Documente Academic
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June 2003
Published by:
This Financial Stability Review (FSR) is one the reports Bank Indonesia
provides to public in order to achieve its mission “to achieve and maintain stability of the Indonesian Rupiah
through maintaining monetary stability and promoting financial system stability for safeguarding long-term and
sustainable national development.”
This FSR document is also made in pdf format and is accessible at Bank Indonesia’s website at http://www.bi.go.id
Bank Indonesia
Directorate for Banking Research and Regulation
Financial System Stability Bureau
Jl. MH Thamrin No. 2, Jakarta, Indonesia
Tel: (+62-21) 381 7990, 7353
Fax: (+62-21) 2311 672
Email: BSSK@bi.go.id
fsr
Financial Stability Review
No. 1, June, 2003
CONTENTS
ii
Chapter 5 CAPITAL MARKET, 38 Chapter 7 CONCLUSION, 54
CONFIDENCE TO CAPITAL MARKET, 38
Mutual Funds, 39 ARTICLES
Impacts on Financial System Stability, 42 1. Redesigning Indonesia’s Crisis Management – S.
Bond Market, 46 Batunanggar
Stocks Market, 46 2. Market Risk in Indonesia Banks – Wimboh Santoso
& Enrico Hariantoro
Chapter 6 PAYMENT SYSTEMS IN INDONESIA, 51 3. An Empirical Analysis of Credit Migration In
RISKS IN PAYMENT SYSTEMS, 48 Indonesian Banking – Dadang Muljawan
Clearing System, 49 4. New Basel capital Accord : Its likely impacts on
Realtime Gross Settlement (RTGS), 49 the Indonesian banking industry – Indra Gunawan,
ROLE OF PAYMENT SYSTEMS IN THE STABILITY OF Bambang Arianto, G.A. Indira & Imansyah
FINANCIAL SYSTEM, 49
Payment Systems Oversight, 50
Risks in Clearing System, 50
Risks in RTGS, 50
iii
Ta b l e s 3.8. Maturity Profile of Government Bonds
3.9. Fixed Rate Government Bond vs SBI
3.1. Stress Test on Goverment budget (APBN) 3.10. Indonesia Government Bonds Rating and Yields
2003-04 3.11. Maturity Profile of Corporate Foreign Debt
3.2. Foreign Debt Indicators 3.12. Loans to SME and Non-SME
3.3. Indonesia Corporate yankee Bonds (Dec 2002) 3.13. Lending growth to SME By Type of Banks
4.1. Selected Items of Banks Balance Sheets 3.14. SME Loans by Type of Business Uses
4.2 Details of Loan 3.15. GDP by Sectors to Total GDP
4.3. NPL Stress Test 3.16. NPL by Sector
4.4. Distribution of Loans by Sector 4.1. Total Bank and Asset
4.5. 14 Large Banks’ Liquidity 4.2 Bank Securities and Loans
4.6. Maturity Profile of Assets and Liabilites of 13 4.3. Total Loans and NPL
large Banks, December 2002 4.4. NPL and Provisions for Loan Losses
4.7. Large Exchange Rate Stress Test of Large Bank 4.5. Non Performing Loan
to CAR 4.6. NPL Stress Test
4.8 Interest Rates Stress Test of large of Large 4.7. Loan Restructuring
Bank to CAR 4.8 Loan to Deposit Ratio
4.9. Trends of IDR and Foreign Exchange Loans
Figures 4.10. New Lending
4.11. Loans by Business Uses
3.1. Non-oil and Gas exports by Country Destination 4.12. Property Loan
3.2. US and JAPAN : GDP-Inflation 4.13. Deposit Growth
3.3 US and JAPAN : Current Account 4.14. Liquid Assets
3.4. US and Japan : Discount interest Rate and DJIA 4.15. Core & Non Core Deposit
& NIKKEI Indices 4.16. Stock Liquid Ratio
3.5. Direct and Portfolio Investments
3.6. Domestic Economic Indicators
3.7. Jakarta Composite and Property Sector Indices
iv
4.17. Maturity Profile of Time Deposit Boxes
4.18. Stress Test Exchange Rate
4.19. Interest Rates Stress Test 1. Causes and Process of Financial Crisis
4.20. Capital ratios 2. Bank Indonesia’s Strategy in Maintaining
4.21. CAR Evolution Financial Stability
4.22. Source of Interest Income 3. Pulp and Paper Industry
4.23. Net Earnings and ROA 4. Market Risks
4.24. Paid-up Capital and ROE 5. Yield Curve of Government Bonds
4.25. Interest Income 6. Mutual Funds
4.26. Asian Banks’ ROA 7. Risks in Payment Systems
4.27. Asian Banks’ NPL 8. Failure to Settle Scheme
4.28. Asian Banks’ CAR
5.1. Market Liquidity and Jakarta Composite Index
5.2. Development of Mutual Funds and Bank Deposit
5.3. Mutual Funds Growth
5.4. Development of Deposit vs Public Funds in
Mutual Funds
5.5 Development of YTM of Some Fixed-Rate Bonds
and SBI rate
5.6. Government Bonds by Portfolio
5.7. Financial Sector Stock Index
6.1 Real Time Gross Settlements, Clearing and Non-
cash Transactions
v
vi
FOREWORD
The financial crises that took place in almost all corners of the world, Indonesia included, have
driven growing awareness on the importance of financial system stability. Instability in a financial system
brings in adverse implications such as lower economic growth, loss of domestic productivity and gigantic
fiscal cost. Based on these adverse experiences, it is imperative that financial system stability is maintained
for the interests of the public.
Financial stability is basically avoidance of financial crisis. Maintaining financial system stability
is one of the primary functions of Bank Indonesia, which is not less important compared to maintaining
monetary stability. Financial system stability is a prerequisite for monetary stability. This issue is in line
with Bank Indonesia’s mission “to attain and maintain stability of Rupiah by maintaining monetary stability
and promoting financial system stability to secure sustainable long-term national development.” However,
maintaining financial system stability is not the sole responsibility of a central bank. Rather it is also
mutual responsibility of relevant government authorities including Ministry of Finance, Financial
Supervisory Authorities, Deposit Insurance Corporation beside the central bank.
In accordance with the above, Bank Indonesia assesses and monitors trends and issues surrounding
stability of Indonesia’s financial system and provides recommendations to maintain stability of the financial
system. Results of such assessments and monitoring is laid down in a regularly updated “Financial Stability
Review” (the FSR). Unlike such other reports issued by Bank Indonesia, the FSR focuses on such potential
risks which may weaken stability of national financial system, and is more forward-looking orientation.
Every section of this report also describes the prospects of national financial system.
During the course of 2002, Indonesia’s financial system is relatively stable and is expected to remain
so in the years to come. However, alert needs to be maintained particularly on some pertinent issues
including delays in the recovery of loan quality and performance of the banking sector, as well as external
issues such as low growth in the global economy and the government budget deficit due to the huge
obligations from domestic as well as overseas borrowings.
This FSR is addressed to all stakeholders, Bank Indonesia and relevant financial authorities in
particular, and the public in general. The review and recommendations offered in this FSR are hopefully
useful to the Government as well as all other relevant authorities in the efforts of maintaining stability of
national financial system. In addition, this review will encourage concerns of all stakeholders to the adverse
movements in the financial system within their jurisdictions so that proactive measures can be taken.
vii
The Board of Governor must be grateful and give its appreciation to the DPNP, all relevant units and
personnel for their dedications, contributions and collaboration for the completion of this first edition of
Financial Stability Review. Finally, we will appreciate all advice, commentaries as well as critics from any
and all parties for further improvements of this review in the future.
Maman H. Somantri
Deputy Governor
viii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Indonesian financial system during the course of 2002 is stabilized. This is made possible by the
effective policies in stabilizing exchange rates and controlling inflation as well as the progress made
through the micro-prudential policies covering restructuring program of the banking sector as well as
improvement in banking supervisory and regulatory frameworks. However, certain aspects, the endogenous
and exogenous risks, need to be closely observed as they can potentially disturb financial system stability.
The weakening economy of the major trade partners of Indonesia is one of the driving factors
contributing to the slower growth of exports. As the results, exporting companies, particularly those
whose activities are financed by banks confront augmenting financial risks reducing their capacity to
pay their obligations in timely manner. Such condition is the major driving factor leading to decreasing
a quality of earning assets of banks.
Meanwhile, huge domestic fiscal obligations and international debts have prevented higher economic
and real sector growth. The yet to complete corporate debt restructuring also impedes domestic
corporations to expand their businesses and has brought in adverse impacts to the balance of payment
which may potentially prompt debt crisis and eventually jeopardizing stability of financial system.
