Surpac Minex Group Geostatistics in Surp PDF

Surpac Minex Group
Geostatistics
in Surpac Vision
March 2006
Copyright © 2006 Surpac Minex Group Pty Ltd. All rights reserved.
This software and documentation is proprietary to Surpac Minex Group Pty Ltd.
Surpac Minex Group Pty Ltd publishes this documentation for the sole use of Surpac licenses.
Without written permission you may not sell, reproduce, store in a retrieval system, or transmit
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your local Surpac Minex Group Office.
Surpac Minex Group Pty Ltd

Level 8 190 St Georges Terrace
Perth, Western Australia 6000
Telephone: (08) 94201383
Fax: (08) 94201350
While every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this manual, we assume no
responsibility for errors or omissions. Neither is any liability assumed for damage resulting
from the use of the information contained herein.
All brand and product names are trademarks or registered trademarks of there respective
companies.
About This Manual
This manual has been designed to provide a practical guide to the many uses of the software.
The applications contained within this manual are by no means exhaustive as the possible
uses of the software are only limited by the user’s imagination. However, it will give new users
a starting point and existing users a good overview by demonstrating how to use may of the
functions in Surpac Vision. If you have any difficulties, or questions while working through this
manual feel free to contact your local Surpac Minex Group Office.
Author
Rowdy Bristol
Documentation Coordinator
Surpac Minex Group
Perth, Western Australia
Version
Surpac Vision v5.1
2
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................... 3

Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 4
Requirements ............................................................................................................................ 4
Objectives .................................................................................................................................. 4
Workflow .................................................................................................................................... 4
Important concepts .................................................................................................................... 5
Installing files ............................................................................................................................. 7
Domains..................................................................................................................................... 8
Basic Statistics......................................................................................................................... 15
Anisotropy................................................................................................................................ 25
Variograms .............................................................................................................................. 42
Variogram Maps ...................................................................................................................... 68
Inverse Distance Estimation .................................................................................................... 88
Ordinary Kriging....................................................................................................................... 96
Block size analysis................................................................................................................. 105
Model validation..................................................................................................................... 109
3
Introduction
Geostatistics is used in fields such as mining, forestry, hydrology, and meteorology in order to
understand how data values change over distance. Probably the most common use of
geostatistics is to make estimations, such as the specific gravity of rock for an area where
there are only a few known sample values. This is often done in three dimensional space. A
set of estimated points in space is known as a “model”. As George Box, a professor of
Statistics at the University of Wisconsin in the United States, once said, “All models are
wrong. Some are useful.”
Requirements
Prior to proceeding with this tutorial, you should have installed Surpac Vision v5.1.
Additionally, you should have a good understanding of the following concepts in Surpac
Vision:
1. Geological Database
2. Solid modelling
3. Block modelling (how to create and constrain a model)
4. Tcl scripts
If you do not have a good background in these subjects, many parts of this tutorial may be
difficult to follow.
Objectives
The primary objective of this tutorial is to help you become familiar with the methods for
performing geostatistical operations with Surpac Vision. Also, this tutorial will introduce you to
some general geostatistical concepts, and provide some guidance on making geostatistical
decisions. Ultimately, the responsibility of the models you create are your responsibility.
There are often more methods than those described here to obtain a model.
Workflow
The process described in this tutorial is outlined below:
1. Introduction
2. Important geostatistical concepts
3. Installation of training files
4. Domains
5. Basic statistics
6. Anisotropy
7. Variograms
8. Variogram maps
9. Inverse distance estimation
10. Ordinary kriging
11. Block size analysis
12. Model validation
4
Important concepts
Overview
Although geostatistics is not an exact science, there are some important concepts which can
reduce estimation errors. These concepts can be divided into four regions:
1. Domains
2. Validation of input data
3. Understanding estimation methods and parameters
4. Validating the output model
Requirements
There are no requirements for reading this chapter, but you may find some of the principles
easier to understand if you:
• have some understanding of basic statistics

• know what a geostatistical model is, or
• have previously performed a geostatistical estimation
1. Understand the domains
It is important to recognise separate “regions” or “domains” within a model. Once you have
identified the domains, it is important to group all sample data contained within each domain
into distinct subsets. After that, you can analyse each subset individually, and use data from
each separate domain to make estimations within that domain.
2. Check the input data
The saying “Garbage in = Garbage out” is certainly true in geostatistics. Although sampling
theory and laboratory quality control practices are important concepts which impact the quality
of any estimation made using a set of data values, these subjects are outside the scope of
this tutorial.
Assuming that the quality of the data is as good as we’re going to get, there are a couple of
potentially hazardous characteristics of the data which you should look for: “bimodalism” and
“outliers”. You can look for both of these features with a histogram. A data set is said to be
“unimodal” if the histogram shows a single peak. If there are two peaks, the data is said to be
“bimodal”. If you use some of the more common estimation techniques to create a model
based on a bimodal distribution, it is likely to contain more estimation errors than a model
created from a unimodal data set. Additionally, “outliers”, or values which are significantly
distant from the majority of the data, can cause estimation errors.
3. Understand the estimation method and parameters
There are a large number of estimation methods, and a large number of parameters within
each method. Before using a particular estimation method, you should have a good
background in basic statistics, as well as basic geostatistical principles.
Using geostatistics can be likened to flying a jet plane. Although there are “autopilot” modes,
where you just press a few buttons and something happens, it is important that the pilot
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understand the theory of aerodynamics to understand what impact a particular control has
upon the end result.
4. Check the output model
A final method you should use to check the quality of an estimation is to take time to examine
the output. Histograms of estimated values, contours of plans, cross sections of block
models, colour coded and rotated in three dimensional space are all methods which can be
used to verify the output values.
Summary
Geostatistics is the study of how data varies in space. It is an inexact science which is used
to make estimations at locations where no data exists. It is important to recognise that
validation of input and output data are as important as understanding geostatistical theory and
the estimation method being used.
6
Installing files
Overview
This chapter will cover installing the files used in the geostatistics tutorials.
Requirements
Prior to performing the exercises in this chapter, you should:
• know how to use Windows Explorer to create a directory

• have access to compressing/uncompressing software, such as WinZip
1. Create a work directory
Using Windows Explorer, create a directory where we will unzip the files.
For example, you could create the directory:
C:\v51_geostats_demo
2. Copy/download zip file
Next, copy the file geostatistics.zip into this directory. If you do not have a copy of this file,
download it from the following link, or contact your local Surpac Minex Group support office.
ftp://ftp.surpac.com/distrib/tutorials/surpac_v5.1/geostatistics.zip
Note: You can view and download all available tutorials from this ftp site:
ftp://ftp.surpac.com/distrib/tutorials/
3. Unzip files
Using WinZip or another compression utility, unzip the file geostatistics.zip into the directory
you created.
Summary
The files you will need for the remainder of the tutorial should now be present in your work
directory.
7
Domains
Overview
One of the most important aspects of geostatistics is to ensure that any data set is correctly
classified into a set of homogenous “domains”. A domain is either a 2D or 3D region within
which all data is related. Mixing data from more than one domain, or not classifying data into
correct domains can often be the source of many estimation errors.
The following concepts will be presented in this chapter:
1. Estimation without domains

2. The impact of domains on estimated values
Requirements
Prior to proceeding with this chapter, you should:
• understand what Surpac string and DTM files are

• know how to display string and DTM files
8
1. A simple example
Imagine that you are a meteorologist, and you are given three air temperatures measured at
locations A, B, and C, as displayed below. Based on the values shown, what would you
guess the temperature is at location X? Would you guess that the temperature at location X
was greater than 25?
What is the temperature at location X?
Using the information above, you may have the following thoughts:
1. Since location A is relatively distant from X, the value at A may have little or no
influence on the estimated temperature at X.
2. Since locations B and C are about the same distance from X, they will probably have
equal influence on the estimated temperature.
3. Given the previous two points, the temperature at X would probably be the average of
the temperatures at B and C: (18 + 32) / 2 = 25 degrees
4. Since the influence of A has not been accounted for at all, and the estimate is exactly
25 degrees, it is difficult to say with certainty if the temperature at X is above 25
degrees.
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Now consider the following: Imagine that you want to go to your favourite beach, but only if
the temperature is 25 degrees or more. You have three friends who live near the beach you
want to go to, and you call them up and ask each one what the temperature is at each of their
homes. You draw the map below, with the locations of each friend (A, B, and C) and the
temperatures they give you. Your favourite beach is at location X. Note that the friend at
location B lives high up in the mountains, while friends at A and C live near the beach.
Would you go to the beach?
Using the information above, you may have the following thoughts:
1. The data from B can be ignored, because temperatures high up in the mountains are
usually not good estimates of temperatures on the beach.
2. A and C are on the beach, so they can be used to guess the temperature at X.
3. Since X is between A and C on the map, the temperature at X will probably be
somewhere between the temperature at A and the temperature at C.
4. Therefore, the temperature at X will be somewhere between 28 and 32 degrees
5. Since the temperature range of 28 to 32 degrees is greater than the minimum value
of 25 degrees, you would probably decide “Yes, I’m going to the beach!”
Compare this example with the first one. In both cases, all of the locations and temperatures
are exactly the same. However, in the second case, when we took account of the domain
which the data is contained within, we came up with a considerably different result. The point
is that separating data into similar regions, or domains is a very important part of making any
geostatistical estimation.
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2. Viewing domains in Surpac
Open the file all_composites2.str and display as markers.
all_composites2.str
The points in this string file represent 2 meter downhole composites. The D1 field contains
the composited value for gold. The D1 values have been used to classify the points into
different strings:
String D1
1 < 1.000
2 1 – 1.999
3 2 – 2.999
4 3 –3.999
5 4 – 4.999
6 5 – 5.999
7 >= 6.000
As in the first example above, any estimation that we would make with only this file would be
based only on the distances between the sample points and the estimated location.
With all_composites2.str still displayed on the screen, open the file ore_solid1.dtm
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ore_solid1.dtm
This solid represents a single domain, as interpreted by a geologist. Only composites which
fall inside this domain should be used to estimate points inside the domain.
3. Extracting data with a domain in Surpac
The domain ore_solid1.dtm represents an ore zone known as the QV1 zone. We will now go
through the process of extracting composites only inside the QV1 domain.
Run the macro 01_create_downhole_composites.tcl
After reading the text below on the first form, click APPLY.
A geostatistical analysis of data in a drillhole database generally starts with compositing a

sample value within a given geological zone.
In this example, we will be creating 2 meter downhole composites within the QV1 geological
code.
12
The function COMPOSITE DOWNHOLE is invoked from the Database menu by selecting
Composite, then Downhole. Note that a composite length of 2 meters has been selected.
The selection of a composite length is important, but is beyond the scope of this tutorial. You
may want to consider the opinion of a geostatistical consultant to determine the optimal
composite length for your data set.
After viewing the form below, click APPLY.
On the next form, note that the character field rock has been set up in the geology table,
which is an interval table. The text “QV1” has been inserted into the field rock for every
interval of a drillhole which is inside ore_solid1.dtm.
After viewing the form, click APPLY.
13
After reading the text on the next form, click APPLY.
2 meter downhole composites have been created within the QV1 rock type, and are stored in
the D1 field in gold_comp2.str.
String 1 contains composites where 50% to 100% of the 2m length contained a gold value.
String 2 contains composites where less than 50% of the 2m length contained a gold value.
Either or both of these strings may be used for further geostatistical analysis. In this example,
we will use both strings.
You will now see an east-west section of the database and the composites which were
created.
2 meter composites inside QV1 zone
Summary
You should now understand the impact which domains have upon geostatistical estimations,
and how to use Surpac to extract data within a domain.
14
Basic Statistics
Overview
One of the important preliminary steps in performing a geostatistical evaluation is to have a

good understanding of the raw data. Two characteristics which can potentially reduce the
quality of your estimations are bimodalism and outliers. A histogram can be used to identify
both of these.
The following concepts will be presented in this chapter:
1. Using a histogram to identify a bimodal distribution

2. Using a histogram to identify outliers
3. Selection of a cutoff value
Requirements
• be familiar with Surpac string files

• know how to run a Surpac macro
15
1. The histogram
A histogram is a statistical term which refers to a graph of frequency vs. value. A histogram is
the graphical version of a table which shows what proportion of cases fall into each of several
nonoverlapping intervals of some variable. For example a distribution of gold grades could be
represented by the following table:
Gold (g/t) Number of samples

