CHAPTER -2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction

In India, the area covered by expansive soils popularly known ils black cotton soils, is

nearly 20% of the total land area. These soils are mostly residual in cliacrctcr and the thickness

of the deposit is not large, less than 3.5m in most cases. These soils swell on imhihation of

water during the wet season, reduce in density, and become slushy. But, in dry scasons, they

shrink because of evaporation of water, and become hard due to increas in density. This trend

in these soils tends to decrease wilh depth (Katti, 1978). 'Ibc volun~etricddi)rniatior in these

soils is attributed to seasonal variations in the ground water profile resulting in changes in the

moisture content (Rees and Thomas, 1993). During summer polygolial shrinkage cracks

appear on the surface, extending to a depth of ahout 2m, indicating a high potential for

expansion and contraction (Mohan, 1977). 'The depth of cracking indicates the depth of active

zone in which significant volumc changcs occur, and is defined as the thickness of soil in

which moisture deficiency (suction) exists (Snethcn. 1980). The entire stratum of expansive

soil in the field may not be active. As most soils do riot respond quickly enough to climate

changes, the depth of active zone may be greater than the depth of seasonal moisture

fluctuation (Jenninys, 1965; Snethen, 1980).

 Katti (1978) observed that. in Indian expansive soils. the depth of active zone is confined

only to the top 1.0 to I.2m and that there will nut he my chmge in the dry density

corresponding to changes in moisture content. Rhandnri rt al (1987) observed that, in csrlnin

areas, the depth of active zone might extend upto 4.5 to 5.0 nl also.

Two important terms related to swelling soils need to he introduced and defined here.

They are swelling potential and swell pressure.

Swelling potential: Swell potential is the ratio of the incrcasc in thickness to thc original

thickness of soil sample in a consolidation ring. compacted at optimum moisture content.

soaked in water under a surcharge of 6.9 k Pa (1 psi). 'I'his is cxpresscd as a prcaitagc.

% swell is the ratio of the increase in thickncss to tile initial thickncss expressed as a

percentage of an undisturbed soil when inundated under water under a surcharge equal lo the

field overburden pressure.

Swellpressure: The pressure required to be applied on the soil specimcn corresponding to zero

volume change.

2.2 Problems rviflr Expansive soils

Expansive soil in the foundation is a hidden dinstcr for illmost all the types of civil

endneering structures. The effects can be disastrous it' expansive soils supporting structures

we allowed to become too wet or too dry. Expansive soil expands and contracts due to

changes in moisture content of the soil, causing structural problems through differential
movement of the structure. If the moisture content andlor soil type dityers a1 various locations

under the foundation, localized or non-unifonii niove~lietitliiay occur in tlic structure. 'This

isolated movement of sections of the structure can cause damage the foundation and

framing, evidenced by cracking in the exterior or interior wall covering (indicating movement

of the framing,) uneven floors andlor misaligned doors and windows.

Moisture can move from outside to under the foundation due to th~rtiii~l
gri~dicnt.Watcr i\s

well as water vapour can move horizontally througli the soils undcr the foundation. Waler

vapour at a temperature higher than its surroundings will nligratc towards thc coolcr area to

equalize the thermal energy of the two areas. When water reaches the coolcr arca, generally

the covered area beneath the structure, condensation takcs place and initiates swelling.

Shrinking and swelling soil motions can lead to damagi~iythc foundation. Unilbr~iichanges in

soil moisture are less damaging to the structure than localized changes.

The pattern of moisture migration also depends on geological fcalures, climatic conditions,

topographical features, soil types, ground water level etc. Moisture movcment in soil takcs

place both in the liquid phase and in the vapour phase.

2.2.1 Damages to buildings

Buildings present the most obvious cases of damage caused by swclliny and shrinkage of

foundation clays. Light structures resting on footings or piles penetrating the more active clays

badly crack by foundation movements in both horizontal and vertical directions. Fills under

floors heave, damaging floors and grade beams. In some cases, piles completely shear off.
2.2.2Damages to pavements

The roads that pws through expansive soil sub-grade arr suhjectrd 1Laving and

shrinkage settlement of these treacherous soils. This results in inepularitics. cr:tcking ;md

rutting of pavement surface.

2.2.3 Damages to canals

Both the lined and unlined canals are subjected to the vagaries of expansive clays. 'l'hc

unlined canal slopes erode and become soft. Canal beds heave up obstructing thc Sunctioning

of canal. The concrete linings splinter like glass pieces on account of dclctcrious cyclic

movement of background swelling clay. This results in seepage losses.

2.2.4 Dnmages to conduits and retaining wu1l.s

Conduits such as water supply lines and drainage pipcs are subjcctcd to both lalcril and

vertical movements, which causes leakage through them. Severe distortion of basement and

retaining walls are reported due to enormous lateral swelling pressures.

2.2.5 lndicalors of expansive soil movements

Exterior Indicators:

Cracks in bricks or stonewalls. Cracks may go through brick or mortar and vary in

width.

Sagging brick lines when sighted along a wall.

8 Bowed or non-vertical walls.

Separation of wood trim joints at corners.

Separation of concrete driveway, patio or sidewalks from foundation.

Tilting of retaining walls.

Interior Indicators:

r Cracks in sheetrock walls or ceilings.

