyclic soil models into non-linear effective stress finite more severe cyclic loads were applied. One-way cycling caused perman-
element analyses of full-scale piles. ent displacements but gave little degradation of capacity. ln contrast,
symmetrical two-way loading could not be sustained with Qmaxcyclic/
400
A brief summary of some results obtained in three field cyclic loading ! 75
test programmes is presented in the following paragraphs. The tests ali
involved piles approximately one-tenth the size of offshore prototypes,
300
but the programmes provide useful evidence that links the hypothetical z
behaviour of pile-soil elements to the probable behaviour of full-scale ºz
CI)
piles. LU
>--
200
The three programmes that will be considered are the Cowden tests
(on a low-plasticity till), the Canons Park tests on London clay and the
Haga clay test series. 1t is hoped that these provide a reasonable
z 100
cross-section of soil types and failure mechanisms. "'
o
The interpretation of the tests presents many difficulties. The ideal of «
g
testing a large number of fresh piles under many combinations of Qcyciic, o
Qav, N and frequency is not feasible economically, and most program-
z
mes include multiple load tests. ln the sarne way, drainage is much more
rapid at a reduced scale and fewer cycles can be applied undrained than º
CI)
CI)
1mm
~ -100
is the case offshore. Q_
:e
o(.)
600
400
z
o 0·8
iii
z 11
15 19 Qcyclic
....w
200 Qmox static
z 0·6
""
o<( o 6 22 8
o
...J
0·4
21
z
o 200
ir,
Cf)
w
a:
e.. 0-2
::;
o
u
400
9
600
60 40 20 o 20 40 60 80
Qav.,
Omax s1a1ic
DOWN DISPLACEMENT / mm UP
Figure 5.49 Typical cyclic loading sequence; Cowden pile D. (After Ove Arup and Figure 5.50 Cowden cyclic interaction diagram showing upper limit to failure region.
Partners, 1986.) (After Ove Arup and Partners, 1986.)
Qmaxstatic > 0.5 but gave only a slight tendency for upward permanent a;. The load-displacement patterns found when a pile was subjected to
movements. more sustained one-way compression cycling are shown in Figure 5.51;
The effects of cycling on overall capacity are summarised in Figure moderate numbers of cycles applied (over a range of Qav and Qcyclic)
5.50. The single line delineates failure after an (unspecified) moderate caused no degradation of capacity or permanent straining. Extreme
number of cycles; points inside this envelope are 'safe'. Taking account two-way load reversals were found to give more marked reductions in
of changes in c5 due to the large slip displacements observed in the local radial effective stresses and shaft resistances. Reductions in capa-
two-way cycles, this diagram shows reasonable agreement with the city caused by testing to large displacements were not recoverable.
predictions of the low-plasticity sliding model. As mentioned in section 5.4.6, the London clay is more resistant to
Unfortunately, this behaviour cannot be quantified in terms of effect- cyclic loading than most low-plasticity soils. The most important source
ive stresses as no reliable measurements were made of a; on the pile of degradation with larger piles would be slip movements reducing the
shaft. interface c5 values.
The Canons Park programme included very little cyclic testing, but The NGI have carried out extensive field research into the cyclic
reliable measurements were made of the effective stresses at the pile behaviour of offshore piles. The Haga tests are the first to be reported,
shaft. but other programmes have taken place at Onsoy and Lierstranda
The loading effective stress paths shown in Figure 5.25 were used (Norway) and at Pentre in the UK (Hansen et ai., 1989). The Haga
earlier to justify the principal assumptions of the interface sliding model. project involved 4 years' work with 5 m-long, 153 mm-diameter steel
They also show that one-way unload-reload cycles cause little change in piles and concentrated on the effects of cyclic tension loading. The piles
234 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC BEHAVIOUR OF LARGE PILES 235
98. 5 6 1 1 1 1
1 I
93 Q AV 1 QMOJ<. static = 0.47 I
I
I
BB (89%) s- 0cyclic 10Max.static = 0.42 I -
I
B3 (85%) (one - way tensian) I
81 I
I
E 4- I
E
E 1
::, I
70 E E
a, I
I
10 67 (68%) ~ E 3 I
a, I
E I
16 I
58 ã. ,I
e
o "'
i5 2 - ., /
a. //
L-
o o
----- ----
a. 1-
46 o
30
40 (41%)
L-
o..
o0
1 -
,/- --- ----- -
35 35 (36%) § oo
1 1
20 40 60 80 100 120
Number oi Cycles
23
z 19 (19%) < Figure 5.52 Typical Haga cyclic tension load test (B5/03). (After Karlsrud and Haugen,
=-
-o
1983.)
ro 12
2
ro
·;;
...:
o 2,98 5, 30 7,37 @- indicates number of
cycles
Displacement of pile head (mm)
Figure 5.51 Cyclic tests on a fast-installed pile in London clay. (After Bond, 1989.) ,:rz, kPo 1upworcls resistonce positive)
-20 20 40 60
were fully instrumented and the results have been presented in a series
of publications by Karlsrud and Haugen (1983, 1985; Karlsrud et al.,
1986).
The results will be illustrated with just one typical cyclic test-B5/03-
which was carried out on pile B5, 1 day after the static tension test
B5/02 described in section 5.3.14. This test involved one-way tension
loading with QmaxcycJic/Qmaxstatic = 0.89; Figure 5.52 shows how the pile
head displacement grew slowly with cycling until the pile started to pull
out after about 100 cycles. This result is not surprising, but the extensive
instrumentation mounted on the pile confirms many of the predictions
~ lnstrument levei
made earlier.
;...l'r> ot 3.45m
Figure 5.53 shows the distributions of Trz measured at two stages of
the cyclic test. The left-hand profiles are those for the troughs of the '
cycles; the right-hand ones were recorded at the peaks. Notice that -Cmax "
-Cmin
unloading induces two-way shear loading over the top two-thirds of the 5
pile-even with such a short stiff pile. Also notice that, as cycling "tm depth -o--N=23
continues, the top half of the pile degrades rapidly and causes the --ó--N =106
expected downward shift of the peak Trz profile. Figure 5.53 Distributions of maximum and minimum 'rz at two stages during Haga test
This process is examined further in the stress path diagram (for the B5/03. (After Karlsrud and Haugen, 1983.)
236 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC BEHAVIOUR OF LARGE PILES 237
3.45 m instrument level) given in Figure 5.54. Although the pile-head Onset ot tailure ),--
load cycles remained unchanged throughout the test, the local shear
stress cycles grew steadily because of downward load transfer-until
i /Tõ=38°
40
cyclic failure commenced. Up to that point the soil (at 3.45 m) showed
little a; migration and there were only small pile-head movements. 'trz,
These features are more akin to the predictions of the interface sliding kPa
model than the simple shear analogy/continuum failure models. lnitial
However, the Haga tests showed other failure characteristics that
match the continuum models more satisfactorily. The overall interaction 20
diagram (Figure 5.55) shows a similar susceptibility to symmetrical
two-way loading as the MIT E3 element model (with Qmaxcyc1ic/ lnitial
Lov
Qmaxstatic < 0.4). The piles also recovered their capacity quickly after
failure and showed gains in capacity after each test.
Both the static and the cyclic tests at Haga point towards a mixed 0 f----'----=2-'=-o----ltHilfU-"Lº-------'---__J50L___L.J.
response; it appears that the first-time failures involved a muted a-;, kPa
undrained continuum failure, but that the conditions in subsequent tests
tended towards an interface sliding mechanism. The observations that ô -10
is similar to <P at peak in the cyclic test and that the post-peak cycles Figure 5.54 Effective stress paths observed at 3.45 m depth during Haga test BS/03.
maintained the sarne value suggest that no reoriented residual zone (Interpreted from data of Karlsrud and Haugen, 1983.)
existed at the interface.
Q AV / Q Max static
5.6 Summary
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
The topic of pile cyclic behaviour is very broad and relatively poorly
understood. This chapter's emphasis on axial loading of driven piles in Conslanl maximum load
clay does not necessarily imply that other types of problems are less Tension & Compression '
important. A number of workers have noted that more severe degrada-
tion can be expected with piles in sand, that lateral loading can be just 0 cyclic '\,
Tension only
as important as vertical, and that cyclic effects can dominate the design
Q Max. static
of grouted piles in calcareous sands (St John et ai., 1983; Poulos, 1989). 0.6
Instead of trying to review the whole topic, this chapter has concen-
Nt = 10
trated on the area where most research has been carried out, and
attempted to develop a fundamental approach to design. Although many 0.4 t:---...:1!!!:00:..__ _
of the topics discussed remain controversial, research into offshore piling 1000
is very active, and it is probable that approaches of this type will be
soon incorporated into practical design procedures.
The most important points raised in the chapter can be summarised as 0.2
follows:
(1) Offshore piled foundations are often designed without consider-
ing the effects of cyclic loading, even though environmental
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
forces may contribute the major part of the extreme load set.
(2) The static design codes are based on empirical interpretations of Figure 5.55 Cyclic interaction diagram from Haga tension pile tests. (After Karlsrud and
a limited database of pile load tests. Haugen, 1983.)
238 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC BEHA VIOUR OF LARGE PILES 239
(3) Field experience suggests that the combination of the present (16) The compressibility of a long offshore pile can force the upper
ways of estimating foundation loads and capacities is safe, part of the soil profile into two-way loading-even when the
although the underlying reasons for this are uncertain. pile-head loads are cycled in only one way. Progressive failure
(4) It is not clear, therefore, how design techniques may be optim- through reductions in ô with pile-soil slip can also be important.
ised. (17) The potential effects of cycling on capacity are seen to be
(5) Methods for extending the present static methods to allow for considerable, giving reductions in available shaft friction of up to
cyclic loading have been developed, but it is necessary to guess 50% of the static maxima in extreme circumstances.
many empirical parameters. (18) Field research with displacement piles in clay demonstrates most
(6) Research into the fundamental behaviour of piles in clay is of the features expected from the analytical studies.
identifying the effective stress processes that actually govern pile (19) The patterns of degradation are shown to depend on the type of
behaviour. New approaches are being developed from this to shaft failure mechanism, the pile compressibility, the cyclic
characterise: loading patterns and the basic stress-strain characteristics of the
(a) the effective stress conditions developed due to installation, foundation soils.
and
(b) the basic mechanics of shaft failure. Appendix 5.1 Cyclic model for interface sliding study
(7) This work shows that piles in different soils with the sarne Cu or
Cu/a~ values can give quite dissimilar behaviour. 5./.1 Static loading curve
(8) It is possible to anticipate how piles will behave from theory
combined with appropriate laboratory and field tests. During undrained loading a pile-soil interface element experiences
(9) Some of the most relevant tests (e.g. ring-shear interface experi- plane strains in the vertical direction and no volume change. The
ments and measurements of small-strain characteristics) are not relationship between shear stress and shear strain dose to the shaft is
included in most offshore site investigation programmes. given by:
(10) It is possible to carry out full-scale, effective stress, static
analyses of offshore piles that incorporate the results of the Trz = GsecYrz
recent research. Where this has been done, the predicted capaci- Assuming the Gsec!P' function described in section 5.3.15 gives:
ties and initial foundation stiffnesses tend to be greater than
those calculated by the standard methods. Trz= (Gsec/p')p'yrz = f(E)p'Yrz = f(E)(p'/a;c)a;cYrz
(11) When comparisons are made with field measurements of initial The expression for E simplifies to E = Yrz for these conditions and,
compliances, the new approach is found to be more realistic. substituting p~ = 0.8a;c, a relationship between shear strain and mobil-
(12) Cyclic behaviour can be analysed within the sarne framework. ised stress ratio is obtained with:
Models of soil behaviour under cycling can be combined with
either a continuous (simple shear) or interface sliding analysis of (rrz/a;c)mob = 0.8f(Yrz)Yrz
shaft failure to make predictions for pile elements; finite element This expression is evaluated for low-plasticity till in Figure 5.30.
analyses of full-scale behaviour are also feasible.
(13) Pile element studies indicate the interactions between sustained
and cyclic loads and the number of cycles at local points on the 5./.2 Cyclic test data-changes in mean effective stress
shaft of piles.
(14) Two-way cycling gives the most severe effects; soils that fail at The changes in mean effective stress observed in a suite of tests on
the pile interface by residual sliding show less short-term degra- overconsolidated LCT have been reinterpreted to produce the curves
dation than materials that fail by undrained (simple shear) given in Figures 5.A.1 and 5.A.2. The first plot shows the relationship
continuum collapse. Large-strain (asymmetric) two-way cycles between the cumula tive change in p', the number of cycles and the
produce the most rapid changes in permanent shear strain. magnitude of the applied strain cycle E cyclic ( trough to peak invariant
(15) Projecting full-scale behaviour from the element models suggests shear strain developed during the first cycle). Note that E is related to
that complete piles will tend to show more pronounced cyclic axial strain Ea by E = v'3t: 8 for undrained triaxial tests.
loading effects than the pile elements.
240 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC BEHA VIOUR OF LARGE PILES 241
Ecyclic
1.6
1.4
Failure _,,,,,- ---
1.2 ! -- -- --
1.0
---
0.8
0.6
0.4
/ 0.2
t
-;~
- - .-- Static cycle
1ôp / p') per cycle
Figure 5.A.2 Curves relating incremental changes in p' to N and Ecyclic· From cyclic
triaxial tests on LCT at OCR = 7. (Interpreted from data of Takahashi, 1981.)
Bc
160
N
140
Figure 5.A.1 Curves relating cumulative changes in p' to N and Ecyclic· From cyclic ,Bc=IINI
triaxial tests on LCT at OCR = 7. (Interpreted from data of Takahashi, 1981.) 120
100
The second plot shows the sarne data expressed in incremental form;
there appears to be a semilogarithmic relationship between ôp'/p' and
80
E cyciic for constant values of N, which is truncated at an upper levei by
cyclic failure and at a lower levei by E criticai. Between these limits the
60
incremental effect of each cycle on the current p' can be estimated
from: 40
ôp'/p' = Ace(2.303Ecyd;c/B,)
20
The terms Ac and Bc are functions of N, as shown in Figures 5.A.2 and
5.A.3, although B is approximately constant at 0.8.
?10-s Ac
The changes in mean effective stress were linked in these tests to the
steady development of permanent strains (Ep)- The relationships be- Figure 5.A.3 Coefficients for empirical equations relating incremental changes in p' to N
tween Ep, Ecyciic and N for a test series involving constant tav (but three and Ecyclic· From cyclic triaxial tests on LCT at OCR = 7. (Interpreted from data of
Takahashi, 1981.)
different leveis of tcyciic) are shown in Figure 5.A.4. Further assumptions
242 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS
CYCLIC BERAVIOUR OF LARGE PILES 243
(5) Considering the second cycle, the unmodified static r-y express-
fEpcrm
ion applies to the two loading sections (6-7 and 8-9 in Figure
% 5.45) but the stiffnesses on the unloading sections (5-6 and 7-8)
are larger by a factor X. Denoting the incremental strain for
section 5-6 as y 1 and that for 7-8 as y 2 , the permanent strain Yp
accumulated during the cycle is given by:
3 Yp = (Y1 - Y2)(l - 1/X)
(6) The triaxial data interpreted within this framework are applicable
generally. The relationships between X (or Ep), E 1 , E 2 and N
are shown in Figure 5.A.5; the amount of permanent strain
developed per cycle can be predicted (between similar limits to
- -- -
Ec= 0.5%
IE1-E2l =0.44 % the above equation for p') by substituting for X in the equation
given above.
(7) Between EeritieaI and failure, X can be written as:
X = 1 + Cce[(E,-E,)2.303/Dc]
ln order to apply the LCT cyclic data to the hypothetical pile segment
the following additional assumptions are necessary:
0.6
-- - L- ---
(1) Changes in p' dueto cyclic loading give equal changes in a;.
(2) The positive changes in p' noted in the first cycle of the triaxial
tests may be neglected.
(3) The stress-strain behaviour follows the scheme illustrated in
Figure 5.32 (a and b) (for one- and two-way stress-controlled
cycling respectively). The first cycle follows the static r-y express-
ion up to the maximum value of -c. The unloading curve follows
an identical incremental relationship projected downwards from
the top of the first cycle. If the cycling is two-way, the extension
loading curve follows a further projection of the unloading curve.
1 X -1 I
(4) Permanent strains are developed (in both triaxial and pile loading
cases) by a stiffening of the unloading stages of all cycles after the Figure 5.A.5 Curves relating unloading stiffness factor X, N and E 1 - E 2 . From cyclic
triaxial tests on LCT at OCR = 7. (Interpreted from data of Takahashi, 1981.)
first, as illustrated (for the pile element) in Figure 5.44.
244 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC BEHA VIOUR OF LARGE PILES 245
120
5.1.6 Non-uniform cycles
100
The model describes the response of soil subjected to uniform stress-
80
controlled cycles. More complex patterns of cyclic loading could be
examined with the sarne model if a curve-hopping technique was used
60 similar to that described by Andersen and Lauritzsen (1988) for the
cyclic analysis of gravity structures.
40
20
References
Andersen, K. H. and Lauritzsen, R. (1988) Bearing capacity for foundations with cyclic
0.001 0.004 0.01 0.04 0.1 0.1 loads. ASCE GT5, 114.
Cc ¾
Baligh, M. M. (1984) The simple-pile approach to pile installation in clays. ln Analysis and
Figure 5.A.6 Curve relating empírica! coefficient Cc to N. (lnterpreted from data of Design of Pile Foundations ed. Meyer J. R. Proc. Symp. on Codes and Standards,
Takahashi, 1981.) ASCE National Conv., San Francisco, 310-330.
Baligh, M. M. (1985) Strain path method. J. Geotech. Engng. ASCE, 111(9): 1108-1136.
Baligh, M. M. (1986) Undrained deep penetration, I: Shear stresses. Undrained deep
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Technology Conf. Houston, 1975, Paper OTC
Bea, R. G. and Audibert, J. M. F. (1979) Performance of dynamically loaded pile
A series of calculations can be performed using the model to predict foundations, Proc. 2nd lnt Conf. on Behaviour of Offshore Structures, London, 3:
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combinations of the cyclic shear stresses ( ± rcyciic) and the average shear Bond, A. J. (1989) Behaviour of displacement piles in an overconsolidated clay. PhD
Thesis. Univ. of London (Imperial College).
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(1) Consider one value of Tcyclic/Tmaxstatic and find the expected value displacement piles in overconsolidated clay. 0TH Report, HMSO, London, in press.
of Ycyciic from the G(y) function plotted in Figure 5.30. Borg Hansen, S., Solheim, K and Norum, P. (1989) Instrumentation of driven model test
f
(2) Then find the values of ôp '/p' for a range of N values. piles for determination of capacity of cyclically loaded offshore piles. Proc. Conf on
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(3) Calculate for each of these the ratio of the maximum degraded Bradshaw, H., Barton, R. R. and McKenzie, R. H. (1984) Toe Hutton TLP Foundation
capacity to the static one from: Design. OTC 4807 Proc. 16th Annual Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, Texas,
3: 263-270.
Tmaxdegradect/Tmaxstatic = [1 + (p~/a;cJ ôp/p')] Buriand, J. B. (1973) Shaft friction of piles in clay - a simple fundamental approach
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(4) Then calculate for each N the maximum possible value of Tav
Butterfield, R. and Ghosh, N. (1979) A linear elastic interpretation of models tests on
from Tav/Tmaxstatic = (Tmaxdegraded - Tcyclic)/Tmaxstatic· single piles and groups of piles in clay. Numerical Methods in Offshore Piling, ICE,
(5) Repeat for further values of Tcyclic/Tmaxstatic· London, 109-118.
Chandler, R. J. (1968) The shaft friction of piles in cohesive soils in terms of effective
The results of these calculations are shown in Figure 5.3.3. stress Civ. Eng. Pub. Wks. Rev., 48-51.
Chandler, R. J. and Martins, J. P. (1982) An experimental study of skin friction around
piles clay. Géotechnique 32: 119-132.
Coop, M. R. (1987) The axial capacity of driven piles in clay. D. Phil Thesis, Univ. of
5.1.5 The development of permanent strains Oxford.
Coyle, H. M. and Reese, L. C. (1966) Load transfer for axially loaded piles in clay J. Soil
The formulation for predicting the permanent strains can be coded Mech. Fdns Div., ASCE, 92(SM2), 1-26.
246 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS CYCLIC BEHA VIOUR OF LARGE PILES 247
De Josselin de Jong, G. (1971) Discussion in Session II of Roscoe Memorial Symposium, glacial till. Proc. 2nd lnt. Conf on Numerical Methods in Offshore Piling, Austin,
Stress strain behaviour in soils ed. Parry, R. H. Foulis, Cambridge, 258-261. Texas.
Dennis, N. D. (1982) Development of correlations to improve the prediction of axial pile Martins, J. P. (1983) Shaft resistance of axially loaded piles in clay. PhD Thesis, Imperial
capacity. PhD Thesis, University of Texas. College, University of London.
Gallager, K. A. and St John, H. D. (1980) Field scale studies of piles as anchorages for Matlock, H. and Foo, S. H. C. (1979) Axial pile analysis using a Hysteretic and Degrading
buoyant platforms. European Offshore Petroleum Conference, London, Paper EUR 135. Soil Model. Proc. Conf. of Numerical Methods in Offshore Piling, London, 127-133.
Gens, A. (1982) Stress-strain and strength characteristics of a low plasticity clay. PhD Mayne, P. W. and Kulhawy, F. H. (1982) Ko-OCR relationships in soil. ASCE J. Geot.
Thesis, Imperial College, University of London. Eng. Div., 108: 851-872.
Grosch, J. J. and Reese, L. C. (1980) Field tests of small-scale pile segments in a soft clay Meyerhof, G. G. (1976) Bearing capacity and settlement of pile foundations. ASCE J.
deposit under repeated axial loading. Proc. 12th Offshore Technology Conf., Houston, Geot. Eng. Div. 102 (GT3): 197-228.
Texas, 4: Paper OTC 3869 143-151. Morrison, M. (1984) ln situ measurements on a model pile in clay. PhD Thesis,
Hamilton, J. M. and Murff, J. D. (1988) Probabilistic assessment of the collapse strengths Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
of piled offshore structures. Proc. 5th Int Conf. on Behaviour of Offshore Structures, Ove Arup and Partners (1986) Research on the behaviour of piles as anchors for buoyant
Trondhiem, Norway, 1: 393-408. structures. 0TH Report 86 215, HMSO, London.
Hight, D. W. (1983a) Laboratory investigations of sea bed clays. PhD Thesis, Imperial Parry, R. H. G. and Swain, C. W. (1977) Effective stress methods of calculating skin
College, University of London. friction on driven piles in soft clay. Ground Engineering, 10(3): 24-26.
Hight, D. W. (1983b) Personal communication. Potts, D. M. and Martins, J. P. (1982) The shaft resistance of driven piles in clay. Proc.
Hight, D. W. (1989) Personal communication. 2nd lnt. Conf. on Numerical Methods in Offshore Piling, Austin, Texas.
Holmquist, R. W. and Matlock, H. (1976) Resistance-displacement relationships for Poulos, H. G. and Davis, E. H. (1974) Elastic solutions for soil and rock mechanics, J.
axially-loaded piles in soft clay. 8th Annual Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, Wiley and Sons, New York.
1976, Paper OTC 2474, 553-569. Poulos, H. G. (1982) Influence of cyclic loading on axial pile response. Proc. 2nd Int.
Idriss, I. M., Dobry, R. and Singh, R. D. (1978) Non-linear behaviour of soft clays during Conf. on Numerical Methods in Offshore Piling, Austin, Texas, 419-440.
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Jamiolkowski, M., Ladd, C. C., Germaine, J. T. and Lancellotta, R. (1985) New 114: 877-895.
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Jardine, R. J. (1985) Investigations of pile-soil behaviour, with special reference to the Randolph, M.F., Carter, J. P., and Wroth, C. P. (1979) Driven piles in clay - the effects
foundations of offshore structures. PhD Thesis, University of London. of installation and subsequent consolidation. Géotechnique 29(4): 361-393.
Jardine, R. J. and Potts, D. M. (1988) Hutton Tension Leg Platform Foundations: an Randolph, M. F. and Wroth, C. P. (1981) Application of the failure state in undrained
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Jardine, R. J., Hight, D. W. and Mclntosh, W. (1988) The Hutton Tension Leg Platform Randolph, M. F. and Wroth, C. P. (1979) The analysis of vertical deformation of pile
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Jardine, R. J., Symes, M. J. and Burland, J. B. (1984) The measurement of soil stiffness 17th Offshore Technology Conf., Houston, Texas, Paper OTC 4883 1: 371-378.
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Karlsrud, K. and Haugen, H. (1983) Cyclic loading of piles and pile anchors - field model Foundations; Predictions of Pile Behaviour. ln: Design in Offshore Structures, Thomas
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lnstitute Report 40018-11. Semple, R. M. and Ridgen, W. J. (1984) Shaft capacity of driven pipe piles in clay. ASCE
Karlsrud, K. and Haugen, H. (1985) Behaviour of piles in clay under cyclic axial loading - Proc. Symp. on Codes and Standards San Francisco. ln Analysis and design of pile
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Elsevier, Amsterdam, 589-600. ing 19(1): 11-19.
Karlsrud, K., Nadim, F. and Haugen, H. (1986) Piles in clay under cyclic loading. Field St John, H. D., Randolph, M. F., McAnoy, R. P. and Gallager, K. A. (1983) Design of
tests and computational methods. Proc. 3rd lnt. Conf. on Numerical methods in Piles for Tethered Platforms. ln: Design in Offshore Structures, Thomas Telford Ltd,
Offshore Piling, Nantes, Editions Technip, Paris, 165-190. London, p53-64.
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University of London. College, University of London.
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penetration. I: Prediction. ASCE J. Geotech. Engng. 112(7): 707-726. Piles for Tethered Platforms. ln: Design in Offshore Structures, Thomas Telford Ltd,
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248 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS
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the cyclic loading of friction piles. PhD Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 6 The design of pavement and rail track
Whittle, A. J., Baligh, M. M., Azzouz, A. S. and Malek, A. M. (1988) A model for
predicting the performance of TLP piles in clay, BOSS '88 - Proc. Int. Conf. on foundations
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ICE, London, 345-354.
6.1 Introduction
Pavements and rail track are civil engineering structures built for the
purpose of allowing wheeled vehicles to operate safely and economic-
ally. The vehicles include cars and trucks on highway pavements,
aircraft on airport runways and taxiways, mobile cranes on port and
container terminal pavements together with locomotives and rolling
stock on railways. ln ali cases, the system consists of one or more layers
of material placed over the soil with a surfacing added that is appropri-
ate to its function, as illustrated in Figure 6.1. The roles of the various
layers are as follows:
For a pavement:
Surfacing. To provide a smooth, waterproof running surface which
offers adequate resistance to skidding in wet weather.
Base. The main structural layer to distribute wheel loads.
Sub-base. The top of the foundation to provi de a platform for
construction operations above and long-term support to the base.
Subgrade. Natural soil, either cut or fill, which supports the pavement
system.
Moving Wheel
Load Load
UU
Surfacing
UU
Rails on sleepers ( ties)
Base Ballast
Sub-base
T
Foundation
Subballost
•
Subgrade Subgrade
Figure 6.2 illustrates the range of possibilities for the various generic (e) Asphalt pavement (d) Concrete pavement
types of pavements. These range from low-volume unsurfaced roads of
the type used in developing countries, through to heavy-duty asphalt or
concrete pavements for highways and airports, to railways. Asphaltic
Concrete
This chapter is concerned with the foundations of pavements as Cement treated or concrete
defined in Figure 6.1. This generally embraces that part of the construc- Cement treated
Granular
tion below the asphalt or cement-bound base and surfacing. For Grooolar
Soil
thin-surfaced and unsurfaced roads, it will effectively embrace the whole Sail
construction. There are some separate considerations peculiar to rail
track, and these are discussed at appropriate points in the chapter. (e) Composite pavement (f) Heavy duty concrete
All pavements are relatively thin constructions, in civil engineering
terms, in intimate contact with the ground. Their design, therefore,
requires proper application of soil mechanics principles. The importance Concrete or brick biodes on sand Rail on sleepers (ties)
of the soil characteristics depends on the pavement type. For a lightly ~
trafficked road involving a thin granular construction and a bituminous Asphaltic or cement treated
Balias! (graoolar J
surface seal (Figure 6.2b ), the influence will be very large, whereas for a Sub-Bailas! (gronular)
Granular
substantial reinforced concrete pavement with a thick sub-base (Figure Sail
Sail
6.2f) it will be much less so. Heavy-duty pavements, however, are
constructed in various stages and, while the above statement is true for (g) Block pavement (h) Railway
the completed job, operation of construction traffic on the partially
completed pavement produces a more severe loading condition on the Figure 6.2 Principal types of pavement.
soil and lower layers for which the soil characteristics are very impor-
tant. mechanics and concrete technology for bound layers when these are
Pavement design used to be considered as a minor and rather used. It also requires an understanding of the response to wheel loading
empirical aspect of soil mechanics. However, as the loading and and the influences of the environment, notably the effects of water and
performance requirements of pavements have increased and an under- temperature. Theoretical analysis should be combined with a knowledge
standing of the response of soils and pavement materials to repeated of relevant material properties within a proper design framework. This
loading has developed, the discipline of pavement engineering has should include an understanding of potential failure mechanisms and
emerged. This embraces a knowledge of soil mechanics for application how these develop with numbers of load applications. Although many of
to the soil subgrade and the granular layers together with asphalt the geotechnical aspects are the sarne for rail track as for pavements,
252 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS PAVEMENT AND RAIL TRACK FOUNDATIONS 253
design of rail track involving these aspects has not advanced nearly as the maintenance of existing networks. ln most developed countries,
far for railway engineering. relatively little new pavement is being constructed but there are major
ln current practice, most pavement design remains dominated by problems and expenditure associated with the evaluation and rehabilita-
empirical rules based on the results of full-scale triais and on equally tion of current systems. ln this chapter consideration is, therefore, given
empirical tests. This situation has survived largely because of the to the design of new foundations and the evaluation of existing ones for
relatively complex engineering properties exhibited by soils and most design of remediai work. Since the subject is one which is evolving
pavement materiais together with the dominance of national specifica- rapidly as a result of contemporary research, the chapter emphasises
tions for major networks allowing engineers little scope for introducing principies rather than detailed procedures.
new approaches. Rail track design is even more empirical, having Of the various types of pavement identified in Figure 6.2, rail track is
evolved largely through triai and error with gradual improvement in clearly the one which differs most from the others. This is, principally,
the system parameters over the years. However, a wide variation in the through the techniques used to transmit the wheel loads to the support-
quality of design and construction can be accommodated by varying ing structure. Many of the fundamental characteristics of the ballast,
the frequency of correcting geometry errors through adjustments in the sub-ballast and subgrade soil below are, however, the sarne as those of
ballast layer. Thus the adequacy of rail track design is likely to be other pavements. For this reason, basic principies for all pavements are
reflected more in maintenance cost than in ride quality deterioration. considere d together in this chapter. However, important distinctions
This chapter sets out to explain the current state of the art for between rail track and pavement applications are identified.
pavement design, drawing on the considerable research and develop-
ment work carried out worldwide in the last 20 years. The approach is
that of the pavement engineer as outlined above, while relevance to rail 6.2 Principies of pavement design
track design is also accommodated.
Most books, papers and design guides for pavements based on this 6.2.1 Failure mechanisms
approach deal quite well with the overall problem for relatively heavy-
duty pavements incorporating thick layers of high-quality asphaltic or The traffic-associated mechanisms of failure in pavements are fatigue
Portland cement concrete. However, the soil mechanics aspects are less cracking of the bound layers and development of differential, vertical
well documented, so this chapter concentrates on what has become permanent deformation throughout the structure which causes wheel
known as the pavement foundation. track rutting. Only cement-treated materiais are completely resistant to
Figure 6.2 illustrates the various layers in different classes of pave- rutting. Cracking is associated with the resilient (recoverable) response
ments. The feature common to them all is one or more granular layers of the pavement to transient loading. Rutting is the result of plastic
placed on the soil. This combination forms the pavement foundation and (permanent) strains which accumulate within the constituent materiais.
it embraces those materiais whose engineering properties are the most For a pavement foundation, rutting is the only failure mechanism of
complex and variable in the structure. relevance as no bound layers are involved. However, because of its
The pavement foundation has two roles. lt must, firstly, provide a influence on the construction above, the overall resilient response of the
short-term pavement to carry construction traffic and provide an adequ- foundation is an important param e ter.
ate platform for the placement and compaction of the expensive ln general, the pavement engineer is interested in the response of
high-quality manufactured asphalt or concrete placed above. Subse- materiais to repeated loading at stress leveis often well below failure and
quently, the foundation must perform in the longer term as a support in both the resilient and plastic components of the strain which
system to the completed pavement for the required design life. develops, as defined in Chapter 1. The relationship between a transient
ln the construction phase, the pavement is subjected to high stresses, stress and the corresponding recoverable strain is defined as 'resilient
often combined with the effects of rainfall and a drainage system still to modulus'. This may be a shear, bulk or Young's modulus.
reach full effectiveness. ln the long term, stress leveis are much lower For rail track the equivalent to pavement rutting is differential
and equilibrium water conditions will have been established, assuming settlement of the rails. Progressive deterioration of ballast from traffic-
drainage systems operate correctly. The performance requirements are induced breakage and infiltration of fine materiais into the ballast voids
much lower for the construction phase than in the long term. increase the rate of rail settlement. Thus ballast durability is an
Pavement engineering embraces both the design of new facilities and important design consideration for rail track.
CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS PAVEMENT AND RAILTRACK FOUNDATIONS 255
254
6.2.2 The traditional empirical approach involved detailed studies of soil suction and its relation to CBR for
various soil types (Black, 1962).
ln most pavement design methods, the required thicknesses of the The soil beneath a pavement is loaded transiently and repeatedly by
various layers above the subgrade are dictated by a simple subgrade moving traffic. The stress leveis involved are well below failure as
characteristic known as the California bearing ratio (CBR). The empir- understood in conventional soil mechanics. The CBR test, by contrast,
ical test for this property is illustrated in Figure 6.3. It has the involves static loading to relatively high stresses, at least in the neigh-
characteristics of a miniature bearing capacity test, and the result which bourhood of the loading plunger.
emerges from it can be regarded as influenced by both the shear The use of CBR as a subgrade characteristic has become almost
strength and the stiffness of the soil. It is not, however, a fundamental universal. It was introduced in California in the 1940s when road
measure of either. It provides a ratio between the load that can be pavement construction consisted essentially of compacted unbound
sustained by the material under test, at a given surface deformation, granular material with a surface seal. Empirical charts were developed
compared with a 'standard' material. The result is expressed as a to identify the necessary thickness of granular construction for a
percentage. ln-situ plate loading tests, which are effectively a scaled-up particular CBR, as illustrated by the CBR design curve in Figure 6.4.
version of the CBR test, are often used to obtain a field value of CBR Use of higher quality material, such as asphaltic concrete, was incorpor-
through empirical correlation (Croney, 1977). ln the UK, for cohesive ated through empirical rules allowing reduced overall construction
soils at least, CBR values for pavement design are usually estimated thicknesses. It is worth noting, en passant, that the state of California
from the plasticity índex and the likely equilibrium position of the water ceased to use this test in the 1950s following the innovative work of
table (Black and Lister, 1979). The background to this procedure Francis Hveem, their distinguished materiais engineer at that time. They
adopted instead a form of triaxial test known as the stabilometer
(ASTM, 1982).