(frequency)
0.0 - 0.5 0
0.5 – 1.0 40
1.0 - 1.5 58
1.5 – 2.0 82
2.0 - 2.5 40
2.5 – 3.0 29
3.0 - 3.5 18
3.5 – 4.0 10
4.0 – 4.5 12
4.5 – 5.0 5
5.5 – 6.0 5
6.0 – 6.5 5
6.5 – 7.0 5
7.0 – 7.5 8
7.5 – 8.0 5
This same data can be displayed in a histogram as:
Histogram of gold grades
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2. Bimodal distributions
The “mode” is the most commonly occurring value in a data set. For example, in the following
data set, the number 8 is the mode:
1 3 5 5 8 8 8 9
“Bimodal” means that there are two relatively “most common” values which are not adjacent
to one another. In the following data set, the numbers 2 and 8 are equally common, and the
distribution is said to be “bimodal”:
1 2 2 2 3 5 5 8 8 8 9
Imagine that you are studying the average specific gravity, or density of rocks in a coal
deposit. A histogram of all rock samples might look like this:
Specific Gravity
Any histogram which displays two humps, as in the example above, is said to be “bimodal”.
The bimodal distribution in the example above can be explained by the fact that the data set
is comprised of coal samples as well as intervening sandstone and mudstone bands. The
specific gravity values between 1 and 2 are representative of the coal, while specific gravity
values between 2 and 3 represent the intervening rock.
Often the source of a bimodal distribution can be two domains being mixed into a single data
set. In order to minimise estimation errors, you should make every attempt to separate any
data set which has a bimodal distribution. In the example above, merely segregating the data
based on rock type would result in two separate normal distributions.
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3. Outliers
An “outlier” is a statistical term for a data value which is relatively distant from the majority of
all other values in the data set. For example, in the following data set, the number 236 would
be considered to be an outlier:
1 3 5 5 8 8 8 236
Outliers can cause problems with the calculation of variograms. Additionally, if used in an
estimation, outliers can result in unrealistic results. One technique used to reduce the impact
of outliers is to apply a “cutoff” to them. In the example above, the value of 236 could be “cut”,
or changed to a value of 9:
1 3 5 5 8 8 8 9
Another alternative is to remove the outlier value(s).
18
4. Displaying histograms in Surpac
Run the macro 02_basic_statistics.tcl.
Basic statistics should be performed before variogram modelling for a couple of reasons:
1. The shape of the histogram can be used to determine if a distribution is bimodal (has two
humps).
If the histogram shows a bimodal distribution, the data should be analysed graphically to see
if it can be physically segregated into two separate zones. If so, each zone should be
modelled separately.
2. The quality of experimental variograms and subsequent block model estimations are
sensitive to outliers (relatively large values).
Outlier values should be cut or removed prior to variogram modelling or block model
estimation. The value used to cut or remove outliers can be calculated from information in the
basic statistics report.
The BASIC STATISTICS window is opened by selecting Basic statistics from the
Geostatistics menu. Next, from the File menu, Load data from string files is selected, and
the form below is displayed.
Basic Statistics on gold_comp2.str
We will use strings 1 and 2 from the file gold_comp2.str as the basis of our study. The
columns labelled “Minimum value” and “Maximum value” allow you to exclude data which is
below a given minimum value or above a given maximum value. On the Advanced tab, you
can exclude data which is greater or less than any Y, X, or Z coordinate values.
The D1 field contains values of gold in grams per tonne. The “Name” field is optional. The
name value will appear on the output report.
Also note that it is possible to view the histogram based on a number of bins or on a bin width.
The “bin width” method is more commonly used. After reviewing the form, click APPLY.
19
Next, a histogram and a line representing the cumulative frequency will be displayed. The
cumulative frequency is an accumulation of the value of all previous histogram bins.
After this, Report was selected from the Statistics menu. This form prompts you to enter the
name of an output report, the report format, and a range of percentiles which will be written to
the report. When you have completed viewing the form, press APPLY.
Basic statistics histogram and report
After reading the text displayed on the next form, click APPLY.
As you can see from the histogram, this distribution is not bimodal.
The basic statistics report will be displayed next.
Note the values of the mean, standard deviation, and percentiles.
The output report raw_gold.not will be displayed. This report contains several output statistics,
including the specified percentiles. We will refer to this report in the next section.
Output Filename: raw_gold

Statistics Report
File Gold Comp2.str

----------------------------------------
String range 1,2
Variable Gold
Number of samples 335

Minimum value 0.730
Maximum value 63.490
25.0 Percentile 1.658

50.0 Percentile (median) 2.120
Mean 3.828
Variance 46.672
Standard Deviation 6.832
Coefficient of variation 1.784
Skewness 5.867
Kurtosis 41.483
Trimean 2.299
Biweight 2.235
MAD 0.705
Alpha -0.728
Sichel-t 5.94e+010
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5. Removing outliers in Surpac
Looking back to the histogram of gold_comp2.str, as well as the output report, you can see
that the majority of the data is grouped between values of 0 and 10 grams per tonne. Also,
you can see that there are several outlier values above 10 grams per tonne.
Run the macro 03_cut_outliers.tcl.
Variograms and subsequent block model estimations are sensitive to outliers (relatively large
values). One method of dealing with these data are to reduce, or 'cut' them to some lesser
value. The value used to cut outliers can be determined by one of several methods,
including:
1. The upper limit of a given confidence interval
2. A given percentile
3. An arbitrarily chosen value
In this example, we will use the value which defines the upper limit of a 95% confidence
interval
A confidence interval is an estimated range of values which is likely to include a given

percentage of the data values. Since a confidence interval is based on the data alone, it is
useful where there is little or no knowledge of the deposit. The calculation for the upper limit
of a 95% confidence interval (CI) is:
95% CI = mean + (1.96 * standard deviation)
For this data set, mean = 3.828 and standard deviation = 6.831
95% CI = 3.828 + (1.96 * 6.831)
95% CI = 17.217
For simplicity, we will use the nearest integer value of 17 to cut the outlier data.
As stated above, other methods can be used to select the outlier cutoff, such as a percentile,
or an arbitrarily chosen value.
A percentile is that data value at which a given percentage of all other data values fall below.
Any given percentile value could be selected as the outlier cutoff, such as the 90th, 95th, or
99th percentile. Recall the following percentile values were given in the basic statistics report:
90th Percentile: 5.120
An arbitrarily chosen value based on knowledge of the deposit and sampling methods may
also be used. For example, if part of an ore zone has been mined, information from grade
control samples and reconciliation studies may provide a good idea of what the maximum
mined block value will be. If the deposit has not yet been mined, information from similar
deposits may be useful in determining the outlier cutoff.
Whatever method is chosen, values in a description field in a string file can be cut with the
use of STR MATHS.
21
STR MATHS is invoked by selecting String maths from the File tools menu.
This form prompts you to enter the name of the input and output files, as well as an
expression. Prior to viewing this form, the macro has opened gold_comp2.str and saved it as
gold_cut17.str.
The D1 field will receive the result of the expression:
iif(d1>17,17,d1)
This expression can be reworded as:
If the initial value of d1 is greater than 17,

then set the value of d1 equal to 17,
else leave the value of d1 as it was initially.
When you have completed viewing the form, press APPLY.
Using string maths to cut outliers
In order to validate the output from STR MATHS, we will analyse the data in the BASIC
STATISTICS window. Again, this is invoked by selecting Basic statistics from the
Geostatistics menu.
22
Next, from the File menu, Load data from string files is selected, and the form below is
displayed. Note that gold_cut17.str is the file being analysed. When you have completed
viewing the form, press APPLY.
Basic Statistics on the “cut” data set
Next, a histogram and a line representing the cumulative frequency will be displayed. Note
that the maximum data value is now 17.
After this, Report was selected from the Statistics menu. This form prompts you to enter the
name of an output report, the report format, and a range of percentiles which will be written to
the report. When you have completed viewing the form, press APPLY.
Percentile range definition
23
After reading the text below on the next form, click APPLY.
The D1 field in the file gold_cut17.str contains the D1 values from gold_comp2.str.
As displayed by this histogram, you can see that the maximum value is 17.000.
The D1 field in gold_cut17.str will now be used for all subsequent variography analysis, as
well as block model estimation.
The output report gold_cut17.not contains several output statistics, including the specified
percentiles. This file is created in the directory, but not displayed by the macro. You may
open it if you wish and verify that the maximum value is 17.
Output Filename: gold_cut17

Statistics Report
File Gold Cut17.str

----------------------------------------
String range 1,2
Variable Gold
Number of samples 335

Minimum value 0.730
Maximum value 17.000

50.0 Percentile (median) 2.120
Mean 3.182
Variance 9.814
Standard Deviation 3.133
Coefficient of variation 0.985
Skewness 3.200
Kurtosis 13.487
Trimean 2.299
Biweight 2.235
MAD 0.705
Alpha -0.728
Sichel-t 2996.728
Summary
You should now understand how basic statistics can be used to identify bimodal distributions
and outliers, and also how to select and implement an outlier cutoff.
24
Anisotropy
Overview
An important aspect of performing any geostatistical evaluation is to understand how data

values change with regard to direction. The term “anisotropy” deals with this concept, and is
described in this chapter through the following:
1. Isotropy vs. anisotropy

2. Geostatistical estimation using isotropy
3. Geostatistical estimation using anisotropy
4. Ellipsoid visualiser
Requirements
• understand Surpac string files, and how to display them

• be familiar with the geometric shape and deposition of economic geological deposits
• understand the concept of a centroid of an individual block in a block model
25
1. Isotropy vs. anisotropy
In order to understand anisotropy, it is helpful to first know what the term isotropy refers to.
Here is a definition of each:
Isotropy: the property of being isotropic; having the same value when measured in different
directions
Anisotropy: the property of being anisotropic; having a different value when measured in
different directions
When estimating values in a block model, the amount and direction of anisotropy can have a
significant impact on the end result. For example, the three models shown below were
created from the same data set, but different amounts of anisotropy were used.
No Anisotropy 2:1 Anisotropy

(Isotropic) Azimuth 45
2:1 Anisotropy 5:1 Anisotropy

Azimuth 135 Azimuth 135
To see how these blocks displayed in Surpac, run the macro anisotropy.tcl. Click in
graphics after every model is displayed. If you use the Macro playback button, you can see
all values on the forms by ticking “Slow motion playback”.
26
In geostatistical terms, isotropy, or an isotropic condition is said to exist when the rate of
change of data values is the same in all directions. A true isotropic condition in three
dimensions is rare for most types of data. However, an isotropic condition in two dimensions
is more common. For example, the rate of change of alumina values in a large horizontal
bauxite deposit beneath relatively flat topography may be isotropic in the XY plane.
Conversely, anisotropy, or an anisotropic condition is said to exist when the rate of change of
data values is different in different directions. This is probably the most common case. For
example, an epithermal gold vein may have different rates of change in each of any three
mutually perpendicular directions: along strike, down dip, and perpendicular to the dip plane.
The remainder of this chapter will deal with the use of isotropy and anisotropy in performing
geostatistical estimations. To understand how we determine whether a data set is isotropic
or anisotropic, and how to calculate the direction and amount of anisotropy, you will need to
study the chapters on variograms and variogram maps.
27
2. Geostatistical estimation using isotropy
In geostatistical estimation (inverse distance weighting, ordinary kriging, indicator kriging, etc.),
one or more points, usually representing sample locations, are used to estimate a value at a
location where there are no samples. For example, in the image below, the sample locations
are represented by two points in a Surpac string file. In this string file, D1 contains the
sample values (D1=10 for one point, and D1=20 for the other point). The location to be
estimated is the centre position, or "centroid" of a 1 x 1 x 1 block of material.
In this example, we will assume that all data is in the XY plane (i.e., the sample points and the
block centroid all have the same Z value). We will also assume that we are estimating a value
at the block centroid (at coordinates 0N, 0E), and that only the two samples shown are going
to be used for the estimation. Note that both samples are the same distance (3 meters) from
the block centroid. If we assume that the material surrounding the block and samples is
homogenous (all the same), we can assume that there is no "directional continuity" within the
data, and the two samples will contribute equally to the estimation. Another way of stating this
is that the "weight" applied to both samples will be equal.
In this case, where there are only two samples being used to estimate the value for the block,
the "weight" for each sample will be 0.5. The calculation of the block value will be:
( sample value1 * weight1 ) + ( sample value2 * weight2 ) = block value
( 10 * 0.5 ) + ( 20 * 0.5 ) = 15
Throughout this tutorial, we will make the assumption that the sum of the weights must equal
1. In other words,
weight1 + weight2 = 0.5 + 0.5 = 1.0
When we assume that there is no directional continuity within the data, we say that we have
an "isotropic" condition. In the example below, again assuming that all data is in the XY plane,
any sample whose location is on the circle shown below will be given the same weight as any
other sample on that circle during the estimation of the value of the block centroid. In two
dimensions, when the shape defining the line of equal weights is a circle, we are said to be
performing an "isotropic" estimation. This means that we are assuming that the direction from
the point being estimated to the sample is not important, and that only the distance from the
sample to the block centroid is important.
28
In the example above, since all sample locations are the same distance from the block
centroid, all samples will be given equal weight. The calculation of the block value will be:
( 5 * 0.25 ) + ( 10 * 0.25 ) + ( 20 * 0.25 ) + ( 35 * 0.25 ) = 17.5
As mentioned before, the sum of all the weights must be equal to 1.0:
0.25 + 0.25 + 0.25 + 0.25 = 1.0
In three dimensions, during isotropic estimation, any samples falling on the surface of the
same sphere will be given equal weight.
In the example above, all sample locations are on the surface of the same sphere, and are
thus the same distance from the block centroid. In this three-dimensional example of an
isotropic condition, all samples will be given equal weight. The calculation of the block value
will be:
( 10 * 0.333 ) + ( 20 * 0.333 ) + ( 40 * 0.333 ) = 23.333
Again, the sum of all the weights is 1.0 (assuming that 1/3 + 1/3 + 1/3 expressed as decimals
equals 1):
0.333 + 0.333 + 0.333 = 0.999 = 1.0
29
In Surpac, when you are performing an estimation, you will be prompted to fill in values
defining the orientation of the "major axis" and also "anisotropy ratios". We will cover these
topics later. For now, if you wish to perform an estimation assuming that the data is isotropic,
use the following values:
BEARING OF MAJOR AXIS: 0 (or any value from 0 to 360)