Bowed or non-vertical walls.

Wall separating from the floor or ceiling.

Cracks at wall comers.

Cracks above the doors.

8 Sticking doors or windows.

Sloping floor surface, cracks in ceramic tile.

Cracks in concrete floor 1116 inch across or wider.

 Expansive soils can be identified hy their mineralogical composition, index properties

suction measurements or direct measurement of s\veIling chanc~eristics.

The degree of volume change expcricnccd hy an expl~nsivcsoil depends to a gwat extent,

on its minernlogical composition. The three basic groups ol' clay mincral ilrc ~~~ontn~orillonite.

illite and koalinite. Expansive soils are usually composed of tllcse clay nlincrals (Omri and

Hamodi, 1991). The presence of montmorillonite, which has an expanding latticc. contributes

most to swelling, while that of illite contributes n little Icss, clcarly indicating the dcgrec of

expansiveness of a clay soil (Shreiner, 1987). Kaolinitics, on thc other hand. arc non-

expansive in nature.

The various techniques employed to determine tlx mincraloyical composition arc X-ray

diffraction, differential thermal analysis, dye absorption, chemical analysis and elcctron

microscope resolution. The X-ray diffraction kchnique gjves the proportions ul' lhe various

minerals present in the colloidal clay fraction, and the electron microscope resolution helps to

determine the texture and internal structure of the mincral.

Table 2.1 Shrinkage facton as a guide to potential expansion (Altmeyer, 1955)

Shrinkage limit
-
Linear shrinkage Probable swell Degree of expulsion
(%) (%)
- -
<lo >8 Critical

10-12 5-8 0.5-1.5 Marginal

>I2 <5 4.5 Non-critical

.- --- -
----.

Holtz and Gibbs (1956) developed a sinlplc tcst called thc free swell lest for the

determination of swell potential o f a soil. 'I'he tcst w ~ sperformed by pouring lOm1 of dry soil

passing 425-micron sieve into a graduated cylindrical glass jar of 100 ml capi~cityfilled with

water and observing the swollen volume. The free swell is exprrsscd as thc ratio of increase in

the volume to the original volume of the soil and is cxprcsscd as a pcrccntage. Soils having a

tive swell of 100% or more, damage light struclurcs and thosc having a frcc swell of less than

50% do not pose serious problems to struclurcs.

Mohan and Goel (1959) suggested a more convenient mcthod, which was latcr adopted by

Indian Standards Institution (IS: 2720,Part XL, 1977). In this method, 10g instcad of 10ml of

oven-dried soil passing 425 pm sievc is poured scparately into two graduated cyli~ldricalglass

jars of 100ml capacity, one containing distilled water and the other kerosene. After 24hours,

the t'nal volumes o f the soil in the two cyhders arc noted The diffirentialfiec swell,which

was later, re-designated as free swell index, FSI (IS: 2720,l'an XI., 1977), expressed as a

percentage, is given as,

 F.S.I= [(VS- Vk)Nk]x I00 (2.1)
Where, Vk = Final volume of the soil in kerosene. which is a non-polar liquid, and

Vs= Final volume of the soil in water which causes swrlling of thr soil.

According to Mohan and Goel (1959). a soil with a FSI of 50% or more has a very higli

swelling potential, and that with an FSI of 20% or less has a low swclling potential.

Holtz (1959) proposed some identification criteria hased on the probable volu~llechiinye in

expansive soils, which is the percentage change in the thickrless of the sample from oedornctcr

swell test under surcharge of 6.9 k Pa or 1 p.s.i from the air-dry conditiorl to saturation. 'I'o

calculate the probable expansion, the three pmpenies of soil given in Table 2.2., in which (he

classification is also given, should be considered sirnullaneously.

Table 2.2 Data for estimating probable volume changu (Holtz, 1959)

Colloidal content Plasticity index Shrinkage limit Ilcgrcc of expansion

-
(% 1pm) (%)
. ---
r28 >35 Vcry high

20-3 1 25-41 7-12

13-23 15-28 10-16 Medium

€1 5 4 8 >15 Low
-.--- .-..--
 Ranganatham and Satyanarayana (1965) proposed a relationship between swelling

~otential(S.P) and shrinkage index (S.1). Based on this relationship. the dcgrce of expansiolris

classified as shown in Table 2.3

Table 2.3 Degree of expansion based on shrinkage index (Ranganatham and

Satyanarayana, 1965)
-- -- -. . . . ,

Shrinkage index (%) Swell potential (%) under Degree ot'rxpansion

a surcharge of 6.9 k Pa
..- -.
<20 <I0 1.0~

20-30 10-20 Mediunl

30-60 20-30 High

>60 >30 Very high

-

Chen (1975) gave a relationship for the percentage swell of undislurbcd soil in krms of

plasticity index (PI) conducted using surcharge pressure as 6.9 k Pa. The water contcnt varied

between 15 and 20% and the dry density betwecn 1.6 and 1.76 Mg/cu.m as follows:
S % = B e A(P1)

Where A and B are constants whose values were given as 0.0838 and 0.2558 rcspcclivel~.

Mohan (1977) categorized degree of expansion based on liquid limit, plaslicity indcx,

shrinkage index and colloid content as shown in 'Table 2.4.