Load at 2-5 mm/min
l Load plunger
(49-6mm c:'ia.) +
2 5
CBR ('/,)
10 15 20
Specimen
( 152 mm dia. Shear stress ( kPa)
x 127mm) o 50 100 150 200
;s
e
o
:;,
u
200
300
Shear stress
with 50mm
surfacing
/
/
.1/·.,,/ - ~
---·-CBR Oesign Curve
2
iií
e
o
u
25 5-0 õ
Penetration of plunger .e
(mm) ã.
a,
o
Q
CBR = ~ x 100¾ or X 100¾
1 2 20
Whichever is greater
Figure 6.4 Variation of shear stress with depth and CBR with construction thickness.
Figure 6.3 The CBR test.
256 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS PAVEMENT AND RAIL TRACK FOUNDATIONS 257
The CBR method was further developed by the US Army Corps of as a single layer over the subgrade. ln this context the term 'stiffness'
Engineers during World War II to accommodate heavier wheel loads means resilient modulus. ln asphalt technology, 'stiffness' is used more
and was gradually adopted, with local variations, by highway authorities broadly with respect to relationships between uniaxial stress and strain,
all over the world. including those cases when the strains have viscous components, as in
Theoretical justification for the CBR method of pavement design can long-term loading situations.
be provided within the context of its original use. Figure 6.4 shows that If it is assumed that both layers consist of linear elastic material, some
the variation of shear stress with depth in a uniform elastic medium, simple analysis can reveal how the stresses, which may be regarded as
taken to represent the soil and subjected to a circular, uniformly criticai for design purposes, are influenced by the stiffness of the upper
distributed surface load, is similar to that of the CBR design curve. This layer. Protection of the subgrade may be effected, in general, by
arises because the effective in-situ resilient modulus of the granular layer ensuring that the vertical stress at its surface indicated by wheel loading
is generally only slightly greater than the soil. For example, soil resilient is kept to an acceptably low level. Figure 6.5 shows, diagrammatically,
moduli are usually in the range 20-100 MPa, whilst corresponding how this may be achieved by increasing the upper layer stiffness, thus
values for a granular layer may be 50-300 MPa. Under these circum- improving its load-spreading ability. Figure 6.6, however, shows that as
stances, the variation of shear stress with depth is likely to be similar to the stiffness of the upper layer increases, the shear stress in the soil is
that in the uniform half-space. Provision of a thickness of granular reduced but that tensile stresses are induced in the upper layer. This
construction, therefore, effectively puts the soil surface lower in the leads to the possibility of cracking if the upper layer is of asphalt or
system and subject to correspondingly lower shear stresses. This ap- concrete. If it is a granular material or block pavement, no significant
proach implies a correlation between CBR and undrained shear tension can be sustained. This results in a redistribution of stresses and
strength, a topic studied by Black (1979), leading to empirical equations an effective decrease in the layer stiffness or large plastic strain if the
such as: granular layer is not adequately confined.
The key to pavement design is to provide an upper layer which
cu = 23 CBR (kPa) (6.1) ensures that the soil shear stresses are reduced to a level which prevents
for remoulded soils. accumulation of significant plastic strains ( and hence rutting), while at
The variation in shear stress with depth is significantly changed if an the sarne time preventing cracks or significant plastic strains from
asphalt surfacing, with a typical resilient modulus of 5000 MPa, and of forming in the layer itself. An appropriate combination of layer stiff-
modest thickness (50 mm), is added (see Figure 6.4). This results from ness, layer thickness and tensile strength or resistance to plastic shear
the load-spreading ability of the bound material with its substantially strains, as appropriate, is required. The tensile strength for bound
higher resilient modulus than that of the soil. The required thickness of materiais is that applicable under repeated loading and is, hence, the
construction in this circumstance can be reduced. For example, in Figure fatigue strength of the material. Under these circumstances, the max-
6.4 for 2% CBR and an allowable shear stress of 25 kPa, the reduction imum allowable tensile stress will be less than that applicable under
is seen to be from 570 to 400 mm. This principie forms the basis for the monotonic loading, as illustrated in Figure 6.7.
modem approach to pavement design.
Wheel Wheel
ln a similar manner the shear stress beneath rail track sleeper (ties) load load
decreases with increasing depth. Furthermore, shear stress on the
subgrade decreases with increasing thickness and stiffness of the ballast Low High
stiffness stiffness
and sub-ballast layers.
Povement
Wheel load
HH! HH½
HH
-
Upper layer Asphaltic Stress
( sliffnHs varies) layer
..,.&
650 Soil
( stiffnHs const.l
14
Stroin
Crack initiation
T
Crack propagation
êi; 600 Ul
>,
_g 12 ií
~ (a) Fatigue cracking
êi;
a. !!l.
a. ;;;
:::, 550 Tensile stress
õ in upper layer 10 81
E !:!. Tensile strain
~ õ ( rnicrostrain)
1J
.o 500
õ s a 100
~-
"'~"' Soil shear stress
iií 450
~
"iii
~
e I 80
4001
60
Stiffness of upper layer ( GPa)
-
Monotonic
strength
201 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Stiffness of asphalt layer ( GPa)
Figure 6.8 Cracking of bituminous layers and tensile strain variation with layer stiffness.
stiffness of the layer reduces the load-induced tensile strain and may be
regarded as compatible with the reduction in soil shear stress. While this
suggests the desirability of using a very high stiffness layer in an attempt
to prevent the initiation of cracks and protect the subgrade, in practice
log ( No. of load applications to failure )
the underside of an asphalt layer is full of stress raisers of various sorts
so that microcracks can easily form and, in the presence of a high tensile
t
Cycle
stress, will rapidly propagate upwards under repeated loading. A com-
No.1 promise is, therefore, required.
Figure 6.7 Fatigue strength of bound materiais. It is also important to prevent the accumulation of plastic strains in
the upper layer. This often arises when inadequate asphalt mixtures are
used and shear strains develop as plastic flow occurs in the manner
For asphaltic materials, the initiation of fatigue cracking is caused by illustrated by Figure 6.9. A similar phenomenon can occur in a granular
the level of tensile strain rather than stress (Pell, 1973). However, once layer when directly trafficked.
a microcrack has formed, its subsequent propagation is govemed by the An additional source of plastic strain accumulation occurs with rail
tensile stress at the crack tip. Figure 6.8 shows that increasing the ._: track. When the track is raised to correct for settlement the upper
1
___
\;''
260 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS PAVEMENT AND RAILTRACK FOUNDATIONS 261
Wheel load
~ Subballast
asphalt layers in excess of 100 mm. The background to the method has
been presented in various papers (Brown et al., 1977; Brown and
Brunton, 1984; Brown et al., 1985,). The procedure is briefly summar-
Tamping
ised here.
(i) Wheel loading. The spectrum of anticipated wheel loads over the
design life is converted into an equivalent number of standard 40-kN
• 1
· 1 wheel loads using well-established principies based on the American
Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO) road test (Liddle,
1962) and work at the Transport and Road Research Laboratory
Figure 6.10 Contributions to settlement in rail track. (TRRL) (Addis and Robinson, 1983).
262 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS PAVEMENT ANO RAIL TRACK FOUNDATIONS 263
(ii) The asphalt mixture. The design method treats the bituminous
40kN dual
layers as a single structural element. The properties of the road base are wheel load
then dominant, and these are used for the design computations. A
modification of the method does allow a separate asphalt wearing course e
HH UH
Asphaltic layer
g
to be used. Details of the proposed asphaltic mixture for the road base
are used to predict elastic stiffness (resilient Young's modulus) at the
e 500 ~+-'r'l.,------f'-..----+---~
t:::t Et
Sub-base
temperature and vehicle speed conditions for the site. The fatigue w
u
.,E 'E,
strength of the mixture is also estimated using similar information. e· Subgrude
that the asphaltic and granular layers are constructed from materiais
which offer good resistance to permanent deformation and that care is
taken to provide adequate compaction.
A further reason for using the modulus of subgrade reaction is that it (iii) Joints and reinforcement. Two techniques are adopted in concrete
features in the classical W estergaard theoretical analysis for concrete pavement design to <leal with tensile stress effects. One of these is the
pavements, the equations for which have been conveniently summarised provision of joints to limit the effective length of slabs and, hence, the
by Ioannides (1991). This procedure characterises the subgrade as a 'bed thermally induced stresses. The other is the use of steel reinforcement to
of springs' and uses the parameter 'k' for this purpose. contain the tendency to crack. As a consequence, three types of
(ii) Tensile stress. Using Westergaard's equations, it is possible to concrete pavement are used in practice. 'Continuously reinforced con-
compute the maximum tensile stress in a concrete slab caused by three crete pavement' has no joints but substantial reinforcement, 'reinforced
wheel loading conditions. These involve the wheel located near the concrete pavement' has some joints and some reinforcement, while
comer, at the edge and near the centre of the slab. The resulting tensile 'unreinforced concrete pavement' has closely spaced joints and no
stresses are highest at the comer and smallest at the centre. reinforcement.
Thermally induced tensile stresses are very significant in concrete
pavements. They can arise from the tendency of a slab to warp when 6.2.4.3 Surface-sealed pavements. This type of construction represents
there is a temperature difference between the surface and the underside the other extreme, in the structural sense, from PQC pavements (Figure
of the slab, and equations are available to do the necessary computa- 6.2). The granular layer is the dominant structural element. lt must be
tions (Yoder and Witczak, 1978). Tensile stress can also be induced of adequate thickness and stiffness to protect the subgrade from stress
towards the centre of a slab as a result of frictional forces generated on leveis likely to cause serious plastic strains and must have characteristics
the underside when the temperature is falling and the slab tending to which provide good resistance to permanent deformation within its own
shorten. For design purposes, the worst combination of these tensile thickness. The surface seal consists of a bituminous spray and stone
stresses has to be identified. chippings, often in more than one application. This serves two functions:
The allowable tensile stress for PQC has to consider fatigue effects as waterproofing and provision of skid resistance.
for asphalt. Figure 6.13 shows laboratory data for PQC and for the Analytical design methods for this type of pavement are still in their
weaker lean concrete used for flexible composite construction. An infancy. The problem is exactly the sarne as that of designing a
endurance limit is apparent so that, provided the repeatedly applied pavement foundation. The non-linear elastic properties of the granular
tensile stress remains below 60% of the static tensile strength, fatigue layer and soil are dominant, and the need to limit rutting requires
cracking will not occur. careful consideration. These matters are considered in later sections of
this chapter.
lO 6.2.4.4 Rail track Rail track geometry deteriorates through the deve-
o lopment of differential permanent deformation which causes the quality
• ' 1. o of the vehicle 'ride' to be affected. The design principies involve
.e
0-8 &
•• D e
~
ij . protection of the subgrade by a sufficient depth of ballast and sub-bal-
last, and by adequate rail and sleeper (tie) stiffness. Development of
i
~
·;;;
0-6
D • o+' D
• permanent deformation in the ballast and sub-ballast must also be
•.
o+ minimised. lt arises from shear and volumetric strain accumulation,
~ 2 Pavement quality concretes o+
D lean concrete 1 including the effects of particle breakdown. An adequate levei of
~
1ii 0-4
o lean concrete 2
resilient response is necessary because of the large unsprung mass of rail
~ indicates some specimens
u
did not Yail vehicles.
i
u The simplest model for rail track design represents the rail as a beam,
0-2 --- with concentrated wheel loads, supported by an elastic foundation (Hay,
1982). The elastic foundation represents the net effect of the resilient
stiffnesses of the sleepers (ties), ballast, sub-ballast and subgrade.
o ,os Values of the spring stiffness are obtained by load tests on representat-
1 10 102 10' 10' 10 6 10 7 108
Mean number of cycles to failure (Nf) ive track.
Figure 6.13 Fatigue strength of Portland cement concretes. The stiffness is known as track modulus ( u) and has units of force per
266 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS PAVEMENT AND RAIL TRACK FOUNDATIONS 267
unit length per unit deflection. With this parameter, together with the protection of the subgrade to prevent excessive permanent deformation.
rail bending stiffness (E/) and the wheel load (W), the model may be This may be dealt with, through analogy with asphalt pavements, by
used to calculate maximum rail deflection, maximum rail bending using the vertical elastic strain of the subgrade, but this is an approxi-
moment, and rail seat force. The rail bending moment is used for mate approach. Limiting the transient deviator stress to a value below
fatigue design of the rails. The rail seat load is used to estimate the that likely to cause significant plastic strain at the appropriate effective
vertical stresses at the various layer boundaries by assuming an appro- stress is a better approach and is discussed later (sections 6.3.3 and
priate sleeper (tie) contact area and estimating the stress attenuation 6.6.1). The advantages of block pavements are essentially aesthetic and
with depth. The combined thickness of the ballast and sub-ballast layers practical. If local rutting develops, the blocks can be lifted and relaid.
should be selected to limit the shear stress at the top of the subgrade to
much less than the undrained strength of the soil in order to prevent 6.2.4.6 Reinforced haul roads. The use of geosynthetics to reinforce
development of significant permanent deformation. The ballast should haul roads built of granular fill over soft ground has become quite
also be durable enough to sustain the repeated pressures for a reason- common. The original concept was that, by deforming vertically under
able number of years of trafficking. load, tension was developed in the geosynthetic placed at the soil-fill
The simplified model using track modulus is unable to distinguish interface. This 'membrane effect' created some vertical component of
between the contribution of the sleeper (tie) and underlying layers. Thus load which reduced the stress on the subgrade. More recent and detailed
it does not permit these factors to be considered explicitly in design. research (Milligan et al., 1989) has demonstrated a different mechanism
More precise models have thus been developed which represent the rails which applies to small deformations as well as the large ones necessary
and sleepers (ties) as beams resting on a multiple layer foundation for the tension-membrane effect to be mobilised. Application of a wheel
comprised of the ballast, sub-ballast and subgrade. Some currently used load induces large horizontal stresses at formation level. The provision
models are GEOTRACK (Chang et al., 1980), ILLITRACK (Tayabji and of a stiff geosynthetic interlocking with the granular layer above can
Thompson, 1976) and KENTRACK (Huang et al., 1986). Comparisons minimise the effect of these stresses by curtailing the deformation. This
between predictions using GEOTRACK and field measurements have been prevents the reduction in bearing capacity of the soil which would
presented by Stewart and Selig (1982a). otherwise occur as a result of the action of the horizontal stresses. Since
An alternative approach to use of limiting subgrade stress is to limit relatively large rut depths can be tolerated on haul roads, the design
track settlement by accounting for the strains produced by the repeated method concentrates on prevention of bearing capacity failure.
wheel loading. Methods to do this reliably are still under development.
An approach patterned after methods developed for pavements has
been described by Stewart and Selig (1982b) and Selig and Alva-Hur- 6.2.5 Basic analytical approach
tado (1982). ln essence, the GEOTRACK model is used to estimate
stresses in the layers produced by the train loads as a function of track Numerical analysis of the problem posed by a wheel load applied to a
parameters and layer properties. Cumulative vertical strains are then layer of granular material over a soil subgrade must take into account
determined from laboratory repeated load tests on the layer materials the non-linear elastic properties of the materials. This can be done, in
(ballast, sub-ballast and subgrade). The strains are multiplied by the principle, using finite element analysis with values of stiffness which are
corresponding layer thicknesses and the results summed to get settle- stress-dependent to reflect the non-linearity. The results of such an
ment. Such an approach potentially provides the basis for evaluating the analysis can reveal the stress conditions at critica! points within the
influence of the system parameters on track settlement and hence structure. If the relationship between applied stress and plastic strain at
permits optimisation of track design. a given number of load applications is known, then judgements can be
made concerning the possibility of serious rutting occurring. Alternat-
6.2.4.5 Block pavements. Analytical methods are being introduced to ively, further finite element computations can be performed to deter-
assist with the design and evaluation of block pavements. The combina- mine the permanent deformation at the surface and, hence, the rut
tion of blocks and the sand support layer (Figure 6.2g) may be taken as depth.
equivalent to a single layer. A typical elastic stiffness would be 800 MPa These principles are well established, but the detailed information
and, therefore, much lower than a bound layer but significantly stiffer required to follow them through makes it an expensive and research-ori-
than an unbound material. The principal design criterion relates to entated exercise. ln order to characterise the materials adequately,
268 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS PAVEMENT AND RAIL TRACK FOUNDATIONS 269
laboratory repeated load tests need to be carried out on the actual Total Pore Effective
Stress pressure Stress
materiais involved. From these, elastic and plastic stress-strain relation- +
ships can be determined. Pavement
There may be serious differences between the field conditions at the construction
time of construction and those assumed in the laboratory tests. These Subgrade
can only be quantified if the range of conditions in the laboratory is
v Water table
large and the testing time correspondingly long.
An important factor in pavement foundation analysis is the effective
overburden stress at various depths. While this may be reasonably well
estimated for the subgrade, the locked-in stresses in a granular layer
following compaction are still poorly understood. This is a crucial matter
as the load-induced stresses dose to the wheel are high and the (a) (b)
numerical analysis for this zone is difficult to converge as conditions
Figure 6.14 Variation of subgrade self-weight stresses with depth.
become dose to failure. The levei of 'locked-in stress' existing before
application of the wheel load has an important bearing on this problem.
Since the resilient and plastic strain characteristics of soils and If this is subtracted from the total stress pro file, as in Figure 6. l 4(b), the
granular materiais depend on effective stress, the pore pressure and/or effective stress variation with depth is apparent.
suction regime in the structure must be defined. This requires assump- At depth z below the subgrade surface or formation levei, therefore,
tions to be made concerning the water table and its possible movement the vertical effective stress is given by:
and the ingress of rainfall into the granular layer. The various combina-
tions involved again lead to protracted numerical analysis.
a~= ªP + yz - (z - h)yw (6.3)
The sections which follow provide a summary of current knowledge "1 where aP is the total stress due to pavement construction above
relating to this approach to design. The chapter then condudes with a 1
formation levei, y is the unit weight of the soil, h is the depth of the
pragmatic summary of procedures considered implementable at the time water table below formation and Yw is the unit weight of water. The
of writing (1991). stress conditions at formation levei (z = O) are of most interest. At this
levei:
(6.4)
6.3 Mechanical properties of soils
The merits of good drainage resulting in a low water table are apparent
6.3.1 In-situ stress conditions from this equation since a~ increases with h.
The horizontal effective stress is given by;
The stress conditions in a pavement foundation are of two types:
(6.5)
(1) Equilibrium effective stress.
where K O = earth pressure coefficient at rest.
(2) Load-induced transient stress.
The value of K O depends on the consolidation stress history of the
As in all soil mechanics problems, it is necessary to define the effective soil. ln undisturbed ground, this can be determined from site investiga-
stress condition in order to assess the response to applied load. For a tion and laboratory testing data. For formation in fill, which has been
pavement subgrade, the vertical effective stress will be dictated by the remoulded and compacted, the situation is less straightforward.
water table position and the weight of material in the pavement If the overconsolidation ratio (R) is known or can be estimated from,
construction above. The horizontal effective stress will be related to the for example, oedometer testing, then K O can be determined from:
vertical stress and depend on the overconsolidation ratio. K0 = (l - sin <f/)Rsin,f/ (6.6)
For situations in fine-grained soils with a relatively high water table,
saturated conditions will exist in the suction zone above the water table proposed by Mayne and Kulhawy (1982) in which <P' is the angle of
and the pore pressure profile will be linear, as shown in Figure 6.14(a). shearing resistance with respect to effective stresses.
270 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS
situation in fill may involve the soil being partially saturated. With deep m curve ~ compression
water tables in undisturbed formations, the soil will also be partially ~ \_- (Kol
~ / ~
saturated. ln these circumstances, the soil suction needs to be con- .8 / Elostic II'
-~ / zone _,,,,,,-/ /+<Swelling
sidered. The theory of effective stress for partially saturated soils is still
not properly understood, but the concept of soil suction has been used D / /~ JI/ 1 \
I ,,,,,,,, / \
extensively in pavement engineering. For practical design purposes in _.... /
soils with degrees of saturation exceeding 85%, the soil suction may be Ar p'
e
p"
treated as equivalent to effective stress. This may be deduced from the
relationship presented by Croney (1977): ~
CII
s = u - a:p (6.7) E
:::,
~
where a: is the compressibility factor, which is unity for saturated clays. _g
Ti
A
Hence: CII
a.
IJ)
s = -(p - u) (6.8)
Since s is a negative quantity, this is the sarne as: Meon normal effective stress (p")
effective stresses and repeated loading pulses well below yield. Hence, The expression for K O in terms of overconsolidation ratio, R ( eqn. 6.6)
the response is essentially elastic but, as will be seen, non-linear elastic. implies that, during compression, 17 = constant (OC in Figure 6.15),
Figure 6.15 shows the consolidation stress history to which a typical while during swelling the curve CA is generated.
subgrade element may have been subjected. The stress path is based on The concepts of CSSM imply an expansion of the yield surface during
K O conditions during compression and subsequent swelling. The stress compression (Figure 6.15) so that, following swell-back, the soil is well
parameters used are those of CSSM, namely mean normal effective within the elastic zone. Application of a stress pulse due to wheel
stress (p ') and deviator stress ( q). The swell-back line in p' -q space loading as shown in Figure 6.16 will, generally, produce elastic behavi-
will typically cross the p' axis at an overconsolidation ratio of about 4. our unless a very high deviator stress is involved. The effective stress
Typical subgrade conditions are, therefore, likely to produce equilibrium path AB resulting from the total stress pulse AT is vertical in Figure
stresses dose to this point. 6.16 since p' is constant under these undrained conditions within the
ln terms of the in-situ effective stresses a~ and ah, the stress elastic zone. The point A is common to Figures 6.15 and 6.16.
parameters in Figure 6.15 may be defined as: Deviations from the vertical imply anisotropy (see Graham and
Houlsby, 1983) but this is likely to be a secondary effect with little real
Mean normal effective stress: p' = ½(a~ + 2ati) (6.10) consequence for routine design.
Deviator stress: q = a~ - aí, (6.11) The lower part of Figure 6.15 traces the consolidation stress history in
272 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS PAVEMENT AND RAILTRACK FOUNDATIONS 273
for a wide range of soils and granular materials. Many of the experi-
q ESP = Effective stress path ments involved have not considered the results in terms of effective
TSP = Total stress path stress, though soil suction is a parameter often used in relation to
D = Excess pare pressure
partially saturated soils. Since the strains involved are very small,
accuracy of the experimental procedures is important, and many sets of
Wheel
..--------vield surface data are questionable in this respect. To obtain reliable strains,
toading measurements of sample deformation in repeated load triaxial testing
must be made directly on the test specimen remote from end effects and
extraneous distortions in the test frame.
p'
The better results quoted in the literature all show that the resilient
shear modulus is dependent on both the deviator stress pulse magnitude
Figure 6. 16 Effective and total stress paths due to traffic loading. and the effective stress or soil suction. High-quality data, reported by
Brown et al. (1987) on a silty clay ( wp = 18%, wL = 37%) resulted in
v- p' space, v being the specific volume of the soil, that is: the following relationships for resilient shear modulus ( G r):
90 Granular
Case A
-5l...._
80
Subgrade
70
cP
::[
Case B
'51 É _....5l...,_
60 .e 2 1 - - - - - - - + - - - - - - - - ~ - + - - - - - - - - + - - - - - - + - -
1/l
:::,
"3
"O
o
1
E 50
o
a,
.e
1/l
e 40
~
·;;;
a,
a:
30
20
Figure 6.18 Variation of resilient shear modulus with stress conditions for a silty clay.
Asphalt layer 3200MPa 200mm
resilient shear modulus may be obtained using eqn (6.14) with the Granular layer 100 MPa 200mm
effective stress term, pó, replaced by the soil suction. The values of
suction involved were quite low, not exceeding 100 kPa, but this 80 MPa 600mm
embraces most situations in wet climates. For drier soils, various -----------
105 MPa lm
investigations (e.g. Richards and Gordon, 1972; Fredlund et a!., 1977)
have demonstrated that suction is a dominant parameter, and it appears
Subgrade
-----------
128 MPa lm
likely that the non-linear model expressed by eqn (6.14) may have wide -----------159 MPa 2m
application.
The CBR test and its relevance to pavement design are reviewed in
-----------
193 MPa
section 6.2.1. Because of its universal use and the relative experimental Figure 6.20 Resilient moduli of layers back-analysed from surface deflection measure-
difficulty of determining resilient modulus, empirical correlations have ments.
276 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS PAVEMENT AND RAJLTRACK FOUNDATIONS 277
been sought between these two parameters as the mechanistic approach The stress state of soil in a subgrade is dictated by the water table
to pavement design has been developed. The most recent attempt at this position and by consolidation stress history which will have been
by Powell et al. (1984) yielded the equation: influenced by any changes in water table position. The current effective
stress or soil suction at a particular location (that at formation levei
Er = 17.6 CBR 0·64 (MPa) (6.18)
being of most significance) will be dictated by the current water table
This is based on correlations between resilient Y oung's modulus ( E r), levei. Figure 6.22 shows that the water content will depend on whether
deduced from in-situ wave propagation testing, and corresponding the soil has dried or wetted to the current equilibrium state. If it has
values of CBR for the subgrades involved. dried, the water content will be higher than if it has wetted. Conse-
Brown et al. (1987) investigated this relationship independently by quently, the strength or CBR will be lower when the soil has previously
laboratory testing three clays to determine E r and CBR at correspond- been at a higher water content, but the resilient modulus will be the
ing values of soil suction. The non-linear model they developed (eqn sarne regardless of the previous water contents.
6.14) indicated that a unique value of E r cannot be quoted because of The significance of this for pavement design is that elastic analysis
its stress dependence. At a deviator stress of 40 kPa, judged to be only requires a knowledge of the current effective stress or suction.
appropriate for formation levei beneath a completed pavement, the However, if strength is being considered for the higher stress situations
relationships given in Figure 6.21 were obtained. Values of CBR were associated with construction traffic, working directly on either the
determined at various leveis of soil suction (S) between 10 and 100 kPa, formation or on a granular layer above, then the current water content
and the corresponding values of Er were obtained from eqn (6.14) with is required.
PÓ= S. The tendency to develop plastic strains will depend on the size of the
Although the general shape of the relationship in eqn (6.18) seems elastic zone (Figures 6.15 and 6.16), which is dictated by the precom-
appropriate, it does not accommodate the differences in soil type pression stress, being the highest effective stress, or suction previously
represented in Figure 6.21 (plasticity índices between 19 and 48%). experienced by the soil. lt will also depend on where the sample is
Sweere (1990) has reported a similar lack of correlation between CBR within the zone when a transient deviator stress is applied.
and resilient modulus for granular materiais. Because of the viscous nature of clays (see O'Reilly et al., 1989), it is
The lack of correlation between CBR and resilient modulus can be possible for the stress pulse to probe above the static yield curve without
explained by the fact that CBR is essentially a measure of undrained significant plastic strains being generated. Repeated loading at this levei
shear strength and, consequently, is very sensitive to water content or will, however, cause such strains to gradually accumulate. Results
void ratio. Resilient modulus, on the other hand, has been shown to be reported by Brown et al. (1987) for a silty clay indicate a threshold value
independent of water content (Brown et al., 1975, 1987) and to be
influenced by the stress state (eqn 6.17).
120
o Keuper Mar!
Q.
(lp:19¼)
~ 100
w 1 e
1/1 o
:::, 80 :;::;
u
3 :::,
-o Cf)
o
::;: 60
J/1
o,
e
:::,
~ 40
e Gault Clay
-~
~ 20 (lp= 36¼)
a,
a:
o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
CBR ('lo) Water Content
Figure 6.21 Relationships between resilient modulus and CBR for clays. Figure 6.22 Typical suction-water content relationship.
278 CYCLJC LOADING OF SOILS PAVEMENT AND RAILTRACK FOUNDATIONS 279
for the deviator stress pulse ( q,) in relation to the deviator stress at yield 1985). These include an inability accurately to determine stress condi-
(qy) at the sarne effective stress. For q,/qy below 1.3, significant plastic tions within the granular layer, although criticai stresses and strains for
strains did not develop. design in the asphalt and the subgrade can be determined with accept-
able accuracy.
Sweere (1990) has shown that the 'K-0' model is useful for demon-
strating the relative stiffness characteristics of a range of materiais but
6.4 Mechanical properties of granular materiais
has noted the importance of using a stress-dependent Poisson's ratio if
pavement computations are to be performed.
6.4.1 Introduction
The most satisfactory model developed to date is based on the work
of Pappin and Brown (1980) with various later modifications, of which
Since the unbound granular materiais used in pavement construction are
that by Mayhew (1983) is of most interest for design. This so-called
extracted from pits or quarries, brought to the site and compacted, an
'contour model' is derived from the positions of shear and volumetric
element of control over end-product properties is possible in a way
strain contours superimposed on p '-q stress space. This pattern of
which cannot be achieved with subgrade soils.
strains can be modelled by the following equations:
The in-situ state of a compacted layer of granular material should
involve a relatively low degree of saturation unless poor drainage Resilient volumetric strain ( Evr):
conditions apply. Consequently, in defining stress-strain relationships,
consideration must be given to both volume change and shear under (6.20)
moving-traffic loading conditions. Since granular materiais have
markedly non-linear stress-strain relationships, it is most convenient to Resilient shear strain (E,,):
consider bulk and shear moduli as functions of the stress state.
Considerable research has been conducted on granular materiais, most (6.21)
of it concentrating on resilient properties. Consequently, there are quite
well-defined resilient strain models available for design with differing where ô means 'change in', 17 = q/p' and A, B, C, D and E are
degrees of accuracy and complexity. Most of the data used to establish constants determined from experiments, values for typical materiais
these models have been obtained from repeated load triaxial testing. being shown in Table 6.1, from which the strains will be in microstrain
Detailed plastic strain models for repeated load conditions are less and the mean normal stress (p') must be in kPa.
well developed and research is proceeding on this topic. However, The stress-dependent values of resilient bulk and shear modulus, K
certain basic relationships are apparent and these are of use to design- and G, are then given by the equations:
ers. p'
K=- (6.22)
6.4.2 Resilient strain
G =-q- (6.23)
The simplest and most widely used non-linear relationship is the 3t:,,
so-called 'K-0' model, defined as: These should be regarded as secant moduli which can be plotted on the
p' -q stress space to give a pattern such as that shown in Figure 6.23( a),
E,= KW (6.19)
taken from Mayhew (1983).
where E, is the resilient modulus obtained from the quotient of deviator
stress pulse and corresponding resilient axial strain in a repeated load Table 6.1 Parameters for granular material resilient strain equations.
triaxial test with constant confining stress, 0 is the sum of the principal Material A B e D E
total stresses at peak stress and K and n are material constants. (kPa) (kPa)
This model has been used for pavement analysis, usually with a
Limestone 3.05 X 10- 7 0.35 0.124 1.59 X 10- 5 0.37
constant Poisson ratio. Comparisons with more accurate models have Granite 7.37 10- 5
X 0.49 0.091 9.88 X 10- 6 0.36
shown that it has important limitations (Brown and Pappin, 1985; Uzan,
280 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS
PAVEMENT AND RAILTRACK FOUNDATIONS 281
Volumetric plastic strain has not yet been satisfactorily modelled for q
Loading
design purposes. Data from repeated load hollow cylinder and simple to failure~,,.,.,,.,. ,,.,.,,.,.
shear testing have indicated that this parameter is strongly influenced by
the rotation of principal planes which occurs under rolling wheels .,,.,,
(Brown and Ansell, 1980; Chan, 1990). The hollow cylinder tests have .,,. .,,..,,. Er
;'
also shown that rotation of principal strains influences the rate of plastic
shear strain accumulation (Chan, 1990).
It is also evident from wheel tracking tests that bidirectional loading
causes faster rut development than unidirectional loading or repeated
plate loading. This has implications for pilot-scale or field testing of
compacted granular layers, since the realistic load regime involves
wheels all moving in the sarne direction (unidirectional) and, hence,
incorrect estimates of potential rutting will result from either of the l---€p---►
other two arrangements.
Figure 6.25 Stress-strain reponse of ballast in repeated load triaxial test.
~
.e
g>
e
4
3
•
•
/~A
/
/
•
,,,,,,._/
.,._._.,,... > •
e
o
:e:E
-· ----- .
30 ~ 2 ,....... •
• "iii •- -
a,
u
.g::,
~
• > 1 •
1./l 200 100 200 300 400 500 o 200 400 600 800 1000
Resilient Young's Modulus (MPa) No. of cycles per 1°/o plastic strain at 10 cycles
Figure 6.28 Relationship between resilient modulus and surface friction angle for granular Figure 6.29 Influence of visible roughness on plastic strain development in granular
materiais. materiais.
286 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS PAVEMENT AND RAILTRACK FOUNDATIONS 287
~-~
ou
·º
e 8
"O -
C; 10
e 12
•
.,........ -----. ---
,,<
58,------,--,----~--~--~----
56
Oº
\ +
+
x
Orientoted f loky
Rondem floky
-
_g 8 ~✓- • Angle of orientotion v Groding 1
5, ::l
C
o e
õ~
CII 6
. '- /
/
~
Ó>
a,
;.
54
o
o
"'
o
Groding 2
Groding 3
Groding 4
Eª
:::,
Vl CII
J5
·;;;
">
4
2 ,.