Indonesia’s banking structure has not yet changed as the results of the banking crisis back in 1997
that led to the recapitalization of hard-hit banks, all of which have significant impacts to the economy.
Indonesia’s banking system is very much concentrated on the 13 large banks with combined assets of
74.9% from the total assets in banking system.
In general, the condition of the banking industry has been improving following the recap program
introduced since 1999. Aggregate ROE stays at 14.8% and CAR at 21.7%. However, the capitalization
capacity of the banks, particularly the recap banks, remains weak as the results of the low loan growth.
Main revenues of the 13 large banks are from bond coupons since their assets are mostly in the form of
recap bonds. Moreover, increased capital at some banks has not been able to absorb the potential
losses, particularly those arising from credit, market and operational risks. With the introduction of the
market risk capital charge, a number of banks will notice a slight capital decrease, although it will
remain above the minimum Capital Adequacy Ratio (8%).
In the course of 2002, the risks surrounding the banking system remain high and with stable trend.
Bank credit risks are high but decreasing. Meanwhile, market risks and banks’ liquidity risks are moderate
with stable trend. The high credit risk is characterized by high percentage of non-performing loans,
ix
which is at 8.1% (gross) or 2.1% (net). The decrease in non-performing loans, including those created
during the outbreak of the crisis in 1997, is mainly attributable to the assignment of such non-performing
loans to IBRA, while others are restructured and written off. The primary constraints in lending are: (i)
loan restructuring has been delayed due to non-conducive economic environment; (ii) low absorption by
real sector, particularly corporations, since most of them are still being restructured; (iii) low growth in
new lending, dominated only by small and consumers loans. Monitoring shall be focus on the increasing
possibility that restructured loans as well as non-restructured loans, sold by IBRA to banks, will new
non-performing loans. Stress test indicates that when NPL stays as high as 23.8%, the conditions that
will lead to solvability constraints in some large banks.
The market risks encountered by banking system during 2002 is relatively moderate with stable
trends. This is the result of IDR appreciation against the United States Dollar and the decreasing trend
of interest rates. In general the net open position of 14 large banks is in short position (up to 3 months)
such that the USD depreciation and the lower interest rates have brought positive impacts to their
capital. The short positions reflect bank expectations of declining trends in the interest rate. Banks may
conduct repricing strategy due to the macroeconomic changes. However, future exposure of market
risks, resulting from pressures against the Indonesian Rupiah due to market volatility and political
instability, must be watched.
Indonesian banks have adequate liquidity. This condition is reflected in the sufficiency of liquidity
of the 13 large banks and their independence from interbank call money. However, the funding structure
of some large banks, particularly state-owned banks is mostly in the form of corporate deposits (owned
by state-owned and large companies). In order to address such liquidity risk, the 13 large banks need to
balance their funding structure in terms of concentration type as well as maturities.
Meanwhile, there has been improved efficiency in national payment system, particularly
attributable to the successful implementation of Real Time Gross Settlement (RTGS). Under RTGS, risks
associated to settlement, liquidity and operations have been mitigated and are monitored in compliance
with international standards, i.e. Core Principles For Systematically Important Payment System. In
order to further improve efficiency and security of national payment system, future efforts shall be
focused on two primary strategies, namely: (i) minimizing moral hazards and (ii) optimizing policies
between security and efficiency considerations. Therefore, it is necessary to review the roles of Bank
Indonesia in the operations of the payment system and as lender of last resort. In addition, there are
needs for failure-to-settle mechanism in order to reduce systemic risks.
In order to help promote a stable financial system, Bank Indonesia has improve the effectiveness of
x
its roles, especially in monitoring and evaluating potential risks that may adversely affect financial
stability. Bank Indonesia also has drafted a blue print on Indonesia’s financial system stability including
policies and framework for Crisis Resolution, which is a prerequisite for the future financial stability.
Now that more defined and comprehensive policies are in place and with the effective coordination
between Bank Indonesia, Government and all stakeholders, a sound and more stable financial system
will be maintained and in order to encourage faster economic growth in Indonesia.
xi
CHAPTER Introduction
1 INTRODUCTION
he financial crisis that swept over Southeast Asia, crisis and financial system stability. In addition, there
T Indonesia included, in 1997 has taught us a very
valuable lesson concerning the importance of
is growing number of central banks creating a unit or
even groups dedicated to addressing financial system
maintaining stability of financial system. During the stability issues and financial stability reviews.
past few years, financial system stability has always Central banks need to maintain financial system
been the primary agenda at national and international stability based on three primary reasons. Firstly,
levels. The year 1999 saw the establishment of an financial institutions particularly banks have important
international institute and an international forum, roles -as financial intermediaries and as a transmission
1
namely the Financial Stability Institute and Financial means of monetary policies- in the economy. These
Stability Forum (FSF)2, intended to assist central banks institutions are significantly exposed to high risks
and other supervisory authority in strengthening their inherent in their operations. Therefore, financial
financial system. Similar concerns have also been institutions constitute one of the instability factors most
indicated by IMF and World Bank, who then introduced harmful to the financial system. Secondly, all financial
a Financial System Assessment Program (FSAP) in order crises have brought in catastrophic implications to the
to strengthen the financial system of the country being economy, lowering economic growth and income. These
assessed.3 eventually create negative impacts to social and
Meanwhile, there has been increasing number political life if prompt measures fail to address the
of publications in the forms of books, articles and papers crisis rapidly and effectively. Thirdly, financial
as well as seminars and conventions discussing financial instability brings in very expensive fiscal cost in the
course of mitigating the crisis.
In this extent, Bank Indonesia has designated
1. FSI is established by Basel Committee on banking Supervision (BCBS) to
assist supervisory authorities in strengthening their financial system. financial system stability as a complimentary objective
For further details visit http://www.bis.org/fsi/index.htm.
2. FSF is meant to improve stability of international financial system to achieve price stability. Considering the importance
through exchange of information and international cooperation in the
area of research and surveillance. FSF is composed of such members of financial system stability in the course of achieving
from relevant authorities (finance ministries, central banks, financial
supervisory authorities) from 11 countries, as well as international the primary objectives, Bank Indonesia is to give more
organizations (such as IMF, World Bank, BIS, OECD), international
committees and associations (Basel Committee on Banking Supervision priority and attention to addressing this issue. In order
/ BCBS), International Accounting Standard Board (IASB), International
Association of Insurance Supervisors (IAIS), International Organization to achieve financial system stability, Bank Indonesia
of Securities Commissions (IOSCO), Committee on Payment and
Settlement System (CPSS), Committee on Global Financial System (CGFS)
has adopted four major strategies: (i) fostering effective
and European Central Bank. For further details please visit http://
www.fsforum.org/home/home.html.
coordination and cooperation with others; (ii) improving
3. FSAP is a concerted effort of IMF and World Bank which is introduced in
research and surveillance; (iii) strengthening regulations
May 1999. This program is intended to increase effectiveness in the
efforts of improving soundness of financial system in member countries.
and market discipline; and iv) establishing crisis
For further details visit http://www.imf.org/external/np/fsap/
fsap.asp. resolutions and financial safety net. These will be
1
Chapter 2
2
Introduction
and risks in payment system with focus on Real Time decline of capital would adversely affect the stability
Gross Settlement [RTGS] and clearing system. Chapter of Indonesia’s financial system. This review will give
7 provides the conclusion. some pictures of how far banks would benefit from
Thirdly, it contains four articles. The first article lower capital charge if internal model is applied. This
is entitled “Redesigning Indonesia’s Crisis Management: review proves that the incentive obtained by banks will
Lender of Last Resort and Deposit Insurance” (S. be very much dependent on the volatility of the risk
Batunanggar). This article argues fundamental issues factors. The higher the volatility, the higher capital
on crisis management: (i) absence of comprehensive charge is. Based on data on volatility of exchange rate
and clearly defined crisis management policies; (ii) the and interest rate, this review concludes that
weakness of the blanket guarantee creating moral incorporation of market risk will not reduce a bank’s
hazards and adding potential to future financial crises; CAR to a level below the minimum threshold and
and (iii) the obscure function of Bank Indonesia as therefore will not create distortions which would
Lender of Last Resort in the events of systemic crisis. otherwise impair financial system stability. In addition,
To redefine Indonesia’s crisis management, two primary application of internal model will generate lower capital
steps are proposed: (i) to gradually replace the blanket charge considering that volatility of Indonesia’s
program to limited explicit deposit insurance; and (ii) exchange rate and interest rate are relatively lower.
to put in place a more transparent policy regarding The third article, “Empirical Analysis on Loan
lender of last resort for both normal conditions as well Migrations in Indonesia’s Banking Sector” (by Dadang
as during systemic crisis. A more transparent LLR policy Muljawan), looks into the relations between industries’
will not only function as a more effective instrument performance and the dynamic lending at certain banks.
in addressing crisis management but will also put in From the statistics, two interesting phenomena were
place more defined accountability thereby increasing found. Firstly, industrial performance significantly
credibility of central bank, reducing political affects credit migration process. Secondly, there is an
interventions and moral hazards, and encouraging irreversible process in credit migration. This analysis
market discipline in order to eventually encouraging will provide more analytical information for the
financial system stability. supervisory authority in evaluating banking risks and
The second article, “Market Risks In Indonesian efficacy of external oversight.