Table 2.4 Degree of expansion based on liquid limit, plartirily index, shrinkage
and colloid content (Mohan, 1977)

Plasticity Shrinkage Colloid Degree

limit (WI) index (I,) index content expansion

>32 >60

50-70 23-32 30-60 20-31 I Iigh Criiical

35-50 12-23 15-30 13-23 Medium

20-35 4 2 45 Low Non-critical

- ,. .. . - .- ...-. . . . .

Shrinkage index in the above table is defined as the difference between liquid liniit and

shrinkage limit, while colloid content represents the soil fraction finer than 0.001 mm. Murthy

and Raman (1977) defined a term "swelling index"(1,). based OII this, degree of

expansiveness is classified as shown in Table2.5.

Table 2.5 Degree of expansiveness based on swelling index (Murthy and Kamiln, 1977)

1
_ . . _ _ _. _ --
Swelling Index ( I d Degree of expansiveness
. . . -

0-0.1 Low
0.1-0.2 Medium
0.2-0.5 High
0.5.75 Very high
0.75-1.0 Extrd high

Williams and Doneldson (1980) classified the degree of expansiveness colisidering the

pl&city index of the whole sample, p.Iw,.The classification is shown in 1'abll. 2.6-The
Indian Standard Institute, now called Bureau of Indian Standards has adopted the classification

criteria suggested by Mohan (1977) with a modification according to which thc colloid content

is replaced with free swell index, as shown in Table 2.7.

Table 2.6 Degree of expansiveness based on plasticity index of whole sample

(Williams and Donaldson)
...... .- -.....
P.1 of whole san~ple
l- ...-..-....
Dcgrec of cxpansivcncss -
- ...............

Very High

12-24 Medium
I.0w
-........... .........-.. ............ ..

Table 2.7 Degree of expansion bared on free swell index (F.S.1)

.- - -- - .- ..

I
Liquid

I
Plasticity Shrinkage Free Swcll llcgrcc of' 1)cgrcv of'
1
limit ("h) index (%)
l index (%)
indcx (%) cxpansion
...... .- ... ..

>200 Very high Scvcrc

100-200 l ligh Critical
50- 100 Medium Marginal

<so I .ow
--.--..--
Non-critical
J
Correlarionsfrom index propcrlie~

Seed, Woodword and Lundgren (1962) proposed a relationship between swell potential

(S.P)and plasticity index (Ip) where swell potential is the ratio of the increase in thickness to
h e original thickness of. soil sample in a consolidalion ring, compacted at optimum moisture
content, soaked in water under a surcharge of 6.9 k Pa ( I psi). This is expressed as a

percentage. Seed et al(1962) gave m expression tijr s~rcllpotaitiiil (S.P)it) ternis of activity

(A) and clay content (C) as.

SSP=3.6 X lo-' A c ~ . ~ ~ (L1)

2.3.3Soil suction

Soil suction is one of the intrinsic propcrlics. which charactcrizcs an expansive soil aid

indicates the affinity a soil has for watcr (Snethen. 1979). It is ij mcasurc of thc dcficicncy of

moisture in a soil and its capacity to attract watcr into its pores.

The total soil suction is the sum of the matrix suction or capillary potcntinl and thc os~notic

(solute) suction. The capillary potential is equivalent to thc negative porc pressure and is ofcn

identified in terms of suction in an unsaturated soil. Volumetric chlmgcs respond to changes in

capillary potential (Rees and Thomas, 1993). Because of' this ncgativc porc prcssurc.

expansive soils have remarkable affinity for watcr. Ilcncc. soil suction is a li~ndamcntal

parameter to evaluate wetting (Kenneth et al, 1903). I lowcver, in soils compacted at a water

content below plastic limit, suction has no significant cffecl on thc rate ofadvancc of wetting

front. At water content higher than the planic limit, suction has a control over thc rate of

wetting (Weisberg et al, 1990).

Several researchers (Richards, 1967; Ajtchison, 1973; Brackluy, 1980; Johnson, 1981;

Snethen, 1980) evaluated swell based on the relationships bctwcen suction and watcr content.

Swelling is linearly proportional to the water content (Dhowian, 1990). Dhowian (1992)
developed a suction-potential model to estimate suction as a function of time, swelling nnd

depth. Suction can be measured by the filter-paper method (Me Kccn, 1988). in which the soil

sample placed in the presence of filter paper is allowed to cquilihratc ruld the watcr content of'

filter paper measured. The suction of the soil sample can be ohtaincd fro111a calibration curve

for the filter paper. Suction depends on the void ratio in the mngc of low values of suction

(Keissar et a], 1990).

2.3.4 Prediction of swelling characrerisrics based on plucemenr ~.ondi~ions

Placement conditions, which include surcharge, water content and dry dcnsi~yof the soil,

have a bearing on the percentage swell and swell pressure. 'rhc efkct ol'dillkrcnt plilccnlent

conditions is explained below:

S~rrchargeload and stress history: The increase in surcharge load on an cxpansivc soil rcduccs

the swell. For in situ conditions, any form of overburdcn on thc soil will eliminate swcll. Swell

pressure measured depends on initial surcharge applied on the specilnen (Satyanarayana,

1966). But, according to Chen (1 973) and Srirarna Rao ( 1 984), it is indepcndcnt of surcharge.