I ••
1 .,·u
e
_g
1/1
"iii
52
'v
X
X
~
50
o 5 10 15 20 O>
e X
Ratio of vertical to horizontal stress at failure .§
a,
.e
Figure 6.30 Influence of angularity and roughness on shear strength of granular material. 1/1 48
õ
~
O>
e 46
<(
to the sizes of strains involved for each of the mechanical properties
considered. The small strains (less than 0.01 % ) involved in resilient
44 65° o
behaviour are influenced by friction between particles which may be +
described as their microtexture. The larger, plastic, strains depend on o
macrotexture which is reflected in the visible roughness classification. 42 'v
Even bigger strains are involved at failure when particle shape becomes
important as well as macrotexture, as the material mobilises interlock 40'-----'-----'-----'----'-----''---....L---'
and friction to resist externai load. 0-6 0-65 0-7 0-75 0-8 0-85 0-9 0-95
Some effects of particle shape and size on the strength of railway lnitiol void rotio, e0
ballast were reported by Selig and Roner (1987). Constant confining Figure 6.31 Effect of initial void ratio on angle of internai friction of balias!.
pressure drained triaxial tests were performed on specimens of durable
railroad ballast with the gradation shown in Table 6.2. The particles
were essentially equidimensional. ln addition, specimens were con- The required hydraulic characteristics depend on the climate in which
structed of flaky particles (thickness less than 0.6 of the width) oriented the pavement is to be constructed. Under wet conditions, it is desirable
randomly and with their flat surfaces at Oº, 45º and 65º from the to have high permeability to allow drainage should water enter the layer
horizontal. The resulting strength, defined in terms of angle of shearing and to reduce suction so as to minimise retention or attraction of water.
resistance ( cp'), is shown in Figure 6.31 to be a function of initial void This prevents positive pore pressure and reduced effective stress from
ratio and independent of gradation for the equidimensional particles. developing and impairing mechanical properties. Conversely, in dry
The strength parameter for the flaky specimens, to grading 1 (Table climates, where saturated conditions are unlikely to occur, low permeab-
6.2), varied significantly above and below that of the equidimensional ility and high suction potential are desirable. This will lead to increased
particles, depending on flaky particle orientation. effective stress and better mechanical properties. Figure 6.32 shows, for
a dolomitic limestone, that permeability and the retained degree of
saturation are strongly affected by aggregate grading. The permeability
Table 6.2 Gradings used for triaxial tests on balias!. measurements in Figure 6.32 were obtained by passing water through a
75-mm-diameter cylindrical specimen. The grading parameter ( n) is
r
Grading no. Parti ele size (mm) taken from the grading curve equation:
1 13-38
2 29-38 p = 100(~ (6.27)
3 19-29
4 13-19
in which P is the percentage passing a sieve of diameter d and D is the
288 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS PAVEMENT AND RAILTRACK FOUNDATIONS 289
ô ®
TI
ili measuring
cylinder
No. of load applications
Actuotor with
• lnsitu stote ot time of Servo-volve
2500 construction
Pressure Hydroulic
supply
cylinder
Actuotor with
Servo-volve Lood cell on
2400 looding rod
Hydroulic - .
supply .,._
Trioxial cell
Pressure
Electronic sensor
?: contrai
-~ 2300 system
"O
e':
o
Figure 6.36 Repeated load triaxial apparatus for granular materiais.
Figure 6.35 Dry density-water content relationships for a crushed limestone base.
failure within a few months of the road being opened. This situation has
arisen on a number of UK sites and led to the banning of unbound
aggregate bases for heavily trafficked roads. However, the problem is
common to ali roads and emphasises the need for a proper understand-
ing of the interactions between compactive effort and water content. If
. -1 ...__ Epoxy resin
strain ring
site compactive effort is likely to exceed that in the laboratory, it is 300mm
The repeated load triaxial test is likely to prove most useful for
characterising soils and granular materiais in a manner conducive to the
analytical treatment of pavement design. This apparatus, illustrated in
Figure 6.36, has long been used as a research tool but has also found its Figure 6.37 'On-sample' instrumentation to measure deformation in triaxial test on granu-
way into practice not only in pavement engineering but also for lar materiais.
292 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS PAVEMENT AND RAIL TRACK FOUNDATIONS 293
is adequate to measure axial deformations outside the triaxial cell in the comparisons between results from such a test and that from a sophisti-
manner adopted conventionally for monotonic load testing. cated servohydraulic repeated load apparatus, indicating good agree-
The repeated loading facility requires some form of actuator. Expens- ment.
ive servohydraulic systems are best but quite adequate results can be Thom and Brown (1988) have proposed a programme for the routine
obtained from use of pneumatics. Figure 6.38 shows a simple universal testing of granular materiais to determine resilient and plastic strain
load frame with a pneumatic actuator controlled by an electronic characteristics. This allows the constants for the resilient model given by
computerised system that can also accommodate the acquisition of data eqns (6.20) and (6.21) to be determined. A set of 20 repeated stress
and present it in a 'user-friendly' way. paths (Figure 6.40) is suggested. Nineteen of these deal with resilient
Sweere (1990) has demonstrated, for granular materiais, that adequate strain and have peak stresses below the threshold for plastic strain
resilient characteristics can be obtained by use of repeated static loading development (see section 6.4.3). The twentieth stress path, which is
in the triaxial test. This arises because resilient properties of granular used last, investigates the accumulation of plastic strain under repeated
materiais are not frequency-dependent over the range of interest for loading. Finally, unless premature failure has occurred, the specimen
pavement design (up to 10 Hz). Consequently, use of a conventional can be brought to failure under monotonic loading conditions to
triaxial loading frame to load and unload a specimen repeatedly will determine its shear strength.
yield resilient strains which can adequately define the non-linear resilient The stress paths for resilient strain each involve between 10 and 20
properties of granular materiais. Figure 6.39 from Sweere (1990) shows load cycles, which usually proves adequate for gathering data. Plastic
strain tests are more open-ended. Useful data can be obtained by
Regulator applying 10 4 cycles, but a clearer picture will emerge if tests are
continued for 10 5 cycles. A loading frequency of 1 Hz is convenient for
- Air
pressure both forms of testing.
The specimen size for granular materiais should be at least 200 mm
diameter for maximum particle sizes of 50 mm or more as in railroad
ballast, 150 mm diameter for maximum particle sizes up to 40 mm, while
100 mm diameter is adequate for material up to 20 mm diameter. Clays
Load
cell Ers = -10-9 • 0-98 Er
ti 400
~
Sample ~
]; 300
~
~
200
Digital :gu
interface 1ií
E
e
D -1!! 100
w
Figure 6.39 Comparison of resilient modulus values from cyclic load and static repeated
Figure 6.38 Pneumatic test apparatus for repeated loading. Ioad triaxial tests.
294 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS PAVEMENT AND RAIL TRACK FOUNDATIONS 295
The 'contour model' can be used in a secant modulus approach such 6.5.3 Permanent deformation
as that described by Brown and Pappin (1981). The essential stages of
this method of analysis and those like it are: The methods of analysis outlined in sections 6.5.1 and 6.5.2 are only
concerned with resilient strains and displacements. The calculation of
(i) Determine the overburden stresses on each element. This involves
plastic strains and their summation to determine permanent deforma-
assuming a K O value to calculate the horizontal stress from the vertical
tions at the surface and, hence, rut profiles is much more complex.
stress. ln the absence of better information, K O may be taken as unity
The first problem is the lack of appropriate constitutive equations in
for granular materiais. However, Selig (1987) has indicated higher
the form of relationships between applied stress and the resulting plastic
values for railway ballast as a result of residual stresses produced by
strain for given numbers of load applications (see sections 6.3.3 and
load cycling, and this may be applicable to other granular materiais. For
6.4.3). However, if such data were available from detailed laboratory
soils, K 0 will depend on the stress history (see section 6.3.1).
testing, the computation of permanent deformations in situ can be
(ii) Determine resilient shear and bulk moduli ( G and K) for the
pursued using either finite element analysis or the approximate layered
overburden stress conditions and compute the resulting resilient strains.
systems approach. While finite element techniques offer the possibility
(iii) Apply the wheel load in increments (typically 10) with appropri-
for comprehensive analysis in the manner often used in geotechnical
ate values of G and K at each stage based on the stress conditions.
problems, an approximate approach is also of interest.
(iv) Once the full load has been applied, an iterative technique may
The problem for pavements is essentially one of plane strain, since the
be used to converge on a solution.
strains causing rutting develop in the transverse direction, no net strains
accumulating longitudinally. For rail track the wheel loading is trans-
mitted vertically to the granular layers at discrete locations through
6.5.2 Layered systems sleeper (tie) bearing areas. Thus, strain occurs in the transverse and
longitudinal directions as well as vertically. Stresses may be computed
For routine design purposes, most pavement analysis relies on elastic for each element using the approach outlined in section 6.5.1. For a
analysis. This approach is justified in part by the observation that under given number of load applications, these stresses will cause certain
any individual load cycle the plastic strain is usually very small com- plastic shear and volumetric strains. The vertical component on each
pared with the elastic strain. Since finite element analysis is expensive, element can be computed and, by summing vertically through the
the structure is usually represented as a linear elastic layered system. structure, the surface deformation can be determined.
This approach may be modified to allow the non-linear properties of Using the layered system approach and the elastic analysis described
soils and granular materiais to be catered for in an approximate way. in section 6.5.2, it is possible to estimate plastic strains at layer centres
The procedure is as follows: from the computed stresses using the results of laboratory testing.
Summation of the vertical plastic strains with depth at various radial
(i) Subdivide the granular layer(s) and the subgrade into fictitious
positions will determine the surface profile. This approach for rail track
sublayers. has been illustrated by Selig and Alva-Hurtado (1982) and Stewart and
(ii) Calculate the overburden stresses at the centre of each layer as
Selig (1982), who used it to estimate rail settlement caused by traio
for the finite element analysis. loading.
(iii) Using stress-dependent resilient Young's modulus (E) and Pois-
son's ratio ( v), determine appropriate values for each layer based on the
overburden stresses.
(iv) Compute the load-induced stresses in an iterative manner updat-
6.6 Applications to design
ing E and v at each iteration based on the computed stresses.
Suitable layered system analysis programs have been produced by the 6.6.1 Pavements
Shell and Chevron Oil Companies and are known as BISAR and ELSYM 5
respectively. These may be run on microcomputers (Whiteoak, 1990). This section endeavours to summarise those techniques which may be
For analysis of rail track, the computer program GEOTRACK may be used considered implementable for design of a pavement foundation.
(Chang et al., 1980). The principal design criterion is wheel track rutting under construction
298 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS PA VEMENT AND RAIL TRACK FOUNDATIONS 299
traffic. Such rutting will result from the accumulation of plastic strains in load and tyre characteristics of the trucks and, hence, are outside the
the structure to which both the granular layer and the soil may control of the designer. Computation of stresses dose to the surface of a
contribute. A maximum value of 40 mm has been suggested (Powell et granular layer near the wheel load is difficult. However, as techniques
al., 1984). Since each material has different mechanical properties, the evolve to achieve this more reliably, it will be possible to compare in
design approach should ensure that stress conditions are such that high situ peak stresses with the threshold for development of plastic strains
plastic strains will not result under the relatively limited number of load based on laboratory testing. It is likely that dose to the wheel load
applications involved (under 1000). This will also ensure that local shear edges, where shear stresses are high and effective stresses low, large
failure, involving higher stresses, is also prevented. stress ratios will develop, which probe dose to failure. It is important to
ln considering the long-term role of the foundation, resilient assess the extent of this zone since, if it is too large, then serious rutting
characteristics are of most importance, since these will influence the may develop.
tensile stresses induced in the upper bound layers. The concept of a site Where a choice of granular materiais is available, then the partide
test, as discussed in section 6.4. 7, is attractive in this context. characteristics discussed in section 6.4.5 may be used to assist initial
The principal material information needed for design may be summar- selection. Rutting may be minimised by ensuring that the granular layer
ised as follows: is compacted to a high density and that excessive water is prevented
from accumulating in it. These points can be dealt with in the specifica-
(1) For the subgrade: tions and the drainage design.
(a) Atterberg limits and soil dassification, Figure 6.41 shows a proposed pavement cross-section which incorpor-
(b) Stress history, estimate of overconsolidation ratio,
ates the main design features that have emerged from research and
(c) Water table levei at time of construction, at equilibrium, and practice. Building the granular layer from two materiais with a lower,
worst case during pavement life, open-graded aggregate and an upper dense material achieves good
(d) Angle of shearing resistance with respect to effective stresses drainage and maximum rutting resistance. It is important that both
( <P'), layers are connected to the side drain so that water can escape. Equally,
(e) Resilient modulus and plastic strain characteristics from re- it is vital that the drain operates effectively, since any back-up of water
peated load triaxial tests or estimated from published data. could feed into the granular layers causing rapid deterioration. The
(2) For the granular layers: depth of the French drain will dictate the water table position in the
(a) Grading curve, long term. This should be such as to ensure it does not rise doser than
(b) Surface friction value, 1 m below formation levei. This will keep the soil at formation under
(c) Roughness and shape dassification for partides, negative pore pressure, thus maximising the effective stress and the
(d) Permeability at anticipated site density, associated mechanical properties.
(e) Resilient modulus and plastic strain characteristics at site The use of a lower granular layer of high permeability to facilitate
density, drainage of water both from the soil and from the dense layer above is
(f) Peak angle of shearing resistance with respect to effective used in practice quite widely. Since elastic stiffness is not unduly
stresses, affected by aggregate grading, the load-spreading ability of the overall
(g) Partide durability. granular platform will not be significantly affected. The drainage layer
The design computations for short-term loading on the foundation will have less satisfactory plastic strain characteristics than the dense
should involve structural analysis of various thicknesses of granular layer layer but, since it is lower in the construction, this is unlikely to reduce
over the soil to determine the stress distribution. Stresses at formation the overall rutting potential of the foundation.
levei in the soil dose to wheel loading should not exceed those likely to Figure 6.41 indicates where geosynthetics may be most effectively
cause significant permanent strains. Hence, the peak deviator stress at used. At formation levei, a geotextile can act as a separator preventing
the effective stress levei due to overburden should not exceed the mixing of the granular material and soil. While this can be achieved to
estimated yield stress. The review in section 6.3.3 indicated that stress some degree with a non-woven geotextile, much better results are likely
probing beyond yield may be safe, but for design purposes the current from non-woven needle-punched materiais combined with a high-tensile
yield stress should not be exceeded. polymer grid. The grid, placed above the geotextile, will lock into the
The stresses applied to the granular layer are dictated by the wheel granular material and prevent the aggregate movement under wheel
300 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS PAVEMENT AND RAILTRACK FOUNDATIONS 301
Kerb the coarse ballast and the fine subgrade. This type of material will
•a•.•.I"'\...,..
o C) ':--º rapidly stabilise under traffic loading if it is drained and placed on a
1 Aspholt or Concrete
Single' stable subgrade. Geotextiles are often considered as a substitute for a
1 gran. •~..__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
sized proper sub-ballast layer, but this is generally an unsatisfactory altemat-
-Geogrid for
side •..,__
1 drain
~
- _
- _
- _
Dense
__ groded
_ _ sub-base
_ _ _-_-_ - reinforcement ive. They will not provide much benefit in terms of stress reduction to
<) • the subgrade, nor will they prevent clay and silt particles from pumping
1 o•o· ~ô Open graded drainage layer
into the ballast (Byme, 1989). The main benefit of geotextiles as a
• ~<Jô •01---------------
1 ,a• .o•" ' o r - - - - - - - - - -~ separator occurs when the layer beneath the geotextile contains substan-
10 0
·ô
•o
L
Clay subgrade
.
--.__Geogrid over
geotextile for tial fine sand or silty sand that would otherwise migrate up into the
-..;: - Geotext1le os seporotion
seporotor / filter ballast voids, particularly when saturated. When the layer serving as
French droin sub-ballast is an old roadbed layer with particles that continually
( depth d ictated by degrade under traffic, use of a geotextile between the ballast and the
woter toble)
sub-ballast can extend the ballast life, perhaps more economically than
Figure 6.41 Cross-section of idealised pavement foundation.
removing and replacing the old roadbed layer.
Ballast grading and particle characteristics are generally prescribed by
loading which causes pumping of fines up into the layer. The geotextile the railroad agency based on past experience. Generally, uniformly
acts as a separator and filter. It is not possible to prevent clay size graded, coarse, angular particles are used. The main variables are
particles from penetrating the geotextile but only to retard the pumping. durability under repeated load and environmental factors. The choice of
With good drainage the amount of clay infiltration may be small and the rock type is often determined by cost of transportation from the quarry
effect of such concentrations in an open-textured layer will not be to the track site. Another variable is depth of ballast below the sleeper
serious. Additional reinforcement of the layer can be obtained by ( tie). The main considerations here are to provide sufficient depth for
including a further layer of geogrid within the granular layer following maintenance tamping and adequate void space to accommodate fine
the recommendations of Chan et ai. (1989). particles, thus ensuring an adequate life for the ballast. ln practice, a
range of 200-300 mm is appropriate. The remaining required depth to
6.6.2 Rail track subgrade is more suitably provided by the sub-ballast.
The principal material information needed for design of track sub-
The principal design criterion for rail track is limiting the differential structure is similar to that summarised for pavements. lnformation on
settlement caused by repeated train loading. Allowable design values permanent strain under repeated load is useful for comparing the
vary widely with required train speed and individual railroad mainten- relative merits of altemative materiais even if a more comprehensive
ance policy. Because design life of track will involve many millions of analysis of track settlement is not attempted. Resilient modulus values
load cycles, even very small plastic increments per cycle can eventually of the layer materiais are needed for use in elastic layer models to
lead to a large settlement. The total settlement will result from strain in calculate track stiffness (termed track modulus, u) and to calculate layer
the ballast, sub-ballast and subgrade layers. stresses. The latter are used to estimate plastic strains and to determine
Because the subgrade is difficult to repair if it causes major mainten- the granular layer depth required to protect the subgrade.
ance problems, care should be taken, initially, to ensure proper drainage Generally, a higher track stiffness is considered better than a lower
and to provide sufficient depth of overlying granular layers to keep the stiffness. Among the benefits of a higher stiffness are reduced energy for
subgrade stress levei low enough to prevent accumulation of excessive pulling trains and reduced rate of ballast wear. Furthermore, a very low
subgrade deformation under traffic load. The altematives to proper stiffness is symptomatic of inferior track superstructure or substructure.
subgrade design are excessively repeated readjustment of track However, too high a stiffness may also be undesirable because it can
geometry, stabilisation of subgrade in place, or replacement of the increase the deterioration rate of track and vehicle components. Guide-
upper subgrade. Stabilisation is not always effective and replacement is lines for optimum track stiffness still need to be established.
very expensive. Figure 6.42 shows a desirable track cross-section providing the
The sub-ballast layer must be basically of sand and gravei composition characteristics discussed above. Although geotextiles are not shown
with durable particles and a gradation to serve as a separator between beneath the track, for reasons indicated, geogrid reinforcing elements in
302 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS PAVEMENT AND RAIL TRACK FOUNDATIONS 303
Brown, S. F. and Ansell, P. (1980) Toe influence of repeated shear reversai on the
compaction of granular material. Proceedings of the International Conference on Com-
paction, Paris 1: 25-27.
Sleeper ( tie) Brown, S. F. and Brunton, J. M. (1984) lmprovements to pavement subgrade strain
criterion. J. Transp. Eng., ASCE, 110(6): 551-567.
Brown, S. F. and Brunton, J. M. (1986) An Introduction to the Analytical Design of
Bollost Bituminous Pavements. University of Nottingham.
Brown, S. F. and Pappin, J. W. (1981) Analysis of pavements with granular bases. Transp.
Res. Rec. 810, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., 17-22.
Brown, S. F. and Pappin, J. W. (1985) Modelling of granular materiais in pavements.
Subbollost Transp. Res. Rec. 1022, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., 45-51.
Brown, S. F., Lashine, A. K. F. and Hyde, A. F. L. (1975) Repeated load triaxial testing
of a silty clay. Géotechnique 25(1): 95-114.
Brown, S. F., Pell, P. S. and Stock, A. F. (1977) The application of simplified,
fundamental design procedures for flexible pavements. Proceedings of the 4th Interna-
Subgrode tional Conference on the Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements, Ann Arbor, MI 1:
327-341.
Brown, S. F., Austin, G. and Overy, R. F. (1980) An instrumented triaxial cell for cyclic
loading of clays. Geotech Testing J., ASTM 3(4): 145-152.
French Brown, S. F., Brunton, J. M. and Stock, A. F. (1985) The analytical design of bituminous
droin pavements. Proc. Instn Civ. Engrs, Part 2, 79: 1-31.
Brown, S. F., Tam, W. S. and Brunton, J. M. (1986) Development of an analytical
method for the structural evaluation of pavements. Proceedings of the 2nd International
Conference on the Bearing Capacity of Roads and Airfields, Plymouth 1: 267-27.
Figure 6.42 Cross-section of idealised track foundation. Brown, S. F., Loach, S. C. and O'Reilly, M. P. (1987) Repeated loading of fine grained
soils. TRRL Report CR72.
Byrne, Brian J. (1989) Evaluation of the ability of geotextiles to prevent pumping of fines
the sub-ballast may be beneficial in reducing subgrade deformation, as a into ballast. MSc Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Massachusetts,
Amherst, MA, USA.
supplement to good drainage and adequate granular layer depth. The Chan, F. W. K. (1990) Permanent deformation resistance of granular layers in pavements.
French drain is sealed at the top if drainage of surface water is good, or PhD Thesis, University of Nottingham.
is filled with granular material if surface drainage is not adequate. Chan, F. W. K., Barksdale, R. D. and Brown, S. F. (1989) Aggregate base reinforcement
of surfaced pavements. Geotextiles and Geomembranes 8(3): 165-189.
Chang, C. S., Adegoke, C. W. and Selig, E. T. (1980) GEOTRACK model for railroad track
performance. J. Geotech. Engng Div, ASCE 106 (GTll): 1201-1218.
Croney, D. (1977) The Design and Performance of Road Pavements. HMSO, London,
References 170-172.
Duncan, J. M., Monismith, C. L. and Wilson, E. L. (1968) Finite element analysis of
Addis, A. R. and Robinson, R. G. (1983) Estimation of standard axles for highway pavements. Highway Res. Record 228, Highway Research Board, Washington, D.C.,
maintenance. Proceedings of the Symposium on Highway Maintenance and Data Collec- 18-31.
tion, University of Nottingham. Fredlund, D. G., Bergan, A. T. and Sauer, E. K. (1975) Deformation characterization of
Alva-Hurtado, Jorge E. D. (1980) A methodology to predict the elastic and inelastic subgrade soils for highways and runways in northern environments. Canad. Geotech. J.
behaviour of railroad ballast. PhD Dissertation, Department of Civil Engineering, 12(2): 213-223.
University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA. Freeme, C. R. and Servas, V. (1985) Advances in pavement design and rehabilitation.
Asphalt lnstitute (1981) Thickness design-asphalt pavements for highways and streets. Accelerated Testing of Pavements, CSlR, Pretoria.
Manual Series No. 1 (MS-1), College Park, MD, USA. Graham, J. and Houlsby, G. T. (1983) Elastic anisotropy of a natural clay. Géotechnique
ASTM (1982) Standard test method for resistance R-value and expansion pressure of 33(2): 165-180.
compacted soils, Test D-2844, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, 410-419. Hay, W. W. (1982) Railroad Engineering, 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester.
Barksdale, R. D., Robnett, Q. L., Lai, J. S. and Zeevaert, A. E. (1982) Experimental and Huang, Y. H., Lin, C., Deng, X. and Rose, J. (1986) KENTRACK, finite element Computer
theoretical behaviour of geotextile reinforced aggregate soil system. Proceedings of the Program for the Analysis of Railroad Tracks. Department of Civil Engineering,
2nd International Conference on Geotextiles, Las Vegas 2: 375-380. University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA.
Black, W. P. M. (1962) A method of estimating the California Bearing Ratio of cohesive Ioannides, A. M. (1991) Analytical procedures for concrete pavements. ln: Precast
soils from plasticity data. Géotechnique 12(4): 271-282. Concrete Raft Units, ed. Buli, J. W. Blackie, Glasgow, 18-36.
Black, W. P. M. (1979) The strength of clay subgrades: its measurement by a penetro- fones, H. A. and fones, R. H. (1989) Horizontal permeability of compacted aggregates.
meter. TRRL Report LR 901. ln: Unbound Aggregates for Roads, eds. fones and Dawson, Butterworths, London,
Black, W. P. M. and Lister, N. W. (1979) The strength of clay fill subgrades: its prediction 70-77.
in relation to road performance. TRRL Report LR 889. fouve, P., Martinez, J. Paute, J. L. and Rayneau, E. (1987) Rational model for the
Boyce, J. R. and Brown, S. F. (1976) Measurement of elastic strain in granular material. flexible pavements deformations. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on the
Géotechnique 26(4): 637-640. Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements, Ann Arbor, MI 1: 50-64.
304 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS PAVEMENT AND RAILTRACK FOUNDATIONS 305
Kleyn, E. G. and Savage, P. F. (1982) The application of the pavement DCP to determine Sweere, G. T. H. (1990) Unbound granular bases for roads. Doctoral dissertation, Delft
the bearing properties and performance of road pavements. Proceedings of the Interna- University of Technology.
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Liddle, W. J. (1962) Application of AASHO road test results to the design of flexible procedure for asphalt pavements with crushed rubble base courses. Proceedings of the
pavement structures. Proceedings of the International Conference on the Structural 6th International Conference on the Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements, Ann Arbor,
Design of Asphalt Pavements, Ann Arbor, MI 42-51. MI 1: 35-49.
Mayhew, H. C. (1983) Resilient properties of unbound road base under repeated triaxial Tayabji, S. D. and Thompson, M. R. (1976) Finite element analysis of railway track
loading. TRRL Report LR 1088. support system: User's manual. Report No. FRA-OR and D-76-257.
Mayne, P. W. and Kilhawy, F. H. (1982) Ko-OCR relationships in soil. J. Geotech. Thom, N. H. and Brown, S. F. (1987) The effect of moisture on the structural
Engng. Div., ASCE 108(GT6): 851-87. performance of a crushed-limestone road base. Transp. Res. Record. 1121, Transport-
Milligan, G, W. E., Jewell, R. A., Houlsby, G. T. anà Bird, H. J. (1989) A new approach ation Research Board, Washington, D.C., 50-56.
to the design of unpaved roads. Ground Eng. Part 1 22(3): 25-29, and Part 2 22(9): Thom, N. H. and Brown, S. F. (1988) Toe effect of grading and density on the mechanical
37-42. properties of a crushed dolomitic limestone. Proc. Aust. Road. Res. Board 14(7):
Mobil Oi! Co. (1985) Asphalt Pavement Design Manual for the U.K. London. 94-100.
NITRR (1980) Standards for road construction materiais. Draft TRH 14, CSIR, Pretoria. Thom, N. H. and Brown, S. F. (1989) The mechanical properties of unbound aggregrates
Norman, G. M. and Selig, E. T. (1983) Balias! performance evaluation with box tests. from various sources. ln: Unbound Aggregates in Roads, eds. Jones and Dawson,
Bulletin 692, Vol. 84. American Railway Engineering Association, 207-239. Butterworths, London, 130-142.
O'Reilly, M. P., Brown, S. F. and Austin, G. (1988) Some observations on the creep Uzan, J. (1985) Characterization of granular material. Transp. Res. Rec. 1022, Transport-
behaviour of a silty clay. International Conference on Rheology and Soil Mechanics, ation Research Board, Washington, D.C., 52-59.
Elsevier Applied Science, Amsterdam, 44-58. Whiteoak, C. D. (1990) Analytical pavement design using programs for personal comput-
Pappin, J. W. (1980) Characteristics of a granular material for pavement analysis. PhD ers. Highways and Transp. 37(8): 31-35.
Thesis, University of Nottingham. Yoder, E. J. and Witczak, M. W. (1975) Principies of Pavement Design. John Wiley &
Pappin, J. W. and Brown, S. F. (1980) Resilient stress-strain behaviour of a crushed rock. Sons, Chichester, 85-87.
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Soils under Cyclic and Transient
Loading, Swansea, 1: 169-177.
Parsons, Brian K. (1990) Hydraulic conductivity of railroad balias! and track substructure
drainage. MSc Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Massachusetts,
Amherst, MA, USA.
Pell, P. S. (1973) Characterization of fatigue behaviour. Special Report 140, Transportation
Research Board, Washington, D.C., 49-64.
Powell, W. D., Potter, J. F., Mayhew, H. C. and Nunn, M. E. (1984) The structural
design of bituminous roads. TRRL Report LR 1132.
Raad, K. and Figueroa, J. L. (1980) Load response of transportation support systems.
Transp. Eng. J., ASCE 106 (TEl): 111-128.
Richards, B. G. and Gordon, R. (1972) Prediction and observation of the performance of
a flexible pavement on an expansive clay subgrade. Proceedings of the 3rd International
Conference on the Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements, London 1: 133-143.
Roy, M. (1981) The sub-surface drainage of road pavements. Proceedings of the Sympo-
sium on Unbound Aggregates in Roads, University of Nottingham.
Selig, E. T. (1987) Tensile zone effects on performance of layered systems. Géotechnique
37(3): 247-254.
Selig, E. T. and Alva-Hurtado, J. E. D. (1982) Predicting effects of repeated wheel
loading on track settlement. Proceedings of the 2nd International Heavy Haul Railway
Conference, Colorado Springs, CO 476-487.
Selig, E. T. and Roner, C. J. (1987) Effects of particle characteristics on behaviour of
crushed granular materiais. Transp. Res. Record 1131, Transportation Research Board,
Washington, D.C., 1-6.
Selig, E. T., Lin, H., Hsieh, K.-H. and Dwyer, L. J. (1986) Layered system performance
evaluation-Phase II. University of Massachusetts for the US Department of Transpor-
tation, Report No. DOT/OST/P-34/86/047.
Shell International Petroleum Co. (1978) Shell Pavement Design Manual. London.
Stewart, H. E. (1986) Permanent strain from cyclic variable-amplitude loadings. J.
Geotech. Engng, ASCE, 112(6): 646-660.
Stewart, H. E. and Selig, E. T. (1982) Predicted and measured resilient response of track.
J. Geotech. Engng, ASCE, 108, (GTll): 1423-1442.
Stewart, H. E. and Selig, E. T. (1982) Prediction of track settlement under traffic loading.
Proceedings of the 2nd International Heavy Haul Railway Conference, Colorado Springs,
co 488-496.
SEISMIC LOADING 307
which the term 'cyclic' is being used in this book, that is to say the
motions and the corresponding incremental forces repeatedly change in
7 Design of foundations and soil structures for direction. The earthquake loading experienced by a structure is not
imposed directly but is an inertial response to accelerations i~pos~d
seismic loading through the foundation. The event which creates an earthquake IS a shp
J. W. PAPPIN or series of slips between adjacent sections of the Earth's crust. The
repeated or cyclic nature of the loading arises from the dynamics of the
slipping elements of crust and the surrounding rock and soil deposits; a
single blow to any flexible system causes a series of waves in the
7 .1 Introduction material. Usually the loading pattern associated with an earthquake is
highly complex and unpredictable.
Earthquakes regularly cause engineering structures and communication The principal problems facing geotechnical earthquake engineers
links to fail or to become unserviceable. This often leads to substantial concern:
loss of life, severe economic damage and disruption as well as homeless-
(1) The analysis of records from past earthquakes and the predictions
ness, distress and the spread of disease. Engineers have therefore made
of the likely form of future events including the derivation of
significant efforts to understand the response of structures and other
design loading in the light of local ground conditions.
engineering systems to earthquake loading and to devise techniques for
(2) The performance of the structure under ~he design lo_ading i~clu~-
minimising the effect of seismic loading on structures.
ing an assessment of the effects of s01l structure mteract10n If
Geotechnical engineers have played an important role in this initiat-
appropriate.
ive. Some of the reasons for this are:
This chapter is divided into three parts: Part A presents a general
(i) The local soil conditions at the site under consideration may have
introduction to the nature and quantification of seismic loading. Part B
an important effect on the magnitude and form of the earthquake
deals with the general principles which must be considered when
loading. An example of this occurs at Mexico City which is built upon
designing for earthquake conditions. Part C examines a range of
high-plasticity, low-stiffness lake deposits which tend to amplify excita-
commonly encountered specific design situations in which the geotech-
tions with a frequency of about 0.5 Hz. ln the 1985 earthquake, for
nical engineer is required to account for seismic loading.
instance, significant damage was caused to buildings with a natural
frequency dose to this, even though the ground movements in the
surrounding region were quite small.
PART A-SEISMIC LOADING
(ii) Because of soil structure interaction effects, the soil immediately
below and adjacent to the foundation of any structure will contribute to
7 .2 The nature of seismic loading
the overall dynamic response of the structure. Accordingly the proper-
ties of the soil must be known in order to predict this overall response.
7.2.1 Earthquakes
The resonant frequency of a structure will, for instance, increase with an
increase in the stiffness of the soil below the foundation, or if the
7.2.1.1 The origin of earthquakes. Earthquakes originate from the
foundation depth is increased.
sudden readjustment of stress in the rocks underlying t~e Earth's sur~ace
(iii) Under certain conditions the soil may settle or liquefy during an
along some plane of weakness. The resulting change m the stress fiel_d
earthquake, causing significant foundation settlement or soil instability, and the direction of the movement along the plane of weakness IS
including the severing of drainage, water supplies and other services and
variable. The plane of weakness usually comprises a pre-existing fault
occasionally collapse of structures. An important recent example of this
system but inevitably very occasionally a new fault mu_st be cr~ated by
was the 1990 Philippines earthquake in which vast areas of land were
an earthquake. The actual location of the start of the shp zone_ IS known
observed to liquefy and many bridges failed as their foundations settled as the hypocentre and the plan location is referred to as the epicentre.
by large amounts because of liquefaction.
Earthquakes impart a cyclic motion to structures in the wider sense in 7.2.1.2 The location and magnitude distribution of earthquakes. 1t is
308 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS SEISMIC LOADING 309
now well understood that the Earth's crust is divided into large areas,
referred to as plates, which are moving relative to each other as shown
in Figure 7 .1. Records of earthquake locations show that earthquakes
are most frequent in regions where plates are colliding and noticeable
but less frequent in regions where plates are separating. There is also a
levei of background activity within the plates. These intraplate earth-
quakes are much less frequent and their cause is not well understood.
Maps showing the distributions and rates of earthquakes can be com-
piled in detail for any particular area. As expected it has been found
that there are many more small earthquakes than larger events and that
in various seismotectonic environments there is a maximum size of
earthquake that will occur.
,--._
i---
7.2.2 Quantifying earthquake size and seismic loading 00
°',.......,;
u
7.2.2.1 Earthquake magnitude. lt is useful to be able to compare ·ç
~
earthquake events and to have some quantitative scale of their 'size'. o
e,
However, it is difficult to ascribe a single number to an earthquake "O
-;:::
which uniquely defines its destructive capacity. Such capacity is princip- o
~
ally determined by the strain energy released during a seismic event, V
Hanks and Kanamori (1968) have developed a moment magnitude relatively high-frequency loading, which may do little damage to build-
(Mm) scale defined as: ings or other structures. High velocities, on the other hand, often
(7.2) indicate high energy at fairly low frequencies in the range 0.5 to 10 Hz
which bounds the fundamental resonant frequencies of most engineered
This magnitude scale appears to correlate well with the original Richter structures.
scale and does not suffer the range limitations of most other scales. Figure 7 .2 shows acceleration, velocity and displacement time histories
Examination of eqn (7.2) shows that a unit increase in magnitude is for two recent earthquakes:
equivalent to about 30 times increase of the energy release, and two
units increase in magnitude is about 1000 times increase of the energy (a) The Mexico, 1985, earthquake recorded 107 km from the epicen-
release. tre.
(b) That at Nahanni, Canada recorded 7.5 km from the epicentre.
7.2.2.2 Quantifying ground motions. For engineers the motion an
earthquake causes in the ground adjacent to the structure is the most
important effect.
Analyses of instrument records from past earthquakes enable engine-
ers to predict the form of ground movement expected. Earthquakes
have very complex ground movement traces or time histories and
designers tend to abstract certain key pieces of information rather than
to try and understand the minute details of each record.