PLUNGE OF MAJOR AXIS: 0 (or any value from -90 to 90)
DIP OF SEMI-MAJOR AXIS: 0 (or any value from -90 to 90)
MAJOR/SEMI-MAJOR ANISOTROPY RATIO: 1
MAJOR/MINOR ANISOTROPY RATIO: 1
To view an example of an isotropic sphere:
1. Open isotropic_ellipsoid1.str in graphics

2. Display a 3D grid
3. Display D1 values for string 1
Again, the concepts of “major axis”, “semi-major axis” and “minor axis” will be covered later.
For now, just understand that the lengths of all of these axes are the same for an isotropic
ellipsoid.
30
3. Geostatistical estimation using anisotropy
As previously stated, an anisotropic condition is said to exist when the rate of change of data
values is different in different directions. This is the case for nearly all data sets which
represent samples taken from the earth. Anisotropic conditions can result from geological
conditions, such as fracturing, deposition method, etc.. For example, in plan view, the
correlation, or similarity, of samples taken along strike in a gold-bearing quartz vein may be
better than the correlation of samples taken across strike. In a sedimentary deposit, such as a
flat-lying coal seam, samples may be better correlated within the horizontal plane than
vertically through the seam. When a data set has anisotropy, the direction from the point
being estimated to a sample location is important.
How much anisotropy is present is also important. The determination of the magnitude of
anisotropy for a data set may be done qualitatively or quantitatively (by intuition or by
numerical calculation). For example, after becoming familiar with a silver deposit consisting of
a vertical vein trending east to west (strike: 90 degrees, dip: 90 degrees) a geologist may say
that "there's about 3 times more continuity along strike (horizontally) than across strike
(horizontally)". As rough and unsubstantiated a statement as this may seem, many times this
type of qualitative judgement is actually used in geostatistical estimation. In this case, we
would say that there is a "3 to 1 anisotropy ratio" in the horizontal plane. This is commonly
written as "a 3:1 anisotropy ratio". The direction of maximum continuity is referred to as the
"major axis". In the silver vein example, the major axis could be defined as a bearing of either
90 or 270 degrees - they are both the same in geostatistical terms. In two dimensions, we
can represent a 3:1 anisotropy ratio with a major axis bearing 90 degrees with an ellipse,
such as shown below:
When we want to use anisotropy during an estimation, the direction from the location being
estimated to the sample is important. In this example, we will assume that the point being
estimated is the centroid of the block, and that only two samples, as shown above, are to be
used to estimate a value for the block. Even though the sample whose value is 10 is 1 meter
from the block centroid, and the sample whose value is 20 is 3 meters from the block centroid,
the two samples would be given the same weight in this case. This is because "anisotropic
distances" are used in the calculation of the weights, and not actual distances. Recall that we
have indicated that there is a 3:1 anisotropy ratio and the bearing of the major axis is 90
degrees. Samples oriented due north or south of the block, such as the sample whose value
is 10, will have their anisotropic distances calculated as the actual distance (1, in this case)
multiplied by the anisotropy ratio (3, in this case). Thus, the anisotropic distance calculated for
the sample whose value is 10 will be:
Actual Distance x Anisotropy Ratio = Anisotropic Distance

1 x 3 = 3
This calculation is displayed in the following table for both samples:
Sample Value Sample Bearing Actual Distance Anisotropy Factor Anisotropic Distance Weight
10 0 1 3 3 0.5
20 90 3 1 3 0.5
31
Since the anisotropic distances are the same, the weights for the points will be the same. The
calculation of the block value will be:
( 10 * 0.5 ) + ( 20 * 0.5 ) = 15
If the sample whose value is 10 is moved to a position at Y=3, X=0, and we again use a 3:1
anisotropy ratio with the bearing of the major axis at 90 degrees (or 270 degrees), as shown
below, the weights assigned to both samples will change.
The anisotropic distance of the sample whose value is 10 will now be 9: Actual Distance (3) X
Anisotropy Ratio (3) = Anisotropic Distance (9). This calculation is displayed in the following
table for both samples.
Sample Value Sample Bearing Actual Distance Anisotropy Factor Anisotropic Distance Weight
10 0 3 3 9 0.25
20 90 3 1 3 0.75
The weights of the samples will now be changed to reflect the new anisotropic distances. The
calculation of the block value will now be:
( 10 * 0.25 ) + ( 20 * 0.75 ) = 17.5
Note that the calculation of the weights here is only approximate to demonstrate the effects of
anisotropy. In actual practice, the geostatistical method you decide to use will impact the
values of the weights.
Assuming that our geologist has another opinion that "there is about 2 times more continuity
horizontally along strike than vertically (up and down) within the plane of the vein", we would
say that there is a "2:1 anisotropy ratio" in the vertical YZ plane. In two dimensions, an ellipse
represents the line where weights are equal. In three dimensions, this shape is called an
"ellipsoid". So now we have a 3:1 anisotropy ratio in the horizontal XY plane, and a 2:1
anisotropy ratio in the vertical YZ plane. We distinguish between these ratios by defining three
axes for the ellipsoid:
Major axis
Semi-major axis
Minor axis
By definition, the major axis is the longest, the semi-major axis is the second longest, and the
minor axis is the shortest. Also, all three axes are mutually perpendicular to one another.
32
The ratio between the length of the major axis and the length of the semi-major axis is defined
as the MAJOR/SEMI-MAJOR ANISOTROPY RATIO. The ratio between the length of the
major axis and the length of the semi-major axis is defined as the MAJOR/MINOR
ANISOTROPY RATIO.
When we perform an estimation, and want to use three dimensional anisotropy, any samples
falling on the surface of the same ellipsoid will be given equal weight. In the example below,
all sample locations are on the surface of the same ellipsoid, and so, are all considered to be
the same anisotropic distance from the block centroid:
With the axes oriented as above, as well as a major/semi-major anisotropy ratio of 2, and a
major/minor anisotropy ratio of 3, the calculation of the weights for the data as shown will be:
Sample Sample Sample Actual Anisotropy Anisotropic

Axis Weight
Value Bearing Dip Distance Factor Distance
Major 5 90 0 3 1 3 0.333
Semi-
10 180 0 1.5 2 3 0.333
Major
Minor 20 0 90 1 3 3 0.333
Since the anisotropic distances are the same, the weights for the points will be the same. The
calculation of the block value will be:
( 5 * 0.333 ) + ( 10 * 0.333 ) + ( 20 * 0.333 ) = 11.666
equals 1):
0.333 + 0.333 + 0.333 = 0.999 = 1.0
33
If the distance from the block centroid to each sample is now the same, the weights will
change. For example, in the view below, the distance from each sample to the block centroid
is now 3, but we are still using the same anisotropy ellipsoid:
The calculation of the weights will be as follows:
Sample Sample Sample Actual Anisotropy Anisotropic

Axis Weight
Value Bearing Dip Distance Factor Distance
Major 5 90 0 3 1 3 0.5
Semi-
10 180 0 3 2 6 0.333
Major
Minor 20 0 90 3 3 9 0.1666
The calculation of the block value will be:
( 5 * 0.5 ) + ( 10 * 0.333 ) + ( 20 * 0.1666 ) = 9.666
equals 1):
0.5 + 0.333 + 0.1666 = 0.999 = 1.0
34
4. Ellipsoid visualiser
Using our previous example where we have a major/minor anisotropy ratio of 3, and a
major/semi-major anisotropy ratio of 2, we would get an ellipsoid, but we need to establish the
orientation of the ellipsoid. In Surpac, this can be accomplished in several different methods,
including the “Surpac” method. The examples which follow use the “Surpac” method, which
encompasses the following three terms:
Term Min Max Description

Bearing of major axis 0 360 azimuth of major axis in XY plane
Plunge of major axis -90 90 dip above or below horizontal plane
Dip of semi-major axis -90 90 rotation of semi-major axis around major axis
The ellipsoid visualiser is a tool which can assist you to understand the orientation of the
anisotropy ellipsoid. We will now use it to create several anisotropy ellipsoids, and save them
as Surpac string files.
From the Geostatistics menu, select Ellipsoid visualiser. The form below will be displayed:
You can use the values of bearing, plunge, and dip in the following examples to create the
ellipsoids in each example.
35
Example #1:
This ellipsoid could be used to estimate gold values within a vertical vein that has strike: 90
degrees and dip: 90 degrees.
Bearing of major axis 90

Plunge of major axis 0
Dip of semi-major axis -90
Major/semi-major anisotropy ratio 2
Major/minor anisotropy ratio 3
Looking down on XY plane

3D View
major/minor anisotropy ratio: 3
Looking north at XZ plane Looking west at YZ plane

major/semi-major anisotropy ratio: 2 dip of semi-major axis: 90
To view an example of this anisotropic ellipsoid:
1. Open anisotropic_ellipsoid1.str in graphics

36
Example #2:
This ellipsoid could be used to estimate values within a horizontal coal seam or other data
from flat-lying sedimentary rocks, where continuity within the seam is the same in the XY
plane (major/semi-major anisotropy ratio: 1), but the continuity is significantly less in the
vertical direction.

Dip of semi-major axis 0

3D View
major/semi-major anisotropy ratio: 1

dip of semi-major axis: 0 major/minor anisotropy ratio: 5

37
Example #3:
This ellipsoid could be used to estimate values from a kimberlitic diatreme, or diamond-
bearing "pipe" type ore body, which plunges to the south at a dip of 60 degrees below the
horizontal.
Plunge of major axis -60
Dip of semi-major axis 0

3D View

dip of semi-major axis: 0 major/minor anisotropy ratio: 3

38
Example #4:
This ellipsoid could be used to estimate values from an epithermal vein, with strike of 50
degrees and dip to the southeast of 60 degrees below the horizontal, where continuity within
the vein is the same in all directions (major/semi-major anisotropy ratio: 1).

Dip of semi-major axis -60
3D View Looking down on XY plane
39
Example #4 (continued):
Looking horizontally along strike: az 50
Looking downdip: azimuth 140 degrees, dip -60
degrees, dip 0
note major axis is along strike, semi-major is
Note dip of semi-major axis is -60
downdip
degrees
major/minor anisotropy ratio: 3

40
Summary
You should now understand the following terms:
Isotropy
Anisotropy
Anisotropic ellipsoid
Major axis
Semi-major axis
Minor axis
Major/Semi-major anisotropy ratio
Major/Minor anisotropy ratio
Anisotropic distance
Sample weight
Also, you should understand how anisotropy ratios and orientation of the anisotropy ellipsoid
impacts the calculation of anisotropic distances, and therefore the weight used for samples in
estimating a value at a block centroid.
Understanding and visualising an anisotropy ellipsoid and how it impacts upon an estimation
is no simple task. It may take some time, more research, and/or experience with several data
sets to grasp the concepts presented here.
41
Variograms
Overview
An important aspect of performing any geostatistical evaluation is to understand how data

values change over distance and direction. A variogram is a graphical tool which can be used
to describe these concepts.
The variogram will be described through the following:
1. Introduction to the variogram

2. Calculating a variogram
3. Modifying the lag distance
4. Omnidirectional variograms
5. Directional variograms
6. Calculating an omnidirectional variogram in Surpac
7. Modelling variograms in Surpac
Requirements

• know how to run a Surpac macro
• understand basic statistical concepts such as mean and variance
42
1. Introduction to the variogram
A variogram is a graph which compares differences between samples against distance:
The Variogram
Nugget
If you split a single sample, and send it to two different labs, very often you will get two
different values. Thus, at a sample separation distance of zero, there is some difference.
This difference is called the “nugget”, also abbreviated as “c(0)”. The nugget value is noted
as a difference at a sample separation distance of zero:
The Nugget
The term “nugget” comes from a situation which often occurs in coarse gold deposits where a
sample is split, and one half contains a gold nugget, while the other half does not contain any
gold. Although differences between sample “splits” is often responsible for this, human error
can also be a factor. Errors occur in sampling, in the lab, and during data entry. Any or all of
these can contribute to the nugget. Although these areas are beyond the scope of this tutorial,
you should be aware of them, and their impact on the nugget and subsequent geostatistical
evaluations.
Sill
If we compare two samples some distance apart, we would expect the difference to be
greater than samples which are closer together. The portion of the graph of the variogram
which rises up and to the right of the nugget point represents this situation.
At some point, the difference between the samples cannot get any greater. For example, the
maximum sample value minus the minimum sample value gives us the greatest difference
between samples. On the variogram, this maximum difference is displayed as the flat portion
of the graph.
43
Two values describe the point at which the variogram reaches its maximum value – the sill
and the range.
The Sill
The sill (sometimes abbreviated as the letter “C”), as shown above, is the difference between
the maximum difference and the nugget. The term “nugget to sill ratio” is used to describe
what percentage of the “total sill” the nugget comprises, and is calculated as:
nugget to sill ratio = nugget / (nugget + sill)
Range
The distance at which the sill is attained is referred to as the range:
The Range
The range (sometimes abbreviated as the letter “A”) represents the maximum distance which
sample pairs can be said to have some relationship to their separation distance. Beyond the
range, there is no relationship.
44
2. Calculating a variogram
To calculate a variogram, a data set is grouped into “pairs” which are separated by a given
distance, or “lag”. Then, then the following calculation is performed on all samples in each bin:
sum of (difference between sample values)2

gamma(h) = 2 x number of pairs
To demonstrate this, we will use the data below. Assume that the values represent samples
taken at 1 meter intervals along a north – south line:
3
3
4
6
7
5
5
3
To create the variogram graph of “Distance vs. Difference”, we first decide upon a lag
distance, or “lag interval”. We then group the data into sample pairs which fall into each lag
interval. For the first lag interval of 1, we get the data pairs of 3-3, 3-4, 4-6, etc… The
difference between the two values is squared, and the sum of all squared distances is
calculated:
Lag = 1
Pair Pair Values Difference Squared difference
1 3–3 0 0
2 3-4 -1 1
3 4-6 -2 4
4 6-7 -1 1
5 7-5 2 4
6 5-5 0 0
7 5–3 2 4
Sum of squared differences: 14
sum of squared differences 14

gamma(h) = 2 x number of pairs = 2x7 = 1.0
Next, all samples separated by lag distances of 2 are paired off, and the calculation is
performed again:
Lag = 2
1 3–4 -1 1
2 3-6 -3 9
3 4-7 -3 9
4 6-5 1 1
5 7-5 2 4
6 5–3 2 4