Banks” (by Wimboh Santoso and Enrico Hariantoro) The last article “New Basel Capital Accord: What
compares the results of CAR calculation to market risk And How It Affects Indonesia’s Banking Sector” (by Indra
between the standard model BIS and the alternative Gunawan, Bambang Arianto, Indira & Imansyah),
models, which uses the Exponential Weighted Moving explores the New Basel Accord and its implications on
Average (EMWA) both have been widely used by banking Indonesian banking sector.
practitioners. This review is intended to measure as to
how far market risk will adversely affect Indonesia’s
banks in terms of their capital condition. A significant
3
CHAPTER
Chapter 2
THE IMPORTANCE OF MAINTAINING
2 FINANCIAL SYSTEM STABILITY
LESSONS LEARNT FROM THE 1997 CRISIS more specific, financial system stability means the
here are two most important lessons learned from stability of financial institutions and financial markets
T the 1997 crisis. Firstly, the crisis was very
complicated to resolve. And secondly, it was very costly.
in the financial system (Crockett, 1997). Mishkin (1991)
defines financial crisis as disruption to financial markets
The fiscal costs borne by the government for where adverse selection and moral hazards worsen so
restructuring problem banks is huge, at 51% of annual that financial market is unable to channel funds
GDP. Indonesia’s crisis is the second worst, after efficiently to parties having the best potential
Argentina crisis (1980-1982), which is 55% of annual productivity to invest1 . From these definitions, it can
GDP. The crisis not only devastated the national be concluded that a stable financial system will create
economy but also affected social and political stability stable financial institutions and financial markets
in Indonesia. However, the crisis has also fostered a capable of avoiding a financial crisis that may adversely
realization of the importance of maintaining a sound affect national economic infrastructure.
financial institutions and a stable financial market. There are three main reasons as to why this
Basically, the crisis was caused by two factors. financial system stability [FSS] is important. Firstly, a
Firstly, the weak fundamentals of Indonesia’s economy stable financial system will create trusting and enabling
coupled with inconsistent policies (internal factors). environment favorable to depositors and investors in
Secondly, the contagion effects of the financial crisis investing their money in financial institutions as well
started in Thailand on July 1997 (external factors). In as to secure interests of small depositors. Secondly, a
general, the financial system fragility was initiated by stable financial system will encourage efficient financial
huge un-hedged foreign debts by corporations, intermediation which will eventually promote
imprudent lending activities, violation of the legal investment and economic growth. Thirdly, a stable
lending limit to affiliated parties, poor risk management
and governance, and weak bank supervision. 1 Adverse selection takes place prior to the choosing of a transaction
when a bank would select a potential borrower with greater chances
that the loan is going to become non-performing. Since adverse selection
factor has great potential of becoming non-performing loans, lenders
FINANCIAL SYSTEM STABILITY: WHAT AND WHY would not lend to potential borrowers which have low risks. Moral hazard
occurs after the transaction, where lender will be potentially injured
IS IT IMPORTANT? by borrowers which tend not to pay their obligations. Moral hazard
occurs as the result of asymmetrical information in which lenders do
Basically, the term financial system stability or not know much the activities of the borrowers which will allow borrowers
to give rise to moral hazard. Conflicts of interest between borrower
financial stability pertains to the avoidance of financial and the lender due to the moral hazard (agency problem) indicate that
most lenders decide not to lend, so that lending and investment
crisis (MacFarlane [1999] and Sinclair [2001]). To be activities fail to be optimized, thus resulting in credit crunch.
4
The Importance of Maintaining Financial System Stability
financial system will encourage an effective operation leading to a financial crisis is described in Box 1.
of markets and improve distribution of resources in the Financial system stability can be maintained by
economy. improving resilience of financial institutions and money
On the contrary, an unstable financial system market against external volatility. A number of
will bring in harmful implications, such as higher fiscal measures may be taken, such as by applying prudential
cost to resolve troubled financial institutions and standards and good corporate governance within
decreasing of gross domestic product due to currency financial institutions and capital markets, conducive
and banking crisis. monetary and fiscal policies, and real sector capable
A series of developments which took place in the of promoting economic growth.
past few years have placed maintenance of financial Considering that internal weakness within
system stability as a top agenda of the central bank, financial institutions and fragility in capital market,
supervisory authorities as well as the government, crisis management policy needs to be put in place.
namely: (i) significant growth in financial transactions; Therefore, a safety net mechanism and contingency
(ii) growing number of non-bank financial institutions plan are required to address crisis. For this purpose,
including the products and services they offer; (iii) central banks play a very important role in maintaining
increased complexity and risks in banking activities; and stability of financial system, as well as in taking
(iv) huge fiscal cost required to remedy the banking crisis. preventive and corrective actions against crisis. This is
In addition, there are other constraints such as due to the fact that powers to regulate and supervise
changes of policies, financial instruments and others as well as to enforce policies of financial institutions
faced by banking sector as well as real sector, all of are held by central bank.
which will make the duty of maintaining financial
system stability to be complicated. CENTRAL BANK’S ROLE IN FINANCIAL SYSTEM
STABILITY
CORE COMPONENTS OF A STABLE FINANCIAL Safeguarding financial stability is a core function
SYSTEM of the modern central bank, no less important than
The stability of financial system depends on five maintaining monetary stability (Sinclair, 2001). Both
components which are associated one with another, are closely correlated and affected one another.
namely: (i) a stable macroeconomic environment; (ii) Effectiveness of financial policies will only manifest
well governed financial institutions; (iii) efficient itself in an environment in which there is sound financial
financial market; (iv) sound prudential oversights; and system because financial institutions serve as medium
(v) safe and reliable payment system (MacFarlane, for monetary policy transmission.
1999). There are two major approaches generally
Crisis may be prompted by various risks originating adopted by central bank in maintaining financial system
from the elements in the financial system. The process stability. Firstly, reliance on market forces and market
5
Chapter 2
Box 1.
CAUSES AND PROCESS OF FINANCIAL CRISIS
Financial crisis may originate from problems such as worsening financial condition of banks,
existing within any of the various correlating increased interest rate, decreased share prices and
components within the financial system such as increased uncertainty.
financial institutions, banks, non-bank financial Then in the second phase, impaired confidence
institutions or capital market (first ring); or may of customers and investors toward the economy and
be caused by one or a combination of problems the IDR result in the depreciation of the IDR which
within the real sector, fiscal or in the payment then prompts currency crisis.
system (second ring). Nevertheless, a crisis may also And finally, such currency crisis would entail
be spark by some external factor with its contagion crises of the banking sector prompted by depositors
effect that spillover Asia in 1997 (third ring). drawing up their deposits (systemic bank run) which
Learning from the Asian and Indonesia crisis in results in liquidity problem to banks. In addition,
1997, instability of financial system may be occurred banks would sustain losses from non-performing
through three major phases (Mishkin, 2001). loans particularly those of corporations with un-
Firstly, impaired public confidence in the hedged overseas borrowings. The cost of overseas
financial system. This may be caused by various loans borne by corporations will skyrocket due to
problems in the economy or in financial system the depreciation of the IDR against the USD.
The twin crisis (currency and banking crisis) if
Figure:
INTERACTIONS WITHIN A FINANCIAL SYSTEM not effectively addressed, will result in even wider
complications, as well as social and political
instability.