Initial u'ry density and water content: Both swelling potential and swcll pressure increase with

increase in dry density (Ranganatham and Satyanarayana, 1965). According to

Satyanarayana(l966), and Vijayavergiya and Cihazzaly(l9731, thc initial moisture: conlent

affects swelling pressure whereas, according to (:hen( 1973) and Brackluy(1978). it does not.

The lower the initial water content, higher will be the suction and the consequent volume

change.
Method of compactjon: Statically compacted spcin~cnsSIVCII nlorr. thm those compacled by
kneading (Parcher and Liu, 1965).

Some more factors that influence the swelling chamcteristics are sidc tiic~icln(1'1 S ~ y c dct

al, 1986), size of specimen (Uppal and Palil. 1069; IS1 Saycd CI al. 1986) a l ~ ddcfirmi~hilityof

oedometer (Fredlund, 1982; El Shoby et al, 1989)

2.3.5 Indirect measurement qfpertunl swclll cmrl s~cellIjrcl.ssrcrclht~setlrrri c~orr~1~rrioti.v

Komornik and David (1969) proposed thc following correlation ti)r swclling prcssurc of

undisturbed clays.

Log p,= -2.132 + 0.0208 W,+ 0.000665 y~ -0.0260 W, (2.3)

Where p, is the swell pressure in kg/cni2

wl is the liquid limit of the soils.

yd is the initial dry density in kgcu.m and

wi is the initial water content (%)

Vijayavergiya and Ghazaly (1973) proposed the following correlations Ihr undisturbed

samples tested under a surcharge of 10 k Pa

Log S = 1/19.5(yd + 0.65 WI -130.5) or, (2.4)

log S= I/12(0.4wl -wi +5.5) (2.5)

Where 'S' is the percentage swell

WI is the liquid limit (%) of the soils.

yd is the dry density of soil in Iblcu.ft

 WI is the natural water content (YO)

Log PS = 1119.5(yd + 0.65 wl-1 39.5) or. (2.6)

log p, = 1/12(0,4 wl -w, t0.4) (2.7)

Where p, is the swelling pressure in ~sq.fi

Nagak and Christensen (1974) gave statis~icalrclationslrips tijr sucllillg potcntial uld

swell pressure as.

S.P = (2.29 X loa2)(I,)'.~.'(CIW,)1 6.39

and p, = (2.5 X 10") (I,)' '* (c/w,)' t 25

Where, S.P. is the swelling potential (%).

p, is the swell pressure (KNIIII')

I, is the plasticity index

C is the clay content and

wi is the initial water contcnt (96)

Rao et a1 (2004) proposed relationships for predicting swelling potcntial and swell prcssurc of

remoulded and compacted expansive soils using I:SI and placcrllcllt conditions. lliised on thc

analysis of experimental data from the soil specinlens, a gcncralized equation fbr both

swelling potential (S) and swell pressurc (p,) is given as

S (%) = a1 yd, - blwl - clq, 41(FSI) - KI (2.10)

Log p, -
= a2 ydl b2w, .+.d2 (FSI) - K2 (2.1 1 )

Where, S is thc swell percent,

p, is the swell pressure,

ydi is the initial dry unit weight,

 FSI is the free swell index,

w,is the initial water content (%) and

K,and K2 are constants.

Values of constants are as follows a, = 4.24, h,= 0.47. clL=0.11, dl- 0.06. K1255,

a2 = 0.30, b2= 0.02, d2 = 0.005, Kr=3

2.3.6 Direct measurement ofpercenr swcll

The most convenient method of determining the swelling characteristics of cxpaasive

clays is by direct measurement in the laboratory. For delcm~inirtion01' percent swell, the soil

specimen is sandwiched between two porous stones and conlincd in an ocdometcr ring. 'l'he

sample is inundated with water. Water enters both from lop and bottom. 'fhc final increase in

the thickness of the sample following imbibation of water hy the soil specitllc~lis recorded and

reported as a percent of the original thickness,

2.3.7Direct meusurement of swellpressure

The swell pressure of an expansive soil is determined by the following three methods in

the laboratory:

(i) the method of different surcharges

(ii) the constant volume method, and

(iii) the free swcll method

Based on the method of determination, swelling pressure is defined (Jennings, 1965) as,
that the stress path is not an imponant factor in the deteniiinatioti of thc prccnl swell. even

though Brackley (1975) and Sullivan and Mc Clelland (1900) r ~ i ~ p h a s IS

i ~in~portance.
s

2.4 Foundation Practices

2.4.1 Techniques lo Minimize Heove

A low value of safe bearing capacity was recomnlentled. apparently hccausc the poor

performance of the foundations was ascribcd to poor supporting power of ths soil. 'I'his

however, only helped to aggravate the problem, since foundations drsigtied fbr such a sniull

bearing pressure were totally unable to counteract the swclling prcssurrs gcncrotrd by ~ h s

swelling of the expansive soil.

In fact, an attempt should be made to design the foundations for i ~ high

s a hearing prossurc

as possible, consistent with the bearing capacity and settlement rcquircments. It is intercs~iny

to note that it is seldom heavily loaded structures that havc problems with swclling sc~ilswhile

it is the lightly loaded single-storied and two storied buildings, which cxpcricncc maxinium

damage.