45
The results of lag distances of 3, 4, and 5 are below:
Lag = 3
1 3–6 -3 9
2 3-7 -4 16
3 4-5 -1 1
4 6-5 1 1
5 7–3 4 16

Lag = 4
1 3–7 -4 16
2 3-5 -2 4
3 4-5 -1 1
4 6–3 3 9

Lag = 5
1 3–5 -2 4
2 3-5 -2 4
3 4–3 1 1

All of the results and lag distances are then compiled:
Lag gamma(h)
(distance) (difference)
1 1
2 2.3
3 4.3
4 3.8
5 1.5
46
A graph of the results looks like this:
Experimental Variogram
This graph of calculated gamma(h) values versus lag distance is referred to as an

“experimental variogram”. This is used to calculate the variogram displayed in the previous
version - a “variogram model”. The variogram model can be described by a mathematical
equation, and is subject to the interpretation of the person who is analysing the data. A
variogram model, as shown in the previous section, starts at a nugget, increases by the sill at
a point defined by the range, then continues infinitely to the right at the total sill value. A
variogram model has been fit to the experimental variogram below:
Variogram Model fitted to Experimental Variogram
In this example, all relevant parameters of the model would be recorded:
Nugget: 0.2 Sill: 4.0 Range: 3.0
Nugget/Sill ratio = 0.2 / (0.2+4.0) = 0.05
47
3. Modifying the lag distance
Although the previous example generated a well-formed experimental variogram, often it is
necessary to modify the lag distance to obtain such a good-looking variogram. In the
previous example, a lag interval of 1 was used. The term “Lag=1” actually meant “all sample
pairs whose separation distance is between 0.001 and 1; “Lag=2” meant “all sample pairs
whose separation distance is between 1.001 and 2“; Lag=3” meant “all sample pairs whose
separation distance is between 2.001 and 3.
To demonstrate the impact of the value chosen for the lag, we will recalculate the variogram
in the previous example, but using a lag interval of 2. We will calculate three “lag bins”:
Lag=2 sample pairs whose separation distance is between 0 and 2

Lag=4 sample pairs whose separation distance is between 2.001 and 4.
Lag=6 sample pairs whose separation distance is between 4.001 and 6.
Here again is the data, representing samples taken at 1 meter intervals along a north – south
line:
3
3
4
6
7
5
5
3
For the 0-2 lag bin, we now get the data pairs below:
Lag = 2
1 3-3 0 0
2 3-4 -1 1
3 3-4 -1 1
4 3-6 -3 9
5 4-6 -2 4
6 4-7 -3 9
7 6-7 -1 1
8 6-5 1 1
9 7-5 2 4
10 7-5 2 4
11 5-5 0 0
12 5-3 2 4
13 5-3 2 4

48
For the 2-4 lag bin, we now get the data pairs below:
Lag = 4
1 3-6 -3 9
2 3-7 -4 16
3 3-7 -4 16
4 3-5 -2 4
5 4-5 -1 1
6 4-5 -1 1
7 6-5 1 1
8 6-3 3 9
9 7-3 4 16

Lag = 6
1 3-5 -2 4
2 3-5 -2 4
3 3-5 -2 4
4 4-3 1 1
5 3-3 0 0

All of the results and lag distances are then compiled and graphed:
Lag gamma(h)
(distance) (difference)
2 1.6
4 4.1
6 1.3
Experimental Variograms with lags of 1(solid) and 2(dashed)
49
4. Omnidirectional variograms
The variogram in the previous exercise was an example of a “directional” variogram. All
samples used were aligned north-south. Another type of variogram is known as an
“omnidirectional variogram”. In this type, the pairs are selected based only on their
separation distance, and not on the orientation of the pairs.
The example below demonstrates how sample pairs would be selected for a data set. All
samples are on a 1x1 grid, and lag values of 1, 2, and 3 are used. The manner which the
software determines pairs is this:
A. Move to the first point

B. Determine which other points in the data set are within the first lag tolerance distance
from this point, and add these pairs to the first “lag bin” (Lag=1)
C. Determine which points not selected are within the second lag tolerance distance
from this point, and add them to the second “lag bin” (Lag=2)
D. Repeat until all points have been put into a lag bin
E. Move to the next point
F. Remove the previous point from consideration
G. Repeat steps B to F until all points have been considered
In an omnidirectional variogram, the orientation of the sample pairs is irrelevant. For example,
sample pair 1-2 is oriented east-west, sample pair 1-4 is oriented north-south, and yet both
pairs are used for the “Lag=1” bin.
Lag selection circles
Sample pairs selected for each lag in an omnidirectional variogram
Lag=1 Lag=2 Lag=3

1-2 1-3 1-6
1-4 1-5 3-4
2-3 2-4
2-5 2-6
3-6 3-5
4-5 4-6
5-6
Note that the example here is two-dimensional. In three dimensions, the search from each
point takes the shape of a sphere.
50
5. Directional variograms
A directional variogram is one in which all sample pairs are oriented in a particular direction.
In the first example, all samples were aligned north-south. There was no other possible
orientation for the sample pairs to take, so the only variogram possible was a directional
variogram.
However, in most data sets, there are a multitude of data pair orientations. In a directional
variogram, the software selects only those data pairs which are oriented in a particular
manner, plus or minus some angular tolerance. In Surpac, this angular tolerance is known as
the spread.
The example below demonstrates how sample pairs would be selected for a data set, using a
northeast – southwest orientation of 45 degrees, plus or minus a spread tolerance of 22.5
degrees either side of that direction. Thus, if a sample pair is oriented between 22.5 and 67.5
degrees (or 202.5 and 247.5 degrees), it will be included in the calculation.
All samples are on a 1x1 grid, and lag values of 1, 2, and 3 are used. The manner which the
software determines pairs is this:
A. Move to the first point

B. Determine which other points in the data set are within the first lag tolerance distance
from this point AND within the angular tolerances, and add these pairs to the first “lag
bin” (Lag=1)
C. Determine which points not yet selected are within the second lag tolerance distance
from this point AND within the angular tolerances, and add them to the second “lag
bin” (Lag=2)
D. Move to the next point
E. Remove the previous point from consideration
F. Repeat steps B to F until all points have been considered
In a directional variogram, the orientation of the sample pairs is important. For example,
sample pairs 1-2 and 1-4 are both within the first lag tolerance, but neither are within the
angular tolerance of 45 degrees plus or minus 22.5 degrees. In fact, there are only three data
pairs in the entire data set which have an orientation that is within the defined limits. These
are the data pairs: 2-4, 3-4, and 3-5.
Lag selection circles with directional tolerance search
Sample pairs selected for each lag for a directional variogram (orientation 45 +/- 22.5)
Lag=1 Lag=2 Lag=3

2-4 3-4
3-5
51
As you can see, using directional variograms reduces the number of sample pairs. As the
tolerance angle decreases, so does the number of pairs. If a tolerance angle is too small, the
quality of the experimental variogram may be reduced to the point that a model cannot be
fitted with any confidence. If the tolerance angle is too large, the concept of a “directional”
variogram could be questioned.
Note that the example here is two-dimensional. In three dimensions, the search from each
point takes the shape of a cone. Additionally, Surpac has the option to restrict the radius of
the cone to a maximum via the use of a “spread limit”. This has the effect of turning the
search cone into a cylinder with the radius of the spread limit.
52
6. Calculating an omnidirectional variogram in Surpac
Run the macro 04_omnidirectional_variogram.tcl.
Variograms can be directional or omnidirectional.
Directional variograms only consider sample pairs which are aligned within a certain
orientation. An example of a directional variogram is one in which only those sample pairs
which are due north or south of one another are used.
An omnidirectional variogram is one in which sample orientation is not considered, and all
sample pairs are used.
An omnidirectional variogram is defined by setting the spread angle to 90. The azimuth and
plunge values are irrelevant.
Generally, the omnidirectional variogram will be the 'best' or 'least scattered' variogram, as it
will contain more data points than a directional variogram. Since it will usually be the 'best'
variogram, an omnidirectional variogram is a good place to start.
The VARIOGRAM MODELLING window is opened by selecting Variogram modelling from

the Geostatistics menu. Next, from the Variogram menu, New string file variogram is
selected, and the form below is displayed.
Calculating an omnidirectional variogram
We have nominated to use all strings (by leaving the string range blank) from the file
gold_cut17.str to calculate the omnidirectional variogram. The D1 field contains the gold
values, cut to a maximum value of 17 grams per tonne. The fields “Minimum value” and
“Maximum value” allow you to exclude data which is below a given minimum value or above a
given maximum value. You can exclude data which is greater or less than any Y, X, or Z
coordinate values on the Advanced tab.
All variograms in Surpac are defined by the three fields of Azimuth, Plunge, and Spread.
Optionally, a Spread Limit may be specified. The Azimuth is the orientation of the search axis
53
in the XY plane. The Plunge is the dip above (positive) or below (negative) the horizontal.
The Spread is the angular tolerance in decimal degrees either side of the search axis. The
Spread limit is an optional maximum distance from the search axis which the “spread cone”
is allowed to be expanded to. After it reaches the Spread limit, the “spread cone” becomes a
cylinder.
The Search Cone
The way in which we specify an omnidirectional variogram in Surpac is to use a spread angle
of 90 degrees. The values of Azimuth and dip are set to zero in this case, but could be
anything, as a spread angle of 90 degrees includes all data, regardless of the azimuth or dip.
An initial lag distance of 2 meters is chosen to illustrate a point later in this exercise. In
practice, you may want to select an initial lag value for your first variogram to somewhere
near the sample spacing.
A maximum distance of 100 meters indicates that sample pairs further than this separation
distance are not to be considered. When you are creating your first omnidirectional variogram,
you may want to set this to a fairly large value – even near the maximum extent of your data.
This will ensure that you do not miss any long-range effects. You can zoom in on a portion of
the variogram afterward, or, if you recalculate it, you can use a smaller maximum distance to
decrease processing time.
The output report filename of omnidirectional.not will be created.
Select the Advanced tab.
The lag distance can be modified using a tool called the “lag slider”. You can see the lag
slider to the right of the flashing macro playback button on the variogram modelling window.
This tool allows you to interactively modify the lag and see the effects instantly on the
variogram.
54
On the Advanced tab, you can set the minimum, maximum, and incremental values of the lag
slider. Additionally, you can adjust the lag by a value of 0.1 using the right and left arrow keys
on your keyboard.
The Lag Slider

APPLY the form.
After reading the text below on the form, click APPLY.
Note that the initial lag value of 2 has created a poor quality or 'scattered' variogram. The
next form will set the lag to 7.6, which will result in a 'better' variogram.
After this macro is completed, you can modify the lag value by one of the following methods
to see what effect the lag value has on the quality of the variogram:
1. Select Variogram - Experimental variogram lag, enter a value and APPLY the form.
2. Drag the lag slider at the top right corner of the window.
3. Use the < and > buttons on either side of the lag slider.
Note that these buttons will modify the lag by the increment specified on the Advanced tab of
the first variogram modelling form.
4. Use the right and left arrow keys on the keyboard to modify the lag by 0.1
You will see that the 2 meter lag results in a scattered variogram:
Experimental variogram with lag=2
55
The value of the variance of the data set is represented by a horizontal green line. This was
displayed by selecting the menu item Display/Hide variance from the Display menu. Many
geostatisticians model the variogram so that the “total sill” is equal to the variance. You do
not have to use the variance if you do not want to.
Next, Experimental variogram lag has been selected from the Variogram menu, and the
form to specify a value for the variogram lag is presented:
Setting the lag to 7.6
APPLY the form to accept the value of 7.6.
The experimental variogram will be modified to reflect the new lag distance. A form will
display – click and drag it away so you can see the new experimental variogram.
Experimental variogram with lag set to 7.6
Additionally, Model was selected from the Variogram menu to display the variogram model,
shown as the thin red line. When Variogram > Model is invoked for the first time, Surpac
attempts to “auto-fit” the variogram to the experimental variogram. You may click and drag
the cyan (light blue) dots to modify the shape of the variogram.
After reading the text below on the form, click APPLY.