Consequently, the Government will have to pay
Real Sector
huge of fiscal cost (in the case of Indonesia, 51% of
Financial
its Gross Domestic Product) in order to rescue its
Institutions,
Markets and
banking system. The huge fiscal cost will eventually
Financial
Infrastructure
be borne by the public, the taxpayers. In addition,
Monetary Fiscal the prolonged financial crisis will bring in adversely
impacts to national economy, such as lower
6
The Importance of Maintaining Financial System Stability
discipline similar to that adopted by Reserve Bank of providing lending facility to the financial
New Zealand. Secondly, reliance on regulations. The institutions by the central bank as the lender of
latter approach is adopted by wider supervisory the last resort (LLR); and (ii) to provide deposit
authorities or central banks in both developed and insurance. LLR facilities by central bank may be
developing countries. During the past few years, there given either during normal situation as well as
has been growing awareness that both approaches need during systemic crisis. During normal situation,
to be applied more consistently in order to achieve a such facility is provided only to address liquidity
better stability in the financial system. problem for illiquid but solvent banks, and with
In practice, the definition of financial system sufficient collateral. During systemic crisis, LLR
stability [FSS] varies among central banks. Most central facility is provided to restructure the banking
banks state it explicitly in their statutory regulations. system.
But some rely on joint arrangements such as those
among Bank of England, Financial Services Authority CENTRAL BANK’S ROLE IN FINANCIAL SYSTEM
and HM Treasury. STABILITY
In general, the role of central banks in stabilizing Currently, there is no formal legal basis stating
financial system covers three primary activities: about Bank Indonesia’s function in maintaining
a. Research and surveillance financial system stability. The function, in fact, is
Trends and risks, both internal and external, performed simultaneously with its core tasks of
affecting the financial system need to be closely performing monetary policy, bank supervision and
assessed and monitored. Research and surveillance payment system.
activity are intended to produce a policy Following the 1997 crisis, there has been growing
recommendation for maintaining financial system awareness in the importance of maintaining financial
stability. system stability. In line with the introduction of Law
b. Payment systems oversight No. 23 of 1999, Bank Indonesia incorporates the
Regulation and oversight are required to ensure a financial system stability aspect in its mission: “to
safe and reliable payment systems. The adverse achieve and maintain stability of the Indonesian rupiah
risks to the payment system, which may lead to through maintaining financial stability and promoting
systemic failure and financial crisis, may be of financial system stability for sustainable national
avoided. development.” In line with its mission and vision, Bank
c. Crisis resolution Indonesia has formulated a framework that contains
While the latter two activities are related to crisis the goals, strategy and instruments required for
prevention, the third activity is taken by the maintaining the financial system stability.
central bank to address crisis when it actually The roles of maintaining monetary stability and
occurs. Usually two instruments are used: (i) promoting financial system stability are closely related.
7
Chapter 2
Both roles are aiming at the same objectives which is on the effectiveness bank supervision. Therefore, it is
price stability. imperative to have an independent and competent bank
In order to achieve a stable financial system, supervisor capable of assessing bank risks and taking
Bank Indonesia adopts four strategies, namely: (i) preventive and corrective actions on the problems faced
implementing regulation and standards to foster market by banks effectively.
discipline; (ii) intensifying research and surveillance; To achieve a stable financial system, effective
(iii) improving coordination and cooperation; and (iv) coordination must be in place among relevant
establishing safety net and crisis resolution framework authorities. Therefore, there must be a clear division
(see Box 2). of roles and responsibilities of each authority. More
importantly is the commitment of the stakeholders to
CONCLUSIONS cooperate in achieving and maintaining financial system
Stability of financial system much depends on the stability. In addition, effective supervision and
soundness of financial institutions, particularly banks consistent law enforcement will foster market players
that dominate the financial system. This will also rely and the general public to play their roles responsibly.
8
The Importance of Maintaining Financial System Stability
Box 2.
BANK INDONESIA’S STRATEGY IN MAINTAINING
FINANCIAL SYSTEM STABILITY
In order to achieve financial system stability, financial system stability are measured and
Bank Indonesia adopts four strategies: monitored by incorporating an early warning system
(1) Implementing regulations and which is composed of micro-prudential and macro-
standards. Consistent implementation of prudential indicators. Research and surveillance are
international prudential regulations and standards aimed at producing a policy recommendation for
are required as a sound basis for both regulator maintaining financial system stability.
and the market players in conducting their (3) Establishing safety net and crisis
business. In addition, consistent discipline of the resolutions framework. Safety net and crisis
market players need to be fostered. resolutions framework and mechanism are required
(2) Intensifying research and surveillance. for resolving financial crisis, once it occurs. These
Development of financial system the relevant include policy and procedures of the lender of the
aspects affecting its stability should be assessed last resort, and the deposit insurance which will
and monitored. Risks which may endanger replace the blanket guarantee. Currently, there is no
9
Chapter 2
a clear legal framework for crisis resolution. (4) Improving coordination and cooperation.
According to Law No. 23/1999, Bank Indonesia is Coordination and cooperation with related gencies
only allowed to provide lending to address liquidity is very crucial especially in crisis times. Usually, the
problem faced by banks during normal times, but coordination was formed in a national committee
not for systemic crisis situation. Therefore, there is which is composed of the Bank Indonesia Governor,
an urgent need to formulate this policy in the law Finance Minister and related agencies including the
which clearly stipulates the roles of Bank Indonesia Head of Deposit Insurance Agencies to be
as the lender of the last resort in the events of crisis. established.
10
CHAPTER External Factors
3 EXTERNAL FACTORS
A
US and JAPAN : GDP-INFLATION
long with globalization in economics,
GDP (Percent) Inflation (Percent)
Indonesia’s financial system will be affected 4
8
countries in the world, namely the United States and (6) (2)
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Japan. Ultimately, this situation will influence GDP-US GDP-Japan Inflation-US Inflation-Japan
exports. Indonesia’s trade account states with the United States in 2001.
United States and Japan reach 17.44% and 22.99% The declining economic conditions of these two
respectively of total exports. In addition, both countries major economies was indicated by decreasing Gross
are also primary lenders. The slowdown condition of Domestic Products (GDP), increasing in inflation, and
50 -
(20)
40
(40)
30 (60)
(80)
20
(100)
10 (120)
- (140)
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
US ASEAN Japan US Japan
11
Chapter 3
1000 2000
recovered and monetary authorities continue their low
0
1500
interest policies. -1000
-2000 1000
The fact that both economies were not improved
-3000
in 2002 caused Indonesia’s exports to decrease. This -4000
500
which will eventually cause a negative impact on banks’ Direct Investment Portfolio Investment
assets quality.
truly bring negative impacts to the money market due
Figure 3.4: to the decreasing of bank’s lending portfolio in respect
US and Japan : Discount interest Rate and
DJIA & NIKKEI Indices to Japanese corporations.
Percent
7 25,000
6
DOMESTIC ECONOMY
20,000
5 Monetary Conditions
15,000
4 During 2002, monetary condition is quite
3
10,000 conducive as reflected by lower interest rate and
2
5,000 stability of exchange rates. Hopefully, such condition
1
will prevail so as to stimulate economic growth in 2003.
- -
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Unlike the condition in 2000 and 2001, the SBI
US Japan DJIA NIKKEI
interest rate tends to decrease in 2002. This condition
indicates that Bank Indonesia has started to ease its
The continuing recession in United States and monetary policy as inflation rate is still in control, while
Japan also affects their capital markets adversely. This the rupiah exchange rate remains relatively stable.
was illustrated by the fall in composite indices of the However, the lower trend of SBI interest rate is not
Dow Jones and Nikkei. In fact, such conditions should immediately followed by a reduction in lending rates.
have encouraged capital inflows to Indonesia. The declining trend of SBI interest rate will
Unfortunately, it is not the case, since Indonesia’s hopefully encourage more lending to real sectors. In
investment environment is not yet conducive, as spite of such increase in lending, the amount is
evidence by a decision of a restructured corporation in relatively small and is mostly given to small and medium
Japan to close their factories in Indonesia. Such policies enterprises. This reflects banks’ caution in lending and
12
External Factors
70
to GDP ratio decreased from 88.4% as of June 2002
12,000
Government’s Finance
Bank Indonesia’s review on medium term
6 Policy Analysis and Planning Division (2002), “Indonesia’s Medium-Term
fiscal resilience indicates that fiscal condition is Fiscal Sustainability.”
13
Chapter 3
% of GDP
Government Bonds
Table 3.1
From the Government Budget [APBN] simple stress Stress Test on Goverment budget (APBN) 2003-04
test, re-profiling of Government bonds has not fully 2002 2003 2004
APBN RAPBN RAPBN
taken pressure off the government financial condition.