Some of the methods that minimize the heave in expansive soils may bc

Moisture control

Soil stabilization

Alteration techniques
Moisture Control

It is the removal of free water, which may seep into a building bu~~dihtiijn
by providing
surface drainage and properly installed subsurface drainage systems. Vapour harriers also have
been used with only a limited degree of success (Chen. 1075).

Surface drainuge

Ground surface should be graded such that surt'itcc water will driiin away from thc

structure. But this is not satisfied due to cost, lirnited property size m ~ other
d reasons. Mois~urc

change at the perimeter level appears to he die 111ost significnnl contrihutclr to dalnage. For

this, sprinkling system, vegetation, roof drain, interior plumbing including sower and water

lines etc., should be checked carefully.

Sub-surface druinuge

Intercepting drains are effective in minimizing the wetting of Bc fotmda~ionsoils where

the wetting is due to the gravity flow of fiee water in a subsurfice pervious layer such as a

layer of gravel or fissured clay. Also, perched water tablc condition can develop in areas

where bedrock is shallow. Surface water accumulated from yard irrigation will not pcrmcate

the bedrock a d can create a local perched water condition. The installation or a subsurface

drainage system around the perimeter of the lower lcvel of a structure can protect against

infiltration from perched water.

 Horizontal moisture barriers

Horizontal moisture barriers can be installed around a huildillg in the li,rn~of mrn~hmnes.

rigid paving or flexible paving. The purpose of the horizontal barriers is to prevent excessive

intake of surface moisture. A widely used horizontal nioisturc bamer is u combinalion of a

polyethylene membrane extending beyond the limits of backfill and loose ynvcl plirccd on top

of the membrane. The purpose is to prevent surface water from seeping rhrouph thc hacktill

into the building or structure and to prevent the growth of weeds. Concrete aprons and usphall

membranes are also used.

Vertical moisture barriers

Vertical moisture barriers are used around the perimeter of the huilding to cut off the

source of water that may enter the soil under the slabs. 'll~eoretically,vertical birriers an: morc

effective than horizontal barriers in minimizing seasonal drying and shrinking of thc perinlelcr

foundation soils as well as maintaining long-term uniform moisture conditions beneath the

covered area.

However, in view of the high cost involved in the installation of a vertical moisture

barrier, especially where great depth is required, it is doubtful thi~lsuch an inslallation is of

sufficient merit to wmant the expense.

2.4.2 Soil stabilization

The swelling potential of expansive clay CM be n~inimizedor eomp\etcly climi~madhy

any one of the methods.

Prewetting

Prewetting theory is based on the assumption lha~if soil is ;~llowedto swsll by

wetting prior to construction and if the high soil moisture content is mainkaincd, tllc soil

volume will remain essentially constant, achieving a no-heave state and thcrcfi)rc slr~~ctural

damage will not occur. From a construction point of view, the time rcquirc for prcwclting can

be critical.

Compaction

The amount of swelling that occurs when a s~ructural till is exposed to

additional moisture depends upon [he compacted dry dcnsi~y.It can bc secn thal cxpa~isive

clays expand very little when compacted at low dcnsities and high lnoisturc but sxpand grcatly

when compacted at high densities and low moistures.

 A simple and easy solution for slnhs and fiwtirlgs tbundd on cspnnsi~csoils is

to replace the foundation soil with non-swelling soils.

The selection of the particular non-expansive tiraterial is Jilficult. Sonic of the

known practices are:

Physical alteration

Chemical alteration

Mechanical alteration

Physical ullerrr~ion

Physical alteration involves atlenipts to minimkc swelling po~cntial of

expansive clays by mixing them with granular material. 'l'his results only in a marginill

reduction of swell potential but nothing is done to modify or altor tlic csp;insivc nature of c l ~ y

minerals. Further, it has the disadvantagc that ingress of wklter is Sister duc to increased

permeability. Hence, the method has not found much favour.

Addition of chemicals to altcr the characteristics of clay minerals or clay-water

system to reduce the potential expansiveness of the soil is one of the practices generally

adopted. 'The use ot' li~ncto stabilize soil stands out as thc most effective additive for

' :**;-
&. -..::.-.I..
modification of expansive clays in view of its economy. clkctivaless and practicalify. It is

generally recognized that the addition of linle to espansive clays will wducc thc pliisti~ityof

the soil and hence its swelling potential. Besides the usc of lime, cement stithilitaion is also

used. Of course, the cost of cement is considerably more than that of tl~climc.

Mechanicul ulrercrrion

When the depth of the expansive soil layer is small, it can hc cscnvatcd and rcplnced

with a suitable material, provided the latter is available as rcquired,

2.4.4 Speciuljoundu~iontechniques

Drilled piers

The drilled pier foundation (Fig. 2.1) is used to tr;lnsfcr thc struc~urilload from an

upper unstable soil to the lower stable soil. The use of drilled picr foundation covers il wide

range of possibilities. It is a rational solution to combat thc prohlcm of cxpansive soils.

However, the design must be closely controlled.

The rational formula for the total uplifiing forces of the soils surrounding the pier is

as follows:

U = 2nrfu (D-d) (2.12)

The withholding force that keeps a pier from pulling out of the ground is as follows:

W=n?p + 2 m d (2.13)

Where
= radius of the pier.