A variogram model is made up of a nugget, and one or more sill-range structures.
The nugget is the value of the model on the Y axis.
The sill is the Y axis distance above the nugget for a structure.
The range is the distance along the X axis value for a given sill value.
Up to five sill-range structures can be used, but often one will be enough.
The nugget and sill-range structures may be modified graphically, or may be defined exactly,
as on the following form.
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Next, Report was selected from the Variogram menu to display the variogram model
parameters:
Variogram model parameters
You may also explicitly type in values on this form when modelling your own variograms.
The output file omnidirectional_variogram.not will be created, and will contain all of these
values. It is a good idea to save the omnidirectional variogram model parameters for future
reference. Leave the form as is, and press APPLY.
The string file omnidirectional1.str has been created containing the experimental variogram
and the variogram model via the menu selection File > Save as > String file. This file is
displayed in graphics.
String file output of variogram data
This file can be used in the Plotting module to generate hardcopy output. Note that a few
modifications have been performed on the string file to present the view you see:
- The Y axis has been set to 5x normal exaggeration via View > Data view options >
View scale factors
- The experimental variogram has been renumbered from string 1 to string 30003 using
Edit > String > Renumber range. String 30003 has a default presentation style of a
small round marker
- The real world X value has been displayed on string 2 to represent the values you
see from 0 to 100 on the X axis via the use of Display > Point > X values
- The real world Y value has been displayed on string 3 to represent the values you
see from 0 to 12 on the Y axis via the use of Display > Point > Y values
- The description field on string 5 has been modified to include the words in brackets
using Edit > Point > Properties
The macro has now completed, and closed the variogram modelling window.
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7. Modelling variograms in Surpac
In order to make it possible to review or re-model a previously calculated experimental

variogram, Surpac allows you to create a file containing the experimental variogram data as
well as a file containing a variogram model. From running the previous example, the following
files have been saved:
omnidirectional.evg - experimental variogram
omnidirectional.vgm - variogram model

.EVG and .VGM files in navigator
We will first open the experimental variogram, then open and modify the previous example’s
variogram model. After that, we will create a new model.
From the navigator, click and drag omnidirectional.evg into graphics (or double-click the
file, or right-click the file and select Open)
Experimental variogram opened from *.EVG file
From the Display menu, select Display/Hide variance. The variance of all data points used
to calculate the variogram will be displayed as a horizontal green line. The variance can be
used as the “total sill” of the variogram. You may or may not choose to use the variance for
modelling.
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To review a previously created variogram model, drag and drop the file omnidirectional.vgm
into the variogram window. Note that you cannot open a *.vgm file unless the *.evg file is
opened first.
Experimental variogram, variogram model, and variance
There are several features to assist you with modelling a variogram:
Practice using the lag slider at the upper right portion of the variogram window. Recall that
the maximum, minimum, and incremental values were set on the Advanced tab, and that the
right and left arrow keys on your keyboard will increment and decrement the lag by 0.1
The Lag Slider
From the Display menu, select Set axis limits. Set the parameters as shown, and APPLY:
Set variogram axis limits
This feature can be useful to “zoom in” on a portion of the variogram.
59
From the Display menu, select Number of pairs.
Number of pairs
The larger the number of pairs, the more confidence you can have in a point on the
experimental variogram. Some geostatisticians tend to ignore certain experimental data
points if they have a substantially lower number of pairs than the surrounding data. As you
can see in this example, the first experimental variogram point has been ignored.
We will now modify the existing variogram model.
From the Variogram menu, select Model.
Click and drag either of the cyan (light blue) coloured markers. You can modify the nugget
with the leftmost marker. When you move this marker, you will see that it will remain on the Y
axis, and the entire variogram will move up and down. You can modify the sill and range with
the rightmost marker. As you move this marker, the shape of the variogram will change, but
the nugget will remain the same.
Next we will delete our model and create a new one.
From the Variogram menu, select Delete model.
From the navigator, click and drag omnidirectional.evg into graphics (or double-click the
file, or right-click the file and select Open)
From the Display menu, select Display/Hide variance.
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From the Variogram menu, select Model.
Automatic fit variogram
The software uses an algorithm which attempts to fit a variogram model to the data presented.
This may or may not be close to your final result. You will be prompted to “select and drag a
marker”. Move the cyan markers until you get a variogram similar to the previous example.
As you click and drag the markers to modify the variogram, note that the current variogram
parameters are displayed in the upper right part of the window:
Variogram parameters in upper right
From the Variogram menu, select Report. Enter the values below and click APPLY.
Variogram report
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The file omni_report.not will be created in the current working directory. If you open the file
in a text editor, you will see the values stored there:
VARIOGRAM MODELLING 11-Sep-2005
Current variogram model parameters

----------------------------------
Model Type : Spherical

Nugget : 5.800000
Structure Sill Range

1 4.000000 25.000
Not only does the Variogram – Report function allow you to create a *.NOT file which
contains the variogram model parameters, but it is also a way to set the variogram
parameters to a specific value (a Sill of 4.0000, rather than 4.00048, for example).
If multiple slopes are required to adequately model the data, additional “structures” can be
added.
From the Variogram menu, select Add structure. A third cyan marker will be displayed.
Click and drag each of the markers and note the effect.
From the Variogram menu, select Delete structure. Note that one of the cyan markers will
be removed, and the model modified. Click and drag each of the markers and note the effect.
From the Variogram menu, select Add structure again – you should now have three
markers – one nugget and two sill/range markers.
From the Variogram menu, select Report. Enter the values on the form as shown below (left)
and click APPLY.
Multiple structures Multiple structures
As you can see, Surpac allows up to 5 structures to be added. The sum of the nugget and all
sill values equals the “total sill”. One or two structures will generally be sufficient for modelling
most experimental variograms.
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Modelling a variogram is not an exact science. However, here are a few tips:
- Try to model the “trend”. One way to see the “trend” of the data is to create a
variogram model (the red line), then drag the lag slider back and forth. The model
should fit the data reasonably well for a few different lags.
- Consider the geology of the domain. Does the model you come up with look
reasonable for your data? Is the nugget effect high or low? Is the range about what
you expected? If not, perhaps you should reconsider the data domains.
- Search the Internet. There are many online resources with explanations of
variograms, variogram calculations, and results of particular data sets.
- Ask a consultant. Although they are generally not free, geostatistical consultants are
perhaps the best source of geostatistical advice.
Assuming that we are reasonably satisfied with our multiple-structure variogram, the next step
is to save them.
From the File menu, select Save, then Experimental variogram and model.
Save Experimental variogram and model - menu
You may save either the experimental variogram or the variogram model alone, or you can,
as we are doing in this case, save both of them at the same time. Enter the data as below,
and APPLY:
Saving experimental variogram and model
The following files will be created:
multi_structs.evg - experimental variogram

multi_structs.vgm - variogram model
Next, we will demonstrate how these files can be used to re-display previous models.
From the Variogram menu, select Delete model. This will remove the current model.
Click and drag multi_structs.vgm into the variogram viewport. This will redisplay the
multiple-structured model.
Click and drag omnidirectional.evg to redisplay the original omnidirectional experimental

variogram. Note that omnidirectional.evg and multi_structs.evg are identical, so no change in
the experimental variogram will be apparent. However, the variogram model will be removed.
63
Now we will briefly discuss the different “types” of variograms.
With the omnidirectional experimental variogram displayed, from the Variogram menu, select
Type. Select Logarithmic and APPLY. Note that not only does the shape of the variogram
change, but the gamma(h) values are also modified. If the variance of the data was displayed,
it is now removed.
Again from the Variogram menu, select Type. Select General Relative and APPLY. Note
that the shape in this case is identical to the normal variogram, but the gamma(h) values are
different. They have been divided by the value of the variance of the data set, which in this
case was very close to the value of 10.
Once again, from the Variogram menu, select Type. Select Pairwise Relative and APPLY.
Note that the shape in this case is different to the normal and general relative, and the
gamma(h) values are different again.
Normal Logarithmic
General Relative Pairwise Relative
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Logarithmic variogram
In this type of a variogram, logarithms of the raw data are used to calculate the experimental
variogram. Any negative or zero raw data values are first set to small positive values before a
logarithmic transformation is applied. If the distribution of your data is logarithmic, or near
logarithmic, and a reasonable fit cannot be obtained from a normal variogram, a logarithmic
variogram can potentially give a usable value which can be used for the range of a normal
variogram.
If local values within the population are affected by the local variance, a condition called a
“proportional effect” is said to exist. “Relative” variograms can be more useful than “normal”
variograms if a proportional effect exists.
General Relative variogram

In this type of a variogram, each gamma(h) is divided by the squared mean of all samples
used to estimate that gamma(h).
Pairwise Relative variogram

In this type of variogram, the squared difference of each sample pair is divided by the square
of the mean of each sample pair. As for the logarithmic variogram, units along the Y
(gamma(h)) axis have no meaning but the relative variograms may serve to identify ranges
and structures
The application of these types of variograms is an advanced topic. If you wish to obtain more
information on theses, you should obtain instruction from a qualified geostatistical consultant.
65
The last topic of discussion in this tutorial is that of spherical versus exponential models.
Redisplay the normal variogram by dragging and dropping omnidirectional.evg into the
variogram viewport. Now display the variogram model by dragging and dropping
omnidirectional.vgm into the variogram viewport.
From the Display menu, select Set axis limits. Set the parameters as shown, and APPLY:
Set variogram axis limits
From the Variogram menu, select Spherical / Exponential model. Note the difference in
the two models, as displayed below.
Spherical Model Exponential Model
A spherical model has a much straighter increasing section, then at the range, the sill of the
model becomes a constant. In an exponential model, the entire model is curved, and the sill
is a value which the model approaches, but never actually attains. If your experimental
variogram continually increases, then an exponential model may be a more accurate means
of representing the data than a spherical model. If, however, as in the case above, the
experimental variogram increases, then decreases, a spherical model is probably a better
representation of the data.
The last menu item which we will cover here is the experimental variogram report
From the Variogram menu, select Experimental variogram report. Enter the data as shown
below, and APPLY:
Experimental variogram report
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The following data will be present in the file exp_report.not:
Sep 11, 2005

Surpac Minex Group
VARIOGRAM CALCULATION
Data Source: gold_cut

Id : 17
Strings : all
Output File: exp_report.not
D Field : 1
Valid Data Range : All values
Lag : 7.6
Max Distance : 100
VARIOGRAM DIRECTION
Azimuth : 0.000
Plunge : 0.000
Spread angle : 90
Spread limit : None
STATISTICS
Number of samples : 335
Mean : 3.181744
Variance : 9.842981
Standard Deviation : 3.137353
Lag Pairs Drift Gamma(h) Wtd Gamma(h) Log Gamma(h) Gen Rel Gamma(h) P/w Rel Gamma(h) Avg Distance)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
0.00 271 -0.383 7.941 7.941 0.311 0.784 0.226 2.000
7.60 567 -0.600 7.424 7.220 0.314 0.733 0.226 6.250
15.20 176 -1.622 9.219 9.342 0.410 0.911 0.265 14.565
22.80 174 -0.369 9.805 9.652 0.458 0.969 0.309 23.057
30.40 228 -0.498 9.362 9.439 0.393 0.925 0.275 30.248
38.00 1155 0.554 8.824 8.861 0.392 0.872 0.276 39.307
45.60 1556 0.271 7.962 7.980 0.353 0.787 0.248 45.648
53.20 1626 0.176 8.943 8.957 0.388 0.883 0.274 53.366
60.80 1886 0.391 7.036 7.080 0.335 0.695 0.243 60.671
68.40 1474 0.167 9.210 9.239 0.380 0.910 0.267 67.946
76.00 1106 0.351 7.802 7.809 0.329 0.771 0.236 76.427
83.60 2041 0.442 12.435 12.539 0.447 1.228 0.296 83.910
91.20 2159 0.318 7.764 7.730 0.358 0.767 0.254 90.897
98.80 1415 0.700 7.178 7.170 0.353 0.709 0.254 97.618
Summary
You should now understand how a variogram is calculated, and how to create, view, and save
experimental variograms and variogram models in Surpac Vision.
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Variogram Maps
Overview
An important aspect of performing any geostatistical evaluation is to understand the

anisotropy of the data, or which direction has the longest continuity, and how data values
change with regard to that direction, as well as the two mutually perpendicular directions. A
variogram map is a tool within Surpac which allows you to visualise anisotropy in a plane.
Additionally, variogram maps can be used to define the anisotropy ellipsoid. These concepts
are explained through the following:
1. Primary variogram map

2. Secondary variogram map
3. Calculation of anisotropy ellipsoid parameters
Requirements

• know how to calculate and model a variogram in Surpac
• understand the concept of an anisotropy ellipsoid
• understand the parameters which define an anisotropy ellipsoid
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1. Primary variogram map
Run the macro 05_data_geometry.tcl.
Prior to performing a geostatistical estimation of block model blocks, it is important to

determine if there is an orientation of the data where there is more continuity than any other.
If there is no particular orientation of greatest continuity, an isotropic condition is said to exist.