Although a time history trace appears to be fairly haphazard it can be
decomposed approximately into regular sine and cosine waveforms of
differing amplitudes and frequencies. Clearly a real earthquake trace
will contain a large range of frequencies, and by using a Fourier analysis
these may be identified. The frequency components of the loading are
important because all structures have frequencies, known as resonant
frequencies, at which they tend to resonate. If an earthquake wave-train
contains significant energy at a frequency dose to the resonant fre-
quency of a structure, large displacements and structural damage may
occur.
Further information which may be recovered from the time-displace-
ment records of the earthquake includes the ground velocity and
acceleration, which may be calculated from:
The Nahanni earthquake was a magnitude (M,) 6.9 event, whereas the experience no loading. If the block has mass m, however, then the
Mexico earthquake was large, having a magnitude ( M ,) of 8.1. It can be shear force exerted on the soil will equal ma 1 , where a1 is the
seen that the Mexico event continued for a much longer time and acceleration of the mass at time t. Therefore the cyclic stresses exerted
contained many more cycles of load. It also had a much higher peak on the soil are directly related to the mass or inertia of the block. It can
velocity to peak acceleration ratio, which is an indication that the readily be shown that the composition of the stresses, e.g. shear stress
frequency content was lower. and or normal stress, will also be a function of the height of the centre
of mass of the block which will affect the total moment force being
applied to the soil. This property of the mass and mass moment of
7.2.3 The nature of seismic loading experienced by structures.
inertia of the block, to load the soil or foundation, is known as 'inertial
interaction'.
Seismic loading differs from most other types of loading (static or cyclic)
ln the situation described above it has been tacitly assumed that both
in that the motion being applied to the structure or construction
the block and the soil are infinitely stiff. ln a design situation these
originates, as far as the structure is concerned, from the structure's point
assumptions are invalid and hence the stiffness of the soil and the
of support, normally the foundation. The seismic load is derived from
structure will affect the response because the motion of the block will
two principal sources, inertial and kinematic interactions, which are
not be the sarne as that experienced by the soil at distance from the
discussed below. ln addition there is the long-term (static) load derived
block (the distant motion is referred to as the 'free field' motion). This
from differential movements caused by the earthquakes. These static
dynamic soil structure inertial interaction is discussed in section 7.6.5.
loads are considered in section 7.6.
7.2.3.2 Kinematic interaction. The second form of dynamic interaction
7.2.3.1 lnertial interaction. Consider a simple block founded on a soil
between the ground and the structure it is supporting is 'kinematic
surface as shown in Figure 7.3(a) which experiences an earthquake in
interaction'. This is illustrated in Figure 7 .3(b), which shows a 'free
which the surface moves in accordance with a time history as indicated.
field' earthquake motion which varies with distance along the surface. ln
If the block has no mass then the soil immediately under the block will
this case the block, even if it has no mass, will induce stress on to the
soil as a result of the rigidity of the block.
(a) horizontal
displacement
7.3.2 Response spectra position and released without any externai loading. The natural fre-
quency w = ~ in radians per second and the corresponding
Most real structures have extremely complex dynamic responses. Des- natural period is equal to 1/21rw seconds. Figure 7.4 shows the response
c_ribing their behaviour under a system of dynamic loading at a given of the single degree of freedom system to an applied harmonic base
time would normally require an extremely large quantity of variables, motion. It can be seen that when the input frequency equals the natural
each representing the position of an element of that structure at the frequency, the levei of res~e is very dependent on the damping ratio
time i? question. The number of individual quantities actually required (D= 0.5Cw/K = 0.5C/V Km). As can be seen, the greater the differ-
to defme the structure's mode of deformation under a general system of ence between the applied frequency and the natural frequency, the less
loading is termed the degrees of freedom of that structure, and for real response the mass experiences.
structures there are usually an infinite number of degrees of freedom. It should be mentioned here that all structures have some 'damping'
To explore how a structure will respond to an earthquake it is sensible so that if they are displaced and left to oscillate the amplitude of the
initially to consider the simplest dynamic structure, a system with only vibration will reduce with time. This damping is usually caused by
one degree of freedom, shown in Figure 7.4. It consists of a mass ( m) friction between elements of a structure.
supported by a spring with a stiffness ( K) and a dashpot with a Now consider how a single degree of freedom system will respond to
coefficient ( C). an earthquake. When the base of the system is subjected to an
If the base of the spring is subjected to a series of harmonic motions earthquake motion the system mass will respond in some way. If the
over a range of input frequencies, it will be noted that there is one system has a very high natural frequency (i.e. its mass is small compared
frequency which causes a very large movement of the mass. This with its stiffness), the displacement of the system mass will follow the
frequency is the resonant or natural frequency and corresponds to the imposed earthquake motion closely. ln such a case the peak acceleration
frequency at which the system would oscillate if displaced from its static of the system mass will be very similar to the peak earthquake
acceleration. If the system has a very low natural frequency (i.e. its
mass is large compared with its stiffness), then the displacement of the
system mass will be very small and the accelerations it experiences will
mass m.____ Um also be very small. For systems in between these extremes, some
will cause amplification where the peak acceleration of the system mass will
stfffnessl-
k -
-
Single degree oi
freedom system
Ub be greater than the peak earthquake acceleration, while others will
cause attenuation.
Now consider an array of single degree of freedom systems (all with
the sarne damping ratio) arranged in order of their own natural period
(or frequency) subjected to an earthquake motion (see Figure 7.5). If
the peak acceleration of each system mass is recorded and then plotted
against its own natural period a response spectrum is created. A typical
example (for 5% damped system) is shown in Figure 7.6 and shows
amplification for periods less than 0.3 seconds and attenuation for
higher periods. An alternative method of plotting spectra is to record
the peak relative displacement (u, the displacement of the spring)
against natural frequency. By plotting this on a logarithmic scale, as
shown in Figure 7. 7, a tripartite plot showing relative displacement,
pseudo relative velocity and pseudo absolute acceleration can be
plotted, where pseudo relative velocity = wiui and pseudo absolute
acceleration = w/ ui. It can be demonstrated that for low leveis of
Excitation frequency damping (less than 20%) pseudo absolute acceleration and absolute
Naturol frequency
acceleration are very similar. Consequently the low-period part of the
Figure 7 .4 Dynamic response of a single degree of freedom system to harmonic base plot shows the peak acceleration of the input earthquake motion, and
excitation.
316 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS SEISMIC LOADING 317
10 r,-----,.,----,------,,-~-----~~
."
u
e
0
1max 0amping 5'/,
:li-
~
0 2max
e
"
i .1,
1il Q4max
0 omox
d::: 1-0
Ti h T4
Structural period ~
(ai E
~,
,Ozmax
,
-).J
I
I
/
r,
>J
, -
0 3max
I
I
/
p
/-
Dt.max
.;!-
·o
..9
g!
"'
.?: 0-1
I
I I
1
1
I
º~1
e
"C
:::,
"'
"'
o...
lb 1
- - - Nahanni 23/12/1985
- - - Mexico 19/9/1985
Figure 7.7 Tripartite plot of response spectra for Nahanni and Mexico earthquakes.
the high-period of the plot shows part the peak displacement of the
input earthquake motion.
Response spectra plots are very useful since, for a single degree of
freedom system, the peak forces experienced by that system, when
subjected to an earthquake, can be read off directly once the response
spectrum for the earthquake has been determined. For multiple degree
of freedom systems a modal analysis can be carried out in which the
whole system can be represented as a series of single degree of freedom
systems, each of which corresponds to a mode. Many reference works
have been written on this (e.g. Newmark and Hall, 1982) and, usually,
Period Isec) the first few longer period modes can be used to give a reasonable
Figure 7.6 Absolute acceleration response spectrum for Nahanni earthquake. estimate of the overall response; indeed sometimes only the principal
318 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS SEISMIC LOADING 319
10
10000
'•._
:E
A . ....
..... ■ 1800 -198L
• 12L7 -198L
1000
~
.3
·;;;
f 01
'■
...•,
,
-
11 100
-<=
"i •.'a... i
t '
'• 1
.,
'•,.,
10
e,. l,l
~
g
=êlil 0-01 '\ \
\ -:(
o
\
\
.,
\
0-1
"' ...
\
À\
\
\
o.01 LJ._--"----'----'---'-...L.....l--'--'10,-------'-----'--'---'---'--'-~-::10=-o--~-~~~
0-001 1 Hypocontrol distance I km)
1
~
1 Figure 7.10 An attenuation law for peak ground acceleration (Toro and McGuire, 1987).
30 3-5 1,.0 L-5 5-0 5-5
Surfoce wove magnitude, Ms
Figure7.9 Magnitude recurrence plot. (After Menu et ai., 1985.) frequency of being exceeded. Examples for a 500-year return period,
i.e. an annual frequency of 0.002, for the more seismic areas of eastern
and western USA and an average levei for the UK are shown in Figure
near the site of interest, the next stage is to estimate earthquake ground 7.11. Uncertainty in the calculated ground motion can be estimated by
motion parameters that may result from these earthquakes. There are using the 'logic tree methodology'. This involves specifying discrete
many published attenuation relationships which relate ground motion values for each parameter (including source zones) and assigning weight-
parameters to earthquake magnitude and epicentral distance. Some use ings to represent the likelihood that the value is correct (Coppersmith
hypocentral distance which is the distance from the site to the source and Youngs, 1986).
including depth. Typical curves are shown in Figure 7.10 for peak ln many countries, codes of practice exist which include a standard-
ground acceleration. There is always a large uncertainty associated with response spectral shape together with a zoning map which enables the
these attenuation laws, but it has been observed that a lognormal shape to be scaled. For example the US Building Code (UBC: 1988)
distribution for peak velocity or acceleration fits the data reasonably spectrum is shown in Figure 7 .11. The similarity between this and that
well. Recently many researchers have published attenuation laws for shown for the western US (also in Figure 7 .11) is clear. The N ational
response spectral values at varying frequencies, e.g. Dahle et al. (1990) Building Code of Canada (1985) is more elaborate than most codes in
for intraplate regions, Naumoski (1984) for eastern and southern that it also incorporates maps of both peak ground acceleration and
Europe, Boore and Atkinson (1987) and Toro and McGuire (1987) for peak velocity. The code spectral shape is related to both peak accelera-
eastern USA, and Joyner and Boore (1982) for western USA. These tion and peak velocity and has a different shape in areas dominated by
enable a response spectrum to be estimated at a site for any particular large (possibly distant) earthquakes to that for areas dominated by small
earthquake of known distance and magnitude. local earthquakes.
Probabilistic estimates of ground motions can be made by combining
the recurrence curve and source zone information with the attenuation 7.3.3.3 Site-specific effects. The response spectra considered above
laws. Many computer programs have been developed for this purpose, have been derived for hard soil or rock sites. 1t is well establised
mostly based on the work published by Cornell in 1968. These enable however (e.g. Seed and Idriss, 1969) that the local soil deposits can have
the calculation of response spectra which have a particular annual a significant effect on ground motion. The 1985 Mexico City earthquake
SEISMIC LOADING 323
322 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS
1-0 . - - - - - - - , - - - - - - - - r - - - - - - 7
1-0
Mexico City
0-8 Lake bed
e
" g
~ 0-6
~
~., 1 o.sl------+-------t-t-t---,
~
.
] O-~
0-2
1).1
Period 1sec)
0-1
Period Isec 1
was an extreme example of this effect with the deep, soft-clay, lake bed Figure 7 .12 Response spectra measured in the 1985 Mexico City earthquake. (From Booth
deposits under the city amplifying the input rock motion into almost a et al., 1986.)
pure sine wave within a period of about 2 seconds. The measured
response spectra for the lake bed compared with the surrounding rock
are shown in Figure 7 .12 and show the large energy concentrated at 2
seconds in the lake bed motion. Buildings which were sensitive to this
/
Soft to medium clays and sands
period, namely those between about 10 and 20 storeys high, were (soil type 31
...........
e:
generally very badly damaged, whereas buildings with lower or higher o
:;::, 3
natural periods experienced much less damage. oe: ~
(]) ,.,...__________
The US Building Code (UBC:1988) has a specific allowance for local ~
~
<ii
o
(]) o
soil deposits, and recommends the spectral shapes in Figure 7.13. ln -
~
<ti ", stiff clay soils
many instances of observed soil effects it has been possible to show that o -oe:
2 ',, (soil type 21
<ti ::, ', ,,
ca e
one-dimensional shear beam models representing the soil column overly- ~
Ol
t5 (])
,,
-.. ,,
ing the rock adequately predict the observed response. A variety of
computer programs are available for performing this analysis. SHAKE
8. -s
(j) o
1
Rock and stiff soi ls
------------
:ê
w (soil type 11
(Schnabel et al., 1982) is a frequency domain equivalent linear program
from Berkeley which uses the wave equation to reach a solution at each 0 L--Jo.---~,.~---1~.5:-----::-.2.o;;---;;2.~s--,.3.o
0
0 5
frequency being analysed and iterates until the soil properties match the Period, T ( secondsl
effective shear strain amplitude computed in each sublayer. SIREN,
Figure7.13 Normalised response spectra shapes. (From UBC, 1988.)
illustrated in Figure 7.14, a non-linear time domain program by the
324 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS SEISMIC LOADING 325
7.4.2.1 Sand. One of the few in-situ tests generally carried out in sand
is the standard penetration test (SPT), which gives a measure of the
blow count (N) for 300 mm penetration. Typical correlations between
Gs2_
1_ G 0 and blow count used in Japanese practice are G 0 = 7 N and
G 0 = 14.4 Nº· 68 (Imai and Tonouchi, 1982), but there is considerable
--;;;bOoe curve
scatter in the data. Seed and Idriss (1970) give an altemative method for
deriving G, (see Figure 7.16) with G, values related to a:U, the mean
effective stress and their K 2 value which is a function of relative density
B (Dr)- As can be seen the ratio G,/G 0 reduces from 1.0 at small strain
amplitudes to near O at large strain amplitudes.
Damping in sand has traditionally been considered as deriving from
both hysteretic and viscous sources. However, Bolton and Wilson (1989)
have shown that sands exhibit a purely hysteretic response when tested
Y2 "shear strain y in a resonant column apparatus. Their results indicate that the behavi-
our of sand to cyclic loading is frequency- or rate-independent and that
ali energy absorption can be demonstrated to originate from hysteretic
damping. This implies that the Gs/G 0 vs y relationship should be chosen
to be compatible with the observed damping.
80 ~ - - - - - - - - . - - - - - - , - - - - - - - - - - - , - - - - - - - - - ,
Figure 7.15 Stress-strain behaviour of soil in one-dimensional shear. G, is the secant shear
modulus. Hysteretic damping = energy absorbed/4ir strain energy; where the strain energy
= r:y/2; and the energy absorbed is given by the area of the hysteretic loop. Area A has
shear strain amplitude = y 1 ; area B has shear strain amplitude = y 2 .
Seed et al. (1984) conclude that for sand the damping can be It is common to express clay stiffness parameters as a ratio of
represented purely as a function of shear strain amplitude, and Figure undrained strength (cu)- Figure 7.18 shows relationships between Gs/cu
7 .17 shows their recommended function and various results. Recent and shear strain amplitude for clays with a variety of values of PI and
work (Stokoe et al., 1986) has shown damping may be lower and the overconsolidation ratio (OCR) values. It is evident that Gs/cu increases
lower envelope line may be more appropriate, as shown in Figure 7.17. with decreasing PI and to a lesser extent with decreasing OCR. Also
plotted in Figure 7 .18 is the limiting criterion for the shear stress not to
7.4.2.2 Clay. Clay materials exhibit stiffness and damping properties be greater than the undrained shear strength. This criterion appears to
similar to those of sand. Sun et al. (1988) have summarised recent represent a real bounding condition for clays with an OCR of greater
research in the shear stiffness properties of clays and have presented than 2, but there is ample evidence (e.g. Andersen et al., 1972) to
various curves showing Gs/G 0 as a function of shear strain amplitude suggest that for clays with a low OCR the peak cyclic shear strength
and plasticity índex (PI). The results clearly show that at a given value may be significantly greater than the static undrained shear strength.
of shear strain amplitude the ratio Gs/G 0 is greater for soils with a high Weiler (1988) has summarised values of G 0/cu from various test
PI. results on different types of clay. These tests were carried out using a
lf Gs/G 0 vs y depends on PI, then it follows that the interna! resonant column apparatus. He found significant dependence on the PI
hysteretic damping vs y relationship should also be dependent on PI. value and, to a lesser extent, the OCR of the clay. Table 7.1 shows the
Results for damping in clays from various sources, however, indicate average value of G 0/cu he determined.
that it not possible readily to distinguish the effect of changes in PI
between O and 50%, although the damping recorded for Mexico City
clay which has a PI of about 300% is very low, as expected (Booth et
al., 1986). As the PI value reduces to 0% it is likely that the material
damping will increase to the sarne as that for sand. '
800 ' - - = - - - - - - l - - - - - - - - l < - - - - 1 - - - - - - - - - - j - - - - - - - + - - - - - l
PI = 40 '/, 0----0 Plastic clay} Koutsoflas & fischtr
PI= 20'/, x--x Silty clay 1980
28~------~------~------~-----~~
/
,,,,,,,,.. .... -
/
'' '
Mtxico City Cloy ',
PI:300'/, 0CR=l ',,
~
( Booth ti ai 1986 )
oL.==-=~_L_ _ ___l_,---_ _
~ ~
=t::::::===--=-=---=-:±____J
''-
w
10-' 10-2
Shtor stroin omplitudt, Y '/, Shtar stroin ampliludt, Y '/,
Figure 7.17 Damping ratio for sands. Figure 7.18 Measured variation of G,/cu for clays.
330 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS SEISMIC LOADING 331
2-0 N,::,o ,
Cycle 10 =30 ' 15 cycles
10-2 ==20 ''
~
., 1-5
~
:=15 ''
e ''
~ ·e-;;; o:10
''
;:;- ., 10-1
=5,, ''
~
1-0
E
~.,
'' ''
·= '' '' (a)
=E ~
> ''
''
''
'
=.
.!!
.,,
0-5 j ''
''
' ',......
o
0-01 0-1 1-0 10-0 10 ' - - - - - ~ - - - - ' - - - - ~
10-3 10- 2 10-1
Cyclic sheor stroin, -Y º/o
Cyclic shear strain, Y '/,
Figure 7 .20 Effect of rela tive density on the settlement of sand in 10 cycles (Silver and
Seed, 1971). Number oi cycles
oº.---r---1ro-~--=r20'----~-~30
.;,õ
(1987), on the other hand, have expressed the original data in terms of ) 0-5
SPT resistance (to express relative density), cyclic shear strain and a o
:;:;
in-situ cyclic shear strain is known. The relative density is determined by 1 1-5
~
considering the SPT resistance ( N) corrected for effective overburden
pressure using a CN value shown in Figure 7.22. The corrected resist- 2-0'----'-------'------'-------'
8-75
ance is: Equivalent magnitude
(7.5) Figure 7.21 Relationships between cumulative volume strain and cyclic shear strain and
number of cycles for dry sands (Tokimatsu and Seed, 1981). (a) Cumulative volume strain
Generally a more important consideration in earthquakes is the against cyclic shear strain for 15 cycles. (b) Effect of number of cycles.
prediction of pore water pressure increase in saturated sands which may
CN
ultimately lead to liquefaction. Martin et al. (1975) discuss this phe-
oº~-~ll-_,_---,-o.a=--_ _,,.1.2=---c.,1.5
nomenon by combining their cumulative volume change model with the
compressibility of the soil matrix. Their method appears to replicate e
trends of observed pore pressure increase but it requires 'complete --
~ 100
Dr=,Oto 60¾
cycles of load' to be identified before the analysis can be accomplished.
ln a complex time history such as an earthquake this is not always i
; 200
straightforward. lshihara et al. (1975) have produced a more funda- "E
mental model for loose sands which is based on the premise that .iil
~
build-up in volume strain and hence pore pressure only occurs when the ~ 300
soil is undergoing plastic shear strain. By using an elastic plastic soil ~
model for shear behaviour with the yield surface defined as the peak
octahedral shear stress to mean normal stress ratio q/p' (for example in
~ 'ºº
a triaxial arrangement q = ªª -
ar and p' = (aa + 2ar)/3; subscripts a 500 '----~~--'-----'---~
and r represent axial and radial effective stresses) they show good
agreement between the model and the results from randomly loaded Figure 7.22 Chart for values of CN (Seed and Idriss, 1982).
334 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS
SEISMIC LOADING 335
triaxial test specimens. Their relationship between volume strain and vertical column of sand. Their experiments show these pore pressures
plastic shear strain shows contraction (including a pore pressure in- increasing very quickly to be equal to the overburden pressure near the
crease) below a critica! q/p' ratio and expansion (pore pressure de- surface and then this condition continuing downwards as the earthquake
crease) above this ratio. If the stress state exceeds this critical ratio then continues. After the earthquake the pressure is seen to dissipate
upon subsequent unloading a dramatic increase in pore pressure occurs, upwards as expected (see Figure 7.24).
leading to virtually zero effective stress and consequently to liquefaction.
Luong and Sidaner (1981) found a very similar behaviour and demon-
strated that even for dense sand this unstable condition could be 7.4.5 Methods for assessing liquefaction potential
induced as shown in Figure 7.23. It is important to note that very small
cyclic stress or strain levels are not likely to cause liquefaction. Figure The simplest and widest criterion to use for evaluating liquefaction
7.20 for example implies this; with 0.01 % cyclic shear strain virtually no potential is the grain size characteristics of the soil (National Research
volume change occurs and hence no significant increase in pore pres- Council, 1985). Figure 7.25 shows an example of grading limits derived
sure. Dobry et al. (1985) confirm that below this strain level significant from Japanese experience of liquefiable soils.
pore pressure generation is unlikely even for many thousands of load
cycles.
Most of the above results are for relatively simple cyclic stress paths.
- overoge excess
For complicated stress paths involving principal stress rotation the data pare pressure
should be viewed critically. Data from Chan (1990) for dry soils - - - excess pore press.
end oi earthquoke
indicates an increased rate of compressive volumetric strain when the
stress directions are rotated. ln the case of saturated soils this will
translate itself into an enhanced rate of pore pressure build-up (see
Shibuya and Hight, 1989) and hence more rapid liquefaction.
ln earthquake design it is necessary that the likelihood of liquefaction
can be assessed. The best understood and observed events of liquefac-
tion have been in the free field condition. Heidari and James (1982) Cycle 1 A
report on centrifuge experiments of liquefaction of a one-dimensional 50 100
Excess pore pressure ( kl'Q l
q(MPa)
SF sand
ld =16 kN/m 3
0-2
0-1
O ( b)
-0-1
A
50 100
0-1 0-2 -0-5 0-5 1-0 1-5
Excess pore pressure ( kPo l
p IMPa) E, l¼l
Figure 7.24 Excess pore pressure generation and dissipation in centrifuge model of a soil
Figure 7.23 Results of cyclic triaxial tests on an undrained dense sand (Luong and Sidaner,
deposit. (a) Generation vs depth with numbers of cycles. (b) Dissipation vs depth with
1981). time. Letters a-e indicate increasing time. (Heidari and James, 1982.)
336 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS SEISMIC LOADING 337
Si lt Sand
1:
OI
'i
>-
.a .
2
t
e
-
e:
4,
20 ----- ---
~ :R-- oN
o 0-01 0-1 1-0 10 x:
e
Grain size (mm) 1.:
~
Figure 7 .25 Relationship between grading and liquefaction potential (National Research
&-f-----+----+----'--'"-+.....rr::........_.:,.,...__ ___jº
te
Council, 1985). A indicates boundaries for most liquefiable soil and_B indicates boundaries
2
for potentially liquefiable soil.
,:
...
• q
\ o
\D "'l
From field observation Seed et al. (1985) have proposed an empirical d o d
1--~lf o d o o
method for assessing the likelihood of liquefaction of level sites. This
requires a knowledge of soil grading and relative density. Figure 7.26
shows their recommended values for assessing liquefaction potential for
sands with various fines content. Fines content is defined as the
percentage of material passing the 75-µm sieve. The plot is shown as the
average shear stress ratio ( rav/a~) against N 1 :
(7.6) . i-
~1 I ,. • ..
which will occur at depth, amax is the maximum ground surface accelera- z - _,
tion and M r is a factor to account for the varying number of cycles
associated with different magnitude events and has values as shown in .---- --- --
o
o
~ ! ~- ... ...,o
u !: -
-- • ~]
z
.J
Table 7.2. The 0.65 factor is an attempt to define an equivalent average
! ~ o _.,,o
1D
• ;~q, ..,
maximum stress ratio which will repeatedly occur in accordance with the o C. 6õ
u 'Q õ
o
3
equivalent number of cycles shown in Figure 7.8. For any particular site, º• e • ..,
1: = o
if the data plots to the right of the appropriate line in Figure 7.26 then
liquefaction is unlikely.
•
•
• ••
..
"-
~ ~
,•;
.i: u
N
• bº
Other researchers have been investigating the use of a variety of
in-situ tests to derive an understanding of liquefaction potential. The •
. • .,.:' . .º•- . " 4 o
most common alternative to SPT resistance is static cone resistance, and •
4 • •
various methods are summarised in the National Research Council
report (1985). Many of these give similar results to that produced by \D q o
o "'
d o
N
d d o
using an average correlation between SPT blow count (N) and cone
338 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS SEISMIC LOADING 339
0-01 * l
1 ~
ground acceleration measured in the free field, but it is possible that the are high and with side slopes of less than 1 in 1.5. Having established
geometry of the slope and its suroundings will cause amplification the period of the dam the peak response of the top of the dam can be
effects. A two-dimensional finite element program could be used to estimated by using conventional response spectrum techniques (Sarma
establish this. states that a damping ratio of 20% is reasonable in the calculation but
The appropriate soil strength to be used in the slope stability analysis the strain leveis should be studied to confirm this). The variation of
is a more complex problem. For sandy materiais the effect of pare seismic response with depth has to be taken into account when deriving
pressure generation can readily lead to a situation where the strength the forces acting on a potential failure plane. Ambraseys and Sarma
reduces to below that required for static stability. This will lead to a (1967) give a method to enable the acceleration forces to be derived.
flow-type failure which may occur several minutes or even hours after For a small amount of material slipping the earthquake acceleration can
the earthquake (Whitman, 1987). ln clay soils the displacement induced be considered to be uniformly applied to the whole of the slipping
by the earthquake may be sufficient to cause the soil on a failure surface material at any point in time, but as the mass of slipping material
to reach a residual strength which is less than that required by static increases different accelerations will be experienced by various parts of
stability. Again this will lead to a flow-type failure. A discussion of the slipping mass at any one time. They show how an average peak
residual strengths for fast rates of loading is presented in Lemos et al. acceleration can be derived. Makdisi and Seed (1979) show a typical
(1985). Residual surfaces are often already present in slopes in clay soil, variation of how calculated average seismic accelerations reduce with
and the presence of these must also be allowed for when assessing depth and this is reproduced in Figure 7 .28.
seismic stability (Tika et al., 1990). Having established the dynamic response of the dam the designer
must consider the performance of the dam. As in the consideration of
slope stability, the effects of pare pressure generation or residual
7.5.2 Earth dams
o.----.----,----,---,---~
The considerations for earth dams subjected to earthquake loads are in
principie very similar to those required for slope stability. Two main
differences exist. First a dam will have different dynamic characteristics
because it has two slopes bounding a soil block. Second, dam failures
are generally of the highest significance in terms of loss of life and
property damage: hence their design warrants great care and considera- y/h
0.2 r~ y
...,,...
Ug
bI Beoring copocity
the strength of soil incorporates cyclic loading effects, then the design
methods required for foundations resisting seismic loads are similar to structures it is likely that the designer should ensure that failure does
those used for static loads. not occur. The factor of safety against failure, however, can be near
unity because of the very short duration of peak loading.
7.6.1 Pad foundations l Rotational failure is rarely considered for pad footings under static
loading, but there may be large overturning loads under seismic loading.
A failure mechanism as shown in Figure 7.29(c) is the most likely under
For the purpose of this discussion a pad foundation is considered to be a these circumstances. This type of failure is generally considered on a
rigid block supporting a load which comprises a static and dynamic or
cyclic component. The pad may fail by sliding, bearing capacity or
1 much larger scale for offshore gravity platforms where rotational forces
are significant (Andersen et ai., 1982). The New Zealand Code of
overturning as shown in Figure 7.29. Practice (1982) for concrete does allow for ductile behaviour of founda-
Generally, for sliding, the capacity will be least when the vertical load tions but states that the 'foundation should be so proportioned as to
is a minimum, and consequently the designer must ensure that load protect the supporting soil against excessive plastic deformations that
combinations are chosen such that the maximum horizontal load coin- might lead to misalignment of the entire structure'. lt comments that
cides with minimum vertical load. Conventional frictional or cohesive pads local to shear walls may be allowed to experience limited yield
soil strengths, with due allowance for the effect of cyclic loading, are when applying the 'capacity design' method. This design method is
used for the soil-pad interface. appropriate for relatively extreme loads where the structure (and
For vertical capacity, conventional static formulae with appropriate foundation) is designed to yield at planned locations, thereby allowing
inclination factors can be used as an approximation, or methods such as the structure to absorb a significant amount of energy without endanger-
that proposed by Sarma et al. (1990) can be used. They suggest that the ing the occupants.
methods for estimating movement of slopes can also be used for a pad 1t is generally considered to be good practice to ensure that pad
footing if some failure occurs during the earthquake. However, for most footings are effectively tied together at ground levei. This prevents one
344 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS SEISMIC LOADING 345
pad failing by sliding due to structural layout or a particular resonance 7.6.3 Piled foundations
occurring under a loaded area. The Uniform Building Code (UBC)
(1988) recommends this for buildings in moderate- to high-seismicity For vertical capacity of piles the design is similar to static methods with
areas and states that the structural ties or other equivalent restraints additional capacity being required to cater for additional loads arising
must be able to resist 10% of the applied static vertical load in any from earthquake vertical and overturning forces as shown in Figure
horizontal direction. The UBC code only states that this is necessary for 7.31.
piled foundations as it implicitly assumes pad footings will be capable of . ~alculating the horizontal loading, however, is considerably more
resisting this lateral force. d1fficult. This is because, in addition to the structure applying lateral
loading to the pile head, the soil is also defleçting, which loads the piles.
Generally the worst case for the pile is when the structural loading is in
7.6.2 Raft foundations the sarne direction as the soil deflection, as shown in Figure 7 .32. As
can be seen, the soil near the top of the pile is actually loading the pile
The failure modes for pad foundations also apply to raft foundations.
Failure by sliding is possible, but generally this would not cause great
Stalic
distress provided the raft is strong enough to remain intact. A bearing
capacity problem would be most unusual, but rotational failures are ~/Earthquake
possible and were recorded in the 1985 Mexico City earthquake.
The main criterion with a raft is that it is not structurally overstressed.
Rafts are required to redistribute gravity column and wall loads rela-
tively evenly over the soil, and they require structural strength to do
this. ln the event of seismic loading, dynamic inertial loads on the
structure will be applied to the raft in addition to the gravity loads.
Various methods for calculating the stresses in rafts exist, and they
range from simply assuming a uniform earth pressure such that equili- Reactions
brium is maintained, to soil-structure interaction analysis which may be t t t t- Static }
static or dynamic. Edge pressures must be carefully examined in any of $ $ $ $- Vertical Earlhquake
these processes. Using elastic analysis techniques the vertical pressures ♦ ♦ -
~.-.~~~ Overlurnmg
near the edge of the raft are often overpredicted as they fail to account
for local soil-bearing capacity limitations at the edge. Figure 7.30 Figure 7 .31 Vertical loads in piles subjected to earthquake loading.
illustrates this problem and shows how the raft may have to resist larger
bending moments and shear forces because of the soil yield at the edge
of the raft.
_1
sofl ',1ree field
-1 sail
J sail
--+I
/
/ displacement
Elas ti e pressure /
dislribulion /
stiff
sail
Figure 7 .30 Pressure distribution near the edge of a raft. Figure 7 .32 Lateral loads on piles subjected to earthquake loading.
346 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS SEISMIC LOADING 347
in the sarne direction as the structure load. Consequently this combina- designed to yield with the formation of plastic hinges. If this is to be
tion will give rise to the highest shear forces and bending moments dane they must be constructed and detailed in such a way that brittle
within the piles. For piles that are flexible relative to the soil, the effect failure does not occur. For reinforced concrete piles, for example, this
of the soil movement will be minimal. Provided the piles are designed to means sufficient confining steel must be used at all levels down the pile
resist the lateral loads using conventional static practice, adequate where yield may occur. Special care must also be taken with the
performance should result. For stiff large-diameter piles or piers, pile-to-pile cap detailing. ln many instances this is where piles have been
however, the loading from the soil may be significant, and allowance for observed to fail in a brittle manner during seismic loading. The New
loading from the soil should be combined with the structural loading. A Zealand Code of Practice for Concrete (1982) specifies that for concrete
conservative way of achieving this is to calculate the deflected shape of piles the upper end of every pile shall be reinforced as a potential plastic
the free field soil profile using the shear stresses given by Seed et al. hinge region unless it can be demonstrated to be unnecessary.
(1985) in eqn (7.6), deleting the Mf term. The shear stress within each Occasionally raking piles are used in conjunction with vertical piles to
layer can be used to derive shear strain using the appropriate modulus resist horizontal loads. This is an acceptable practice, but because of the
value for each soil layer. lntegrating the shear strain from an assumed fairly low lateral stiffness of vertical piles the raking piles will generally
rigid base will give a reasonable deformed profile. A modulus of take all the horizontal load and they must be designed for this. Raking
subgrade reaction analysis can then be used to model this soil pile piles are difficult to design when the soil deflection is large relative to
system as shown in Figure 7.33. Yield of the soil springs can be the pile group, as shown in Figure 7.34. Large lateral soil forces will be
incorporated if required. This procedure is probably required even for induced into the piles because the group will be relatively stiff compared
flexible piles if there is a significant change in stiffness of the soil profile with the soil. For this reason raking piles are generally not rec-
within the length of the pile which may cause large stresses in the pile at ommended for pile groups to resist earthquake loading.
the soil interface. For very stiff piles an extreme and probably overcon-
servative loading will be predicted if all the soil is assumed to be loading
7.6.4 Liquefaction in the vicinity of building structures
the pile simultaneously with the structure. ln this case a dynamic
analysis of the soil pile structure system illustrated in Figure 7 .33 is
The phenomenon of liquefaction has been discussed in section 7.4.4,
required.
and in section 7.4.5 methods have been presented to enable the
Piles do not necessarily need to be designed to respond elastically to
likelihood of liquefaction occurring in the free field to be estimated. ln
earthquake loading. If it is acceptable for the performance of the
the immediate vicinity of structural foundations it is likely that the
structure at the level of earthquake being considered, piles can be
.....
dynomic lood from
superstructure
beom etements
to model pile
-A A A ----1 _ / - - f m field soil
- v v v--r ,.--- mohon
--vvv--f-1
--vvv--f-1
--vvv--f•/
~'1 Stiff soil
\springs
Figure 7.33 Diagramatic model of stiff pile soil system. The rotational spring shown at the
top models the restraint to rotation provided by the superstructure. The horizontal springs
model the resistance provided by the soil to the pile moving horizontally through the soil. Figure 7 .34 The effect of raking piles on pile group deformation.