State Revenues 17.76 17.33 15.70
There are potentials for budget deficit which will State Expenditures 20.11 19.10 15.10
Primary Balance 3.04 2.45 4.00
eventually adversely affect the government’s ability in Surplus (+) / Deficit (-) -2.35 -1.77 0.60
14
External Factors
choice and the issuer financial conditions. It is therefore As the implications, lenders will demand higher interest
necessary to maintain sound financial condition to rate as risk premium raising, thus requiring us to
ensure timely payment of bonds’ principal and interest. mobilize more and more US$ to repay the floating
This will increase market confidence and maintain a interest obligations as well as for securing new loan
more liquid market for government bonds. commitments. Consequently, there will be high
Post-crisis financial condition of the Government demands for US$ funds and US$-denominated deposits
is not quite promising. At the moment, the Government at local banks will be rushed. Such situation will surely
carries huge burden from both domestic and foreign adversely affect financial system stability, similar to
borrowings. Such situation is worsened by the limited that which swept throughout Asia and in Argentina.
ability to boost revenues considering the non-conducive
domestic and international economic environments. Market Confidence
Therefore, the future prices of recap bonds will rely The confidence level of investors and rating
on the Government’s ability to improve its financial companies on Indonesia’s financial solvability remains
performance as well as performance of the economy low, as shown by the rating made by Standards & Poor.
as a whole. Foreign investors’ perception on Indonesia’s financial
The huge bonds’ principal and interest payment condition is still risky. Yield spread between Indonesian
obligations which will prevail in 2004 through to 2008, government’s Yankee bonds and US treasury bonds as
coupled with budget deficits, may give probability of of December 2002 is relatively wide, namely 266.07
government debt crisis. The government needs to adopt base points. Such condition results in relatively higher
more stricter fiscal discipline while striving to increase risk premium for Indonesia’s government as well as
revenues. The re-capitalization banks also need to private foreign borrowings. In addition, (lower) rating
support government by operating in more sound and (higher) risk premium may result in reduced
governance and obtaining profitable financial condition demands for Indonesian Rupiah, thus adversely affect
to avoid another possibility of government debt and Rupiah exchange rate which will eventually increase
banking crisis. market risk.
Debt Service Ratio and total debt ratio against
Foreign Debts GDP as of December 2002 are relatively high,
Foreign debt crisis will adversely affect stability respectively at 30.8% and 70.4%. Despite their
of financial system. Increasing commercial borrowings decreasing trend, such rates are still above the normal
from overseas lenders under binding contracts without levels, namely 20% and 50-80%. Such condition will
strong repayment capacity, and with uncertainties in indirectly adversely affect financial system stability in
social, political, economic and finance situations, may the event of substantial depreciation of the IDR.
impairs international confidence toward Indonesia’s Therefore, there shall be concrete efforts to boost
economy. This situation will damage Indonesia’s rating. exports by among others securing financing facility from
15
Chapter 3
th 1200 9000
5.4 million during Paris Club III on 12 April 2002 is one Bank
8000
1000
such effort to address the potential risk of debt crisis NBFI 7000
800 6000
in Indonesia. Corporate 5000
600
4000
Table 3.2: 400 3000
Foreign Debt Indicators
2000
200
Ratio 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Benchmark 1000
0 0
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
Debt Service Ratio 2002 2003
16
External Factors
but in the long run they may adversely affect banking However, there are constraints such as insufficiency
sector and financial systems. data regarding private foreign debts. Learning from
With respect to that, some factors which might 1997 crisis, the condition will result in ineffectiveness
adversely affect such foreign currency—denominated of monitoring activity such that the risks and instability
bonds issued, must be monitored, such as (1) factors against financial system stability, particularly
uncertainty of international economic condition; (2) from foreign debts, cannot be adequately and timely
the relatively low international confidence level on anticipated. Therefore, foreign debts need to be
Indonesia’s economy as shown by the low rating; and managed in prudential manner and monitored carefully.
(3) the relatively low profitability of banking sector. In
addition, banks need to be cautious of their foreign REAL SECTOR CONDITION
currency borrowings by obtaining hedging instruments Small and Medium Enterprises
in order to reduce market risk, considering the fact Loan restructuring process faces with significant
that banks’ revenues are mostly in Indonesian Rupiah. obstacles as real sector has not recovered yet. This
condition will repress financial system stability.
Table 3.3
Indonesia Corporate yankee Bonds (Dec 2002) After recapitalization process, Indonesian banks
300
of them were financed by banks – will have contagious
250
effect to the banking sector. This was what happen in 200
100
the 1997 crisis. 50
17
Chapter 3
others, relatively higher non-performing loans, higher will adversely affect bank’s performance improvement.
risks in real sector -particularly corporations with high Therefore, providing loans to small and medium
debt to equity ratio- and limited information regarding enterprises is one of the options to accelerate economic
potential borrowers. In addition, banks’ preference in recovery and to improve banks’ lending portfolio.
portfolio investments has changed to less risky
investment such as placements in SBI, Government
Figure 3.14
Bonds and inter bank money market. SME LOANS BY TYPES OF BUSINESS USES
Investment Loan
15 11%
10
18
External Factors
Figure 3.15 fact that the figure was still higher than those of other
GDP BY SECTORS TO TOTAL GDP
sectors. At the end of 2002, non agriculture and mining
Percent Percent
sector’s performance showed some improvements.
14 36
12
However, the improvement was still accompanied with
35
FIGURE 3.16
NPL by SECTOR
inflows from international market which, if not properly Percent
60
managed, may adversely affect balance of payment. 2001
50
2002
On the other side, increased demand created business
40
financial performance.
20
10
19
Chapter 3
80
1,000
Pulp & paper industry was considered as a risky 60
-
business. Such that 7 out of 10 pulp & paper companies 40
(1,000)
are indebted to banks in the amount of IDR 4,136,577 20
(2,000)
million. In 2000, 97% of the total outstanding loans -
20
CHAPTER PERFORMANCE AND Performance
PROSPECT OF
and Prospect of Indonesia’s Banking
THE STRUCTURE OF BANKING INDUSTRY dominated by 13 large banks, including 10 recap banks,
Indonesia’s financial system stability relies heavily on represent 74.8% of the total assets of banking industry.
the banking industry covering of about 90% of total asset (see Table 4.1)
of financial system. Similarly, the banking system is Therefore, ensuring soundness of these large
banks is the key in maintaining stability of banking
system and financial system. The analysis in this report
Figure 4.1.
TOTAL BANKS & ASSETS is focused on the large banks using data as of December
Table 4.1.
SELECTED ITEMS OF BANKS BALANCE SHEET
2002 2001
SELECTED ITEMS Total Bank Large Bank Share Large Bank Total Bank Large Bank Share Large Bank
(Trillion Rp) (Trillion Rp) to Total Bank (%) (Trillion Rp) (Trillion Rp) to Total Bank (%)
BALANCE SHEET
Assets
Bank Indonesia 153.8 103.5 67.3 134.3 94.0 70.0
Inter-bank Placement 124.6 55.8 44.8 149.4 63.9 42.8
Marketable Securities 395.4 374.6 94.8 425.7 406.2 95.4
Loans 371.1 241.5 65.1 316.0 190.8 60.4
Non-performing loans 33.2 19.7 59.3 43.4 22.2 51.1
Total Assets 1112.2 830.6 74.7 1099.7 822.4 74.8
Liabilities
Deposits 835.8 634.2 75.9 797.4 606.9 76.1
Inter bank borrowing 81.3 60.4 74.2 93.6 70.7 75.5
Provision for Loan Losses (39.1) (26.4) 67.5 (44.8) (26.7) 59.6
Paid-Up Capital 96.4 71.7 74.4 88.1 66.8 75.8
Donated Capital 188.9 188.8 99.9 188.9 188.9 100.0
21
Chapter 4
(November 2002) the average rate for fixed rate bonds 500
400
is increased from 12% to 14%.
300
After reprofiling, bond composition is 35.8% fixed- 200
rate and 57.1% variable rate. The average market price 100
0
for fixed-rate bonds increases and bonds are transacted 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
22
Performance and Prospect of Indonesia’s Banking
from restructured and un-restructured loans purchased average Loan to Deposit Ratio is below 35% since
by banks from IBRA. 2000). New loans are mostly extended to small-
The 1997 financial crisis has been so damaging to scale and consumers loans which explain why bank
banking industry, causing NPLs to soar to 54%. Quality lending portfolio is not growing fast.
of bank loans then gradually improves in line with the iv. There are potentials for NPLs to increase out of
banking restructuring program. The gross NPLs those restructured and un-restructured loans
decreased to 8.1% and net NPLs reached 2.1% as of purchased by banks from IBRA. Total ex-IBRA un-
December 2002 (see Figure 4.3). Meanwhile the NPL of restructured loans as of December 2002 were
the 13 large banks is 7.1% (gross) or 1.6% (net). The approximately 6 trillion or 2.2% of the total lending
decrease in NPLs is mostly attributable to the transfer of large banks.
of the NPLs to IBRA, while the rest are either
restructured or written off. Non-Performing Loans (NPLs)
As of December 2002, gross NPLs of banks is 8.1%
Table 4.2 : (gross), and 4.3% of which are qualified as loss. Most of
Details of Loan
them are NPLs from large banks. Total gross NPL at
Total 13 Large Bank
Bank Nominal % of Total Bank large banks is at 7.1% of total their loans. Banks and
Total Asset (trillion Rp) 1,112 831 74.7 large banks have provided adequate amount of
IDR (%) 81.2 85.0 78.2
Forex (%) 18.8 14.9 59.2 provisions for earning assets losses, so that the net NPL
Loan (trillion Rp) 371 241 65.0 of banks and large banks is 2.1% and 1.6% respectively.