If, however, there is an orientation which has greater continuity than all others, an anisotropic
condition is said to exist.
The determination of isotropy or anisotropy is performed by comparing the ranges of

variograms in a variety of orientations.
A variogram map is a tool which can be used to determine the presence of anisotropy for a
given plane. The selection of the orientation of this plane can be determined by the geometry
of the three-dimensional zone containing the data points. In this example, the data are
contained in a vein-type ore zone, which can be represented as a plane. This plane will be
used as the first, or primary variogram map.
After reading the text below on the second form, click APPLY.
Geologists typically define the orientation of a planar feature, such as a vein-type ore zone
with the terms 'strike' and 'dip'. These terms typically contain non-numeric information, such
as: 'Strike: North 15 degrees East, Dip: 40 degrees to the Northwest'.
The following numeric values are required to define a plane for a variogram map:
Dip (-90 to +90) and Dip direction (0 to 359)
For example, a plane defined as 'Striking N15E, Dipping 40 degrees to the NW' could be
defined in Surpac as either:
Dip: -40 Dip direction: 285
or
Dip: +40 Dip direction: 105
A solid model of the ore zone, coloured by Z, and two triangles, representing the two methods
of defining the planes above will be displayed.
The values of Dip: +40 Dip direction: 105 will be used in this example.
69
The data will be displayed in graphics, as shown below:
Definition of a plane to be used for a variogram map
Run the macro 06_primary_variogram_map.tcl. You will see:
A. A variogram map displayed in three dimensions.

B. The reference manual for variogram maps displayed
C. A form displayed
Take a minute to browse through the reference manual page. You do not need to understand
everything in that document at the moment, but note the name of the file and the directory
structure (contained in the Address field) for future reference. This file is included with the
data set for this tutorial, in case you have not installed the reference manual for the software.
Variogram map reference manual and form displayed
When you have finished, minimise or close the window containing the reference manual page.
70
After reading the text below on the form, move the form to the side so that you can see the
image in graphics. DO NOT press APPLY yet.
A variogram map is a set of experimental variograms, calculated at regular angular

increments, coloured by gamma(h) values.
The reference manual page for variogram maps is SSI_REFMAN:/default/stats/map.htm, and

has been included in this tutorial and opened by this macro. Please refer to it for a detailed
explanation of variogram maps.
For the purpose of this demonstration, it is important to understand a couple of basic

concepts.
There are two variogram maps:
1) The primary variogram map will contain the major axis.

2) The secondary variogram map is perpendicular to the major axis, and contains the semi-
major and minor axes.
The primary variogram map, with Dip: +40 Dip direction: 105 has been displayed by this
macro in the main graphics window.
The orientation of the major axis in this case has been selected as a 'pitch' or 'rake angle' of
15 degrees from the horizontal strike of the variogram map plane.
This direction was selected based on an interpretation that the range of the variogram at this
orientation was longer than the range of any other variogram on this plane.
Many aspects of geostatistics are not an exact science. The interpretation of variogram data,
and the selection of the orientation of the direction of maximum continuity is done here to
demonstrate the geostatistical functionality available.
After this form, the variogram modelling form will be presented. Once you APPLY that form, it
will take a few minutes to calculate the variogram map. While it is processing, you may click
on this window to review the data, or read the reference manual page..
You will see the “final product” we will be creating, a primary variogram map, in graphics.
Primary variogram map in 3D
71
By definition, the primary variogram map will contain the major axis of the anisotropy ellipsoid.
The semi-major axis may or may not lie within the plane of the primary variogram map.
Once you have viewed the primary variogram map, move the form back into view and APPLY.
The VARIOGRAM MODELLING window is opened by selecting Variogram modelling from

the Geostatistics menu. Next, from the Variogam map menu, New variogram map is
selected, and the form below is displayed.
Variogram map – Basic tab
In the top panel, string file information (Location, ID, string range, etc.) is defined using
the same parameters as in variogram calculation,
In the middle panel, the plane containing the primary variogram map is defined. Note that
here we are using:
Dip: +40
Dip direction: 105
As was mentioned previously, this same plane could be defined using a dip of -40 and
a dip direction of 285.
The number of variograms selected will determine the angular increment. In our example, 24
variograms will result in a 15 degree angular increment (360/24=15). If the number of
variograms was set to 36, we would get a 10 degree increment (360/36=10).
The spread and spread limit parameters are the same as in normal variogram modelling.
72
The relationship between the angular increment and the spread angle should be considered.
To some, it may seem unreasonable to define a spread tolerance anything greater than half
of the angular increment. For this data set, because of the small number of pairs, if a 7.5
degree spread were used (half of the 15 degree angular increment between adjacent
variograms), the number of data pairs would be so small that very few, if any reasonable
variograms would result. A spread of 30 degrees is used for this data set to ensure that
sufficient samples are included.
Given a spread of 30 degrees is used, one could argue that the number of variograms should
be reduced to minimise the “overlap” of the cones for adjacent variograms. Although this is a
plausible argument in theory, the practicality of using a variogram map to visually determine
anisotropy in a plane often rules out reducing the angular increment.
It is up to you and the data set you are working with as to how you want to go about achieving
both of these goals simultaneously. This is yet another example of how geostatistics is an
inexact science. Experience with a data set will usually let you know what combination of
parameters is acceptable.
In the bottom panel, the lag, maximum distance, and variogram report parameters are
specified, exactly as they are in variogram modelling. One item to consider – the maximum
distance will be the radius of the variogram map. You may find that you will need to try a few
variations of this value to get one that is adequate.
Click on the Advanced tab. You will see that the fields here are identical to those on the
advanced tab of the variogram calculation form.
Variogram map – Advanced tab
After you have completed viewing this, press APPLY.
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After reading the text below on the second form, click APPLY.
DO NOT MODIFY ANY WINDOWS OR DATA DISPLAYED.
The next macro, _07_secondary_variogram_map.tcl, must be run after this, and depends on
the variogram modelling window presented as it is - do not close the variogram modelling
window or make any modifications to the data displayed.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The primary variogram map, with Dip: +40 Dip direction: 105 is now displayed.
Additionally, the variogram map has been saved as the file primary_variogram_map1.DTM,
and is displayed in the main graphics window. It has been coloured by gamma(h) values,
which are stored in the D1 field. You may want to review and rotate the data there before
proceeding with the next macro.
The variogram map currently displayed appears to be 'incomplete', or has 'missing' data.
There is actually nothing wrong - the 'missing' parts of the variogram map are simply where
no data pairs exist at that distance and orientation.
The orientation of the major axis has been selected as a 'pitch' or 'rake angle' of 15 degrees
from the horizontal strike of the variogram map plane.
This direction was selected based on an interpretation that the range of the variogram at this
orientation was longer than the range of any other variogram on this plane. As previously
stated, interpretations of geostatistical data are performed here only to demonstrate the
functionality of the software. Alternate interpretations may be deemed more appropriate.
The function File - Save - Experimental variogram (SAVE EXP VG) has been used to save
the file major_axis.evg. It is possible to review the experimental variogram data by opening
this file.
Additionally, The function File - Save - Variogram model (SAVE VG MODEL) has been used
to save the file major_axis.vgm. When the experimental variogram data is displayed, it is
possible to review the variogram model by opening this file.
74
You will now see the variogram map, as well as the variogram for the orientation
displayed on the variogram map.
Variogram map
From the Display menu, select Next direction. Repeat this several times, and note how the
variogram and the black line on the variogram map change.
The purpose of the primary variogram map is to determine the orientation of the major axis.
As described previously, by definition, the major axis lies within the primary variogram map.
The example given here is based upon the premise that you, as a geologist know that the
orientation of major axis will lie somewhere in this dipping plane for this data set. For a
horizontal seam deposit, the orientation of the primary variogram map would be horizontal.
The idea is to select the variogram orientation which has the longest range for a given sill
value. The lag slider and the “Next direction” functions can help you, as described here:
A. Use the lag slider to alert you to areas of high and low variance on the variogram
map. In other words, move the lag slider back and forth, and watch the colours on
the variogram map change. You will most likely see that throughout a range of lag
values, there will be areas on the variogram map which will be consistently high, and
others which will be consistently low. Using the example given above, note that the
orientation of 15 degrees above the horizontal (on the left) will consistently display
colours on the low end of the variance values, as represented by the legend to the
right.
B. Once you have an idea of what may appear to be the orientation of the longest
range, use the Next direction function to rotate the black line on the variogram map to
that direction.
75
C. Now use the lag slider to improve the quality of the experimental variogram for that
direction.
D. Once you have an acceptable variogram, create a variogram model for that
orientation.
E. Use the Next direction (and/or Previous direction) function to rotate through all
of the other orientations. The major axis should be that variogram which has the
lowest variance for the longest distance.
F. If another orientation appears to have a longer range and a lower variance, modify
the model to fit that experimental variogram. Modifying the lag distance for that
orientation may help you get a better fit.
G. Repeat the previous two steps until you are satisfied that you have the orientation
of the major axis.
H. After you have ascertained a major axis, ask yourself and others who are familiar
with the geology if the orientation appears correct.
As you can see, not only is the subject of variogram modelling a non-scientific process, but
the orientation of the major axis is also open to interpretation and debate.
Once you have determined the orientation of the major axis, you must inform the software of
your selection. From the Variogram map menu, select Select direction of maximum
continuity.
In the variogram map viewport, click and drag the red line to your selected orientation, then
release. A form will display, indicating the relative orientation of your selection, as a value
between 0 and 180. You will probably need to change this value to fit your desired orientation.
Note that this is a free rotation, and you are not forced to select a precise orientation of any of
the variogram directions. This can be useful if you have found two adjacent orientations
which are equally valid – you can set the direction of maximum continuity to midway between
these two directions.
Direction of maximum continuity
Press APPLY to confirm the value.
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2. Secondary variogram map
Run the macro 07_secondary_variogram_map.tcl.
A secondary variogram map will now be created.
The selected direction of maximum continuity in the secondary variogram map is the semi-
major axis.
The minor axis will lie in the plane of the secondary variogram map, perpendicular to the
semi-major axis. The orientation of the minor axis is automatically calculated based on the
orientation of the semi-major axis - no user input is required.
A DTM of the secondary variogram map has been displayed in graphics. Click on the main
window to review this data. Note that the semi-major axis, in this case, is not contained in the
plane of the primary variogram map, although it could have been.
Once you APPLY this form, it will take a few minutes to calculate the secondary variogram
map. While it is processing, you can review the secondary variogram map in the main
window or read the reference manual page on variogram maps.
The secondary variogram map, and the selected orientations of all axes are displayed in
graphics:
Primary and Secondary variogram maps
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The next macro, _08_anisotropy_ellipsoid.tcl, must be run after this, and depends on the
variogram modelling window presented as it is - do not close the variogram modelling window
or make any modifications to the data displayed.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The secondary variogram map has been calculated, and a direction of maximum continuity
has been identified. This orientation is the semi-major axis.
The minor axis is also in the plane of the secondary variogram map, and is perpendicular to
the semi-major axis. The orientation of the minor axis is automatically calculated based on
the orientation of the semi-major axis - no user input is required.
The secondary variogram map has been created perpendicular to the primary variogram map
(Dip: +40 Dip direction: 105) and perpendicular to the major axis. The secondary variogram
map has the orientation of:
Dip: -80.42 Dip direction: 26.5

which is the same as:
Dip: 80.42 Dip direction: 206.5
Additionally, the variogram map has been saved as the file

secondary_variogram_map1.DTM, and is displayed in the main graphics window. It has been
coloured by gamma(h) values, which are stored in the D1 field. You may want to review and
rotate the data there before proceeding with the next macro. Again, 'missing' data in any
variogram map is a result of lack of data pairs at certain distances and orientations.
In this case, the semi-major axis has been selected at an orientation slightly different to the
dip of the primary variogram map. If the orientation of the semi-major axis was significantly
different than the primary variogram map, it may be worth recalculating the primary variogram
map at an orientation which encompasses both the major and semi-major axes as determined
here.
Note that the same steps used to select the direction of maximum continuity for the primary
variogram map have been used to select the direction of maximum continuity for the
secondary variogram map.
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3. Anisotropy ellipsoid parameters
Run the macro 08_anisotropy_ellipsoid.tcl.
If the continuity of the data is the same in all directions, an 'isotropic' condition is said to exist.
In other words, the major, semi-major, and minor axes would all have the same continuity.
However, in this demonstration, an 'anisotropic' condition exists, as there is variable
continuity.
As mentioned previously, the major axis is the orientation which represents the greatest
continuity. By definition, the semi-major axis is the second-largest measure of continuity, and
the minor axis is the smallest. For block model estimation, it is necessary to know the
strength of the major axis as compared to the strength of the other two axes. The orientation
of the three axes, as well as the strength of the continuity relative to the other axes is
described by an 'anisotropy ellipsoid'.
The strength of the continuity along the major axis is compared to the continuity of the semi-
major and minor axes by the following two terms:
The major to semi-major anisotropy ratio

The major to minor anisotropy ratio
These ratios are calculated by comparing the length of the ranges of the variograms along
each axis.
To determine these ratios,