348 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS
Compression
Surcharge The soil in-situ stresses are increased Any soil Increases liquefaction resistance by
increasing the total to effective
stress ratio
Table 7 .3 ( Cont.)
Drainage
Drains Relief of excess pore pressure by Silty sand Limited by Pore pressure relief will prevent
gravei shortening drainage path. May be capability of liquefaction if drainage rate
r.r,
sand enhanced by introducing installation exceeds generation rate
groundwater lowering by pumping method
t:lr.r,
wick
wells ~
n
r<
Change particle size o
Particulate Penetration grout to fill soil pores with Medium to coarse sands Unlimited Introduces areas of high strength ►
lj
and eliminates liquefaction
grouting sand, cement and/or clay and gravei
potential in those areas; zo
uniformity requires checking
Chemical grouting Solutions of two or more chemicals Fine to medium sands Unlimited Voids filled so that tendency to
react in soil pores to form a gel vibrate and compact is virtually
eliminated; generally low
strength and uniformity requires
confirmation; durability should
also be confirmed
w
Vl
>-'
352 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS t SEISMIC LOADING
radiating into the soil and never being reflected back to the foundation
353
kzz
0-5
Overturning Kff = 3;t~:) (1 + 6: ) (1 + : ) (1 + 0.7
2
!)
Coupled term Khf = (o.4! - 0.03) KhhR - 0.4KhhE
2 '1
1,1: 0-5
ºº
3
e, Torsion l6GR
K 00 = - -- (
1 E)
+ 2.67R.
3
khh
Where v is Poissons's ratio (generally equivalent to about 0.5 for a saturated soil and 0.2
0-5 to 0.3 for a dry soil).
The expressions given on this table are valid for E/R :5 2 and H/E 2: 2.
ºº k,
k, e,
kc;c;
0-5 0-5
. . ªº
k, e,
·,~ '
º't~,
kee
0-5 0-5
O 1 2 3 ª•
ªo Figure 7.36 Horizontal stiffness coefficients for embedded foundations on a soil layer of
Figure 7 .35 Stiffness coefficients for a circular foundation on an elastic half-space (Roesse!, finite thickness. Key: a, embedded foundation-finite layer; b, surface foundation-finite
1980). layer; c, surface foundation-half space (Roesset, 1980).
354 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS SEISMIC LOADING 355
half-space but it can be seen that the dashpot term is almost zero below 0-8
a certain frequency. This frequency is the natural frequency of the layer Horizontal
V=l/3
(= 4H/Vs Hz where H is the thickness of the layer; see also eqn 7.4). 0-6
Generally, a real soil deposit is similar to neither a half-space nor a
single finite layer but has a stiffness which progressively increases with o.,
depth. As this case is somewhere between the half-space and single-
layer problem it can be seen that the half-space solution will overesti-
mate the damping of the soil and is therefore generally not conservative. 0-2
Table7.5 Equivalent depth for a soil (of density p) with linearly increas-
ing stiffness. (From Werkle and Waas, 1986.) Horizontal
Depth
Overturning
Mode Stiffness ( K 81 ) Frequency (ao)
simplified method of allowing for pile groups. For small groups of piles Figure 7.38). The overall stiffness for the combined system incorporating
(say less than 20) a conventional static method for determining group soil-structure interaction is then:
stiffness should be adequate. However, the damping term will become 1
progressively more inaccurate as the size of the group increases. K =----- (7.lla)
v 1 1
All the above methods assume an elastic soil material with the --+-
stiffness either constant or increasing with depth. The damping or K,v Kv
dashpot terms result purely from geometric or radiation damping only. 1
K -------- (7.llb)
Additional damping will be available from two other sources; the h - 1 1 h2
internai hysteretic soil damping discussed earlier and any non-linear soil --+-+-
K,h Kh Kr
failure behaviour. The internai hysteretic damping (D) will generally be
where K sv and K sh are the equivalent structural stiffnesses equal to
small but can be incorporated by modifying the k 1 and c 1 terms using
mw0 v 2 and mw0 h2 respectively and W 0 v and w 0 h are the structural
the following corrections (Werkle and Waas, 1986):
vertical and horizontal natural frequencies in rad/s. The natural fre-
k1 = k1 - Da 0 c 1 quency of the combined system can then be calculated as:
(7.10)
c 1 = c1 - 2Dk 1/a 0 Wv=~ (7.12)
Non-linear soil effects could be significant, especially for laterally loaded and
pile foundations, and additional damping may be incorporated to allow
Wh=~
for this.
The above methods are also limited to rigid foundations. If the and the equivalent damping ratio (D) of the first mode is:
foundations are relatively flexible then the soil structure interaction
Vertical:
becomes considerably more complex and some form of continuum or
finite elements method is necessary. Wolf (1985) describes many
(7.13a)
methods for elastic systems and expands this for non-linear soil behavi-
our adjacent to the foundation in Wolf (1987); the reader is advised to
Horizontal:
refer to these for further details.
2
Nevertheless the above methods give an indication as to how a Kh Kh - h
Dh = - - D, + - Dfh + Kh - Dfr (7.13b)
foundation system as a whole will react to dynamic loading. A simple K,h Kh Kr
method for incorporating the stiffness and damping terms into a
structural analysis is as follows. For both the vertical and horizontal where D, is the structural damping ratio and Dt; is the soil foundation
response consider the structure as a single degree of freedom system to damping ratio which is equal to C;wJ2K;, which can be alternatively
represent the fundamental mode response for the fixed base system (see expressed as Rw;cJ2V,k; (= a 0;c;/2k;) in terms of the frequency-
dependent springs and dashpots coefficient (where i = h or v).
Inspection of the equations shows that if the structural stiffness is
small relative to the soil system (i.e. K; is approximately equal to K ,;)
then the effects of soil-structure interaction are negligible and can be
Superstructure
ignored. Alternatively, if the structural stiffness is large then the soil
foundation response is dominant and the damping associated with the
soil foundation damping will also be dominant. It can be seen that for
higher frequencies the soil foundation damping ratio can become large,
Soil in fact well in excess of 1.
e, Having established an equivalent stiffness and damping that incorpor-
ates soil-structure interaction, an estimate of the structural forces can be
made using conventional response spectrum techniques outlined earlier
Figure 7.38 Simplified arrangements for dynamic soil-structure interaction. in the chapter. It should be emphasised that the method presented here
358 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS SEISMIC LOADING 359
is an oversimplification of the soil-structure interaction problem and can Leeds (1963), for example, report substantial damage to bridges due to
only be used for indicative purposes. Biggs and Whitman (1970) give a the movement of abutments. Similar effects were reported during the
similar method for a more rigorous multimode analyses. Frequency 1969 Alaska earthquake (Ross et al., 1969).
domain substructure analysis techniques can be used for exact solutions, For walls which retain soil below the water table, the soil pressures
or alternatively finite element programs can be used (see Booth et al., will increase further: but here backfill liquefaction may dramatically
1988). increase the active forces behind the wall. The extensive and dramatic
failure of long stretches of quay walls during the Chilean (1960) and
Niigata (1969) earthquakes has been attributed to backfill liquefaction
7. 6. 6 Site variability (Seed and Whitman, 1970).
ln some structures the soil conditions can vary dramatically from one
7. 7.2 Earth pressures
point to another. ln such cases it is likely that the part of the foundation
which is in contact with the stiffer soil will be subjected to a larger part
ln arder to compute the force acting on a retaining structure during a
of the overall horizontal reaction from the earthquake load. The
seismic event with a peak acceleration, Mononobe and Okabe deve-
designer must allow for this explicitly when detailing the foundations
loped a revised version of the Coulomb analysis in 1929. This method
a.nd, perhaps more importantly, the connections between the founda-
assumes that no liquefaction occurs and that the soil behind the wall
tions, as elements adjacent to the more stiffly restrained foundations
behaves as a rigid body so that a single acceleration is applicable to the
may attract large loads.
soil mass. It is assumed that active conditions occur, and that the forces
Another feature which should be considered is the effect on the
acting on the system are as shown in Figure 7.39(a). These forces
response of the superstructure. If the foundation on one side or comer
include horizontal and vertical loads Wkh and Wkv where kh and kv are
of the structure is better restrained than the remainder, then significant
the horizontal and vertical components of ground acceleration experi-
torsional loading effects may be induced in the structure. This cannot be
enced by the block of retained soil expressed as fractions of the
dealt with directly by a fixed-base analysis.
gravitational acceleration. The analysis, which is not given here, leads to
Even in sites with uniform foundation soil conditions it may be
an expression for the active force per unit length of wall (P AE) during
possible for a fault break rupture to outcrop beneath the structures. If a
the earthquake of:
fault or potential fault is identified, the building should be separated
over the possible active fault or part or all of the foundation mounted (7.14)
on flexible or yielding material to enable relative movement between the
structure and the underlying rock.
kv=l3=i=O
lol
0-6 ó= 1/2 ~
7. 7 Retaining structures
7. 7.1 Introduction
7.8.2 Damage to lifelines ductile plastic hinges at prescribed locations (see also Monsees and
Merritt, 1988).
Lifeline services are found in a wide variety of structural forms, from A special case of damage from transient ground displacements is that
brittle pipes to highly extensible cables. It is impossible, therefore, to of long structures which are only intermittently connected to the ground.
provide any detailed design rules in the space available here. It should A common example of this is the transient differential displacement
be noted, however, that the principal causes of lifeline rupture are: which may arise between bridge-deck supports (note that permanent
support displacements, e.g. due to liquefaction, are also of great
(1) The permanent differential displacement of lifelines which
concern) and which may cause overstressing of the connecting member,
traverse faults (e.g. Ariman et al., 1987).
or collapse of bridge decks. O'Rourke et al. (1984), for instance, show
(2) The differential displacement of lifelines which are laid in deposits
that ground waves which act on bridge pile-support systems may do so
which undergo significant permanent ground displacements, par- out of phase between adjacent points of deck support, thus presenting
ticularly those associated with liquefaction, e.g. Hamada et al. the possibility of overstressing or bridge-deck collapse.
(1987) report that bridges in particular are susceptible to collapse
from liquefaction. This was also widespread in the 1990 Philip-
pines earthquake when many bridges failed because of the deck
falling off abutments which had moved excessively. References
While permanent displacements are the most common cause of lifeline
damage, the transient displacements may also be important. Wang and Ambraseys, N. N. (1990) Uniform magnitude re-evaluation of European earthquakes
associated with strong-motion-records. Earthquake Engng Struet. Dynamies 19: 1-20.
O'Rourke (1978) summarised the findings of many researchers in this Ambraseys, N. N. and Sarma, S. K. (1967) The response of earth dams to strong
area and concluded that during earthquake loading buried pipelines and earthquakes. Geoteehnique 17: 181-213.
tunnels experience very similar motions to the soil around them, American Transit Consultants Inc. (1988) Supplemental Criteria for A seismie design of
Underground Struetures for Taipei Metropolitan Area Rapid Transit System, April 1988.
especially for longer period motions. The pipelines or tunnels therefore Andersen, K. H., Lacasse, S., Aas, P. and Andanaes, E. (1982) review of foundation
experience both axial and flexural strain, the former being much larger design principies for offshore gravity platforms. Norwegian Geotechnical Institute
than the latter. lt has been found that pipelines with flexible couplings Publieation 143.
Ariman, T., Lee, B. J. and Chen, Q. (1982) Failure of buried pipelines under large ground
behave significantly better than those with rigid joints. To estimate the deformations. ln: Reeent Advanees in Lifeline Earthquake Engineering, Elsevier, Am-
flexibility the designer needs to consider the displacement pattern and sterdam, and Computational Mechanics Publications, 63-75.
speed of propagation of the anticipated earthquake motion. The two Arulanandan, K, Yogachandran, C., Muraleetharan, K. K., Kutter, B. L. and Chang, G.
S. (1987) Seismically induced flow slide in centrifuge. ASCE, J. Geoteeh. Engng.
records in Figure 7.2, for example, show peak-to-peak displacements of 114(12): 1142-1449.
about 0.15 m with a period of around 4 seconds. The maximum (aver- Atkinson, G. M. (1989) Implications of eastem ground motion characteristics for seismic
age) strain can be calculated to be 21r X amplitude/wavelength, which in hazard assessment in eastem North America. Ann. N. Y. Aead. Sei. 558: 128-135.
Biggs, J. M. and Whitman, R. V. (1970) Soil structure interaction in nuclear power plants.
this case, assuming a wave propagation speed of 1000 m/s, is about Third Japanese Symposium on Earthquake Engineering, Tokyo.
0.01 % . Allowing for a strain concentration factor of, say, 2 implies a Bolton, M. D. and Wilson, J. M. R. (1989) An experimental and theoretical comparison
joint flexibility of 0.02%, i.e. for 10 m-long pipes a flexibility of 2 mm. between static and dynamic torsional tests. Géoteehnique 39(4): 585-599.
Boore, D. M. and Atkinson, G. M. (1987) Stochastic prediction of ground motion and
If the wave propagation speed is slower, leading to a short wavelength, spectral response parameters at hard rock sites in eastern North America. Buli. Seism.
the flexibility requirement may increase significantly. With the combined Soe. Am. 77(2): 440-467.
Booth, E. D., Pappin, J. W., Mills, J. E., Degg, M. and Steedman, R. S. (1986) 'The
effect of larger amplitudes of ground motion in soft soil together with a Mexico Earthquake of 19th Sept 1985. A field repor! of EEFIT' SECED. Institution of
shorter wavelength it is not surprising that damage is most frequent in Civil Engineers, London.
soils and infrequent in bedrock. Booth, E.D., Pappin, J. W. and Evans, J. J. B. (1988) Computer aided analysis methods
for the design of earthquake resistant structures: a review. Proc. Instn Civ. Engrs 84:
The requirement that buried facilities can deform with the surround- 671-691.
ing soil is explicitly recognised in some codes of practice. The design Chan, F. W. K. (1990) Permanent deformation resistance of granular layers in pavements.
criteria for the Taipei Metro (American Transit Consultants lnc., 1988), PhD Thesis, University of Nottingham.
Coppersmith, K. J. and Youngs, R. R. (1986) Capturing uncertainty in probabilistic
for example, requires that the rectangular tunnels and station structures seismic hazard assessment within intraplate tectonic-environments. Proeeedings of the
can deform with the soil. This is achieved by using structural details 3rd US National Conferenee on Earthquake Engineering 1: 301-312.
such that this deformation can be absorbed as elastic deflection or in Coppersmith, K. J., Johnston, A. C., Metzger, A. G. and Arabasz, W. J. (1987) Methods
364 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS SEISMIC LOADING 365
for assessing maximum earthquakes in the Central and Eastern United States. Electric west of the British Isles. Proceedings of the ICE Conference on Earthquake Engineering
Power Research lnstitute, Research Project 2556-12. in Britain, Norwich. Thomas Telford, London, 227-241.
Cornell, C. A. (1968) Engineering seismic risk analysis. Buli Seism. Soe. Am. 58: Monsees, J.E. and Merritt, J. L. (1988) Seismic modelling and design of underground
1583-1606. structures. ln: Numerical Methods in Geomechanics, Balkema, Innsbruck, 1833-1842.
Dahle, A., Bungum, H. and Kvamme, L. B. (1990) Attenuation models inferred from MUSE (1988) Computerized Data Base of Strong Seismic Ground Motion Records.
intraplate earthquake recordings. Earthquake Engng Struct. Dynamics 19: 1125-1141. McMaster University, Engineering Research Group. Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
Dayal, U. and Allen, J. H. (1975) The effect of penetration rate on the strength of National Building Code of Canada (1985) Associated Committee of the Building Code,
remoulded clay and sand samples. Canad. Geotech. J. 12(3): 336-348. National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa.
Dobry, R. and Gazetas, G. (1984) Dynamic response of arbitrarily shaped foundations. National Research Council (1985) Liquefaction of Soil during Earthquakes. National
ASCE J. Geotech. Engng 112(2): 109-157. Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
Dobry, R. and Gazetas, G. (1988) Simple methods for dynamic stiffness and damping of Naumoski, N. (1984) Determining seismic design parameters for nuclear power plants.
floating pile groups. Géotechnique 38(4): 557-574. PhD Thesis, University 'Kiril and Metodij' lnstitute of Earthquake Engineering and
Dobry, R., Vasquez-Herrera, A., Mohamad, R. and Vucetic, M. (1985) Liquefaction flow Engineering Seismology, Skopje.
failure of silty sand by torsional cyclic tests. ASCE Special Publication Advances in the Newmark, N. M. (1965) Effects of earthquakes on dams and embankments. Géotechnique
Art of Testing Soil Under Cyclic Conditions, October, 29-52. 15: 139-160.
Dowrick, D. J. (1987) Earthquake Resistance Design. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester. Newmark, N. M. and Hall, W. (1982) Earthquake Spectra and Design. Earthquake
Duke, C. M. and Leeds, D. J. (1963) Response of soils, foundations and earth structures. Engineering and Research lnstitute, E! Cessito, CA.
Buli. Seism. Soe. Am. 53(2): 309-357. New Zealand Code of Practice for Concrete NZS 3101 (1982).
Hamada, M., Kubo, M. and lsoyama, R. (1987) Earthquake damage caused by liquefac- O'Rourke M. J., Castro, G. and Hossain, I. (1984) Horizontal soil strains due to seismic
tion induced permanent ground displacement. ln: Recent Advances in Lifeline Earth- waves. ASCE, J. Geotech. J. 110(9): 1173-1187.
quake Engineering, Elsevier, Amsterdam, and Computational Mechanics Publications. Prato, C. A. and Delmastro, E. (1987) 1-D seismic analysis of embankment dams. ASCE,
Hanks, T. C. and Kanamori, H. (1968) Seismic moment, stress and source dimensions. J. J. Geotech. Engng 113(8): 904-909.
Geoph. Res. 73: 4681-4694. Pyke, R. M. (1979) Non-linear soil models for irregular cyclic loading. ASCE J. Geotech.
Heidari, M. and James, R. G. (1982) Centrifugai modelling of earthquake induced Engng Div. 105(GT6): 715-726.
liquefaction in a column of sand. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering Confer- Richards, R. J. and Elms, D. (1979) Seismic behaviour of gravity retaining walls, ASCE,
ence, Southampton, 271-281. J. Geotech. Engng. Div. 105(GT4): 449-464.
Heidebrecht, A. C., Henderson, P., Naumoski, N. and Pappin, J. W. (1990) Seismic Richter, C. F. (1958) Elementary Seismology. Freeman & Co, San Francisco.
response and design of structures located on soft clay sites. Canad. Geotech. J. 27: Roesset, J. M. (1980) Stiffness and damping coefficients of foundations. ASCE Special
330-341. Publications Dynamic Response of Pile Foundations-Analytical Aspects, 1-30.
Henderson, P., Heidebrecht, A. C., Naumoski, N. and Pappin, J.W. (1990) Site response Ross, G.A., Seed, H. B. and Migliacco, R. (1969) Bridge foundation behaviour in Alaska
effects for structures located on sand sites. Canad. Geotech. J. 27: 342-354. earthquake. Trans ASCE, J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., July.
lmai, T. and Tonouchi, K. (1982) Correlations of N value with S-wave velocity and shear Sarma, S. K. (1975) Seismic stability of earth dams and embankments. Géotechnique 24:
modulus. Proceedings of the 2nd European Symposium on Penetration Testing, 24-27. 743-761.
lshihara, K., Tatsuoka, R. and Yasuda, S. (1975) Undrained deformation and liquefaction Sarma, S. K. (1979) Stability analysis of embankments and slopes. ASCE J. Soil Mech.
of sand under cyclic stresses. Soils and Foundations 15(1): 29-44. Found. Engng 105.SM12 pp 1511-1524.
Japanese Technical Standard for Port and Harbour Facilities in Japan (1980). Sarma, S. K. (1980) A simplified method for the earthquake resistant design of earth
Joyner, W. B. and Boore, D. M. (1982) Prediction of earthquake response spectra. US dams. Proceedings of the Conference of Design of Dams to Resist Earthquakes, ICE,
Geol. Surv. Open File Report 82-977, 16 pp. London.
Khilnani, K. S., Byrne, P. M. and Yeung, K. K. (1982) Seismic Stability of the Revelstoke Sarma, S. K. and Iossifellis, I. S. (1990) Seismic bearing capacity factors of shallow strip
earthfill dam. Canad. Geotech. J. 19: 63-75. footings. Géotechnique 40(2): 265-273.
Koutsoftas, D. C. and Fischer, J. A. (1980) Dynamic properties of two marine clays. Schnabel, P. B., Lysmer, J. and Seed, H. B. (1972) SHAKE; a computer program for
ASCE J. Geotech. Engng Div. 106(GT6): 645-657. earthquake response analysis of horizontally layered sites. Report No. EERC, 72-12.
Lemos, L. J. L., Skempton, A. W. and Vaughan, P. R. (1985) Earthquake loading of Earthquake Engineering Research Centre, Berkeley, CA.
shear surfaces in slopes. Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Soil Seed, H. B. and ldriss, I. M. (1969) lnfluence of soil conditions on ground motions during
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, San Francisco 4: 1955-1958. earthquakes. ASCE J. Soil Mech. Found. Div. 95(SM1): 99-137.
Luong, M. P. and Sidaner, J. F. (1981) Undrained behaviour of cohesionless soils under Seed, H. B. and ldriss, I. M. (1970) Soil moduli and damping factors for dynamic response
cyclic and transient loading. Proceedings of the International Conference on Recent analysis. EERC Report No. 70-10, Berkeley, CA.
Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics 1: 215-221. Seed, H. B. and ldriss, I. M. (1982) Ground Motions and Soil Liquefaction During
Makdisi, F. I. and Seed, H. B. (1978) A simplified procedure for estimating dam and Earthquakes. Earthquake Engng Res. Inst., Monograph Series.
embankment earthquake induced deformations. ASCE, J. Geotech. Engng 105(GT7): Seed, H. B. and Whitman, R. V. (1970) Design of earth retaining structures for dynamic
849-867. loads. Special Conference on Lateral Stresses in the Ground and design of Earth
Martin, G.R. (1989) Geotechnical aspects of earthquake engineering state-of-the-art report Retaining Structures, Cornell University, New York.
no. 2. New Zealand Geomechanics News No. 39, 42-77. Seed, H. B., ldriss, I. M. and Arango, I. (1983) Evaluation of liquefaction potential using
Martin, G. R., Finn, W. D. L. and Seed, H. B. (1975) Fundamentais of liquefaction under field performance data. ASCE J. Geotech. Engng 109(3): 458-482.
cyclic loading. ASCE, J. Geotech. Engng Div. 101(GT5): 423-438. Seed, H. B., Wong, R.T., ldriss, I. M. and Tokimatsu, K. (1984) Moduli and damping
Matsuzawa, H. lshibashi, I, and Kawamura, M. (1985) Dynamic soil and water pressures factors for dynamic analysis of cohesionless soils. Report No. UCB/EERC-84/14.
of submerged soils. ASCE, J. Geotech. Engng 111(10): 1161-1176. College of Engineering University of California at Berkeley.
Menu, J. M., Ambraseys, N. N. and Melville, C. P. (1985) On the seismicity of the south Seed, H. B., Tokimatsu, K., Harder, L. F. and Chung, R. M. (1985) lnfluence of SPT
366 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS
z
8.2 Basic theory of dynamics
8.2.1 lntroduction
From equation (8.1), by differentiation, the velocities and accelerations Figure 8.2 depicts a single degree of freedom system cons1stmg of a
can be determined, viz: mass m supported by a spring of stiffness k and subjected to a vertical
370 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS MACHINE FOUNDATIONS 371
Q (8.13)
kA
and the (modal) damping ratio:
cwA
f3 = c/(4km) 1l2 (8.14)
m
eqns (8. 9) and (8.10) can be rewritten in the form:
M = 1/[(1 - wa2)2 + (2f3w 0 )2]112
tan <P = 2{3w0/(1 - wa2) (8.15)
Magnification factors and phase angles are plotted in Figures 8.3 and 8.4
in the frequency domain. The moderating effect of damping on the
Figure 8.2 The single degree of freedom system. response near resonance is evident. lt should also be noted that the
maximum displacement occurs at frequencies somewhat lower than the
harmonic load Q. The motion of the system is damped by a dashpot of natural frequency.
viscosity e. A similar model could be used to describe the rotation 0 of The results described so far are applicable to constant force excita-
the mass, now characterised by its mass moment of inertia 1. For tion, but in practice machine foundations are generally subjected to
harmonic loading: quadratic force excitation arising from the rotation of eccentrically
mounted masses. Thus, an eccentric mass me mounted at an eccentricity
Q = Q 0 sinwt (8.6) e induces a force which varies as the square of frequency, i. e.:
and from Newton's laws of motion is obtained the well-known equation: (8.16)
mz + ci + kz = Q0 sinwt (8.7) The magnification factor, as defined by eqn (8.12), has no meaning in
The displacement response is:
z = A sin ( wt - <P) (8.8) 4,--------,--------.------~------
1, 11
where II 11
II 11
(8.9) II 11
3 /3 = o
and:
tan <P = cw/(k - mw 2 ) (8.10) M
Now, if e= O (an undamped system), the displacement becomes infin-
itely large when: 2
w = (k/m)1/2 (8.11)
This condition is termed resonance and this frequency is termed the
natural frequency (or resonant frequency, denoted by wn), of the
undamped system. lf the force Q is independent of frequency, i.e.
constant amplitude force excitation, then it is useful to define a
magnification factor as follows:
M = A/zs (8.12)
2
where Zs is the displacement under static load (zs = Q 0/k). Introducing
two other dimensionless quantities, namely the frequency ratio: Figure 8.3 Magnification factors for SDOF systems subjected to constant force excitation.
372 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS MACHINE FOUNDATIONS 373
replacing the elastic moduli with their complex-valued viscoelastic coun- tion is hardly ever warranted. As a special case, multiple periodic
terparts (refer to section 8.3). loading, arising for example from unbalanced machinery loads, can
Energy radiates away from foundations by means of compression and frequently be decomposed into its constituent sinusoidal parts (usually
shear body waves and surface (Rayleigh) waves. Miller and Pursey termed primary and secondary components) which may differ in phase.
(1955) have calculated that over 67% of the energy input into a From the harmonic response of each component, the frequency response
vertically oscillating circular foundation is radiated away by Rayleigh of the foundation can be recovered by superposition-provided that care
waves, 26% by shear waves and the rest (7%) by compression waves. is taken to sum the terms vectorially. This process is, of course,
Not only does the Rayleigh wave transmit the major part of the energy equivalent to Fourier synthesis.
but it also diminishes relatively slowly with distance and, consequently,
it is the major cause of disturbance to structures and personnel adjacent
to vibrating foundations. The Rayleigh wave propagates at a velocity 8.3 Shallow foundations
somewhat less than the shear wave velocity (V ln undrained condi-
5).
tions the difference is approximately 5%, but under drained conditions 8.3.1 lntroduction
the discrepancy may be as high as 15% at very small strains. As a first
approximation, shear and Rayleigh wave velocities are assumed to be The purpose of this section is to describe the analysis of shallow
equal. lt can be readily shown that: foundation response to harmonic loading in sufficient detail to enable
the geotechnical engineer to carry out realistic calculations for a wide
vs = (G/p) 112 (8.23)
range of foundation types and loading conditions. This method of
The shear wave velocity is widely used as a normalising parameter to analysis supersedes the so-called 'analogue' methods of analysis (briefly
form the dimensionless group known as the dimensionless frequency described in the historical survey which follows) which, in general,
(a 0). More importantly, the relationship between wave velocity and assume frequency-indepedent rheological parameters and treat coupled
shear modulus is exploited in most field and laboratory tests designed to motions in an unwieldly manner. The drawback of modem methods of
measure soil stiffness (refer to section 8. 6). foundation response analysis is that they assume that the geotechnical
Solution of eqn (8.21) for ali but the simplest boundary conditions engineer has at least a rudimentary understanding of complex numbers
defies analytical methods and, accordingly, numerical methods must be and the confidence to write elementary computer programs in complex
resorted to. Because low-pass filtering is less evident in boundary arithmetic. ln FORTRAN, this presents no problem since complex vari-
element discretisation schemes, this method has been far more widely ables can be specified, but in BASIC a little ingenuity is called for to
used than finite element methods. Results obtained from these studies develop procedures to manipulate complex numbers, perhaps in the
are described in section 8.3. form of two-element real vectors as suggested by the subroutine
coMPLEx given in Appendix 8.1.
Circular Foot,ng
assumed for the soil (normally enlisted to control numerical perturb-
ations rather than for modelling fidelity). Of greater concern to the
t practising engineer are the differences in nomenclature used by various
authors and the confusion which has arisen in consequence. More
recently, some authors (e.g. Pais and Kausel, 1988) have developed
algebraic expressions based on published numerical data to facilitate the
design process. This latter development has much to recommend it
provided that the risk of gross error is minimised by adopting simple
equations, consonant with engineering accuracy. This approach is ad-
opted here.
This engineering approach has its roots in the 'analogue' solutions of
Lysmer and Richart (1966) and others who sought to describe the
response of shallow foundations to harmonic loading in terms of single
degree of freedom system parameters, i.e. masses, springs and dashpots,
but whose values are deduced from the rigorous continuum elastody-
namic analysis. lf frequency-independent parameters are assumed, then
Per Cent of
the well-known results of the elementary SDOF model can be applied
Wave Type
Total Energy directly. For the translational modes of vibration, this approach works
Rayle1gh 67 extremely well and it has the added advantage for the practising
Shear 26
Compress,on 7 engineer of physical clarity-an aspect of analysis and design which may
be obscured by adopting the approach advocated here based on com-
plex-valued foundation impedances. lt is for these reasons that analogue
Figure 8.5 Propagation of elastic displacement waves from a circular foundation. (Redrawn
and adapted after Woods, 1968).
solutions have enjoyed wide popularity for the last two decades despite
the fact that the assumed frequency independence is patently in error in
many circumstances and, also, the important practical case of coupled
Winkler-Voigt model (the dynamic subgrade reaction model). ln prac-
motion (in rocking and sliding) admits of no elementary theoretical
tice, this semiempirical approach is reliant on field tests and empirical
solution.
correlations between soil properties and the rheological parameters.
Improvements in the reliability of design procedures awaited the
revolution in analysis which attended the description and solution of
8.3.3 Foundation response analysis
foundation problems as the interaction of rigid plates with soils mod-
elled as semi-infinite elastic continua. For the first time, the geometric
At the outset, the response of the circular massless foundation depicted
(radiation) damping property of the soil mass, as distinct from its
in Figure 8.6 to harmonic loading will be considered. Only oscillatory
intrinsic (material) damping, was properly accounted for. Following
vertical, sliding and rocking motions are considered here: torsional
Reissner's (1936) early work in this field, Sung (1953) and Quinlan
response of foundations has been extensively studied in the literature
(1953) developed solutions for vertically oscillating circular and rectan-
(e.g. Wong and Luco, 1976) but is of minar practical interest.
gular foundations, and Arnold et al. (1955) and Bycroft (1956) obtained
For pure translation or rocking, the foundation response to the
solutions for the sliding and rocking modes for circular disc foundations.
applied loading can be described, in general, by the equation:
A very wide range of solutions has since been obtained by means of
analytical, integral equation (boundary element) and finite element F = Ku (8.24)
methods largely associated with the names of Gazetas, Kausel, Lysmer,
where F is the harmonic force, u is the harmonic displacement response
Luco, Novak and their associates. Some discrepancies are evident
and K is the complex-valued foundation impedance determined by
between some of the solutions presented in the literature arising from
solving Helmholtz's equation.
1
the ~i!fering assumptions employed to simplify the contact boundary
ln this description, forces and displacements are presumed to be
cond1t10ns and also from the magnitude of the material damping
378 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS MACHINE FOUNDATIONS 379
l
Figure 8.7 depicts a massive embedded foundation subjected to a
SOIL(G, P, v,/3)
torque T and force Q acting at the combined centre of gravity of the
Figure 8.6 Harmonic loading of massless circular foundation. installation and resulting from the operation of the machine. The
equations of motion are:
generic terms encompassing torques and rotations. The sinusoidal nature
of the forces and displacements may be expressed by the equations:
mx + F, = Q (8.31a)
u= u oei(wt-<j,) (8.25b) where m is the total (foundation plus machine) mass, I O is the mass
moment of inertia of the foundation ( and machine) about the horizontal
where F O and U O are the force and displacement amplitudes respect- axis passing through the centre of gravity and normal to the plane of
ively, w is the circular frequency of excitation, cp is the phase lag rocking, x and 0 are the lateral displacement and rotation of the centre
between the displacement and the force and i is the unit imaginary
number. Substitution of eqn (8.25) into eqn (8.24) yields:
1 of gravity respectively, F x and F 0 are the soil reactions, acting on the
centre of the foundation's base, and z is the height of the centre of
Fo .,,. gravity above the foundation base. Foundation base motion is related to
K=-e'"' (8.26) the foundation centroid motion by the continuity equation:
Uo
From Euler's formula, the system impedance can then be written as:
xb =x - z0 (8.32)
and hence, recalling eqn (8.24):
K =a+ ib (8.27)
where Fx = Kx(x - z0) + Kc0 (8.33a)
a= (F 0/U 0 )coscp and b = (F 0/U 0 )sincp. (8.28) Fe = Kr0 + Kc(x - z0) (8.33b)
The real and imaginary parts of the (frequency-dependent) imped- where K x, K e and K r are the sliding, coupling and rocking impedances
ances for severa! cases are presented in the following section. ln passing respectively.
it should be noted that the amplitude of the displacement response to
unit load is the reciprocai of the foundation impedance, namely the
foundation compliance, i.e. for unit loading the amplitude of the
dynamic displacement is:
---i-
IVI 1/IKI (8.29a)
I/(a2 + b2)1/2 (8.29b) z
___ ..:t
Also, the phase lag (angle) is readily obtained as follows:
cp = tan- 1 (b/a) (8.30)
While eqns (8.24-8.30) may be applied directly to uncoupled motions,
in practice machine foundations are often subjected to coupled motion. Figure 8.7 Coupled motion of a massive embedded foundation.
380 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS
mx = -mw2 x, etc. (8.34) tions of moderate aspect ratio (¼ < n < 4) are as follows:
4*s
To implement the analysis described above, it is convenient to be able
to express the foundation impedances in terms of simple functions of
frequency, foundation embedment and foundation shape, etc. Such
expressions can facilitate understanding of the role of the important
parameters albeit at the cost of some loss in accuracy. Further, it is
useful to normalise the impedances with respect to their static values
and to express them as functions of dimensionless frequency as follows.
~
1
y y
7_,._I-~--T-1__,...,,.,-
m;,1-- X _..j m?
Considerable simplification is possible at the outset if the impedances Figure 8.8 Harmonic loading of a rectangular foundation.