IDR (%) 73.6 76.3 67.3
Forex (%) 26.4 23.7 58.2 However, four of the large banks have net NPL ratio
NPL (trillion Rp) 33 20 60.6
NPL Gross (%) 8.1 7.1 53.1 higher than 5%.
Provisions for Earning
In order to assess the ability of large banks to
Assets Losses (trillion Rp) 31 19 61.3
Loan Restructuring bear such NPL, a more conservative NPL—Equity ratio
(trillion Rp) n.a 48
NPL (%) n.a 9
Figure 4.4. NPL and PROVISIONS
FOR LOAN LOSSES
Some primary constraints faced by banks in Trillion Rp
350
improving its credit risks are: Provisions for Loan Losses NPL
300
i. There are constraints in the process of
250
restructuring loans due to unfavorable economic
200
conditions. 150
0
that most of them are still being restructured by
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
IBRA. New loans is relatively small (indicated by
23
Chapter 4
is used. As of December 2002, the ratio indicates that large banks is to increase from 7.05% to 9.2%. Such
29.6% of banks’ capital is to offset the provisions for increase in NPL is relatively high and therefore this
earning assets loss, so that the CAR of large banks might will adversely affect the capital of the 13 large banks.
fall from 22.0% to 15.6%. In aggregate this ratio is In order to assess the impacts of lower credit
adequate for banking industry. Under an even more quality of large banks to their equity, stress test has
conservative measure, i.e. NPL to core equity, indicates been conducted using a number of hypothetical
that 39.8% of the banks’ tier one capital will exhaust scenarios, i.e. NPL increase from 5% to 20%. The stress
to offset losses from NPLs. test results indicate that some of large banks are very
Under the scenario that all the NPL are written sensitive to changes in NPL such that their equity would
off, there will be four of the large banks with CAR less fall down below the minimum capital adequacy. (see
than 8%, and even 2 of them have their CAR below zero. Table 4.3.).
As of December 2002, there were un-restructured
Tabel 4.3.
loans purchased by large banks from IBRA, which we NPL Stress Test
projected amounting to 2.2% of their total lending. In Scenario of Increased NPL
CAR
fact this seems returning the problem loans back to 5% 8% 10% 12% 15% 18% 20%
30
Figure 4.6.
20 NPL Stress Test
CAR (Percent)
10 30.0
0 20.0
Jun Sep Dec Mar Jun Sep Dec Mar Jun Sep Dec Mar Jun Sep Dec Mar Jun Jul Sep Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
10.0
0.0
0 5 8 10 12 15 18 20
Efforts to restructure such debtors should be -10.0
24
Performance and Prospect of Indonesia’s Banking
Loan Restructuring urgency for lending expansion. For that matter the
Total restructures loans of large banks as of Government needs to create an enabling environment
December 2002 is IDR 44.4 trillion, therein inclusive of such as deregulation of the real sector, privatization,
IDR 4.1 trillion NPL (9.4%). Internal restructure of NPL creating more conducive investment climate, good
conducted by large banks yields in positive results in corporate governance and rule of law. In addition, small
the course of 2001 and 2002. However, there are and medium enterprises need to be developed in order
chances that such restructured loans would get worse to enable them to absorb more loans. To realize all
considering the fact that the real sector and the that, all relevant parties and stakeholders must give
economic condition is not yet conducive. their commitment to the efforts.
Under worst-case scenario, in which all of pass From the above analysis, we can sum up that
and special mentioned restructured loans and deposits banks’ credit risks remain high but stable. However, in
in the amount of IDR 40.2 trillion becoming non- the future there are chances that lending risks will rise
performing, the NPL of these large banks will get again. This will manifest particularly if there are further
worsened to 21.5%. The implication is that the banks delays for the recovery of the real sector and due
need to put aside a provisions for earning assets losses completion of loan restructuring program.
to cover the potential NPL, and consequently large
banks’ CAR would plunge very significantly from an Lending Growth
average 22.0% to as low as 8.7%, and 3 of such large Banks’ lending has not grown much during the
banks will have their CAR to fall to below 8%. These post-crisis period. Foreign currency denominated loans
means that the restructured loans carry the potential as well as corporate loans tend to decrease. However,
of disrupting financial system stability. retail loans is increase.
In connection with this, there has to be efforts to Lending growth after the crisis is relatively low.
closely monitor such restructured loans and there is During 2000—2002, average Loan to Deposit Ratio of
25
Chapter 4
banks stay at a level below 35% compared to that before In addition, banks also tend to reduce foreign
the crisis, which is at 72%. In general, the condition is currency denominated loans (see Figure 4.9). This is to
attributable to lower economic growth and some large reduce exposure to bank credit risks. The crisis has taught
loans portfolios were transferred to IBRA. On one side it lesson that this type of loans was very risky, since the
causes lower demand for loans and on the other side foreign currency denominated loans was provided to
there is increase in deposits. As the results, banks tend borrowers whose revenues are in Indonesian Rupiah.
to put their funds in Bank Indonesia Certificates (SBI) as When the financial crisis strikes, most of such foreign
their source of income. In addition, placements in fixed- currency denominated loans become non-performing.
rate recap bonds is also interesting to banks, considering This situation shall not be repeated in the future.
that this portfolio is exempted from capital charge (zero
risk in calculating risk weighted assets). The falling trend Figure 4.9.
TRENDS OF IDR & FOREIGN EXCHANGE LOANS
of SBI interest rate forces banks to extend more loans. Trillion Rp
400
In this regards, attention should be given to avoid lending IDR Forex
350
to borrowers with high credit risks.
300
250
100
Sector 1999 2000 2001 2002
50
Agriculture 10.5% 7.2% 6.7% 6.1%
0
Mining 1.6% 1.7% 2.4% 1.7% 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Industry 37.1% 39.4% 37.6% 33.1%
Trading 19.1% 16.3% 15.6% 18.1%
Services 19.0% 16.4% 15.8% 16.7%
Others 11.9% 18.3% 21.1% 24.4% New loans extended during 2002 amounted to IDR
79.4 trillion, of which 38% goes to small and medium
From demand side, the weak economy forces enterprises (see Figure 4.10). After the 1997 financial
borrowers and investors to delay their investments. crisis, banks tend to concentrate on retails lending
From the supply side, such situation forces banks to (small and medium enterprises) for the reasons that
behave more more conservative in their lending, and they are more resilience to economic crisis and
thereby lending growth remains low. unaffected by fluctuating exchange rate.
In order the reduce loans concentration, banks The change of focus from corporate lending to
tend to reduce the corporate segment, while increasing retail lending gives rise to some implications. On one
lending to retail segment. This is meant to diversify side it provides banks with opportunity to diversify their
their portfolio risks as well as supporting the portfolio and risks. But on the other side, there are
government’s call for greater lending to micro and small chances for higher operating risk and strategic risk
enterprises. attributable to insufficient knowledge and expertise
26
Performance and Prospect of Indonesia’s Banking
4 20
0 10
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
2001 2002 0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Total New Loan Small-medium Enterprise New Loan
of banks in managing retail lending for they have always Figure 4.12). This type of mortgage loan carries
been focusing on corporate lending activities. If not relatively lower risk, since the borrowers are employees
anticipated well, this will create new non-performing whom have steady income.
loans. KPR loans are mainly provided to finance purchase
The change of lending focus is also reflected in of houses or real estates developed by realty companies
the increase of consumers loans (see Figure 4.11). before the crisis. Since the beginning of 2001, KPR loans
Unlike other type of loans, consumers loans increase tend to grow in value in line with the stable interest
in value even exceeding that during pre-crisis period. rate and banks’ efforts to improve their performance
The phenomenon is an indication that the risk of SME through, among others, diversifying their lending
loans is relatively lower than the risk in corporate loans. portfolio.