1) The function 'Extract variograms along axes' (VG SHOW AXES VARIOGRAMS) is
performed, and the experimental variogram data and the variogram model for the major axis
is displayed.
2) The 'Next variogram' (VG NEXT) function is performed, and the experimental variogram
data for the semi-major axis is presented
3) The range of the variogram is graphically modified to match the data for the semi-major
axis (the nugget and sill values of the variogram model are held constant). The lag distance
may be modified to improve the quality of the variogram.
4) The major to semi-major anisotropy ratio is calculated as:
The length of the range of the variogram model for the major axis / The length of the range
of the variogram model for the semi-major axis
5) The 'Next variogram' (VG NEXT) function is performed again, and the experimental
variogram data for the minor axis is presented.
6) As in step 3, the range of the variogram is graphically modified to match the data for the
minor axis (the nugget and sill values of the variogram model are held constant). The lag
distance may be modified to improve the quality of the variogram.
7) The major to minor anisotropy ratio is calculated as:
of the variogram model for the minor axis
The two anisotropy ratios are calculated and displayed in the upper right viewport.
79
The 'Extract variograms along axes' (VG SHOW AXES VARIOGRAMS) function has been
performed, and the experimental variogram data for the major axis is displayed. File - Open -
Variogram model (RECALL VG MODEL) has been used to display the major axis variogram
model.
The 'Next variogram' (VG NEXT) function will be performed, and the experimental variogram
data for the semi-major axis will be presented, along with the major axis variogram model.
After this, the macro will modify the range of the variogram (normally this is done graphically
by the user) to match the data for the semi-major axis (the nugget and sill values of the
variogram model for the major axis are held constant).
Once this is done, the major to semi-major anisotropy ratio will be calculated as:
This anisotropy ratio will be displayed in the upper right viewport.
The secondary variogram map, and the selected orientations of all axes are displayed.
When the next form is displayed, click and drag it out of the way so that you can view the
variogram modelled for the semi-major axis.
80
After moving the form back and reading the text below on the form, click APPLY.
The range of the variogram has been modified to match the data for the semi-major axis.
Note that the nugget and sill values of the variogram model are held constant.
The ranges of the variogram models for the major and semi-major axes are used to calculate
the major to semi-major anisotropy ratio:
In this example, the length of the ranges of the variogram models are:
Major axis: 168
Semi-major axis: 99
Therefore, the major to semi-major anisotropy ratio is: 168 / 99 = 1.7
This anisotropy ratio is displayed in the upper right viewport.
Following this, the 'Next variogram' (VG NEXT) function will be performed, and the
experimental variogram data for the minor axis will be presented, along with the current
variogram model. The major / minor anisotropy ratio will be calculated in the same manner.
When the next form is displayed, click and drag it out of the way so that you can view the
variogram modelled for the minor axis.
81
After moving the form back and reading the text below on the form, click APPLY.
The 'Next variogram' (VG NEXT) function has been performed, and the experimental
variogram data for the minor axis has been presented, along with the semi-major axis
variogram model. The lag distance has been changed to improve the quality of the
variogram.
The range of the variogram has been modified to match the data for the minor axis. Note that
the requirement of maintaining the same nugget and sill values of the variogram model does
not allow a very good fit of the variogram in this case. Data such as this presents a challenge
for interpretation.
The ranges of the variogram models for the major and minor axes are used to calculate the
major to minor anisotropy ratio:
of the variogram model for the minor axis
In this example, the length of the ranges of the variogram models are:
Major axis: 168
Minor axis: 33
Therefore, the major to minor anisotropy ratio is: 168 / 33 = 5.1
This anisotropy ratio is displayed in the upper right viewport.
The next step is to determine the orientation of the anisotropy ellipsoid, in terms of Surpac's
rotation convention.
The function 'Create anisotropy ellipsoid report' will be used to do this.
82
The next macro, _09_create_block_model.tcl, must be run after this, and depends on the
variogram modelling window presented as it is - do not close the variogram modelling window
or make any modifications to the data displayed.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Now that we have obtained all of the information below, we are ready to proceed with block
model estimation:
Anisotropy ellipsoid orientation (Surpac convention):

Bearing: 206.6
Plunge: -9.6
Dip: -45
Major axis variogram parameters:

Co (nugget): 4.4
C (sill) : 5.4
A (range) : 168.0
Major to semi-major anisotropy ratio: 1.7

Major to minor anisotropy ratio: 5.1
Click on the main Surpac window, and you will see the ellipsoid displayed:
83
4. Steps for using variogram maps to create anisotropy ellipsoid parameters
In summary, here are the complete set of steps to obtain all of the anisotropy ellipsoid
parameters:
1. From the Geostatistics menu, select Variogram modelling to open the variogram
window
2. From the Variogram map menu, select New variogram map
3. Enter the variogram map parameters and APPLY
4. Use the lag slider to alert you to areas of high and low variance on the variogram map.
In other words, move the lag slider back and forth, and watch the colours on the
variogram map change. You will most likely see that throughout a range of lag values,
there will be areas on the variogram map which will be consistently high, and others
which will be consistently low. Using the example given above, note that the orientation
of 15 degrees above the horizontal (on the left) will consistently display colours on the low
end of the variance values, as represented by the legend to the right. You will notice that
very small lag values are usually not useful.
5. Once you have an idea of what may appear to be the orientation of the longest range,
use the Next direction function (under the Display menu) to rotate the black line on the
variogram map to that direction.
6. Now use the lag slider to improve the quality of the experimental variogram for that
direction. You may also find that Set axis limits function (again, under the Display menu)
may help you to view this variogram.
7. Create a variogram model for that orientation. From the Display menu, you may wish
to select Display/Hide variance to show the data variance (often used as the total sill).
8. Use the Next direction (and/or Previous direction) function to rotate through all of the
other orientations. The major axis should be that variogram which has the lowest
variance for the longest distance.
9. If another orientation appears to have a longer range and a lower variance than your
current model, modify the model to fit that experimental variogram. Modifying the lag
distance for that orientation may help you get a better fit.
10. Repeat the previous two steps until you are satisfied that you have the orientation of
the major axis. From the File menu, select Save, then Variogram model to save a
*.VGM for this orientation, which is the major axis. This is an optional step, but can be
helpful in a future step.
11. From the Variogram map menu, select Select direction of maximum continuity.
12. Click and drag the red line on the variogram map until it is aligned with the orientation
of the major axis.
13. From the Variogram map menu, select Save DTM. This is an optional step, but may
help you to display the orientation of the primary variogram map in three dimensions in
graphics.
14. From the Variogram map menu, select Secondary Variogram map. The direction
of maximum continuity (the red line) will display as the intersection of the primary and
secondary variogram maps. The orientation of this line should be relatively close to what
will become the semi-major axis.
84
15. Use the Next direction (and/or Previous direction) function to rotate the black line
on the variogram map to that direction.
16. Now use the lag slider to improve the quality of the experimental variogram for that
direction. You may also find that Set axis limits function (again, under the Display menu)
may help you to view this variogram.
17. Create a variogram model for this orientation, which will become the semi-major axis.
From the Display menu, you may wish to select Display/Hide variance to show the data
variance (often used as the total sill).
18. Use the Next direction (and/or Previous direction) function to rotate through all of
the other orientations. The semi-major axis should be that variogram which has the
lowest variance for the longest distance.
19. If another orientation appears to have a longer range and a lower variance than your
current model, modify the model to fit that experimental variogram. Modifying the lag
distance for that orientation may help you get a better fit.
20. Repeat the previous two steps until you are satisfied that you have the orientation of
the major axis.
21. From the Variogram map menu, select Select direction of maximum continuity.
22. Click and drag the red line on the variogram map until it is aligned with the orientation
of the major axis.
23. From the Variogram map menu, select Save DTM. This is an optional step, but may
help you to display the orientation of the secondary variogram map in three dimensions in
graphics.
24. From the Variogram map menu, select Extract variograms along axes. The
experimental variogram for the major axis will be displayed in red.
25. Use the Next direction function (and/or Previous direction) to advance through the
four views of the experimental variograms – one each of the major, the semi-major, and
the minor axes, and one of all variograms together. Stop when you get to the view of all
three variograms.
26. If you saved a *.VGM (variogram model) for the major axis, display it now (from the
File menu, select Open, then Variogram model). If you did not previously save a
variogram model, create a variogram to fit the major axis (from the Variogram menu,
select Model).
27. Ensure that the variogram for the semi-major axis is either the same as, or to the left
of the variogram model for the major axis. You may need to use the lag slider to improve
the quality of the variogram. By definition, the range of the major axis must be equal to or
longer than the range of the semi-major axis for a given sill.
If the variogram representing the semi-major axis is to the right of the model for the major
axis, then you need to start again from step 1, using the orientation of the current semi-
major axis within the primary variogram map. The current semi-major axis is now a more
likely candidate for the orientation of the major axis.
28. Ensure that the variogram for the minor axis is either the same as, or to the left of the
variogram model for the semi-major axis. You may need to use the lag slider to improve
the quality of the variogram. By definition, the range of the semi-major axis must be equal
to or longer than the range of the minor axis for a given sill.
85
If the variogram representing the minor axis is to the right of the model for the semi-major
axis, then you need to start again from step 14. The current minor axis is now a more
likely candidate for the orientation of the semi-major axis.
Note: It is often difficult or impossible to interpret the experimental variogram for the minor
direction. If you cannot get a visually acceptable minor variogram, but you do have good
quality variograms for the major and semi-major axes, you may choose to continue, and
determine the ratio for the minor axis based on other factors, such as geometry.
29. Once you have assured yourself that your variograms are acceptable, use the Next
direction function to advance to the next variogram, the major axis. Ensure that the
variogram model fits the experimental variogram.
30. Again use the Next direction function to advance to the next variogram, the semi-
major axis. Modify the lag if required to improve the quality of the experimental variogram.
31. From the Variogram map menu, select Change anisotropy.
32. Click and drag the sill/range marker to the left until the variogram model matches the
experimental variogram for the semi-major axis.
Note: You will not be able to modify either the nugget or the sill – only the range is
changed to calculate the anisotropy ratio.
33. Use the Next direction function to advance to the next variogram, the minor axis.
Modify the lag if required to improve the quality of the experimental variogram.
34. From the Variogram map menu, select Change anisotropy.
35. Click and drag the sill/range marker to the left until the variogram model matches the
experimental variogram for the minor axis.
Note: It is often difficult or impossible to interpret the experimental variogram for the minor
direction. If you cannot get a visually acceptable minor variogram, but you do have good
quality variograms for the major and semi-major axes, you may choose modify the range
until the ratio for the minor axis is equal to some value you have chosen based on other
factors, such as geometry.
36. From the Variogram map menu, select Create anisotropy ellipsoid report. This
report will contain values for the orientation of the anisotropy ellipsoid, as well as the
major/semi-major and major/minor anisotropy ratios.
37. From the Variogram map menu, select Ellipsoid visualiser. You can view or save
the ellipsoid.
38. From the File menu, select Close to exit the variogram modelling window.
86
Summary
You should now understand the following terms:
Variogram map
Primary variogram map
Secondary variogram map
You should also know how to create and use variogram maps to determine the parameters
which define an anisotropy ellipsoid with Surpac.
87
Inverse Distance Estimation
Overview
An important end product of a geostatistical evaluation is a “model”, or a set of points in space

which contain estimated values. One of the methods for estimating values at points in a
model is known as inverse distance estimation, described in this chapter through the following:
1. Isotropic vs anisotropic inverse distance estimation

2. Steps to performing inverse distance estimation
3. The impact of power on inverse distance estimation
Requirements
Prior to proceeding with this chapter, you should understand the following concepts:
• Surpac menubars
• Surpac string files
• Surpac block models
• isotropy and anisotropy
• anisotropy ellipsoid
• the parameters which define an anisotropy ellipsoid
88
1. Isotropic vs anisotropic inverse distance estimation
When using inverse distance weighting to estimate values in a block model, the amount and
direction of anisotropy can have a significant impact on the end result. For example, the three
models shown below were created from the same data set, but different amounts and
orientations of anisotropy were used.
No Anisotropy 2:1 Anisotropy