382 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS t MACHINE FOUNDATIONS 383
where the (complex) frequency factor / x w is defined as follows: have been used as the basis for published 'empírica!' embedment
factors-not always correctly. For perfectly bonded foundations, the
//
1
= k + ia 0 c (8.44) embedment factors are principally dependent on the embedment ratio
where a 0 is the dimensionless frequency. This term is obtained by (e) where:
normalising the operating frequency of the machine with respect to e= D/r (8.48)
foundation size (radius) and the shear wave velocity (Vs) of the and D is the depth of embedment. Again, for rectangular foundations,
surrounding soil, i.e: the equivalent radius is dependent on the mode of vibration. The
wr embedment factors for realistic embedment ratios are approximately as
ao=- (8.45) follows:
Vs
For rectangular foundations, the dimensionless frequency is a function /k lc
of the vibration mode as a consequence of eqn (8.40). Vertical (z) 1 + O.Se 1 + l.le (8.49a)
The components of the frequency factors for each mode may be Sliding (x) 1 + l.3e 1 + 2.6e (8.49b)
approximated as follows [adapted from Luco and Westmann (1971) and Rocking (r) 1 + 2e 1 + 2e (8.49c)
Veletsos and Wei (1971)]: Since, in practice, foundation thicknesses are typically 20% of the
k e shortest foundation dimension, embedment ratios greater than 0.4 are
Vertical (z) 1 - O.la 0 0.8 (8.46a) uncommon. ln the rocking mode, even small embedment ratios have a
Sliding (x) 1 0.6 (8.46b) significant effect on foundation response provided that the shear stresses
Rocking (r) 1 - 0.2a 0 O. l3a 0 (8.46c) at the foundation extremities are effectively transmitted to the surround-
ing soil.
These approximations are valid up to dimensionless frequencies of 1.5 If the backfill is not in effective contact with the sides of the
and for the usual range of Poisson ratios encountered in soils. Clearly, foundation, then the beneficial effects of embedment are largely lost
the assumption of frequency-independent spring stiffnesses and viscous (Tassoulas, 1981). ln the extreme case, where the side-walls are entirely
damping coefficients employed in the analogue methods is tenable at ineffective, then the embedment factors are, approximately:
moderate operating frequencies, except for rocking motion. For this
case, Hall (1967) had to refine the analogue solution by introducing a /k
modified 'mass ratio', but such devices are unnecessary if the frequency Vertical (z) 1 + O.le (8.50a)
dependence of the impedances are recognised from the outset. Sliding (x) 1 + 0.3e (8.50b)
These results apply to surface footings but foundations are, of course, Rocking (r) 1 + 0.2e (8.50c)
normally embedded. Embedment generally improves the dynamic re- ln real soils, embedment confers greater advantages than these results
sponse characteristics of machine foundations, particularly if the founda- would indicate since the superficial soil layers are generally relatively
tion is perfectly bonded to the surrounding soil by careful backfilling weak. Embedded foundations also behave differently from surface
and compaction around the foundation. Since this is difficult to achieve foundations in so far as the lateral pressures and shear stresses acting on
in practice, the effect of poor backfilling on foundation performance foundation sides result in pronounced intrinsic coupling of the rocking
should be explored by calculation and the final design should reflect the and sliding modes of deformation, i.e. lateral movement of embedded
engineer's judgement. foundations results in a torque about the foundation base. This phe-
Embedment effects are most conveniently expressed in terms of nomenon is most conveniently characterised in terms of the height of
'embedment factors' (/ b / e) where, for example, for sliding: the centre of pressure (point of action of the resultant of the horizontal
(8.47) reactions) above the foundation base. For convenience, this may be
assumed to act at a height of D /3 above the foundation base (assuming
The real (stiffness) and imaginary (damping) parts of the impedance are, effective side contact with the backfill) and, hence, the coupling term is
*
in general, affected differently by embedment, i.e. /k Ic· Severa! simply:
authors (e.g. Beredugo and Novak, 1972; Gazetas and Tassoulas, 1987)
have obtained numerical solutions for embedded foundations and these (8.51)
384 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS
MACHINE FOUNDATIONS 385
If the foundation is not in effective contact with the backfill (or, as from the differing damping characteristics of elastic half-spaces and real
noted earlier, the foundation is at ground levei) then the intrinsic solls. ln the latter, layering, even in apparently homogeneous deposits,
coupling term may be assumed to be zero. appears to inhibit radiation damping. On the other hand, the observed
The results described so far are based on elastodynamic theory. But displacement amplitudes in the sliding mode (for surface foundations)
real soils exhibit hysteretic (material damping) behaviour which may were found to be severa! times smaller than those predicted by elastody-
have a significant effect on foundation vibration response near reson- namic theory. Much better agreement between theory and experimental
ance, particularly in those cases where geometric damping is relatively data was obtained if material damping (typically 5%) was assumed. For
low, viz. in the rocking mode and in strongly stratified soil deposits. embedded foundations, the differences between the predictions for
ln the latter case, none of the results described earlier is applicable (materially) damped and undamped foundations are less pronounced. ln
and recourse to the specialist literature (e.g. Gazetas, 1980) will be summary, the experimental data suggest that the behaviour of real
necessary. The simplest way of introducing material damping is to foundations may depart significantly from that of the idealised theoret-
invoke the correspondence principie of viscoelasticity, which in effect ical models currently available.
replaces the shear modulus in eqn (8.42a-c) by its complex counterpart
G* where:
8.4 Deep foundations
G* = G(l + 2i/3) (8.52)
and f3 is the material damping ratio, typically 3% for soils (Hardin and 8. 4.1 Introduction
Drnevich, 1972a). Limitations on the applicability of eqn (8.52) have
been discussed by Kausel (1974) and Lysmer (1980). The dynamic behaviour of deep (piled) foundations and, especially.
An illustration of the application of the results given here to a their interactions with each other in groups is far less amenable to
practical problem is given in section 8. 7. The prudent engineer will
naturally carry out a parametric study to explore the influence of the 5,-----r::--------.----~-----.~
often significant uncertainties in the design data notwithstanding the fact
that the serviceability criterion affords considerable latitude for error. ln
the following section, experimental data obtained by Novak (1985),
albeit at model scale, is reviewed in order to demonstrate that elastody-
4 ip
1
namic theory falis short of providing a complete description of real P=4
)&J IM
foundation vibrations.
3
LU
D
::::)
8.3.5 Experimental data !::::
_J
a.. 2
Novak (1985) describes a series of experiments carried out on model ~
<t:
foundations up to 1.23 m and weighing up to 35 kN. Figure 8.9 depicts
the frequency response to vertical loading of a surface foundation for a
range of load amplitudes. The response is clearly non-linear, the
decrease in resonant frequency and the increase in displacement am-
plitude being consistent with a decrease of soil stiffness (shear modulus)
by approximately 35% over the indicated load range. Novak's data, for
vertically loaded foundations, also suggest that the measured resonant
2000 2400 2000 3200
amplitudes are typically twice as great as those predicted by theory. Part
FREO.UENCY (R PM)
of the discrepancy was thought to be due to errors arising from the
assumption of foundation rigidity which gives rise to unrealistic stress Figure 8.9 Experimental frequency-response curves for vertical vibration of a shallow
foundation. (Redrawn and adapted after Novak, 1985.)
distributions beneath foundation edges. A further source of error arises
386 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS MACHINE FOUNDATIONS 387
analysis than the behaviour of shallow foundations. Not the least of the EA
practical difficulties is the assessment of the effects of the disturbances K, = _ P _ (k + ia 0 c) (8.53)
associated with the method of installation. Separation between piles and r
soil and the reduction of soil shear moduli at ground levei, in addition where E P is the Y oung modulus of the pile, A is the pile cross-sectional
to soil non-linearity, further complicates the problem. Much more area and r is the pile radius. Figure 8.10 shows the variation of the
research work needs to be done in order to quantify these effects. parameters k and e for end-bearing piles with respect to pile slenderness
Hence, engineers should be circumspect in their use of the highly ratio (L/r) and the relative stiffnesses of the piles with respect to the
idealised theoretical models which are discussed in the sequei. surrounding soil. The relative stiffness (V) is defined as the ratio of the
shear wave velocity of the soil ( V s) to the compression wave velocity
(V p) of the pile. That is:
8.4.2 Historical survey (8.54)
The dynamic response of single piles to forced vibration has been where:
analysed by many authors. Some representative publications are the
finite element analyses of Kuhlemeyer (1979a, b) and Blaney et al.
(1976), the boundary element analyses of Kaynia and Kausel (1982) and
vp = ( ;: r2 (8.55)
Sen et al. (1985) and the analytical methods of Novak (1974) and where p is the mass density of the pile. Figure 8.11 depicts the
P b .
Nogami and Novak (1977). The effects of soil inhomogeneity have been corresponding parameters for friction piles. Clearly, short end- earmg
examined, for example, by Gazetas and Dobry (1984) and non-lineari- piles are superior to friction piles of equal length but the differences are
ties by Angelides and Roesset (1981). small for slender piles. lt should be noted that within the quoted
Deep foundation responses can be described in terms of (complex)
foundation impedances analogous to those for shallow foundations. For
single piles, the impedances are generally smooth functions of forcing O 08 ~ - ~ - . - - - - - - - . - - - - - . - - - - , - - - - - - - ,
frequency, although soil layering may complica te matters by inducing
STIFFNESS ( K)
resonant conditions at one or more criticai frequencies. However, for
DAMPING (C)
pile groups the frequency response is far more complicated. Unlike
static loading conditions, where the interaction factors are monotonically
decreasing functions of pile separation, pile interactions under harmonic
u
O06 -- - ------
loading conditions may be positive or negative depending on the
--- ----
-:,,e,~
excitation frequency, soil properties and pile separation. ln conse-
quence, constructive and destructive interference occurs between the
piles in groups resulting in a very complicated frequency response. Pile
interactions in groups has been studied by Wolf et al. (1979), Nogami
V1
o::
w
f-
w
:E
oo
/
-- ---
~ /
(1979), Sheta and Novak (1982), Sen et al. (1985), Dobry and Gazetas o:: /
rf:. ~/
(1988) among many others. w
u
z
~
0·02
<:::;<:;:,7
~í/ 1/ <:;:,·"/
""' /
/ ,,,,,,r::/~_,,.,.,.
/
_,,.
-
---
8.4.3 Single piles
o
w
Cl...
:E
/
.,,,.,.,. / 1::i-~--- ----
----0-01 __ ----------- -- -
Novak (1974, 1977) and Novak and Aboul-Ella (1978), in a series of ºo
- 20--- 40 60 80 100
publications, have given impedances for a wide range of pile geometries
and stiffnesses, applicable to vibratory loading in the frequency range PILE SLENDERNESS RATIO: ( L /r l
0.05 < a 0 < 0.8. For concrete piles, the impedances for vertical vibration Figure 8.10 Impedance functions for concrete end-bearing piles. (Redrawn and adapted
are: after Novak, 1974.)
388 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS
j MACHINE FOUNDATIONS 389
0 ·08 r - - - - - - , , - - - - - , - - - - - - . - - - - - . - - - - - - , k = 3.3V1. 5 (8.57a)
- STIFFNESS ( K l
e = 8V1. 5
(8.57b)
/
----- ---- --
.... _
--- DAMPING ( C l
V= 0-05 The (negative) cross-coupling impedances are:
O 06
/
---------
u ,, ------ - --- ----- Kc =
-EP/P
-~~
,2 (k + ia 0 c) (8.58)
-:X.~
VJ
/
/
----
o::
LLJ
-------- --- --- where
1-
LLJ
L
<(
o::
0·04
--- k = l.9V and e= 2.8V (8.59)
cf.
LLJ
V=0·0S
------- and the rocking impedances are given by the equations:
u E I
z<( 0·02 Kr = ___!:___E_ ( k + iaoc) (8.60)
o r
LLJ
a..
~
---õo1 where
made to the methods of structural dynamics. The design rules listed parameter of these four, and considerable effort has been expended to
earlier cannot be other than a very approximate rule of thumb in view devise apparatus to measure shear moduli in the field and in the
of the very wide range of loading conditions, soil types, foundation laboratory. A significant outcome of these studies is correlation between
geometries and design specifications encountered in practice. Satisfac- other more easily measured soil properties and shear modulus. Experi-
tion of all the geotechnical, operational, economic and construction mental and theoretical studies related to the first three parameters are
constraints may not be possible and radical alternatives may be neces- reviewed in the sequei. Estimation of mass density presents no special
sary and, sometimes, changes in design loads or uncertainties in the problems but it is worth emphasising that it is the bulk mass density that
analysis and the design data may create insurmountable design difficul- is of interest, i.e.:
ties. ln these cases provision for 'tuning' the foundation following p = y/g (8.77)
commissioning of the machine should be considered.
where y is the bulk unit weight of the soil and g is the acceleration due
to gravity.
8.5.5 Post-construction tuning Typically values of mass density range from 1400 kg/m 3 for a loose,
dry sand to 2200 kg/m 3 for a hard, saturated, glacial till.
Despite the recent advances in understanding of the behaviour of
machine foundations, considerable uncertainties remain as exemplified
8. 6.2 Shear modulus
by the comparisons between observed and predicted foundation re-
sponses in sections 8.3 and 8.4. ln many cases, parametric design studies
Machine foundations which satisfy the stringent serviceability criteria
reveal a wide spectrum of possible foundation responses. ln such cases,
described in section 8.5 excite extremely small shear strains in the
the prudent engineer will make provision for modifying (tuning) the
surrounding soil, typically 10-50 microstrain (µ,t:), i.e. two orders of
foundation response (if necessary) following commissioning of the ma-
magnitude smaller than those developed by static loading of typical
chine. Tuning may involve addition or subtraction of mass from the
geotechnical structures. lt is well established that shear modulus de-
foundation or grouting of the underlying soil (through precast grout
creases with increasing strain and, in consequence, it is convenient to
boles) to increase its stiffness. lncreasing the bearing area of the
normalise shear modulus values to a hypothetical maximum value G 0 at
foundation or even attaching the foundation block to in-situ (but
zero strain. ln practice, measurements obtained or extrapolated to strain
formerly ineffective) piles might be considered in extreme cases (Arya et
leveis of 1 µ,E are assumed to be equal to G 0 •
al., 1979).
Woods (1978) in his state-of-the-art paper reviews apparatus and test
ln some cases, machine modification or simply repositioning may be
procedures for determing shear moduli over a wide range of shear strain
all that is required to ensure satisfactory operation. Although all
amplitudes. Resonant column, ultrasonic pulse and cyclic triaxial (and
precautions should be taken to avoid degradation of foundation per-
cyclic shear) laboratory tests are described in considerable detail as well
formance due to soil compaction by eliminating or treating unsuitable
as fiel d tests such as the seismic refraction survey, the seismic cross-hole
soils before construction begins, it may be possible to remedy such
( down-hole) surveys, the Rayleigh wave survey and others. Correlation
defects by grouting. Foundations subjected to rocking are particularly
between laboratory- and field-measured values of shear moduli depends
prone to performance degradation as a result of progressive soil failure
on not only matching strain leveis and perhaps frequency content but
(of cohesionless soil} initiated at the foundation edges.
also allowing for differences in the boundary conditions, ageing effects
and sampling disturbance. Anderson et al. (1978), Arango et al. (1978),
Murphy et al. (1978), Stokoe et al. (1978), Wilson et al. (1978), Wright
8.6 Geotechnical parameters et al. (1978) and Vrymoed et al. (1980) address these and other issues.
These authors have measured shear moduli for soils as diverse as a hard
8.6.1 Introduction glacial till (960 MN/m 2 ) and a soft (San Francisco) bay mud
(10 MN/m 2 ). More recently, shear wave refraction tests and Rayleigh
The elastodynamic model of soil is based on four material properties, wave tests, carried out on Boulder clay, London clay and Gault clay,
namely shear modulus ( G), material damping ratio (/3), Poisson's ratio have been described by Abbiss (1981, 1983) and a new laboratory
( v) and mass density p. The shear modulus is the most important technique for generating and measuring small dynamic strains in
398 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOJLS MACHJNE FOUNDATIONS 399
standard triaxiál cells has been described by Bates (1989). This latter the parameter e for cohesionless soils of 700 and 1700 for a loose sand
development promises to offer significant economies. Clearly, measure- (e= 0.9) and a very dense silty sand (e= 0.3) respectively, the consis-
ment of small-strain shear moduli demands specialist equipment and tency of these equations for cohesionless soils is confirmed.
expertise which may be difficult to assemble for all but the most critical For clays, Seed and ldriss (1970) have proposed the simple correlation
projects. For more routine purposes (and for interpreting data obtained between shear modulus and undrained shear strength (cu)-
from field and laboratory tests) empirical correlations between shear
(8.81)
moduli, soil stress history, density and the anticipated stress-shear strain
levels can be useful. where a is ao empirical constant which ranges from approximately 1000
Foremost among these correlations is that due to Hardin and Black to 3000. This correlation has been criticised on the grounds that shear
(1969) for angular-grained sands and insensitive cohesive soils, which strengths and shear stiffnesses are not similar functions of effective
can be written in the dimensionless form (Hardin, 1978): stress. Eqn (8.81) does however have value as a first approximation in
practical design.
G 0 = 625Rk(PPA) 112 /(0.3 + 0.7e 2 ) (8.78)
The Hardin and Black equation (8.78) tends to underestimate the
where R is the overconsolidation ratio, p is the mean effective stress, in-situ shear moduli of cohesive soils, partly as a result of ageing effects
PA is atmospheric pressure, e is the void ratio and k is a coeffficient and sample disturbance (Anderson et al., 1978). ln competent soils (i.e.
related to plasticity index IP (expressed as a fraction-not a percentage) where G 0 > 100 MN/m2 ) they found that field values of G 0 exceeded
by the empirical equation: the values obtained from this equation by a factor of 1.3-2.5. For
partially cemented soils, the discrepancy is greater. Analysis of field
k = Ip/(1 + 31/) 112 (8.79)
data obtained from tests on a soft bay mud (Stokoe et al., 1978) and a
ln computing shear moduli from eqn (8.78) it should be noted that hard glacial till (Murphy et al., 1978) suggest that in both cases eqn
the mean effective stress is the sum of the in-situ stress and the stress (8.78) would underestimate G 0 by a factor of 1.5. On the other hand,
due to the static foundation load. Often, the resultant is sensibly while the shear moduli values predicted by this equation for the very
constant with depth, which facilitates selection of an 'equivalent' shear stiff London clay at Hendon are sensibly constant with depth
modulus for design purposes. For overconsolidated soils, the overconso- (G 0 = 400 MN/m 2 ), the values measured by Abbiss (1981) are consider-
lidation ratio should be calculated based on the ratio of the past ably smaller ( G 0 = 130 MN/m 2 at 10 m depth) and increase rapidly with
maximum vertical effective stress to the current (in-situ plus foundation) depth. For this clay, the Seed and ldriss equation (eqn 8.81) yields good
vertical effective stress. Atmospheric pressure must, of course, be results. Clearly, some care should be exercised in applying these
expressed in the sarne units as G 0 and p. empirical equations to soils which differ appreciably from the soils
For uniform deposits of normally consolidated clays and sands, eqn examined in the original studies.
(8.78) predicts that the in-situ (i.e. unloaded ground) values of shear For machine foundation design purposes, the reduction in shear
modulus increases as z 1!2 , where z is the depth. For highly overconsolid- modulus with increasing strain is relatively small. The experimental data
ated plastic clays, for which R decreases as z- 1 and the parameter k (e.g. Seed and ldriss, 1970; Hardin and Drnevich, 1972a) exhibit
approaches one-half, shear moduli are predicted to be approximately considerable scatter around a mean trend which can be described
constant with depth. These conclusions may not be applicable to loaded (within the strain range of interest here) by the empirical equation:
ground, i.e. beneath machine foundations.
Seed and ldriss (1970) have advanced a similar equation for sands
G = G 0/(1 + 6000y) (8.82)
which can be written in the dimensionless form: where y is the shearing strain. There is some evidence that the stiffness
of clays degrades faster than sands with increasing strain. For strain
(8.80)
leveis of 50µE, eqn (8.82) predicts a reduction in shear modulus of 23%.
where e is an empirical constant correlated principally to soil density. Conservative or optimistic values of G may be obtained by replacing the
Back-calculation from geophysical tests showed that for loose sands the empirical coefficient (6000) by 10000 and 4000 respectively. Thus.
parameter c is approximately 800, while for an extremely dense silty conservative estimates of shear moduli at 50 µE are 33% less than Go:
sand its value was approximately 1900. For gravels, these values may be optimistic estimates are 17% less than G 0 • Further research work needs
increased by at least 50%. Since eqn (8.78) predicts equivalent values of to be done to develop reliable methods for calculating appropriate
400 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS MACHINE FOUNDATIONS 401
values of shear modulus at larger strain amplitudes and to measure the ln terms of these parameters, the loss angle c5L (which describes the
strains developed beneath machine foundations. Prediction of an appro- phase lag between stress and strain) is defined as:
priate mean strain levei is very difficult, but an order of magnitude
estimate may be obtained by calculating the ratio of the permissible tan c5L = µw/G (8.87)
foundation vibration amplitude to the foundation (equivalent) radius. The material (modal) damping ratio /3, defined in terms of criticai
For example, a foundation of diameter 4 m operating at 10 Hz (and damping, can be shown (Lysmer, 1980) to be related to loss angle via
adopting the velocity criterion of eqn 8. 76) yields a shear strain of the the equation:
order of 6 f..lE. /3 = sin ( c5d2) (8.88)
Richart et al. (1970) cite Hardin and Richart (1968) as a source for
For small damping ratios:
the commonly held view that the frequency of vibration has no
measurable effect on shear moduli. Anderson (1980), however, warns /3 = cSd2 (8.89a)
that for some soft clays there may be a rate effect. ln consequence, = c5/2rr (8.89b)
laboratory and in-situ tests which operate at foundation vibration
frequencies should be preferred. where c5 is the logarithmic decrement (the natural logarithm of the ratio
of successive amplitudes). Alternatively, the material damping ratio can
be estimated from the coefficient of attenuation a- (which describes the
8.6.3 Material damping ratio /3 decrease in amplitude of vibrations with distance from a source) from
the equation:
Unlike shear modulus, the material damping ratio /3 increases with /3 = a-L/2rr (8.90)
increasing strain. ln some modes of vibration (particularly rocking) and where L is the wavelength of the propagating wave.
for some types of soil deposit (viz. strongly stratified soils), material Hardin (1965) has proposed an empirical equation for sands (for shear
damping can have a significant effect on foundation response since in strains less than 100 f..lE and 25 kPa < p < 150 kPa) which can be written
these cases geometrical damping is inhibited by wave interference and in the dimensionless form:
wave reflection respectively.
Material damping in soils is hysteretic (frequency-independent) as a (8.91)
first approximation. Nevertheless, it is convenient to describe the which indicates that damping increases with increasing strain but de-
dynamic behaviour of soils in terms of the Kelvin-Voigt viscous model. creases with increasing mean effective stress. ln the specified mean
Thus: stress range, /3 varies between 0.7 and 1.7% at a shear strain of 50 µE.
r = Gy + µy (8.83) Hardin and Drnevich (1972b) have published empirical equations for
damping ratio but these are more useful at large strain leveis since they
where µ is the viscosity coefficient. Assuming harmonic motion, i.e: are cast in terms of 13mm the damping ratio at large strain amplitudes.
y = Yo eiwt (8.84) An interesting conclusion from their study is that the normalised
damping and shear moduli are empirically related by the equation:
leads to:
(3=1-G (8.92)
r = G*y (8.85)
where (3 = f3//3max and G = G/G 0 • Although this equation may be valid
where: at large strains, it implies that material damping becomes vanishingly
G* = G(l + iµw/G) (8.86) small at low strains. Moreover, eqns (8.92) and (8.82) taken together
imply that at small strains damping is proportional to strain, which is at
This one-dimensional model illustrates how the shear modulus can be variance with eqn (8.91).
replaced by its complex-valued viscoelastic counterpart in order to Stoll (1978) describes a mathematical model of damping based on the
incorporate material damping (Bland, 1960; Veletsos and Verbic, 1973) Biot theory of wave propagation in porous saturated solids. His theoret-
and, also, how the hysteretic model may be recovered if the 'viscosity' is ical results show that for shear waves in saturated sands (e= 0.67)
inversely proportional to frequency. damping is independent of frequency up to about 50 Hz. At higher
402 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS
MACHINE FOUNDATIONS 403
frequencies (above 300 Hz) damping reaches maxima 3-5 times higher of this conclusion Hardin cites Krizek's (1977) work which shows that
than the low-frequency values. This result has clear implications for Poisson's ratio decreases with decreasing strain.
laboratory and in-situ testing. Theoretical values of damping ratio at low
frequency obtained by Stoll, for mean effective stress of 6.5 kPa and
65 kPa, were 2.6% and 0.8% respectively. Soil permeability has a 8. 7 Design examples
significant effect at frequencies greater than 10 Hz. This result is
supported by Hall and Richart (1963) who observed that the damping in The following sample hand calculations are illustrative of those carried
saturated sands at about 300 Hz was 1.5-4 times greater than for dry out in connection with the design of foundations for a paper mill. Data
sands. Stoll's data for low-frequency damping support an empirical for the figures, which depict the frequency responses of deep and
equation of the form: shallow foundations, were computed on a microcomputer.
(8.93) The operating speed of the machinery is 43.3 rad/s, at which speed it
where e is 0.0065 in this case. The form of this equation is similar to develops a lateral harmonic force of 30 kN at an elevation of 8.4 m
eqn (8.91). Proceeding a step further, if infinitesimal strain is taken to above ground levei. The soil is a deep deposit of silty clay
2
be 1 µe (the threshold strain for shear modulus) it is tempting to write ( G = 40 MN/m , v = 0.35, p = 1960 kg/m 3 , /3 = 0.05). The mass of the
eqn (8.93), by analogy with eqn (8.91), as: superstructure is 180 X 103 kg, and it has a moment of inertia about its
centroid (at elevation 4.0 m) of 2.8 x 10 6 kgm 2 • The corresponding data
(3 = 0.103yº.2(PA/p)l/2 (8.94) for the machine itself are m = 55 x 103 kg, z = 7.0 m and
l = 0.02 x 10 6 kgm 2 .
The agreement between the coefficients is remarkable but may be
coincidental.
From the energy attenuation values measured by Woods et al. (1985), 8. 7.1 Shallow foundation design (Table 8.1)
damping ratios of 0.5-3% for very hard soils to very weak soils can be
estimated. These data are relevant to Rayleigh wave propagation and, For illustrative purposes, we assume the foundation dimensions
consequently, relatively low stress leveis. (X, Y, t) to be 10 m, 6 m and 1.5 m respectively. Also assume
It is difficult to draw general conclusions from the published data but, D = 1.5 m and perfect bonding between the foundation and the sur-
conservatively, material damping values of 1% are appropriate for rounding soil. Also, Pc = 2500 kg/m 3 .
competent soils and 3% for weak soils. Higher values, perhaps by a
factor of two, may be assumed if foundation amplitudes and stress leveis 8.7.1.1 Sliding (impedance units are MN/m)
depart significantly from the norm. However, reflection of radiating
waves from layer interfaces and non-linearities, which cannot be ana- K/ = 856, ªº = 1.34, lx'" = 1.0 + i0.8.
lysed by any practical means, are likely to swamp any uncertainties in Kx = 856+ i685, e= 0.34, /k = 1.44, /e= 1.88.
evaluating material damping.
K/ = 1233 + i1288, G*/G = 1 + i0.1, Kx = 1104 + il4ll.
mw = 862,
2
Kt = 242 + i1411.
8.6.4 Poisson's ratio
Table8.1
Foundation response to dynamic loading in the drained and undrained
states can be significantly different. ln the 'total stress', elastodynamic Mass Elevation I lo
(x 10 3 kg) (m) (x 10 6 kg m 2 ) (x 10 6 kg m 2 )
analysis, the drained and undrained states are distinguished by the value
of the Poisson ratio since shear moduli are independent of pore water Foundation 225 -0.75 1.92 3.66
Superstructure 180 4 2.80
pressure. For undrained loading (applicable to foundations on clays), Machine
3.49
55 7 0.02 1.38
Poisson's ratio is equal to one-half. For drained loading (sands, etc.), Total 460 2.04 8.53
Hardin (1978) concludes from severa! sources that Poisson's ratio should
be taken to be 0.1 at small strains. This value is much smaller than that Load eccentricity, L = 6.36 m, Q = 30 kN, T = 191 kNm.
Base eccentricity, Z = 3.54 m
normally assumed for sands in routine geotechnical work, but in support n = l.67, rx = 4.41 m, V,= (G/p) 112 = 143 m/s.
404 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS MACHINE FOUNDATIONS 405
8. 7.1.2 Coupled (impedance units are MN) greater width, all other parameters being held constant. By an unfortun-
ate coincidence, foundation resonance occurs near to the operating
Kc = 552 + i705, Kt = -3360 - i4290. frequency.
O1 Table8.2
Mass Elevation I lo
(x 10 3 kg) (m) (x 10 6 kgm 2 ) (x 10 6 kg m 2 )
At the machine axis, x = 0.16 mm. This displacement falls into the Appendix 8.1 BASIC procedure
'troublesome to persons' category. Figure 8.14 shows the frequency
response of this foundation and two other foundations (with longer 10 DEF PROCCOMPLX (A,B,C,IP)
piles), all other parameters being held constant. Resonance occurs at a 20 DIM A(2),B(2),C(2)
frequency of approximately 30 rad/s. lt should be noted that at the 30 IQ=IP+3
operating frequency of 43.3 rad/s, pile length has little effect on the 40 ON IQ GOTO 50, 90, 120, 150, 180
response. The high resonant peaks would be moderated by incorporat- 50 D=B (l)A2 + B(2)A2
ing soil material damping into the single-pile impedances (by multiplying 60 C(l)=(A(l)*B(l) + A(2)*B(2))/D
them by the factor G*/G). 70 C(2)=(A(2)*B(l) - A(l)*B(2))/D
80 GOTO 200
90 C(l)=A(l)-B(l)
100 C(2) = A(2)- B(2)
Acknowledgement 110 GOTO 200
120 C(l)=SQR(A(l)A2 + A(2)A2)
130 C(2)=57.3*ATAN(A(2)/A(l))
The assistance of Mr. Suhol Bu (postgraduate student at Glasgow 140 GOTO 200
University) in compiling section 8.3 is gratefully acknowledged. 150 C(l)=A(l)+B(l)
160 C(2)=A(2)+B(2)
170 GOTO 200
180 C(l)=A(l)*B(l) - A(2)*B(2)
190 C(2)=A(2)*B(l) + A(l)*B(2)
200 REM RETURN
210 ENDPROC
0·4 L=7·5m
e
e IP=-2 C=A/B
e IP=-1 C=A-B
e IP=-0 C(l)=MODULUS (A)
0·3 e C(2)=PHASE (A) DEG.
X e IP= 1 C=A+B
(mm.) e IP= 2 C=A*B
e
0·2
References
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nique 31: 91-104.
Abbiss, C. P. (1983) Calculation of elasticities and settlements for long periods of time and
high strains from seismic measurements. Géotechnique 33: 397-405.
Anderson, D. G. (1980) Uncertainty in determining dynamic nonlinear stress-strain
relationships. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Soils under Cyclic and
Transient Loading, Swansea 2: 773-790.
º',,----=------=11e-------1...----_L,_---_J Anderson, D. G., Espana, C. and McLamore, V. R. (1978) Estimating insitu shear moduli
O 20 40 60 80
at comptetent sites. Proceedings of the ASCE Conference on Earthquake Engineering
FREQUENCY (rod/s l and Soil Dynamics, Pasadena 1: 181-197.
Angelides, D. C. and Roesset, J. M. (1981) Nonlinear lateral dynamic stiffness of piles. J.
Figure 8.14 Effect of pile length ( L) on the theoretical frequency response of a deep
ASCE 107 (GTll): 1443-1460.
foundation.
408 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS MACHINE FOUNDA TIONS 409
Arango, I., Moriwaki, T. and Brown, F. (1978) Insitu and laboratory shear velocity and of the 9th International Conferenee on Soil Meehanics and Foundation Engineering,
modulus. Proeeedings of the ASCE Conference on Earthquake Engineering and Sai! Tokyo 1: 169-176.
Dynamics, Pasadena 1: 198-212. Kuhlemeyer, R. L. (1979a) Vertical vibration of piles. J. ASCE 105 (GT2): 273-287.
Arnold, R. N., Bycroft, G. N. and Warburton G. B. (1955) Forced vibrations of a body Kuhlemeyer, R. L. (1979b) Static and dynamic laterally loaded floating piles. J. ASCE
on an infinite elastic solid. I. Appl. Mech. Trans. ASME 77: 391-401. 105 (GT2): 289-304.
Arya, S. C., O'Neill, M. W. & Pincus, G. (1979) Design of Structures and Foundations for Luco, J. & Westmann, R. A. (1971) Dynamic response of circular footings, J. ASCE 97
Vibrating Machines. Gulf publishing Co., Houston, TX. (EM5): 1381-1395.
Barkan, D. D. (1962) Dynamics of Bases and Foundations. McGraw-Hill, New York. Lysmer, J. (1980) Foundation vibration with soil damping. Proceedings of the Conference
Barkan, D. D. and Ilyichev, V. A. (1977) Dynamics of bases and foundations. Proceedings Civil Engineering and Nuclear Power, 2, paper 10.4, Knoxville, Tennessee, 1-18.
of the 9th ICSMFE, Tokyo 2: 630-637. Lysmer, J. and Richart, F. E. (1966) Dynamic response of footings to vertical loading. J.
Bates, C. R. (1989) Dynamic soil property measurements during traxial testing. Géoteeh- ASCE 92 (SMl): 65-91.
nique 39: 721-726. Madshus. C., Nadim, F., Engen, A. and Lerstol, A. M. (1985) Low tuned compressor
Beredugo, Y. O. and Novak, M. (1972) Coupled horizontal and rocking vibration of foundations in soft clay. Proeeedings of the ASCE Symposium on Vibration Problems in
embedded footings. Canad. Geotech. I. 9: 477-495. Geoteehnieal Engineering, Detroit, 117-137.
Bland, D. R. (1960) The Theory of Linear Viscoelasticity. Pergamon Press, Oxford. Miller, G. F. and Pursey, H. (1955) On the partition of energy between elastic waves in a
Blaney, G. W., Kausel, E. and Roesse!, J. M. (1976) Dynamic stiffness of piles. semi-infinite soil. Proe. Roy. Soe. Lond. A 233: 55-69.
Proeeedings of the 2nd International Conference on Numerical Methods in Geomechanies, Murphy, D. J., Koutsoftas, D., Covey, J. N. and Fischer, J. A. (1978) Dynamic properties
Blacksburg, VA 2: 1001-1012. of hard glacial till. Proceedings of the ASCE Conferenee on Earthquake Engineering and
British Standards Institution (1974) Code of Practice for Foundations for Machinery. Part Sai/ Dynamies, Pasadena 2: 636-659.
1: Foundations for Reeiprocating Machines. CP 2012: Part 1: 1974. Nogami, T. (1979) Dynamic group effect of multiple piles under vertical vibration.