One type of consumers loan which is most Total property loans as of December 2002
attractive to the public is the housing loans (KPR) (see amounted to IDR 35 trillion or 9.4% of the total loans
provided by banks. Amount and growth rate of property
Figure 4.11.
LOANS BY BUSINESS USES
loan (see Figure 4.12) indicates that property loans carry
Trillion Rp
relatively lower risks and insignificant to the aggregate
450
Working Capital Loan bank credit risks.
400
Investment Loan
350
Consumer Loan
300 LIQUIDITY RISK
250
200
In general, Indonesia’s banks have adequate
150 liquidity. This is evident by the fact that banks’ liquid
100
assets account for a quarter of their total assets.
50
- However, Indonesian banks still faces a moderate
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
liquidity risks due to dependence on short-term
27
Chapter 4
funds and large depositors and foreign debts maturing Table 4.5.
14 Large Banks’ Liquidity
in 2003.
Deposits Amount
The aggregate liquid assets to total assets ratio
Up to 1 month maturity 434.0
of banking industry since December 2000 continue > 1 - 3 months maturities 67.0
Total 501.0
to increase to 23.30% as of June 2002, in line with LiquidityAssets:
the increase of deposits. Nevertheless, the banks Primary Reserves
- Cash 13.0
are still to face some liquidity risks as described - Demand deposits at Bank Indonesia 35.0
- SBI 68.0
below. Total Primary reserves 116.0
Secondary Reserves
- Netting AB (4.0)
Figure 4.13. - Trade bonds 44.0
DEPOSIT GROWTH Total Secondary reserves 40.0
Total Primary & Secondary reserves 156.0
Trillion Rp
500 Tertiary reserves
450
Time Deposit - Investment bonds 317.0
400
Checking Accounts Total Reserves 473.0
Saving Accounts
350
300
250
by using all their reserves, including primary, secondary
200 and tertiary reserves. The total value of reserves is also
150
100 adequate to cover the payment for all deposits maturing
50
within 1 to 3 months (its ratio is 109.0% of deposits
0
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 with up to 3 month maturities, or 57% of the total assets
of large banks). Thereby, the large banks shall be able
to meet their current liabilities, thanks particularly to
Liquidity Assets the relatively huge government bonds– which may be
Large banks has adequate liquidity considering
that all their existing liquid assets (primary, secondary Figure 4.14.
Liquid Assets
reserves) are sufficient to cover the whole short-term
Percent
50
deposits maturing up to three months. The primary
45
reserve owned by large banks as of December 2002 40
35
account for 26.9% or 14.1% of their total assets. Their 30
25
primary and secondary reserve accounted to 35.9% of
20
their deposits maturing in less than 1 month or 18.8% 15
10
of their total assets. 5
0
Under a worst-case scenario, if all deposits with Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
2001 2002
maturity less than 1 month are withdrawn by the Prime Reserve/1 month deposit Secondary Reserve/1 month deposit
Prime Reserve/Total Asset Secondary Reserve/Total Asset
depositors, the large banks will be able to offset that
28
Performance and Prospect of Indonesia’s Banking
pledged as tertiary reserve reserves in the event of carry higher interest rate. As of December 2002, non
emergency. core deposits accounted for 56% of the total deposits
However, large banks have to manage their or 40% of the total assets of banks.
liquidity prudently in order to prevent potential losses
from selling of recap bonds (tertiary reserve). Figure 4.15.
Core and Non-Core Deposits
Trillion Rp
29
Chapter 4
rate. The bank also to purchase SBI as a secondary In addition, with the introduction of Finance
reserve. This practice may be followed by other banks Minister’s policy limiting pension funds placement at a
which have access to the long-term borrowings from single bank to maximum of 20% as of mid-2003, will
money market. Thereby, with the liquid condition of adversely affect the liquidity of some large banks.
banks, interbank call money transaction is not a good
liquidity indicator. Household Savings Pattern
Public confidence to the banking system is
Liquid Assets to Cash Outflow (COF) improving in line with bank restructuring program and
Liquid assets held by large banks as of December the government’s blanket guarantee.
2002 is insufficient to cover cash outflow maturing in 1
to 3 months. Primary reserve available is only 19.1% of
Grafik 4.17.
COF 1 to 3 months or 25.5% of available primary and Maturity Profile of Time
Trillion Rp
secondary reserve and 77.4% of all the reserve owned
300
by large banks. Similar condition also applies for COF 1
250
week ahead, such that all existing reserves will be
200
adequate to cover all COF for 1 week to come (233.3%).
150
100
Figure 4.16.
Stock Liquid Ratio 50
0
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
19.1%
up to 1 month 3 - 6 months >1 year
77.4 %
25.5% consistently after the 1997 crisis. However, such
30
Performance and Prospect of Indonesia’s Banking
15
liabilities.
10
5
MARKET RISK Bank A Bank B Bank L Average
0
0 500 1000 2000 2500 3000 4000 5000
Future possible depreciation of the IDR toward
Exchange Rate Change
the United States Dollar needs to be anticipated
31
Chapter 4
Figure 4.19 :
is relatively small. However, risk of increasing interest
INTEREST RATES STRESS TEST rate from banking books need to be anticipated.
CAR (Percent)
25 Although implementation of capital charge for market
risk will not cause instability in the financial system,
20
15
incorporating capital charge for market risk is not
10
adversely affecting the CAR of large banks. Based on
5
simulation of capital charge for market risk as of June Total Capital/Total Asset Profit /Tier 1
0
Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
2002, CAR decreases at an average of 1%. This is caused
2001 2002
by the fact that exposure of its portfolio to market risk
32
Performance and Prospect of Indonesia’s Banking
potential loss originating from market risks and The relatively high CAR of banks is mainly
operating risks. The current method in CAR calculation attributable to the recap program under which earning
is imperfect because:(1) it only counts in credit risks assets categorized loss are transferred to IBRA, for
and not yet counting in market and operating risks; which the banks receive recap bonds. A more
and (2) it fails to reflect the actual credit risks, because conservative approach indicates that banks’capital is
the current method still adopt weighted assets under relatively limited.
Basel 1988. Therefore, there will be some banks may This is indicated with core capital to total assets
face inadequate capital if there is no amendment for ratio which is below 8%, and leverage ratio (total
capital regulation. liabilities to total equity) of 9.6 times. A number of
33
Chapter 4
efforts have been made in order to refine this new programs has been improving. This is among others
capital regulation. Among them is the plan to adopt reflected in operating performance of banks which have
the capital charge for market risk (see Box 4) in 2003 been able to record a net earnings of IDR 16.5 trillion
with a transitional period, and provisions adjustments with ROA at an average of 1.92%; ROE at 14.8% and NII
on credit risk and operational risk as proposed in the at 42.9% as of the closing of 2002. The improved
New Basel Accord (Basel II). profitability lays the base for banks to improve their
In line with bank recap program, the government capital structure and increase their performance in the
is now the dominant owner in banking industry. future.
However, the ownership by the government is only However, it must be noted that such profitability
temporary and its stake will be divested to private still very much dependent on revenues from marketable
parties. The divestment will be conducted gradually securities (particularly from government bonds and SBI)
until reaching such position prevailing prior to the crisis which account for 60% of banks’ total interest income.
(around 6%). Evolution of CAR and government stake in This indicates that bank’s intermediation function is
banking industry is illustrated in Figure 4.20.
Figure 4.22
SOURCE of INTEREST INCOME
BANKS’ PERFORMANCE
19% 40%
In general, Indonesian banking performance
following the recapitalization and restructuring
-15 Dec 98
0 0
-20
Sep 99
-30
-100 (10)
-35
-45
-200 (20)
-50 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Mar 99
-55 Net Income (LHS) ROA (RHS)
Jun 99
-60
34
Performance and Prospect of Indonesia’s Banking
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 low, local banks will purchase and hold such bonds for
Paid-up Capital (LHS) ROE (RHS) NII (RHS)
the following purposes: (1) to maintain their revenues
to safeguard their financial condition; (2) to control
not yet fully recovered. The earnings of banks, circulation of bonds in the market in order to prevent
particularly large banks (recap banks) does not show over supply which would otherwise reduce the prices
the actual performance of banks with their core of bonds; (3) to maintain liquidity by placing such bonds
business activities. as liquidity instruments. Therefore, banks’ earnings will
In the long run, the dependence of large banks remain bogus.
on income from recap bonds and Bank Indonesia Banks still have to face with various constraints.