= depth of the zone of soils unalTcctrd hy wc~tinp.

= total length of thc picr.
= swelling pressure.
= coefficient of uplilt k t w e a l concrctr: wid soil.
= total uplilting force.
= Active zone
= unit dead load pressure
= skin fric~ion

= total withholding tbrcc

Dead load pressure

Belled piers

Piers drilled into materials other than kdrock arc ottci~enlilrgtd i\t tlie h>ttom of the

hole for the purpose of increasing the bearing area, tl~usincreasing the total load-carrying

capacity.

The uplift forces exerted on the belled pier system (I:ip.2.3) is resis~edby

U=P+Fw+Fs (1.14)

Whcrc, U = total uplifting force due to the swelling ofthe soils surrou~idi~ig
the

pier shaft in the unwctted m e

P = total vertical pressure exerted on thc pier.

Fw = total weight of thc soil above the hcll.

Fs= total shearing resistance along the lint of fililure in thc unwctlcd zonc.

R = radius of the top of the fruslum

b a d load pressure

L I I
I I
I I

Assumed cuculsr
plane of failure

e
2R
-
Fl(; 2.2 BELLED PIER
 . ~-
H Y D ~ R A U , + L ) - .t i.. : ~
.

Under-reamed piles .....WkA..pmp

.....-.........K3...'*.
a,,
No..,.&
N 4 0 --.I.

Among the special foundation trch~~iqucsudoptcd, thc under-rcamed pile

foundations (Fig.2.3) have been researuhsd sstensively hy tire Ct3lil (C'entrul Ruilding

Research Institute) and designed for use under Indian conditions. 'l'lle principls iovolvcd is to

transfer the load of a building through the pilcs to a depth hcgontl tllc ir.cl~rcot' ssasanal

variation in moisture content. This depth is about 3.5m Sbr black cotton soils in <'sntr;ll Indin.

The under-reamed piles are bored cast -in-situ piles with their lowsr portions snlurgud or

reamed in the form of a bulb.

The most prominent disadvantage of hulled picrs is the cost ;md 111stlillis~~lty
ol'

inspection. Further bulbs cannot be forrncd in all typcs of soils. 'l'hc soil must I ~ i ~ vsonw
s

cohesion. Since sands cannot take negative slopc. it is ditlicult t o li)nn hulhs in s;urly soils.

Construction of under-reamed piles may not bc possiblc For untri~incdIi~hour.'1'11~ shaft of'e

belled pier must be sufficiently large to allow cleanoul and inspection.

plinth beam

Fig 2.3 UNDER REAMED PILE-PLINTH BEAM SECTION

Grunulur Pile-An~~hur
(GPA)

In this technique ((Phani Kunlar et al. 2004: Ilayakar t3ahu. 7000) tlic hundution is

anchored at the bottom of the granular pile to a mild stcc.1 plutc. through iI ccmral mild stecl rod

(Fig 2.4). This serves to hold the particulate granular niedit~ni,prevent [lie granular pile fro111

in nlahilizi~lg111stiis~ional
being sheared away by the swelling soil and is thus instru~~icntul

resistance to counter the uplift force on the f1)undaiion. 'nlc uplilt I'orcc is rcsistcd by the

weight of the granular pile and the frictional resistance between pile and the soil. (Pip 2.4(o))

Fig 2.4 GRANULAR PILE-ANCHOR

 - Df
-
L
- Fiwtinp

1f 1f 11 : 11111 r- Mobilized s~vcll

Resistance to uplift
--I : J Anchor rod

1 +-- --+
A n c h ~ ~pli~tc
r

4,
Fig 2.4(a) Forces acting on a Granular I'ile-Anchur

The resistance due to uplift, FII, is given by

Where, Wp = weight of the granular pile.

o s = mean swell pressure.
K, = coeficient of lateral swell pressure.
o voi = mean effective over burden pressure.
K = coefficient of lateral earth pressure.
4' = effective angle of friction between the column nlaterial and thc swclliny soil.
c' = effective between the colun~nmaterial and the swclljnp soil.
Dgp= Diameter of the granular pile.
Dr= Width of the footing
L,, = length of the granular pile.
Sand cushion method

In this method (Fig. 2.5), the entire depth of tIm erpmsin. st~ilslralu. or piin of il
is removed and replaced with a sand cushion. compacted lo the desind density and tl~ickmless,

Fig.2.5 SAND CUSHION METHOI)

Swell pressure varies inversely as the thickness of the sand layer and directly as its

density. Therefore, generally sand cushions are formed in their Iooscst possihlc stute without.

however, violating the bearing capacity criterion. The basic advantage claimed in favour of the

sand cushion method is its ability to adapt itself to volume changes in the soil. In munsoon, the

saturated sand bed occupies less volume, thereby accommodating somc 01' the heave of the

expansive soil stratum. In summer, partial saturation of sand results in bulking and thus

occupies the extra space lefi by the shrinkage of the soil.tiowever, the sand cushion n~ethod

bristles with several limitations particularly when it is adopted in deep slrata. Most of' the
f ~ ~ ~ ~ d aengineers
t i o n ofien suggest some arbitrary thickness &r t l r sul~dcudlion ivitho~

consideration to the depth of the zone of potential rolunle change r.\\licll ieelt is dinicull e

determine. The high permeability of sand creates conditions cend~rircto ciisy erry md

accumulation of water from surface runoff or condensation of ~iiuisturek n n air througli

h~drogenization.As such, this technique is not generally rcconrmended tbr t;~undations01.

structures.