British Standards Institution (1986) Code of Practice for Foundations. BS 8004: 1986. Proeeedings of the Engineering Meehanies Division, ASCE Speeialty Conference, Austin,
Bycroft, G. N. (1956) Forced vibration of a rigid circular plate on a semi-infinite elastic TX, 750-754.
space and on an elastic stratum. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soe. Lond. A 248: 327-368. Nogami, T and Novak, M. (1977) Resistance of soil to a horizontal vibrating pile. J.
Dobry, R. and Gazetas, G. (1988) Simple method for dynamic stiffness and damping of Earthquake Engng Struet. Dynamies 4: 277-290.
floating pile groups. Géotechnique 38: 557-574. Novak, M. (1974) Dynamic stiffness and damping of piles. Canad. Geoteeh. I. 11:
Gazetas, G. (1980) Static and dynamic displacements of foundations on heterogenous 574-598.
multilayered soils. Géotechnique 30: 159-177. Novak, M. (1977) Vertical vibration of piles. J. ASCE 103 (EMl): 271-285.
Gazetas, G. (1983) Analysis of machine foundation vibrations: state of the art. J. Soil Novak, M. (1985) Experiments with shallow and deep foundations. Proeeedings of the
Dynamics Earthquake Engng. 2: 2-42. Symposium on Vibration Problems in Geoteehnical Engineering, ASCE, Detroit, 1-26.
Gazetas, G. & Dobry, R. (1984) Horizontal response of piles in layered soils. J. ASCE Novak, M. and Aboul-Ella, F. (1978) Impedance functions of piles in layered media. I.
110 (GTl): 20-40. ASCE 104 (EM3): 643-661.
Gazetas, G. and Selig, E. T. (eds.) (1985) Vibration problems in geotechnical engineering. Pais, A. & Kausel, E. (1988) Approximate formulas for dynamic stiffnesses of rigid
Proceedings of the ASCE Symposium, Detroit, MI. foundations. J. Soil Dynamics Earthquake Engng 7: 213-226.
Gazetas, G. and Tassoulas, J. L. (1987) Horizontal stiffness of arbitrarily shaped Paulos, H. G and Davis, E. H. (1980) Pile Foundation Analysis and Design. John Wiley &
embedded foundations. J. ASCE 113 (GT5): 440-457. Sons, New York.
Hall, J. R. (1967) Coupled rocking and sliding oscillations of rigid circular footings. Quinlan, P. M. (1953) The elastic theory of soil dynamics. Symposium on the Dynamie
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Wave Propagation and Dynamic Proper- Testing of Soils, ASTM-STP 156, 3-34.
ties of Earth Materiais, Albuquerque [reference Richart et ai. (1970)]. Reissner, E. (1936) Stationare, axialsymmetrische durch eine Schüttelnde Masse erregte
Hall, J. R. and Richart, F. E. (1963) Dissipation of elastic wave energy in granular soil. J. Schwingungen eines homogenen elastischen Halbraumes. Ing. Arch. 7: 381-396.
ASCE 89 (SM6): 27-56. Richart, F. E., Hall, J. R. and Woods, R. D. (1970) Vibrations of Soils and Foundations.
Hardin, B. O. (1965) The nature of damping in sands. J. ASCE 91 (SMl): 63-97. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Hardin, B. O. (1978) The nature of stress strain behaviour for soils. Proeeedings of the Seed, H. B. and Idriss, 1. M. (1970) Soil moduli and damping factors for dynamic response
ASCE Conferenee on Earthquake Engineering and Sai/ Dynamics 1: 3-90. analysis. EERC Report No. 70-10, University of California, Berkeley.
Hardin, B. O. and Black, W. L. (1969) Vibration modulus of normally consolidated clay Sen, R., Davies, T. G. and Banerjee, P. K. (1985) Dynamic analysis of piles and pile
(Closure). J. ASCE 95 (SM6): 1531-1537. groups embedded in homogeneous soils. J. Earthquake Engng Struct. Dynamics 13:
Hardin, B. O. and Drnevich, V. P. (1972a) Shear modulus and damping in soils: 53-65.
measurement and parameter effects. J. ASCE 98 (SM6): 603-624. Sheta, M. and Novak. M. (1982) Vertical vibration of pile groups. J. ASCE 108 (GT4)
Hardin, B. O. and Drnevich, V. P. (1972b) Shear modulus and damping in soils: design 570-590.
equations and curves. I. ASCE 98 (SM7): 667-691. Sokolnikoff, 1. S. and Redheffer, R. M. (1966) Mathematics of Physies and Modem
Hardin, B. O. and Richart, F. E. (1963) Elastic wave velocities in granular soils. J. ASCE Engineering. McGraw-Hill, New York.
89 (SMl): 33-65. Stokoe, K. H. and Hoar, R. J. (1978) Variables affecting insitu seismic measurements.
Kaynia, A. M. and Kausel, E. (1982) Dynamic behaviour of pile groups. Proeeedings of Proeeedings of the ASCE Conferenee on Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamies,
the 2nd lnternational Conference on Numerieal Methods in Offshore Piling, Austin, TX Pasadena 2: 919-939.
509-532. Stokoe, K. H. and Lodde, P. F. (1978) Dynamic response of San Francisco Bay mud.
Kausel, E. (1974) Forced vibrations of circular foundations on layered media. Researeh Proeeedings of the ASCE Conference on Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamies,
Report R74-II, MIT. Pasadena 2: 940-959.
Krizek, R. J. (1977) Fabric effects on strength and deformation of kaolin clay. Proceedings Stoll, R. D. (1978) Damping in saturated soil. Proeeedings of the ASCE Conferenee on
410 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS
l
log t
primory
consolidotion
settlement
Marr and Christian (1981) and subsequent workers, Bouckovalas et Figure 9.4 Cyclic triaxial tests on loose Oosterschelde sand. (After Marr and Christian,
al. (1984) and Chang and Whitman (1988), have explored the behaviour 1981.)
of sand under drained cyclic loading in the laboratory. Stress paths in
the triaxial apparatus examined by Marr and Christian are shown in data presented by Marr and Christian indicates that the accumulation of
Figure 9.3, from which it may be seen that both full (isotropic) and cyclic volumetric strain Evc after the first application of cyclic shear stress
partial (anisotropic) shear reversals are considered. The resulting cumu- Tcy on a system at a given state of mean stress T 0 /a~ 0 can be expressed in
lative volumetric shear strain response of loose Oosterschelde sand, with the following manner:
relative densities of between O and 56% are presented in Figure 9.4.
From Figure 9.4(d) it may be seen that volumetric strains are relatively Evc = 3.6(Tcy/a~0 )32.5 10 gN
insensitive to To/ a~0 ( the mean shear stress ratio). Further analysis of the where N is the number of cycles of Tcy, a~ 0 is the mean consolidation
416 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS LONG-TERM SETTLEMENTS OF STRUCTURES 417
stress, and the cyclic volumetric strain, Evc, is expressed as a percentage. {a)
0-L N=1to 10 4 cycles
The correspondence between the published data and this simple predict-
ive equation is illustrated in Figure 9.5. 0-3
As the mobilisation of available shearing resistance increases, so axial 1'o
lrn~ 0-2 0R = 28 'I.
(shear) strains dominate behaviour. Thus, cumulative axial strains are lrn'o =250 kPo
very sensitive to mean stress ratio, and this is shown in Figures 9.6(a 0-1 Lcy/lJ"n~ = O18
and b). Figure 9.6(b), derived from the Marr and Christian data by the
present author, clearly shows the influence of the mean stress ratio on o
the relative development of axial and volumetric cumulative strains. oxiol
Cumulotive volumelric stroin %
When rcy/0~ 0 > 0.2, the axial cumulative strain exceeds the volumetric
cumulative strain. When r0/a~ 0 = 0.2 then Evc = Eac =
3.6( rcy/a~0 ) 3 2.5 1ºgN and so the cumulative effect of multiple shear {b)
reversais can be expressed as a constant raised to the power of log N.
The magnitude of the constant will vary with mean normal effective
stress, level grading, density, angularity and cementing.
For this loose sand, the data suggest that a peak cyclic shear stress
ratio less than about 0.32 will result primarily in volumetric strains. This 2
-5i 0-1 r--~-t-".-------"v-----'t:-t-~----i
corresponds to a mobilised angle of friction, q/, of around 19º, implying e,
il o
a partial factor of 1. 7 on maximum value of 30º for this material. Thus :E 10'-::o---10':-1--....
10-:-20 - -
the following form is suggested if peak cyclic stresses imply a partial Number oi cycles
factor of not less than 1. 7 on tan <1>:,,ax for estimation of cumulative Figure 9.6 Effect of means stress levei on cumulative strains. (a) Variation of the ratio of
long-term settlements, ô 1 , on granular materiais: axial to volumetric strain with mean stress levei. (b) Variation of cumulative axial strain
with mean stress levei. (After Marr and Christian, 1981.)
Ôr = ôiAlogN
. /:
§
==
u Diyaljee and Raymond (1982) can be described by the expression:
õu
0-L
~ KEV Lcy/lrn~
UJ
e 0-L
o 0-25 where N > 1 and E 80 is the axial strain sustained on first load applica-
0-2 + 0-18
tion in a drained triaxial test. The value of the constant A varies
X 0-11
J/!
)(
º"=26'/, a;,~ =250 kPo
L,,/lrn~ =0-20
between 1.06 and 1.4 depending on material type, and to a lesser extent
on stress level, as shown in Figures 9.8 and 9.9. Returning to Bjerrum's
o tank on loose sand, the measured settlement can be represented with
o 0-2 0-L 0-6 0-6 1-0
Evc meosured volumetric stroin sufficient accuracy with A = 1.23, as shown in Figure 9.10.
Chimneys and towers derive much of their repeated loading from
Figure 9.5 Comparison between measurements by Marr and Christian (1981) and predict-
ive equation. strong winds. Taking Burland and Burbidge's case records and assuming
418 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS LONG-TERM SETTLEMENTS OF STRUCTURES 419
')
\
Dry Dttowo Sond
1single size - 0-6mm 1
0"3 , 34-5 kPo
o
!í3 , 294 kPo
AIIT1 -0"3I =294 kPo -;!. 2
u
't,/O"n~' 0-33 UJ "
e:
Figure 9.7 Axial displacement of decomposed granite in cyclic triaxial test. (After Yasu-
hara et ai., 1983.)
~
cÍ
·;;.
e
~
:.;:::
E::,
Symbol rt,y !í3' 't,ylO"n'o A Coteou Bollost
E
::,
c..,
.~20LLJ
, .r~~
X 70 35 0-5 l40
•o 140
175
35
35
0-67
0}1
1-40
l35
... 210 35 0}5 l40
•
----.x----;x------,r----"5cx:'"---x
log N
Eac'A ,EoN,,
1 5 10 50 10 100 1000 10000 100 000
Pa~t1cle S1Ze, mm Number oi cycles
e Figure 9.9 Variation of cumulative axial strains from tests reported by Diyaljee and
·;;.
e Raymond (1982).
"'
.2:
:§
::,
E
::, one major settlement-producing event per year, the cumulative settle-
e..,
ments yield the range of A values given in Table 9.1. Note that in
practice there will be a number of major cycles of load in each storm,
but the manner of defining an 'event' is rather arbitrary providing that
the constants adopted correspond with the definition used.
From the comparatively few long-term case histories of the settlement
behaviour founded on sand, it is considered that long term-settlements,
o),(~===::1===I-__
x----x----x-
10 100 1000 10 000
X
.i..__ __ _ J ' - - - - _ _ , J
100 000
ô 1 , can be estimated to reasonable accuracy by the following formula:
Ô1 = ôJ.5logN
Number oi cycles
Figure 9.8 Variation of cumulative axial strains from tests reported by Diyaljee and
Where N is the number of load cycles and ôi is the settlement under the
Raymond (1982). first application of load.
420 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS LONG-TERM SETTLEMENTS OF STRUCTURES 421
m
/@.
e
E -
Frnes□nd (
~ 29-1. m-------
~' Rema,nsof ,,
= ,oc_.c..:wo-'--'od~L--,"c____ac---!
O 20 40 60
Porosity. '/,
,.\___,/~
• 0bservation point ~
@Boring
SECTION PLAN
Time in years Ê
.;:s '°º"""'
~ ~ ~ ;:S
0-2 0-5 2 5 10 20 50 100
• Point I
---1---+-----< º .. m
,, .. y
i 21.1-+:::::'$;:::::::;;t~r:..;;:_~~+----+----l------1
_§
i 321----+---1----1----+---l---___,_,F'--_1
predicted
N V) N Vi
OOociOtn
,-,,-,
/\ /\ /\
Where shear stress concentrations are highest, normally around the 1 1;::
perimeter of shallow foundations, settlements may be dominated by the
development of high shear strains. It is suggested that, where the overall
factor of safety is less than about 1. 7, the drained, repeated load
behaviour of the material at high shear stress levels should be examined
using cyclic triaxial testing to reproduce the range of loading conditions
likely to be imposed under the foundations. -o
>. >. >.
<)) <)) <))
ai::: ae ea ~
....
The analysis of repeated loading of structures on foundations on :E°':'A
= uroo ~a:!
cohesive soils is complex because it is difficult to establish the degree of E-4 = \0\00\('1')
....-!~.......-1\0
422 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS LONG-TERM SETTLEMENTS OF STRUCTURES 423
Figure 9.12 Drained cyclic oedometer tests on alluvial clay. (After Fujiwara, 1985.)
Setllement vs. time I case no.19} Settlement vs. time I case no. 5}
Figure 9.13 Settlement of two silos on Champlain clay. (After Morin and Gervais, 1987.) 174m
q,0 ,
qunlood=
qnet
=22-0 t/m 2
8-5 l/m2
=lJ.5 tfm2
38m
o
15m\ 38m
4-5m,tt-7,=1..-,_ ,---Je----
• Observation point
STIFF FISSURED CLAV
36m watercontent,w = 30-35¼
plast1c limit , wp = 28 %
l1quid lim1t, WL= 75¼
PLAN
6-m+---- DENSE SANO - - -
65m SANOV CLAV _ _ __
SECTION
Time in years
0-5 2 51020 50 100
5R 1 - - - - - + - - - - - - + - - - - - - - + - - - + - - - - - + - - - - - - - +
Vearly settlement
O-Bem
é 10
6Rc__ __J__ ____j__ _ _c___ _-+-_ ____..__ _ ___J e
~ 15
E
1Ir, -11'3 } imposed .!!
note: contours of IIr, • Ir, } current ~ 20
initial stress conditions Ir, • 20z kPa
IJ'h • 6z kPa 25
1
imposed vertical stress Ir, • 100 kPa 1
30
Poisson's ratio • 0-3
Figure 9.14 Ratio of shear stress to mean normal stress beneath a flexible circular loaded Figure 9.15 Settlement of San Jacinto monument. (After Bjerrum, 1964.) (NB: see
are a on elas ti e half space. postscript at end of this chapter.)
426 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS LONG-TERM SETTLEMENTS OF STRUCTURES 427
Time (doys) produce some empirical generalisations which are of great assistance to
10
100 1000 10000 designers, and this is the approach adopted here.
~ Alai-Omid et al., for instance, conclude that the settlement after 50
Tonk 11
years is about twice the predicted primary consolidation settlement
E
although, of course, the settlement will, in other cases, be affected by
E
the magnitude of the cyclic loading, the duration of cycles and so on .
.: 100
~ lniliol setllemenl They found that after a period of about 30-40 days of rapid settlement,
j 620 mm
the long-term settlement ô1 of each tank followed the form:
3í ~
~ log b 1 = Cl + C2 1ºg 1
1
i 100 ln1t1ol selllemenl If only partial drainage occurs during each cycle, the opportunity for
510mm particle reorganisation is reduced and thus greater number of cycles are
required to achieve the change in void ratio observed in drained cyclic
long-term . laboratory tests.
1000 L----l====~co~ns;ol;1da;ti:on!li:ne_J
Effecl oi dewatering ___.,
The settlement data from measurements of structures on a wide range
of cohesive soils has led to a relationship of the form ô 1 = ôiA log N.
2000L-------'------'--------'
Setting aside the difficulties of estimating the amount of drainage per
Figure 9.16 Settlement of oi! tanks 8 and 11. (After Alai-Omid et ai., 1985.) cycle, and boldly assuming that these may be approximated to one
drained cycle per year, the value of A varies between 1.5 and 3.0. The
higher value is for the Champlain clays reported by Morin and Gervais
alluvial clays is that by Alai-Omid et al. (1985), who report the (1987) and the general range is 1.5-1.6. Thus, for most situations over a
settlement histories of 30 oil tanks measured over 30 years at Brunsbut- 25-year design life it can be assumed to a reasonable degree of accuracy
tle, Germany. Typical settlement histories are given in Figure 9.16. that the total settlements will be approximately double those estimated
Unfortunately, most case histories of cyclic loading of clay (including or observed for the first application of load.
those presented by Alai-Omid et al.) do not identify the rate and Unusual clays, such as those for the Champlain area, or other 'quick'
magnitude of loading to enable settlement to be related to the number clays, will require special cyclic testing to establish long-term move-
of shear reversais. Without this information it is impossible to relate ments. Settlements of up to four times the initial values may occur
cyclic laboratory tests to field behaviour in a wholly satisfactory way. By within periods of between 20 and 50 years under structures founded on
studying what is available in terms of settlement data it is possible to such materiais.
428 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS LONG-TERM SETTLEMENTS OF STRUCTURES 429
t, days Since the piles are stiffer than the soil, soil tends to move downwards
10
o
100 1000 10000 50 year (projmionl relative to the pile shaft, inducing negative skin friction (NSF). Support
in positive skin friction is maintained in the underlying stiffer strata.
Poulos and Davies (1980) provide an introduction to the allowance for
NSF in static loading of piles. Fellenius (1972) provides an excellent case
history which can be used in cyclic load situations. He reports the
installation of a series of very long, hexagonal, reinforced concrete piles
having a cross-sectional area of 800 cm 2 . Each segment of the pile was
11.2 m long, and load cells were installed at seven of the segment
splices. The piles were driven into a normally consolidated clay overly-
ing rock.
PII
110~-----~-----~-----~~
LL tons 80 tons
=i
i Duncan 1987 l
oe
1-5 0-7 10
1-1 H
3-1 O1
of skin friction and end bearing in underlying stiffer strata. As time Figure 9.18 Variation of force with time down a precast concrete pile driven into
progresses so consolidation and creep take place in the soft ground. consolidating layer. (After Fellenius, 1972.)
430 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS LONG-TERM SETILEMENTS OF STRUCTURES 431
tension Ümin
Figure 9.21 Effect of cyclic two-way and one-way loading on pile capacity.
References
Alai-Omid, M., Seifert, G. and Temmler, H. (1985) Ein Beitrag zur Verbesserung der
Setzungs Vorhersag f!achgegrundeter Oltanks auf _Marschenboden. (A_ contribution to
improving settlement predictions of oi! tanks w1th shallow foundat10ns on marshy
ground.) Bautechnik 11: 361-367. .
Ansa!, A. M., Bazant, Z. P. and Krizek (1979) Visco-plasticity of normally consohdated
clays. Proc. ASCE 105 (GT): 519-537. _ . , .
Barden, L. (1968) Primary and secondary consohdat10n of clay and peat. Geotechmque
18(1): 1-24.
VIBRATIONAL LOADING 435
Deep soil compaction can be effected only by introducing energy deep Large energies are required for deep penetration into granular mater-
into the soil. To compact at depth from the surface would generally iais, but penetration may be assisted by water flushing. Excessive water
require an impractically large source of energy. A more efficient flush, however, can be detrimental to compaction, although saturation
alternative is to use a machine which penetrates into the soil. Soils at of the ground above the water table can be beneficial (vibroflotation
depth are frequently saturated with water, and only those which are process). The reasons for this are discussed la ter.
permeable enough to allow its instant expulsion can be compacted: The undoubted positive benefits of vibration in construction must be
consequently clean sands and graveis respond most readily to compac- weighed against the potential for damage. Since vibrations can induce
tion on stresses in this situation. instantaneous soil settlement, there is a risk of disturbing nearby shallow
There is thus a difference in response between partly saturated soils foundations resting on the soil. As vibrations radiate through the ground
which occur at the surface and fully saturated soils below the water from the source they attenuate in strength but may still induce sympa-
table, and this affects the compaction process. This difference arises thetic vibrations in nearby structures, especially those which have such
because gas is more compressible than water, beca use soil permeability mass, shape and freedom to respond resonantly. Caution must therefore
to gas is higher than that of water, and also beca use the circums!ances be exercised. Obviously the more powerful the source of energy and the
of rolling or tamping provide shorter flow paths for the expuls1on of closer the building at hazard, the greater the risk. Sometimes accidents
fluid than deep stressing: consequently soils subject to rolling may be of soil morphology create circumstances where, very rarely, resonance
less permeable and more cohesive than those compactable at depth. ln can be experienced at exceptionally large distances.
fact some cohesion may assist compaction by rolling, but it is invariably The design of vibratory machines to effect the construction processes
detrimental to deep compaction. discussed above must take into account the competing demands of
Processes commonly known as vibrocompaction (in partly saturated economy of energy, handleability of weight and size of machines as well
soils) and vibroflotation (in saturated and compactable soils) are the two as the construction objectives in terms of effecting penetration or
most effective means of producing deep compaction (Greenwood and compaction-either on extended surfaces or deep in the ground-
Kirsch, 1983). A tubular vibrator or vibrating member is introduced into together with high speed performance. These factors naturally determine
the ground from the surface and dynamically stresses . the soil deep the basic forms of machines commonly used. For unusual applications
in-situ. The resulting compaction adjacent to the machme element 1s machines may be specially built, but these costs must then be written off
built up in zones of treated ground throughout the depth of penetration, against that application, and hence it is often more cost-effective to use
and by multiple arrays of penetrations, usually along grids 1.5-3 m an inefficient machine.
apart. The vibrators or vibrating tubes are in this case typically It must be remembered that most machines and processes in construc-
300-600 mm across. Maximum depths penetrated have been about 40 m. tion have evolved in response to the need to solve a problem. The
Normally, depths of treatment beyond 5 or 6 m are rarely required in unknown, and often unsuspected, influences on machine response at the
granular soils because increasing overburden stress with increasing depth outset are too numerous to allow accurate theoretical prediction of
naturally enhances stiffness and bearing capacity: therefore deep treat- machine performance in advance of full-scale triais. Empirical develop-
ments are usually confined to those required to reduce seismic settle- ments which tend to account for the factors outlined above normally
ment risks, but even these diminish with depth. follow without the designer even being conscious of the fact. Equip-
Deep compactors either have an eccentrically mounted weight rotating ment, once developed, may be applied in unsuitable circumstances, and
on a vertical axis near the lower tip of the machine, thereby directly this may lead to a reappraisal of its design and so on to further
applying lateral vibrations to the soil, or use top-mounted vibrators, development. Performance data and environmental influences are not
such as those used for introducing casings, with longitudinal vibrations. always acquired systematically, and data which are obtained are often
Obviously it is easier to impart large energy at the top than in the guarded as commercial secrets. Whilst a well-developed theoretical
confined space at the tip of the penetrating member, but variation at the understanding of a process rarely precedes the initial practical develop-
tip enhances the efficiency of energy transfer to t~e ground. Th_e ment, especially in relation to soils, further improvement of processes
available machines have a variety of different forms wh1ch are appropn- and equipment often depends on successful theoretical explanations.
ate in different circumstances. Essentially they fall into the two cate- Those processes for which specific mechanical plant has been developed
gories of vibrating pokers with lateral vibrations or casing drivers with may depend quite critically on improvements and understanding in other
longitudinal vibrations. spheres to trigger the next economical development in the construction
438 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOJLS VIBRATIONAL LOADING 439
field. A variety of processes and machines evolves according to the f EXTERNAL GROUND
economic benefits perceived by their designers or promoters. These may CROWDING SURFACE
J (OR PULLING)
be at differing stages of evolution and thus may require further ♦ FORCE
refinement in arder to satisfy the original need.
1
MOTOR
10.2 Mechanisms
ECCENTRIC
LOCUS OF
GYRATION OF
ORIGIN OF
MACHINE
AXIS
ROTATING
k
ROCKING
~
F
~
TANGENTIAL MOTION
F
the sides modify the waveforms transmitted to the distal end. Whilst still behind the penetrating tip (Figure 10.4). Vibrations are then transmitted
dominantly axial, the vibrations impose an element of lateral movement to the particles through friction in the case of predominantly longitu-
also. The soil grains are subject to three-dimensional displacements with dinal vibrations, although diffusion of vibratory motion along the probe
contact stress leveis cycling through maximum to unloading. Cyclic also generates some lateral movement. Toe vibrations are transmitted
unloading eases displacement in frictional soils. further into the soil through interparticle contacts. Since forces across
Deep compactors which vibra te laterally, however, are usually pro- contacts are randomly orientated the effect soon becomes three-dimen-
vided with a relatively long pointed nose cone which keeps the bearing sional in the soil.
stress high, and as penetration occurs the cone allows lateral displace- Forced vibrations in the soil cause interparticle contact stresses to vary
ments to be enforced on the soil. A similar mechanism continues to cyclically. Those which lack cohesive bonds and are not already tightly
operate as the machine penetrates beyond the cone and lateral impact- packed can then respond by compacting due to gravity if sufficient shear
ing creates space. The oscillatory motions alternately stress and unload resistance across particle contacts is lost on each cycle. Volume reduc-
the particles three-dimensionally as a result of the gyratory action of the tion 'ratchets' to a minimum corresponding with minimum potential
machine. energy.
Adjacent to the shaft the oscillations cause either overexcitation and Deep vibrators imposing lateral vibrations also produce three-dimen-
'bouncing' in the case of cohesionless particles or, in relatively impervi- sional motions in the soil. ln addition, forced displacements super-
ous saturated soils, liquefaction due to rise in pore water pressure which imposed by gyratory impacts are much more substantial, increasing the
facilitates penetration. This is not possible where particles adhere in space created. These vibrators have a diameter about 6-8 times their
genuinely cohesive soils despite excitation, and direct loading. For length to accommodate the motor and eccentric, but can also more
instance, clays of high plasticity may tolerate relatively large displace- readily create the space to allow it to penetrate and compact. Displace-
ments before shear failure, and are not destabilised by small-amplitude ment remote from the machine is a prerequisite for these relatively large
vibration. The creation of the volume necessary to accommodate a machines to penetrate, and this implies compaction, rather than simple
vibrating machine in the ground is seen to be easier in loose, cohesion- local liquefaction.
less, compactable soils than in those which are already dense or
cohesive. CROWDING
ln granular soils in which strength increases rapidly with confining (OR PULLING)
FORCE
stress, end-bearing resistance soon becomes a dominating factor limiting
penetration to a few metres, especially in dense deposits. And vibrators
with large cross-sections tend to compact below the tip and inhibit their
own further progress when there is sufficient overburden constraint.
Water jetting vertically along the axis of penetration from the tip of
l
the machine or member assists by displacing soil in advance of the tool
and removing displaced particles into an annular space surrounding it:
VIBRATION ( NEUTRAL
this reduces friction, and for laterally vibrating machines allows signifi- FORCES)
cant impacting on the sides of the bole. Penetration is thereby consider-
ably improved, especially in dense soils. Where the soil is coarse-grained
and highly permeable, a significant quantity of the flow is lost through
the sides of the borehole and the removal of displaced particles up the
annulus is thus impossible.
GROUND LEVEL
I
>--
~
z
w
o:
>-
li)
o:
<C
w l·O
I
l/) ~----t----------t----,-=-=c--=:=-=~-
0-5 ACCELERATION(gs) MINIMUM
3-0 1 5-1 O
DISPLACEMENT
PROFILE
RADIUS FROM VIBRATOR INCREASING - - - -
E \
i::
Q_
2·0
>
w
>- o
vi PRE - TREATMENT
z
w / DENSITY
D
...J
Si
3·0
COMPACTION ELASTIC
0-8
~
z 70 1 SHARJAH FLYOVER UAE.
o
0-7 ~I ;=
u 60
2 JEBEL ALI HARBOUR UAE.
:::, J TRIAL AREA DONCASTER
+ 30 Hz 90 kW o
w 4 TRIAL AREA ARDESIER
a 30 Hz 45kW a: 50 5 MUHARRAQ SCHOOL BAHRAIN
1
0-6 I
X 50 Hz 90 kW >--
<.'.)
40 6 AJMAN CEMENT SILOS UAE
o 20Hz 90 kW z
w
o:: 30
------,------,
-
0-5 >--
tf)
Figure 10.9 Site measurements correlating degree of fluidisation with radius of treatment.
0-2 (After Rodger, 1979.)
,(~l'j
11g's
OPERATING 5700 kg VIBRATORY stress relief is important. This is effective in materials with an appreci-
FREQUENCY= z ~ ROLLER
able cohesion.
RADIA~
YNAMIC Relatively recently a Swedish idea has been exploited to cause roller
FORCE
o drums to vibrate only tangentially. They 'wriggle' towards greater
o2
V º.>< / r (J.o,......_ ' \ "'\ 'X' embedment with rapidly alternating shears on the contact surface with
/ /
{\ X /'li KV .t- /'J
o4 ,'
/
.,,.. 1/
./ \
\/
y ,)t-... '\, 'j / 1'-. ~ ·, the soil (Figure 10.3d). They are said to be equally effective in rolling
t{] o-6
a:
[;:j o 8 " ~--
. ......
,..
\ \..~
-·· v ,-
._, j. '/ )
.-
~
.,,,,,.. ~.,
compaction despite lack of direct vertical vibration, and to produce less
overcompaction.
·, r--. -·- \
........ '· '-.:
·- -
..... r-•..._ ·, .V
~1 ·,
r-- __ .,,.,.. 1,,-
D' Appolonia et ai. (1969) measured horizontal dynamic stresses in
io·
t---. 17 ./
I
l-
a..
12 "'· -............ ' ........,., " ~-~ /
their trials. These were found to be independent of the number of roller
-· ~-'
/
w ~- /
----
-, \ -
1
o 14 ........ ....._ ........ ,-a ,,./ v· passes, but the static residual stress after each roller coverage was found
2Ó
16 ~
to increase slightly, tending to a maximum. The coefficient of lateral
18
................... -· 1-U-
-- ---·
2
i
1 ' i 1
,,
1 1
1 ·,
·-
1·---. _,JJ.5
-· v· stress to vertical stress K O increased with the number of roller passes
(Figure 10.lla). They also noted an increase in K 0 with increasing
22
24
Z.8 26
:
4 Z.4
i 1
18 16 14 1.2
.
1
HORIZONTAL STRESSES AT DEPTH = O 6m For a constant frequency above resonance, Selig and Yoo (1969)
ROLLER = 5700kgs
OPERATING FREQUENCY 275 Hz indicate the parameters influencing roller performance (Figure 10.12).
For deep vibratory compactors, displacement is horizontal and suspen-
PERPENDIC R TO ROL ER
sion stiffness might be substituted by that of the vibration isolator, drum
weight by that of the vibrating section, and frame weight by that of the
o l
~ 2i------r------i-----i-----,,,r-i-------cr---i-----------t----t-------t------1 follower. Since these details vary from machine to machine, perform-
~
:_--~ ----
___,
- ----1"
1
-.
.
-
b) At frequencies lower than resonant, the dynamic forces are generally
relatively small and cannot induce sufficient ground response for power
to be effectively absorbed. ln such situations amplitudes tend to be low.
o"
"' -~ 4
1
8
i
10
1 1
20 40 60 80 100
At frequencies higher than resonant the rapidly increasing dynamic force
may compensate somewhat for a reduced efficiency of power absorption
NUMBER OF ROLLER PASSES
Figure 10.11 Measured after vibratory rolling on sand. (After D'Appolinia et ai., 1969.) +-
Soil
e Stiffness
<I>
E
<I>
u Suspension
e Stiffness
small areas about 80-100 mm below the surface are used in these o.
V>
circumstances. Similarly, some fine uniform sands such as the residuals 0 ~§::====------- Frome Weighl
of Sherwood sandstone, or coarse silts with a small percentage of fines,
8 Suspension
often show ill-defined optimum moisture contents and are difficult to +- ~m~~
compact by vibration. ~ Soil
Domping
o
a:: Drum Weight
10.2.5 Effects of vibration frequency
The motion of the soil and the machine creating it are interdependent. Parameter
Machine details have a strong influence on compaction performance, as Figure 10.12 Effect of increasing various roller parameters on vertical displacement. (After
does the type and condition of the soil. Selig and Yoo, 1969.)
454 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS
1
'
\ VIBRATIONAL LOADING 455
7730 kgs
~_,,_ -l>---4-
- 1/ r..
CLAVE SOIL
-
I~ J."'
-r
The higher the frequency, the greater the dynamic force and the 1•7t-t:a1-e==t::~=t==±=--:-t--f=.::.=r=t-----l
..,...a- o -.x.r---.- e;,-
potential for overcompaction, or in the case of saturated soils liquefac- l-----r" ,____. _,º·--~,-.,-....-.2.....º ..o 1 \ ~~
,--+--+---1
1,6-t--""f--tt-1--+-7":;_,.r-~\-+-=--'l.l.~--,_,..!.;,-,\-+--
tion. For surface compactors this is undesirable, but for machines UN FORM SAND HE/'.I.VY CU>.Y
HEAV, CLAY
1,5,-t---t---+--+--+---+---11---1---+--+---+-~
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
VIBRATION FREQUENCY Hz
NOMINAL GROUND
MACHINE FREQUENCY CONDITION SYMBOL
Figure 10.14 Vibration frequency and dry density after rolling. (After Selig and Yoo,
LOOSE o
STANDARO 30 Hz 1977.)
DENSE ◊
LOW
20 Hz
LOOSE 6
FREQUENCY DENSE D
HIGH
50 Hz DENSE 'v THEORETICAL CURVES
designed solely to speed penetration, such as casing and rod drivers,
FREQUENCY FOR NATURAL
FREQUENCY 21 Hz
rapid and deep fluidisation assists penetration. Fluidisation and overex-
citement inhibit compaction. Compaction, which depends on displace-
1,5 ment magnitudes, will be less efficient unless the imposed frequencies
o
;:: are closer to resonant. Compromise in design is required unless the
<(
a: machine allows frequency contrai.
w 10 DENSE GROUND
Cl
2
Damping effects from the soil depend very largely on its elastic
:::;
Q_
modulus and strength. Overconsolidated soils and those constrained by
~ 05 overburden weight at depth are stiffer and restrict the amplitude of the
ground vibration, but tend to transmit more energy than weaker or
00.!-=~---1~0--~15---2~0--~25---3~0--~35---4~0--~45--~50
looser soils to greater distances. Modulus-and energy transmission-in-
FREQUENCY (Hz) crease during compaction. Measured waveforms are much distorted
Figure 10.13 Measured relation of vibration frequency and amplitude for vibroflots in
from sinusoidal in transmission, but imposed machine frequencies im-
sand. parted to the ground are unaltered.