(Isotropic) Azimuth 45
2:1 Anisotropy 5:1 Anisotropy

Azimuth 135 Azimuth 135
To see how these blocks displayed in Surpac, run the macro anisotropy.tcl. Click in
graphics after every model is displayed. If you use the Macro playback button, you can see
all values on the forms by ticking “Slow motion playback”.
Although anisotropy is one manner in which inverse distance weighting can impact the end
result, anisotropy can be used in any estimation technique, and so will not be covered in
detail here. The discussion of anisotropy is available in another chapter.
We will now go through each step in the process of inverse distance estimation, using an
isotropic estimation with the model 20x20x1.mdl.
89
2. Steps to performing inverse distance estimation
Open the file 4points1.str.
Display the data as markers, and display the D1 field.
This is the data set we will use for estimating blocks in the model.
Display the Block Model menubar.
Ensure that you have opened the model 20x20x1.mdl.
From the Display menu, select Clear model colours.
From the Display menu, select Display block model.
Enter the data as shown below, and APPLY.
You should now see the model and the data displayed:
90
From the Estimation menu, select Inverse distance.
Enter the data as shown below, and APPLY each form.
91
From the Display menu, select Colour model by attribute.
Select isotropic as the attribute to color by, enter a range of 30,70,5 and APPLY.
The model, as estimated by inverse distance squared using an isotropic search is displayed:
92
From the Attributes menu, select View attributes for one block.
Note that attributes distance, avg_distance, and num_samp have been added to the model:
93
3. The impact of inverse distance power
From the Estimation menu, select Inverse distance.
Enter the data as above, except on the last form, enter an Inverse distance Power of 3 before
clicking APPLY:
Display the model coloured by the isotropic attribute, as before.
Repeat the process of estimating and displaying the attribute isotropic, but using
inverse distance powers of 4 and 10.
Power of 2 Power of 3
Power of 4 Power of 10
The effect of power on Inverse distance estimation
94
Summary
You should understand how anisotropy ratios and orientation of the anisotropy ellipsoid
impacts the weight used for samples in estimating a value at a block centroid. Also, you
should now be aware of the impact of power on inverse distance estimation.
Understanding how each of the many parameters associated with an individual estimation
method is no simple task. It usually will take some time, more research, and/or experience
with several data sets to grasp the concepts presented here.
95
Ordinary Kriging
Overview

which contain estimated values. One of the methods for estimating values at points in a
model is known as ordinary kriging, described in this chapter through the following:
1. The impact of the nugget effect

2. The impact of the range
3. The impact of block descretisation
Requirements
• Surpac menubars
• the parameters which define an anisotropy ellipsoid
96
1. Impact of the nugget effect
When using ordinary kriging to estimate values in a block model, the relative percentage of
the nugget can have a significant impact on the end result.
zero nugget 25% nugget
50% nugget 100% nugget

Impact of the nugget
To see these blocks displayed in Surpac, run the macro ordinary_kriging_nugget.tcl.
Click in graphics to view each result.
97
2. Impact of the range
When using ordinary kriging to estimate values in a block model, the range of the variogram
relative to sample spacing can have a significant impact on the end result.
Range = 20 Range = 10
(2x sample spacing) (1x sample spacing)
Range = 5 Range = 2.5

(0.5x sample spacing) (0.25x sample spacing)
Impact of the range relative to sample spacing
(Sample spacing = 10)
To see these blocks displayed in Surpac, run the macro ordinary_kriging_range.tcl.
Click in graphics to view each result.
98
We will now go through each step in the process of ordinary kriging estimation, using an
isotropic estimation with the model 20x20x1.mdl.
Open the file 4points1.str.
Display the data as markers, and display the D1 field.
This is the data set we will use for estimating blocks in the model.
Display the Block Model menubar.
Ensure that you have opened the model 20x20x1.mdl.
From the Display menu, select Clear model colours.
From the Display menu, select Display block model.
Enter the data as shown below, and APPLY.
You should now see the model and the data displayed:
99
From the Estimation menu, select Ordinary kriging.
Enter the data as shown below, and APPLY each form.
100
APPLY the two following forms to overwrite the *.NOT file and the *.MDL file.
101
From the Display menu, select Colour model by attribute.
Select ok_zero_nugget as the attribute to color by, enter a range of 30,70,5 and APPLY.
The model, as estimated by ordinary kriging using a zero nugget effect is displayed:
102
From the Attributes menu, select View attributes for one block.
Note that attributes distance, avg_distance, num_samp, and krig_var have been added to
the model:
From the Estimation menu, select Ordinary kriging.
Enter the data as above, except on the last form, enter descretisation parameters of 2x2x1
before clicking APPLY:
Display the model coloured by the ok_zero_nugget attribute, as before.
Repeat the process of estimating and displaying the attribute ok_zero_nugget, but
using descretisation of 2x2x2 and 3x3x3.
1x1x1 2x2x1
2x2x2 3x3x3
The effect of descretisation on ordinary kriging estimation
103
Summary
You should understand how nugget, range, and descretisation points impact the outcome of
an ordinary kriging estimation.
Understanding how each of the many parameters associated with an individual estimation
method is no simple task. It usually will take some time, more research, and/or experience
with several data sets to grasp the concepts presented here.
104
Block size analysis
Overview

which contain estimated values. The points are representative of the centroid of a block of
material. The determination of the spacing between these points, or the block size is often a
critical factor in a geostatistical estimation. By evaluating two parameters derived from
ordinary kriging, you can determine the optimal block size. The ultimate selection of the block
size, however, may be based on other factors, such as minimum mining width.
The analysis of the block size is described in this chapter through the following:
4. Debug output from ordinary kriging

5. Using kriging efficiency and conditional bias slope
6. Block site selection
Requirements
• Surpac menubars
• ordinary kriging
105
1. Debug output from ordinary kriging
When using ordinary kriging to estimate values in a block model, the debug output will contain
two parameters which will be used in the analysis of block size.
Run the macro kriging_debug.tcl.
This macro:
1. creates a block model

2. performs ordinary kriging within a constraint to estimate a value for a single block
3. uses debug output in the report file
This output file, block_size.not will be displayed. Near the bottom of the file, you will see the
following parameters:
Estimated grade: 4.452

Kriging variance: 0.250
Twice std. dev.: 1.000
Block variance: 0.907
Kriging efficiency: 0.724
Slope of regression: 0.112
Lagrange multiplier: 0.053
Conditional bias slope: 0.930
The values of kriging efficiency and conditional bias slope are used in analysing block size.
block variance – kriging variance

Kriging Efficiency = block variance
Block variance – kriging variance + | lagrange multiplier |

Conditional Bias Slope = Block variance – kriging variance + 2x | lagrange multiplier |
106
2. Using kriging efficiency and conditional bias slope
Ideally, both the kriging efficiency and the conditional bias slope should have a value of 1.00.
In practice, this is impossible, but what can be done is to compare values of these two
parameters for a variety of block sizes.
To do this in Surpac, you would perform the following functions for a set of block sizes:
1. select the X, Y, and Z coordinates of a location where you wish to perform the analysis
2. select the X, Y, and Z block dimensions
3. create a block model using an origin such that the coordinates of the centroid of the first
block in the model are the same as the coordinates in step 1
4. performs ordinary kriging within a constraint to estimate a value for the first block
5. ensure “debug output” option is used in the report file
6. note the values for kriging efficiency and conditional bias slope in the debug file
Here is the data from the kriging_debug.tcl example:
1. coordinates to perform the analysis: Y=7340 X=1660 Z=110

2. block dimensions: Y=10 X=10 Z=10
3. block model origin: Y=7335 X=1655 Z=105
4. ordinary kriging within constraint: Y< 7345, X<1665, Z<115
5. debug output ticked
6. output file: block_size.not contained:
Estimated grade: 4.452

Kriging variance: 0.250
Twice std. dev.: 1.000
Block variance: 0.907
Kriging efficiency: 0.724
Slope of regression: 0.112
Lagrange multiplier: 0.053
Conditional bias slope: 0.930
Given these same data in step 1, here are some examples for a different block sizes
1. coordinates to perform the analysis: Y=7340 X=1660 Z=110

3. block model origin: Y=7335 X=1657.5 Z=107.5
4. ordinary kriging within constraint: Y< 7345., X<1662.5, Z<112.5

3. block model origin: Y=7337.5 X=1657.5 Z=109
4. ordinary kriging within constraint: Y< 7342., X<1662.5, Z<111

3. block model origin: Y=7339 X=1659 Z=109
4. ordinary kriging within constraint: Y< 7341., X<1661, Z<111
107
3. Block site selection
If your data is fairly regular, as is the case with the string file gold_cut17.str, you would want
to choose a location which is in the middle of the data.
Here is the block site location and string file data used in the kriging_debug.tcl example:
However, if there were one or more clusters within the data, you should perform the study at
each of several locations, each representative of different types of data clustering, as the
kriging efficiency and conditional bias slope are determined by block size and sample
locations near the block.
1. area representative of average sample spacing

2. within or near cluster #1
5. within or near cluster …
Kriging efficiency and conditional bias slope are not dependent upon sample values, but are
related to block size, sample locations, and variogram parameters.
Once you have determined an optimal block size, you can use the procedure described here
to compare other factors, such as maximum number of samples, search radius, and
discretisation points.
Summary
You should understand how to obtain values for kriging efficiency and conditional bias slope,
and the procedure for optimising a set of block sizes.
108
Model validation
Overview
An important step in a geostatistical evaluation is to validate the model after it has been
created. There are several means of performing this:
1. Comparing cross-sectional data with model values

2. Grade-tonnage curves from block model reports
3. Basic statistics of model values
4. Trend analysis
Requirements
• Surpac menubars
• ordinary kriging
109
1. Comparing cross-sectional data with model
One method of validating a model is to view cross-sections of it compared to other data.
Run the macro _15a_display_partial_percent.tcl.
This macro will display a cross-section of a 3D solid, and the calculated partial percentage of
blocks inside the solid:
Basically, you want to ensure that the values in the model appear to be correct. This does
appear to be the case: blocks entirely within the model have a partial percent value of 1.00
and blocks partially within the model have a partial percentage value between 0 and 1.00.
Run the macro _15b_display_blocks&composites.tcl.
This macro will display a cross-section of a 3D solid, raw and composited drillhole data, as
well as kriged values of blocks inside the solid:
Again, you want to check that block values and model values appear to be correct.
110
2. Grade-Tonnage curves
Another means of validating a model is to report tonnes and grade and construct a grade-
tonnage curve.
Run the macro _16a_bm_report.tcl.
This macro will perform block model reporting to create a *.CSV file containing grade and
tonnes. A pre-defined *.XLS file is displayed at the end with a graph of the grade-tonnage
curve.
APPLY each of the forms that is displayed:
111
The file grade_tonnage.xls has been prepared with a graph of the output data:
112
Basic statistics of the block model values is yet another way to validate the output from the
model.
Run the macro _12_bm_basic_stats.tcl.
This macro will display basic statistics on three block model parameters.
Ensure the form is filled out as displayed, then APPLY.
You will see a histogram displayed of the data.
113
4. Trend analysis
Basic statistics of the block model values is yet another way to validate the output from the
model.
Run the macro _16b_export_centroids.tcl, and APPLY the forms:
When the data has been exported, you will see the data in graphics:
114
Run the macro _16c_bm_vs_composites.tcl.
This macro performs the function TREND ANALYSIS, which can be found under the
Geostatistics menu. Note that there are two tabs on the form which is displayed. The main
tab contains the names of the file(s) to be analysed:
And the “Co-ordinate Constraints” tab allows you to specify a range of coordinate values.
In this case, we want to compare the downhole composite values against the block centroids
for a range of northings.
APPLY the form when you have reviewed it.
115
The previously prepared file bm_vs_composites.xls contains the data and a graph:
Trend analysis can be used to identify regions where block model estimations may be
different to the composited data.
Summary
You should understand how to validate a model after it has been created, using the following
techniques:
1. Comparing cross-sectional data with model values

2. Grade-tonnage curves from block model reports
4. Trend analysis
116

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Surpac Minex Group Pty Ltd

About This Manual

Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................... 3

• have some understanding of basic statistics

1. Understand the domains

2. Check the input data

3. Understand the estimation method and parameters

4. Check the output model

Prior to performing the exercises in this chapter, you should:

• know how to use Windows Explorer to create a directory

1. Create a work directory

For example, you could create the directory:

2. Copy/download zip file

The following concepts will be presented in this chapter:

1. Estimation without domains

Prior to proceeding with this chapter, you should:

• understand what Surpac string and DTM files are

What is the temperature at location X?

Would you go to the beach?

Open the file all_composites2.str and display as markers.

3. Extracting data with a domain in Surpac

Run the macro 01_create_downhole_composites.tcl

A geostatistical analysis of data in a drillhole database generally starts with compositing a

After viewing the form below, click APPLY.

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2 meter composites inside QV1 zone

One of the important preliminary steps in performing a geostatistical evaluation is to have a

The following concepts will be presented in this chapter:

1. Using a histogram to identify a bimodal distribution

Prior to proceeding with this chapter, you should:

• be familiar with Surpac string files

Gold (g/t) Number of samples

This same data can be displayed in a histogram as:

Histogram of gold grades

Another alternative is to remove the outlier value(s).

Run the macro 02_basic_statistics.tcl.

Basic Statistics on gold_comp2.str

Basic statistics histogram and report

Output Filename: raw_gold

File Gold Comp2.str

Number of samples 335

25.0 Percentile 1.658

Run the macro 03_cut_outliers.tcl.

A confidence interval is an estimated range of values which is likely to include a given

The D1 field will receive the result of the expression:

This expression can be reworded as:

If the initial value of d1 is greater than 17,

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Using string maths to cut outliers

Basic Statistics on the “cut” data set

Percentile range definition

Output Filename: gold_cut17

File Gold Cut17.str

Number of samples 335

25.0 Percentile 1.658

An important aspect of performing any geostatistical evaluation is to understand how data

1. Isotropy vs. anisotropy

Prior to proceeding with this chapter, you should:

• understand Surpac string files, and how to display them

No Anisotropy 2:1 Anisotropy

2:1 Anisotropy 5:1 Anisotropy

( sample value1 * weight1 ) + ( sample value2 * weight2 ) = block value