CNS layer method

Replacement by soils with relatively impervious material may, lo ii great cstcnl, ollbc~the

disadvantages of the sand cushion method. Katti (1978) has developed u tcclaiiyuc wllcrchy

removal of about lm of expansive soil and replacenlent by a cohesive non-swchling soil (('NS)

layer beneath foundations is claimed to produce satisfactory results. tic has adopted it hr

prevention of heave and resultant cracking of canal beds and li~~ings

and rcco~nn~nlds
it Ihr

use in foundations of residential buildings also. Rut the specifications for Ihc soil lo hc

considered as CNS material (Table 2.8) are hard to meel.

According to Katti, in an expansive soil system, during saturation, cohesive forces of

significant magnitude develop with depth, which are rcsponsiblc for redi~cinghcavc and

Counteracting swelling pressure. The behavior is mainly attributed a) tho influcncc of clccaical

charges present on the surface of clay particles on the dipolar naturc el water ~nolcculcs.

producing adsorbed water bonds that give rise to cohesion. Development of thca forces is

significant up to a depth of lm below the ground surface. Thus, if an environment similar lo

the one exiding at depth of lm in an expansive ail with eqi~ivatentcohesion is c m f c d
 FLOORING 7
1 LOAD

Fig. 2.6 COHESIVE NON-SWELLING LAYER METlIOI)

ensuring at the same time that the system itself does not swcll or cxcrt swell pressure, i.c., hy

replacing the top 1 to 1.2m with a cohesive non-swelling soil, it can counteract swcll in black

cotton soils. Such a system is termed as CNS layer. The C'NS layer, whilc coming in cc~ntacl

with expansive soil prior to saturation, develops electrical cnvironmcnt at lhc s ~ ~ r h c;~nd
c

below it. This environment and the weight of the CNS layer together hclp in developing

adsorbed water bonds during saturation. Cohesive bonds develop around lhc particles at a

faster rate than the ingress of water molecules into the interlayer of thc expanding lattice of

m~ntmorill~nite,
thereby reducing heave. Since CNS, upon saturation, becomes soh and lhc

footing, when rested on it fails by shear, a buffer cushion of MSM (Fig.2.6) is placed belwecn

the footing and CNS to prevent the failure (Katti and K a ~ i 1996).
,
 Despite the efficacy of CNS cushion. it is acconlpanied hy certain short-cumings. 'I'llcy

are:

The specifications for the soil to be considered as CNS nialcrial rue h i d to mt'el.

I, Use of MSM cushion over CNS entails additional cxpcnditure.

The CNS cushion provided on expansive soils is effective only for the ijrs! cyclc and

becomes less and less active and effec~iveafter that as was ohserved fronl the cxfcllsivc

studies carried out by Subba Kao (1999).

 Table 2.8. Specifications for soil to be considered
as CNS material(Katti and Kulli.1996)

-
$.No. Propenies
-.--
Grain size analysis:

Clay (<0.002mm), %
Silt (0.075-0.002mm), %
Sand (2-0.075mm), %
Gravel (>2mm), %
- -.. -
Consistency limits:
Liquid limit, % 30-50
Plastic limit, % 20-25
Plasticity index, % 10-25
Shrinkage limit, % I5 ;aid iihovc

Swelling pressure of samples compacted to S[)D under no

volume change condition,kg/cm2

3. 1 At zero moisture content

At OMC
-, -

Clay minerals
- - -
Shear strength of compacted samples to SIID a[ OM('
after saturation
a. Half UCS (kg /cm2)
b. Consolidated direct shear test at 0.0125 mmlmin.
cu (kg/cm2)
$u(deg)

I Approximate thickness of CNS layn I Ihirkntss (rm)

Swelling pressure of B.C soil (kg /cm2)
2.0-3.0
___-_ --
Swell-Shrink Cycles

Subba Rao (1999) worked exclusively on s\vcll-shritih c>clic hehit\ iuur ol'cspatrsivr soils.

He concluded that reasonable assessment o f swell-shrink pattern couplcd tvith lahnmtory

cyclic tests would help a great deal in understanding thc possihlc hcovcs ;md scttlann~t\.

He clearly demonstrated that, swell-shrink bchaviour of' C'NS cusliiclncd c i p i ~ ~ ~ ssoil

ivc

becomes less and less activc and effective aRer the first cyclc. C'NS soil dctinitcly helps in

absorbing some swelling potential in the first cyclc. AtLr\\iirds, the pcrlilrn~itnccol'cxpil~~hiir

soil plus CNS system becomes less impressive iind tnny cvcn hcconic \rorsc 11iii11 1Iii1101'

expansivc soil alone. Figs 2.7(a) to (c) show the swell-shrink cyclic hchaviour ol'cxpi~nsivc

clay beds provided with CNS cushion with diff'crcnl initial conditions. Iiig 2.8 show lhc cyclic

swcll-shrink behaviour of B.C soil with different CNS soil cushions.