456 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS VIBRA TIONAL LOADING 457
10.3 Machine and process characteristics but less so at speeding penetration and extraction for which high
frequencies are desirable. The practical compromise is economically
The above discussion concerning the mechanisms involved in penetra- effective. Some machines allow continuously variable adjustment of
tion and compaction indicates that cyclic stressing does not function frequency, and this can be useful for avoiding resonance in nearby
equally well in all types of ground in its two contrary modes-destabilis- buildings. Most machines are well isolated by elastomeric mountings.
ing for penetration and compaction for stiffening the soil. Machines and The resulting amplitudes when hanging unrestrained are 10-15 mm
processes have been developed and adapted, usually empirically, to suit from smaller to larger machines. Amplitude is here defined as the
their original purpose, and take particular forms dictated by physical maximum displacement from the mean of the range of displacement, i.e.
constraints. ln the following sections individual processes are described half the range of sinusoidal waves. ln the ground these amplitudes fall
in more detail to show how they are adapted to particular ground to around 0.5 or 0.2 mm when working at the limits of process
conditions. capability.
Pile vibrators are ineffective in stiff clays. Likewise, they will not
function in heavy graveis except to shallow depths; nor in sandy soils
10.3.1 Pile-casing and sheet-pile drivers which are already dense or which have significant cohesion due to clay
content. They operate best in loose sands and silts, whether saturated or
Machines designed to assist penetration or extraction of pile casings or not. ln soils which can be readily liquefied by vibration their perform-
sheet piles are in practice exclusively of the type remaining above ance is dramatic.
ground surface attached to the upper end, and employ eccentrically However, performance for driving large-diameter pile casings can be
mounted weights on contrarotating shafts synchronised to provide lon- improved in graveis and dense sands by the process known in piling as
gitudinal vibrations. 'mudding in'. Bentonite drilling mud (or dry bentonite) is mixed in the
A large variety of such vibrators exists. They install and extract borehole with saturated natural soils using the piling auger. The
750-1750 mm diameter casings or standard, and sometimes double, steel cohesion rendered by the mud allows the auger to extract otherwise
sheet piles. Depths achieved range usually from 10 to 15 m, but cohesionless sandy materiais from below the water table, thus clearing
occasionally up to 25 m or more in favourable conditions. Vibrator the inside of the casing. This makes it easy to create an end-bearing
power sizes range from about 35 to 500 kW to accommodate most failure of the casing wall and allows it to penetrate under vibration for
applications. With deep penetrations two machines may be mounted severa} metres before the process must be repeated. This confirms the
synchronously, hence doubling the available power. Vibrators are expected result that the end-bearing resistance is the dominant obstruc-
usually electrically or hydraulically driven, the latter being favoured in tion to penetration.
UK. A powerpack or generator is usually sited on the ground or
mounted as a counterweight behind the crane, with an umbilical power
cable or hose to the machine. Some hydraulic machines can operate 10.3.2 Pipe drivers
submerged.
Centrifugai forces generated range typically from 200 to 2000 kN for A similar form of top-drive vibrator is used for installing smaller scale
machines of static weights 1.5-15 tonnes. Permissible additional weight tubes for the construction of ground anchorages or band drains. These
of the member to be driven ranges from about 0.75 to 4 tonnes machines have an input power about 35 kW, and are used to install
according to size of machine. Line pull for extraction (exerted by the closed-ended circular or rectangular cross-sections of area about
supporting crane) ranges from 20 to 150 tonnes. Simple clamps are 5000-6000 mm 2 , corresponding to maximum width or diameter up to
provided to grip thin sheet piles or casings. 100 mm. Required depth of penetration may often be about 20 m.
The vibrators operate at frequencies from 20 Hz to 30 Hz, the larger The principies are the sarne as those for casing drivers, and these
machines at the lower end of this range. Higher speeds on large tools are used in similar soils, i.e. cohesionless sands or sandy gravei in
machines impose significant problems for the bearing design and for the which the sand dominates; or in the case of drains in soft silts and very
reliability and consistency of operation, as cycling forces are propor- silty clays. All these can be fluidised, especially when saturated. Again
tional to the square of frequency. Thus the large machines work dose to stiff clays preclude penetration, as do heavy graveis. Preboring is
natural ground frequencies and are likely to be efficient in use of power sometimes necessary to facilitate penetration through surface layers of
458 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS VIBRATION AL LOADING 459
these obstructions. ln favourable circumstances penetration rates ex- 10.3.3 Compaction machines
ceeding 5 m/min are obtained.
Accordingly, for non-vertical applications, this rapidity of installation Casing drivers have also been adapted for compaction of sandy soils.
is exploited by providing the vibrodrivers with a hollow hydraulic clamp Anderson (1974) , Janes (1975) , and Brown and Glenn (1976) all refer to
through which the driven casing passes so that long continuous lengths use of a 760-mm-diameter casing 14 m long driven by a vibrator
can be used , avoiding delay in coupling shorter lengths. The casings operating at 15 Hz producing 9.5 mm vertical amplitude when hanging
must be flush-jointed externally and internally. Ideally it is preferable to free . The weight of vibrator was 8 tonnes and that of the casing 1.5
have a complete length mounted on the machine for maximum speed of tonnes.
installation or extraction. Hence tractors for ground anchor installation ln clean sandy soils the ultimate penetration achieved is limited unless
are provided with extensions to the mast to support the upper ends of provision is made for water jetting by pipes passing to the toe of the
casings which are relatively light (Figure 10.15). A suitable tractor tube: otherwise a plug of compacted soil inhibits progress. Jetting can
provides hydraulic power to the vibrodriver and clamp without need for also assist extraction of the casing, but compaction is achieved primarily
a separate powerpack. during penetration rather than withdrawal. The use of top-mounted
This arrangement is well suited to rapid installation of soil nails, drivers generally precludes backfilling through the casing unless a side
which are generally 6-8 m long and are employed principally in sandy opening is provided at the top . The use is thus restricted almost solely
soils . to those non-cohesive sands susceptible to vibratory compaction by
Band drains are installed vertically, and long leaders equal to the gravity.
depth of penetration are provided on a base crane so that a top- The Japanese proprietary compozer system is a more sophisticated
mounted vibrator may traverse without adjustment relative to the casing driver. lt is intended to construct sand compaction piles and
casing. The separate powerpack is mounted at the rear of the crane. operates primarily as a rammer, displacing sand fill laterally into the
These vibrodrivers usually operate at a frequency of about 38 Hz. ground to be compacted , using vibrations to facilitate penetration and
This is a compromise speed between natural soil frequency and best extraction. The casing tube is usually 600 mm diameter, extended in
liquefaction potential. length as necessary up to 20 m or more. It '1.as been used primarily in
hydraulic fills, soft clays and silts of low to moderate strength. The
power of the standard machine is between 90 and 120 kW , giving a
vertical force of 40-60 tonnes and about 8 mm amplitude at 10 Hz.
when hanging free. This is an unusually low frequency for vibrating
machines and is below the natural frequency of most soils. lt is also well
below those frequencies which promote extensive liquefaction; but
liquefaction would be detrimental to the compaction pile process . The
equipment is provided with a lateral feed tube entering just below the
vibrator. An airlock allows introduction of sand backfill with application
of internai air pressure to assist expulsion of the fill whilst compacting.
A restriction inside the casing shoe or a form of cactus valve at the toe,
together with compressed air above the fill , keeps soil out of the casing
during penetration. At the intended depth the sand is forced out by
compressed air as the pipes are simultaneously withdrawn a short
distance by vibration, keeping a plug of sand always within the shoe.
The casing is then redriven with vibration into the sand, which is
thereby compacted and forced into the surrounding soil until an equili-
brium is reached , allowing the colurnn to be built upwards in a
succession of similar steps. This forms sand columns of about 0.8 m
diameter in soft soils to 0.6 m diameter in firmer and more frictional
Figure 10.15 Continuous casings for anchor installation with vibrodriver. materials.
460 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS VIBRATIONAL LOADING 461
Much larger versions of this equipment have been developed for characteristics transmitted to the ground.
special applications. Generated lateral amplitudes of these machines when unrestrained
Because of the convenience and availability of top-driven casing range from 4 to 8 mm, the larger being associated with lower frequency .
drivers and their potentially high power, a variety of small-diameter ln the ground these typically reduce by about 50%, but the stiffer the
tubular probes have been developed for compaction work. These are compacted ground , the greater the restraint.
fitted with various externai protuberances or fins to increase their The machines are usually suspended from a crane, with powerpack or
effective diameter without increasing penetration resistance. Typically a generator mounted as counterweight at the rear (Figure 10.16). Some
300-mm central pipe is used with fins extending to a metre or more in machines use leaders , allowing an additional crowding force to supple-
diameter. Such equipment rapidly fluidises uniform sands and silty sands ment weight for shallow treatments.
and penetrates very quickly. Vibrationary impact perpendicular to the Where diametral fins are employed to resist the tendency for the
fins is significant in inducing compaction. Generally these machines are machine to rotate when hanging free on ropes , it is found that there is
very efficient in favourable conditions (Massarsch and Broms , 1983). marginally greater densification perpendicular to the plane of the fins .
During the construction of the Oosterschelde Barrier, for instance, a Field experiments in sands show that high-frequency machines are of
massive purpose-made barge-mounted casing driver for compacting relatively low efficiency in terms of the proportion of power absorbed by
seabed sands was built. This had a dimension across radial fins of 2.1 m the ground. However they produce greater accelerations and therefore
and an overall length of 47.5 m, enabling 15 m of sand to be penetrated. have the potential to overexcite and produce rapid liquefaction. For a
The whole assembly weighed 40 tonnes. The vibrator at the top gener- given power the machines tend to have a smaller eccentric radius
ated a reciprocating force of 120 tonnes at 25 Hz. The resulting vertical
amplitude was about 4 mm when hanging freely (Davis et al. , 1981).
The alternative to compaction by casing drivers is the use of deeply
penetrating vibrators. These either penetrate dry by displacement of the
soil (vibrodisplacement) to 4-8 m typically , limited by ground resistance ,
or are assisted by water jetting (vibroflotation) to depths exceeding 30 m
if required.
Deep vibrators were designed primarily for compacting loose , sandy,
cohesionless soils, with or without a gravei content, and are most
efficient compactors in these soils. The technique has since been
adapted for the construction of vertical gravei colurans in weak clays to
reinforce and stiffen them by vibroreplacement. ln this context the
machines are effective large-diameter penetrating tools .
Deep vibrators are electrically or hydraulically driven . They use an
eccentric on a short shaft in common with the motor mounted axially in
the body of the machine. Machines , originally 35 kW , are now powered
up to about 200 kW . Frequencies are almost exclusively either 30 or
50 Hz, which originated from early machines which were all electrically
driven. They were operated at a factor on alternating current frequen-
cies of electric power supplies in United States (60 Hz) and Europe
(50 Hz) directly from the maio supply.
Other factors operate in the complex design compromise. Fast com-
paction rates require high centrifugai forces, higher capacity bearings
and a larger eccentric of smaller radius to suit the power available and
the static weight of machine and followers. The location and stiffness of
the isolator are affected by these requirements, which in tum influence
centre of gravity and impacts generated , affecting vibratory wave Figure 10.16 Deep vibratory compaction machine (vibroflot).
462 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS VIBRATIONAL LOADING 463
because of their higher speed, and consequently the cross-sectional area Compressed air may be used through the nose cone during penetra-
may be kept small. They therefore penetrate quickly, but because of tion to negate suction when the machine is withdrawn from a tight-fit-
limited amplitude associated with higher frequency, they do not compact ting hole. lt follows that the hole must be stable, requiring soil
as efficiently as slower machines except in perfectly cohensionless soils. cohesion. The machine must be removed from the bore to allow
Low-speed experimental machines (25 Hz) generate much larger am- backfilling of stone for column construction. Some machines carry a pod
plitudes and lower accelerations for the sarne power and enhanced filled with gravei which is discharged, assisted by compressed air,
eccentric moment. They do not penetrate well but compact more through the nose cone as the machine is withdrawn from maximum
efficiently, and to a greater radius. depth. This latter technique is essential in soils which liquefy readily if
Machines with intermediate frequency (30 Hz) work insufficiently the gravei column stiffness is to be maintained, since the disturbed
dose to resonant frequencies to allow significant compaction benefits, material otherwise contaminates the backfill.
but their larger amplitudes achieve compaction to greater radius at cost Alternatively, in very soft and unstable cohesive soils, vibroreplace-
of penetrating less well than higher frequency machines. The balance ment must be used to form gravei columns. Water jets are used to
between speed of penetration, efficiency of use of power, and radius of achieve very rapid penetration and to stabilise the bore. The machine
action (affecting number of penetrations) is often found to give fairly barely impinges, except on resistant strata, and the softer surrounding
equivalent performance in terms of economy for those machines work- soils are essentially undisturbed. During backfilling with coarse stone to
ing in the range 30-50 Hz. form column reinforcement, vibrations are transmitted to the soil, which
There is a very significant increase in power requirement for a liquefies locally and is removed by the upflowing water. lt is continually
machine operating at resonance, and much improved compaction would replaced with gravei tipped against the water flow, until a sufficiently
be required to justify it. Some hydraulic machines operating above but thick pad of gravei exists between the machine and soil to attenuate the
dose to resonant frequency tend to vibrate in sympathy with the accelerations and predude liquifaction. Thus a column can be built in
ground, and cannot supply sufficient power to maintain effective com- relatively undisturbed material and is necessarily of larger diameter than
paction. Design of such poker vibrators is very complex, and it should that of the machine.
be noted that economic benefits are not necessarily derived by maximis-
ing physical properties.
ln vibrodisplacement, end-bearing and lateral passive failure is in- 10.3.4 Comparison of deep vibrators and casing drivers for compaction
duced at shallow depths in the soil by fluidisation (overcompaction) or
liquefaction. The machine penetrates readily until fluidisation is no The variety of casing drivers available allows the selection of very
longer possible and it becomes embedded. Much of the compaction powerful vibrators with relatively low frequency. They can penetrate
achieved occurs during penetration in this process. Depth of treatment rapidly in any sandy soil which is worthwhile attempting to compact.
in compactable sands is limited to a few metres, as the machine Their tendency to liquefy the soil can therefore be less than that of a
increases resistance to its own penetration. deep vibrator but enough to allow rapid penetration with the small
Vibroflotation is essential for large depths of treatment in sands. ln cross-section of the probe. These machines are especially suited to those
this case little work is done during penetration as water flushing largely fine sands bordering on the coarse silt size. Shen et ai. (1977) have
isolates the machine from the borehole sides. The ground is well shown that if fines content is insufficient to separate sand partides
compacted during withdrawal, during which water circulation is reduced liquefaction resistance is increased.
to retain a balance at ground surface between input and seepage from Lateral amplitudes generated are much less than those of deep
the bore, whilst backfilling to make up compacted volume. vibrators with vertically mounted eccentrics, so the compaction effect is
Soft cohesive soils are also readily penetrated by vibrators. These less marked. Brown and Glen (1976) compared a vibroflot and casing
usually contain a major proportion of silt or interlaminations of silt. The vibrator operating in the sarne sandy hydraulic fill, and found that while
weight of the machine is sufficient, at about 2 tonnes, to allow penetra- the casing was driven four times faster the number of probes required
tion of cohesive materiais with moderately high plasticity providing for the sarne standard of compaction was four to five times as many as
undrained strength does not exceed about 30-60 kN/m 2 - but they are required with the vibroflot. Furthermore, the casing driver was unable
not compacted, only displaced. Some conditions allow displacement to to yield as high a compacted soil density regardless of probe spacing.
achieve a detectable, but usually insignificant, preconsolidation. Saito (1977) found that the compozer compaction pile was 100%
464 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS VIBRATIONAL LOADING 465
the machine frame. The stiffness of the connection influences transmis- For compaction of cohesive fills in small areas or trenches, vibrotamp-
sion of vibrations. ers are favoured. They cyde at speeds as low as 10 Hz and leap 50 mm
Waveforms change as vibrations are transmitted as the soil stiffness or more into the air on each cyde. These manually operated tools are
increases considerably. Early machines were intended to lift off and generally petrol-engined, and use a crankshaft-driven piston in a spring-
impact, but some modem designs aim to maintain contact with the mounted cylinder to produce the vertical forces. The tamping plates are
ground as much as possible. Commonly, however, a strong element of a little over 300 mm 2 , and some incorporate a 'dolly' to modify the blow
vertical motion is induced whether or not accompanied by gyration as in and extend the time in which momentum is destroyed. Plates may be set
a single roll, or rocking in double rolls with eccentrics rotating in at a slight angle to horizontal to promote directional movement.
concert, or in out-of-phase double-roll vibrators.
The vertical component of acceleration tends to produce overcompac-
tion dose to the surface in cohesionless sands. Accordingly, soil should
be damp or contain a small fraction of fines to lend effective cohesion to 10.4 The influence of vibrating plant on structures and people
limit this problem. Rollers are often provided with water sprinklers.
However, some overcompaction results in any soil from local shear very Continuously vibrating machinery in ground contact induces forced
dose to the unrestrained surface. vibrations at the source frequency in the ground, and in things con-
Rolling speed is another factor affecting compaction. This, together nected to it. If the vibrations are energetic enough there is potential for
with frequency, gives a measure of oscillations per unit distance creating nuisance to people and damage to structures. There is rarely a
travelled, which is directly related to the number of stress reversais health or safety risk to people unless the vibrations are prolonged
experienced by the soil. Because of the relatively large lateral extent of inordinately, as machines are designed and operated so as not to be
ground covered by rollers, it becomes an important factor in relating troublesome during normal work. However, the circumstances in which
density achieved to input of energy. Roller speeds vary from slow vibrations can perturb persons or cause minor damage to buildings are
walking pace to about 8 km/h according to application. highly specific, and in the case of persons somewhat subjective. They
Plate vibrators are used for small-scale works and are manually are difficult to define with accuracy in situations where machines must
controlled by a walking operator. They are valuable for compacting work relatively dose to people and structures, as in urban areas.
trench fills, pathway surfaces and similar situations. Their sizes are It is convenient to define the thresholds for various degrees of
usually about 0.5 m wide and less than 1 m long. Static weights are less nuisance or damage potential in terms of peak partide velocity of the
than 200 kgf, and they employ relatively high-frequency vibrators, vibrating ground or structure. Partide velocities correlate fairly well with
60-100 Hz, to generate centrifugai forces 10-20 times the static weights recorded data on damage and nuisance. Also, relatively simple instru-
at small amplitudes. Some machines generate complex waves in the ments such as geophones (velocity transducers), having very low natural
plate and have two amplitudes. frequencies, can measure velocities directly. Alternatively, peak partide
The smaller plate vibrators are driven by 3-kW petrol engines and velocity can be deduced readily from accelerations, so that accelero-
heavier plates by diesel engines rated at about 5 kW. A variety of meters may be used for field measurements of velocities. Accelero-
sprung suspension systems is used. Vibrations are produced by rotating meters have the advantage of being smaller, less easily damaged,
eccentrics, single or double. rugged, and more stable than geophones and can be conveniently
Plate vibration machines are intended for compaction of layers of contained within vibrating machines if required. They have relatively
about 100 mm thickness, under low effective stress states. The high- high natural frequencies. The source frequency predetermines the ap-
frequency vibrators produce comparatively high leveis of fluctuating propriate frequency range of the instrument. These instruments are
stress (50-100 kN/m 2 ) fairly uniformly across the plate. They are thus usually disposed in biaxial arrays around the source of vibrations to
suitable for sandy soils at shallow depths. obtain attenuation measurements, or are used on specific buildings or
With the advent of narrow trench pipe-laying technology there are objects which are considered to be at risk. It is important to ensure
emerging new forms of fill compactor, using self-constrained bolt-on good coupling of the instrument with the ground or structure for reliable
fitments to small tractors. One arrangement used provides vibrations to measurements.
a large-diameter very narrow roller drum which reaches deep into the As the instruments are normally deployed on the ground surface to
trench. receive energy from radially diverging waves, and since soil damping
468 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS VIBRATIONAL LOADING 469
~
8~§88
V r-,. 0 U)
N..- -
reg~~~
U")
.... M "' o
~
o
'
ºº
-
.~~
,_
,_
I'-.
'
52
1--!!l "'
ºº
o
a:
a:
~
UJ
~
'-. UI a:
~
remate from the natural frequency of the soil the dynamic energy will i ~~~gi ' ' "'
.
V
""'
UJ
> u
o u
represent only 40-50% of the input power. Closer to resonance this may
,,
UJ •Xt> ■ O
I>
" o
.!;;!Iº
rise to about 65-75%. This may account for the higher frequency
machines yielding results doser to the lower boundary of the scatter of
o
"
partide velocities recorded. "" " ['\_
" -
The measurements recorde d in Figure 10 .18( a) are all taken on
building foundations, or at least on parts of the buildings exposed at
o o
"' N
"" "
6
(S/ww) All'.l013A 31:>Ut:J'o'd ~'o'3d lN'o'llílS3t:J
- N
6
.,.
o
It should be noted that the velocities recorded are vector resultants of N 011'1011'1
. '"' " ' "-
.
:,: \l'I-MM X
o.
U")U")a')M
C>.
V
""' '
( 'I>
XO
~
~,
g~
• oo
ents of energy diffused, which travel at differing speeds.
ln general, measurements made dose to the source of vibrations
~;
ffih ...
'- n
-
=
u
UJ
z ~>>9
X X
-)!.
'.>
'
indicate dominant motions in the direction of vibration of the source, ru g~~~ " ,• • J ""
i.e. horizontal for deep vibrators, vertical for top-drive casing vibrators. a:v;~l!í
~ g/ 5 u;;
~ . '
....
cX X
Hence it may be expected that rollers with tangential oscillatory motions "~
'r-- .
.!!
~ ~~~~ + +
of drums would reflect this dominant forced vibration. It is daimed that :::; (7)MU>-
~
CDLnU")O
it enables rollers to work parallel to and dose to structures, causing a MNNM
-6
~ ~i~~ 6 "' "'
o
much lesser response than a machine which generates vibrations with a >
( S/ww) Ali:>Ol3A 37:lllt:l'o'd ~'o'3d lN'o'llílS3t:J
\li ◄ + • X
strong vertical component, since the latter disseminates energy equally
in all horizontal directions. As the wave motions become increasingly
distorted and more nearly three-dimensional with diffusion at the
greater radii normally associated with nuisance and damage, this daim
would need careful validation.
470 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS VIBRATIONAL LOADING 471
10.4.1 Threshold for soil settlement ily impose substantially greater amplitudes than when operating norm-
ally and can induce compactive action of greater strength and radius.
It was noted that soils with cohesion, whether due to moisture in tension Effects are not usually important because of their short duration, so that
or to mineral type and fineness, do not respond well to compaction by there is a restricted number of high-amplitude displacements.
gravity. Only genuinely cohesionless materials, whether saturated or
dry, tend to be significantly affected by interna! compaction settlement, 10.4.2 Vibrations induced in structures
and thus only these are potentially hazardous in creating foundation
settlement. Exceptions would be where open voids are visible in lumpy Whether a sympathetic vibration is significant in a building depends
clay fills or similar situations. uniquely on its form and construction. The factors which are important
Empirical measurements suggest that peak particle velocities exceed- include the building size, mass, shapes of constituent parts, form of
ing 13 mm/s measured at ground surface are necessary to cause ground foundation and its connection with the ground, rigidity of fixing of
to settle under the influence of vibrations. Buildings on shallow footings floors, ceilings, pipework and other fittings too numerous to assess. The
or contained pipelines above the depth of compaction will settle with the building will contain elements which have a variety of natural frequen-
ground. For a vertical probe of 75-90 kW, for instance, the soil cies, some of which may respond resonantly with the applied vibration.
experiencing such velocities would typically exist within the region 10 or Generally, natural frequencies of traditional buildings are low, but loose
12 m from the vibration source. or badly fixed objects may respond to higher frequency vibration.
By contrast, vibration-induced settlement of the soil does not cause As the vibrations radiate they attenuate, and the potential for damage
settlement of structures piled to greater depths than that of compaction. depends on the energy levels remaining in the vibrating wavefront when
When a vibrator penetrates parallel to a pile which is encompassed they meet the structure. If resonance occurs in any part of a structure,
within the compacting zone, the skin friction on the pile surface is amplification of the imposed vibration occurs in that part.
affected only over the depth of the penetration of the vibrator, and the It is obvious that assessments of damaging vibrations tend to be
size of the pile may be such that there is a significant difference from subjective in these circumstances, and suggestions for safe limits of peak
one side to the other. Tests carried out in uniform fine to medium sands particle velocity are numerous and various. Current ISO proposals
at Adeer, Scotland, in 1965 showed that compactions within 1 m of a suggest that the resultant peak particle velocity measured on the
test pile specially driven induced significant vibrations within the pile, structure foundation or on a load-bearing element at ground level
but at the conclusion of the test it had not been permanently displaced. should not exceed 3-5 mm/s as a threshold, 5-30 mm/s for minor
The reduction in soil friction which promotes compaction also reduces damage, and 100 mm/s for major damage. This leaves a wide range
skin friction on the pile, relieving it of potential downdrag during between limits. The German DIN 4150 (1975), apparently arbitrarily,
compaction. Vibration below the pile toe would cause it to settle. calls for 8 mm/s as the limit for residential and commercial premises well
Impact compaction may have a marginal effect because it is achieved by maintained and built, 30 mm/s for well-braced heavy structural frames in
lateral displacement. However, the risk is small at normal working good condition, and 4 mm/s for buildings in poor condition or subject to
clearances between machine and building. It is also least with vibroflota- preservation orders. These values may be judged m context against
tion techniques and with higher frequency machines. It may be con- Figure 10.20. ª'
cluded that shallow vibratory treatment in the vicinity of piles is unlikely Buried pipelines exposed to vibration but not at risk of ground
to make them settle, but treatment beneath them may. settlement are not specifically covered in these codes, but the author's
Continuous vibrations from cyclic machines can be more damaging organisation limits particle velocity to a 3-5 mm/s threshold if the
than isolated impacts in which resulting shocks are allowed to die away pipeline is in poor condition and 15 mm/s if in good condition and in
between blows. Seismic studies show that settlement generated depends good contact with the ground. The beneficial effects of good ground
on ratio of magnitude of cyclic to static stress, and on number of cycles contact may be noted from analogous observations on tunnels after
applied. More cycles may be required where fines are present (Shen et seismic shocks: those buried deeply vibrate with the ground and are
al., 1977), but this is likely to represent only a few minutes' operation of undamaged, whilst near the portals damage is experienced if the ground
a vibratory machine. connection is poor. The sarne phenomenon relating to the oscillation of
Machines which operate above the natural frequency of the ground unfixed elements may be witnessed on flexible sheet-piled cantilever
have to pass through it on start-up and shut-down. This may momentar- retaining walls, which vibrate more readily near the top.
472 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS VIBRATIONAL LOADING 473
10.4.3 Soil stresses induced by vibrations c~mparable rooms. These range up to about 1.3 mm/s. They are less by
mght than by day and are modified slightly by a formula determined by
When introducing vibrating machinery dose to structures such as buried frequency.
culverts, pipelines, retaining walls, etc., some consideration must be The issue of human susceptibility to vibrations is not one which lends
given to the direct stresses applied and the area over which they act. itself to well-defined threshold values.
Data are scarce as little experimental work has been published. D'Ap-
polonia et ai. (Figure 10.10) inferred contours of equal dynamic stress
from buried accelerometers beneath a vibrating roller whose character- 10.5 Instrumentation for process control
istics are indicated in the figure.
Field experiments were made by the author's company in uniform fine The small size and reliability of accelerometers and the advent of
sands at Ardesier, Scotland, with accelerometers buried 3 m below the microcomputers capable of working in a field environment have pre-
surface adjacent to deep vibrators (vibroflots). The vibroflots were of sente? an opportunity for monitoring the performance of vibrating
equal power input but of differing frequencies. All showed transmitted machmes used for compaction. Since compaction yields a higher elastic
accelerations substantially greater in dense ground than loose so that as soil modulus, machines involved exhibit changed amplitude of motion
the ground compacted the stresses at any radial distance became higher. for the sarne frequencies and eccentric moments employed. Thus a
At any distance the greater the frequency, the greater the accelerations declining amplitude or changing waveform can be used directly to
generated, ranging from about 8 to 15 g at 0.5 m radius and from 1 to indicate attainment of the maximum possible compaction with the
3 g at 4 m radius. These values were transient as the vibrator passed the specific machines. These fundamental measurements are possible using
depth of measurement, so that they would not apply simultaneously new technology but, to date, in-built monitoring instrumentation is in its
over the whole depth of compaction. The area on which stress is infancy.
imposed is that of any plane of interest intersecting the zone undergoing This instrumentation promises, however, to offer an improved means
vibration. On this basis the maximum accelerations would translate, in of monitoring performance than does the uptake of power currently
saturated ground, to stresses in the range 150-30 kN/m 2 approximately used by probe drivers and deep vibrators, which is reflected by rising
on a vertical plane at respective radii of 0.5 and 4 m. input pressure to hydraulic motors (gear pumps) or amperage to electric
The effect on a structure would be transient and localised. Stress motors: the effect in the ground is masked by machine inefficiencies.
levels would be proportional to accelerations generated, which diminish Amplitude measurement on the other hand is a direct measure of
with depth and also with structure damping (Figure 10.18). Friction ground response for deep vibrators.
effects would be similar to those described for piles above. Oscillatory rollers often have amplitude monitoring because they
If special sensitivity is envisaged, field measurements to establish facts remain upon the ground until compaction is achieved, after which they
would be essential. bounce. As a result the machine operator can observe this change on a
cab display indicating that no further improvement can be achieved, so
unnecessary rolling passes can be eliminated. Furthermore, should there
10.4.4 Nuisance to people be small variations in the quality of soil being rolled from place to place,
this is reflected by the instruments and can be dealt with by localised
This is a much more subjective topic. People's reactions vary according additional treatments. Thus the consistency of the product is improved
to circumstances of the moment, health and sensitivity, etc. Continuous as well as achieving greater efficiency.
vibrations which give rise to resonance in fittings, fixtures and loose A system has also been developed for controlling deep vibratory
objects can be particularly annoying even if not accompanied by much compactors by accelerometers fitted within the nose cone where initial
noise. The linking effect with noise can also be a factor. amplitudes are greatest (Morgan and Thompson, 1983). These indicate
It is generally accepted that peak particle velocities less than immediately when amplitude cannot be reduced further in any given
0.15 mm/s are imperceptible. They become readily perceptible and situation. A comparison of compaction attainable with a specific type of
annoying at velocities a little above 2 mm/s and are considered unplea- machine in differing soils can be made from the magnitude of the final
sant above 10 mm/s. The German DIN 4150: Part 2 (1975) quotes a amplitude. ln the early stages of compaction and backfilling there is
range of guide values for assessment of vibrations in dwellings or some decoupling reflected in the high amplitudes recorded. During the
474 CYCLIC LOADING OF SOILS VIBRATIONAL LOADING 475
compaction phase good coupling is inherent in the process so that the Morgan, J. G. D. and Thomson, G. H. (1983) Instrumentation methods for control of
system works consistently as a measure of achievement. ground density in deep vibrocompaction. Proceedings of the 8th European Canference on
Soil Mechanics and Foundatian Engineering, Helsinki.
To date the author is not aware of developments already in practice Rodger, A. A. (1979) Vibrocampaction of cohensionless soils. Cementation Research Ltd,
which use monitored information for automatic contrai of vibraflots Internai Report, R. 7/79.
rather than for impraving operator perception, although such contrai Saito, A. (1977) Characteristics of penetration resistance of a reclaimed sandy deposit and
their change through vibratory compaction. Soil and Foundations 17(4):
should be a readily achieved step. It should be practicable to use Schroeder, W. L. and Bynington, M. (1972) Experiences with compaction of hydraulic
pracessed accelerometer signals to vary the frequency of a machine to fills. Proceedings of the 10th Annual Engineering Geology and Soils Engineering
give optimum efficiency of compaction. Since this will vary with depth Symposium, Moscow ID.
Selig, E. T. and Yoo, T. S. (1977) Fundamentais of vibratory roller behaviour. Proceed-
of penetration (affecting overcompaction) it should be possible to ings of the 9th lnternational Conference on Sai/ Mechanics and Foundations Engineering,
change the frequency, and possibly the eccentric moment, to maintain a Tokya: 375-380.
relatively high amplitude for compaction at all depths within the power Shen, C. K., Vrymoed, J. L. and Uyeno, C. K. (1977) The effect of fines on liquefaction
of sands. Proceedings of the 9th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundatian
limits of the machine. Furthermore, continuous monitoring and real- Engineering, Tokyo 2: 381-385.
time interpretation by computer may facilitate the use of other data
potentially available from the signals to reflect ground conditions
encountered, since the responses of clays and sands are quite different.
There is potential for significant practical development in the field of
instrumentation both for monitoring performance and for the contrai of
operations.
References
Anderson, R. D. (1974) New Method for deep sand vibratory compaction, J. Canstruction
Div., ASCE 100: 79-95.
Brown, R. E. and Glen, A. J. (1974) Vibroflotation and terra-probe comparison. J. Sai/
Mech. Found. Div., ASCE 102 (GTlO): 1059-1072.
Chalmers, A. and Barris, A. B. (1981) Six storey building on soils improved by sand
drains, Praceedings af the 10th lnternational Conference an Sai/ Mechanics and Faunda-
tian Engineering, Stackhalm.
D'Appolonia, D. J., Whitman, R. V. and D'Appolonia, E. (1969) Sand Compaction with
vibratory rollers, Proc. ASCE 95 (SMI): 263-284.
Davis, P. (1981) Mylitus, a soil compaction vessel. Praceedings of the 10th Canference an
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Stockhalm 3: 641-644.
Elver, J., Bennet, N. and Chalmers, A. (1983) Embankment constructed within time
constraints on soft soils in tida! water. Proceedings af the 8th European Canference an
Soil Mechanics and Faundation Engineering, Helsinki.
Finch, M. T. N., Hughes, F. H. and Kilner, R. A. (1984) Vertical drains used to facilitate
road construction for a Medway riverside industrial area, Q. J. Eng. Geai. 17: 327-374.
Finn, W. D. L., Bransby, P. L. and Pickering, D. J. (1970) Effect of strain history on
liquifaction of sand. Proc. ASCE (SM6): 1917-1934.
Flood, P., and Eising, J. (1989) The use of vertical band drains in the construction of the
Galway Eastern Approach Road Proceedings af the 9th Eurapean Conference on Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Dublin.
German DIN 4150 (1975) Deutsches Institut fur Normung, E.V., Berlin, Germany.
Greenwood, D. A. and Kirsch, K. (1983) State of art-specialist ground treatment by
vibratory and dynamic methods. ln: Piling and Graund Treatment. Thomas Telford Ltd,
London, 17-45.
Janes, H. W. (1975) Densification of sand for drydock by terra-probe. J. Sai/ Mech.
Found. Div., ASCE (SM6): 451-470.
Massarsch, K. R. and Broms, B. B. (1983) Soil compaction by vibrowing method.
Proceedings af the 8th European Canference an Sai/ Mechanics and Faundation
Engineering, Helsinki.
lndex