 Fig.2.7(a) Swell-shrink movement (Type A), with all movcnlcnts
above the initial reference level

Fig 2.7(b) Swell-shrink movement (Type H). with cquilibrium

bandwidth above the initial reference lcvcl
Fig 2,7(c) Swell-shrink movement (Type C), with equilibrium
bandwidth spread over the initial reference lcvcl

Fig 2.7(d) Swell-shrink movement (Type D), with ~uilibrium

bandwidth entirely below the initial reference level
 0 5.-,: 4
__ - - ...
I i I
tU@h.., .r*ll.n I."., I~.LI.!v.rar.nc* I.". I
I
.5 -
3 pI

Equl~vb,t*m.d.r wren
rf
a :
5
>
.
-20 -
*--..-*.

" " ' - A'

-25 a

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 B 9 I O
Number ol cycles

Fig 2.7(e) Swell-shrink movement (Type E), with

all movements below the initial reference levcl
 The swell-shrink behaviour of any soil can span semss all types ilrr
ill I:igs.!.7 (I)
to (e), depending on several factors like initial conditions. survhrgc lrvrls. sacll-shrink

patterns etc. The nomenclatures used in the above figures are as Ibllo\~s.

1- llighest swollen level: It is the highest lcvel to which the spccilllcll sl,clls ill an)

the swell-shrink cycles.

2, Equilibrium swollen level: It is the swollcn levcl recordcd at cquilihritlIllstelt

, e, tvliicli

usually occurs after a few swell-shrink cycles.

3. Equilibrium shrunken level: It is the shrunken level of 111c spccinicri at cqt~ilihri~rm

state, which usually occurs after a few swell-shrink cyclcs.

4. Operating middle level: It is the lniddlc lcvcl hct\vc.cn cqnilihriuni s\\ollcn Ivvcl and

equilibrium shrunken levcl.

5. Equilibrium bandwidth: It is the bandwidth ol' vcrlicil displaccn~critill equilibrium

state between equilibrium swollen levcl and cquilibriu~iishrunken level.

6. Initial reference level: It is the initial level of'lhc spccimcli with rcspcct 10 which ill1

measurements are made.

7. Lowest shrunken level: It is the lowest level to which the specimen shrinks in any of

the swell-shrink cycle

8. Operating displacement: 11 is the level diffcrencc between opcritting middle ICVCI md

initial reference Icvel.

9. Extreme displacement: It is the cxtrcmc vcnical displilccmcnl recorded hy the

specimen.
 In design and performance of foundations in cxplll~ire~ ( ~ i or
l s c i l ~ rlruaurcs
l

expansive soils, a clear understanding of different modes and ill1 IcveIs of nlo\cllrcnls h t ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

necessary for any rational design.

2.5 Summary

Various foundation techniques have been devised to ovcrcolme the prclhlallscrciltcd

expansive soils. Under-reamed pile foundations have somc inherent l i t n i ~ ; ~\vitll

~ i ~rcg;tr(t
~i~

their construction. Sand cushion method failed due to difficullicsin tlls dcsipll (11. ~ ~ ~ i c ~ofl l s h s

sand cushion. Studies have indicated that CNS layer was less clTcc~ivcaiicr 11lc first cycle ol'

swelling and shrinkage. In the light of the shortcomings of the tecliniqucs. s~udicshave hccn

carried out in this thesis, using lime or cement-stabilized fly ash cushion li)r arresting Ilci~vc.

In the present work, lime-stabilized or cemcnt-stabilized fly ash cushion is Iilid hy varying

thickness ratios with respect to the soil thickness and the reduction in heave is sludied. Also

swell-shrink behaviour, strength and durability studies have bee11alrricd oul. '['he ~roccdllrc

adopted for the experimenlal investigation is discusscd in the chapter 4.

 In design and performance of foundations in c\panxi\c wils or arflh s\nlc1\lrc.s 011

expansive soils, a clear understandingof dilkrent modes a~idill1Ic\cls ol. ~ilo\enirn~s

hc~a~nc

necessary for any rational design.

2.5 Summary

Various foundation techniques havc bee11dcviscd to ovcrclrlllc lllcprohlcnls crcalcd hy

expansive soils. Under-reamed pile foundations have sonic. inh~n.nllilllililliorls \+;l)l

rcg;lrtl

their construction. Sand cushioli method failed due lo dillicul~ichin thc' dcsig~lt,ftl~icL~ic~s
oI'

sand cushion. Studies havc indicated that CNS I;l~cr\ci15 Icss cf't'cc~ivci~l\crtl~cfirst cjclc o f

swelling and shrinkage. In the light of thc shortco~iiingsoftlie tcchniclucs, studies Iiavc hccn

carried out inthis thesis, using lime or cement-stabilid fly ;ah cushion lilr ;lrrcsIing hcavc.

In the present work, lime-stnbilizod or ccmen~-stabilizedIly ash cusliion is laid hy varying

thickness ratios with respect to the soil thickliess and the rcductioll in hcavc is studied. Also

swell-shrink behaviour, strength and durability studics liavc beell c:~rricdoul. 'l'hc proccdllrc

adopted for the experimental investigation is discussed in the chapter 4.