Certificates will adversely affect the financial system. Large banks’ operating income is very sensitive to
If the Government’s financial condition worsens, due volatility of interest rate in market. Meanwhile, there
to the absence of multiplier effect from lending, bonds are increasing tendency of fund collections by non-bank
interests will also adversely affected. financial institutions, such as mutual funds, which poses
different challenges.
In order to improve their performance banks,
Figure 4.25
Interest Income particularly recap banks, are required to implement
Trillion Rp
90
good corporate governance and risk management and
80 increase effectiveness of their internal control. All that
70
is laid down in business plan and actions plan of the
60
50 banks in line with the bank restructuring program. In
40
30
general, banks have made significant progress in their
20 corrective measures.
10
0
Some malpractice incidents taking place recently
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
stress the importance of applying the good corporate
Loan Securities and SBI
governance principle consistently and improved
35
Chapter 4
effectiveness of internal control in order to address bonds as source of income. Thereby, the banks will have
operating risks as well as reputation risk. Realization greater role in encouraging economic growth.
of good corporate governance in banking sector calls
for commitment and participation from all stakeholders, Comparative Performance with Other Selected
i.e. the Government, Bank Indonesia and oversight Countries
authorities, banks’ shareholders, Board of Condition of Indonesian banks after the crisis is
Commissioners and Board of Directors, internal audit relatively similar to that prevailing in some Asian
and audit committee, external auditors and down to countries. The profitability (ROA) of Indonesian banks
customers. All parties are required to perform their scores higher than those of banks in other Asian countries.
respective roles and responsibilities consistently. Non-performing loans (NPLs) of Indonesia’s banks
is 8.1% (gross) as of December 2002, which is better
Profile of Banks at Stock Exchanges than NPLs of banks in other Asian countries. The gradual
The improved performance of banks unfortunately
is not reflected in the value of their shares listed at
Figure 4.26
the stock exchanges. From 24 banks (43.1% of the total Asian Banks’ ROA
Percent
assets in banking sector) listed at the stock exchanges, 5
36
Performance and Prospect of Indonesia’s Banking
improvement in the NPLs is the results of the transfer (Figure 4.28). This is attributable to the government.
of NPLs to IBRA, loans restructuring by the banks recapitalization program for banks, while CAR of non-
themselves and writen off bad loans. recap banks is ranging from 10—15%.
Figure 4.27 indicates that NPLs of Indonesia’s In spite of the fact, to some extent, Indonesian
banks as of December 2002 is below NPLs of banks in banks are recovering. However, the condition does not
Thailand and Philippine, ranging from 10—12%.However, reflect the actual condition of the banks, considering
NPL in Indonesia’s banks is still higher that NPL at banks the fact that some of the private large banks have
in South Korea, which stays at 4%. subsidiaries or themselves belonging to a parent or
holding company. Such affiliations - by finance or
Figure 4.28 ownership - will very much affect the conditions of the
Asian Banks’ CAR
Percent banks. Experience has shown us that the crisis
25
experienced by some large private banks have in fact
20
37
CHAPTER
Chapter 5
5 CAPITAL MARKET
N egative shocks in the capital markets might Bank customers will eventually withdraw their
result in a damaging impact to the financial fund in rush (bank run), resulting in crisis of liquidity.
system. Crisis of confidence or any large unforeseen As an example is the crisis of the capital market in the
fluctuations on the capital market as reflected by stock United Governments during the year 1929 and in UK
prices volatility might create flight to safety during the year 1982.
liquidity, especially in US Dollar. This will spread panic in general and banking stocks in particular has not yet
attack in other financial sector. fully recovered and the role of the capital market as
Box 5 :
Government Bond Yield to Maturity
YIELD CURVE OF January - December 2002
21
One of the important indicators of investor
19
confidence in the capital market and of investor
economic expectation is a yield curve. The curve is 17
2008 indicates an upward trend. YTM Jan YTM Apr YTM Jul YTM Oct YTM Dec
38
Capital Market
an alternative source of financing has not developed Apart from that, weak condition of the capital
appropriately. The condition might result in potential market leads way to unwillingness of the companies/
cause for the rising of systematic risk should banking financial institutions to resort to cheaper fund in the
crisis prevail. capital market. Moreover, scarcity of alternative sources
Some main indicators of the investors’ confidence of financing will cause systemic risk to the companies
such as market liquidity, stock prices index particularly including banks, thereby weaken and prolonged the
in financial sector (IHSSK) and spread index, still show prevailing crisis.
a weak signal. Since 1997 liquidity of the market
remains weak, and volume of the trade remains at the Mutual Funds
marginal condition. The average turn over ratio prior Despite suppressed condition of the capital
to the crisis era was 0.28%, whereas during the year market, yet a number of derivative products of the
2002 it was lowered to stay at 0.08%. capital market, especially those related to bonds, have
experienced promising growth. Until December 2002,
Figure 5.2
Development of Mutual Fund and Bank Deposits
Trillion Rp Percent
During 2002, fluctuation of the composite stock 900 0.25
800
price index (IHSG) and the financial sector stock index 0.2
700
including banking remains at as low as 5% and never 600 0.15
500
exceeds its psychological limit prior to the economic 0.1
400
crisis in 1997. If this is compared with the liquid stocks 300 0.05
200
index LQ45, spread index of the financial sector has a 0
100
2002
risk in the capital market is not equitable with the
Mutual Fund Deposit Mutual Fund Growth (%) Deposit Growth (%)
return from stock market investments.
39
Chapter 5
In comparison to the growth of the third party likely revives to execute transactions on the capital
deposits in banks, the growth of transactions in the market.
Mutual Funds has shown significant rise. This trend is Growth in the Mutual Funds gives beneficial
expected to encourage the transactions of the other impact to the investors, banks and Government.
products of the capital market. However, viewed from the prospect of stability of the
The risk caused by the transactions to the financial financial system it is necessary to give specific
system depends on the role of the bank and the type of attention to banks acting as market agent of the Mutual
the transactions which have been made. As the banks Funds products. If Investment Manager (MI) defaults,
in general just act as the agent, the risks which might these banks may be exposed to substantial reputation
arise are might generally in the form of legal risk and damage. The MI’s exposure towards credit risk,
its reputation, especially in connection with purchase liquidity and stock price is not adequately understood
agreement of the products of the Mutual Funds. by the investors. Also, a number of banks acting as
Nevertheless, in practice there are banks acting as standby buyer might be exposed to substantial price
standby buyer for guaranteeing the return of fixed risk, if they repurchase Government bonds from MI in
Mutual Funds. These banks are exposed to substantial case of redemption.
price risk in case there is change in the bank interest Based on Net Asset Value (NAB), investment in
rate to the opposite direction against the expectation Mutual Funds (mutual fund or trust unit) has been rising
of the bank (reverse shock), resulting in high interest rapidly during 2002 by 478.50% (y-o-y). By using 1996
and liquidity risks to the banks. Besides, the supervisory as basis year, Mutual Funds have a growth of 175.53%.
authorities need to be alert in case there are inter- Fixed income mutual fund -with Government bonds
transactions among the affiliated parties which violates as the underlying instruments- has the highest growth
legal lending limit regulations. rate. Rapid growth of Mutual Funds is reflected from
It is important to avoid the cases in as much to the volume of accounts and number of products
give protection to the confidence of the public which offered.
Table 5.1.
Development of Net Assets of Mutual Fund
(in Billion Rupiah)
Type of Mutual Fund 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Jan-03
Money Market 15.6 25.4 37.7 575.2 1,243.6 2,271.1 7,203.9 6,764.6
Fixed Income 1,897.9 3.635.3 1,968.9 2,839.3 3,062.0 4,660.5 37,328.5 41,988.3
Mixed 349.6 648.5 392.5 598.7 649.4 635.3 1,779.1 1,989.6
Stock 519.3 583.8 535.2 960.8 560.6 490.9 302.3 252.0
Total 2,782.4 4.893.0 2,934.3 4,974.0 5,515.6 8,057.8 46,613.8 50,994.5
Annual Growth (y-o-y) 75.86% -40.03% 69.51% 10.89% 46.09% 478.49% 9.40%
Growth since 1996 56.45% -51.13% 52.78% 10.34% 37.91% 175.53% 8.98%
Source : Bapepam, reprocessed
40
Capital Market
The volume of the investor accounts has been Three driving factors of high growth of mutual
significantly rising by 143.20% until December 2002 funds during 2002 are as following:
(y-o-y). In 2002, there were 131 types of Mutual Funds - Decrease of SBI rate up to 457 bp which is followed
products offered from formerly 25 types in 1996. by decline in time deposit interest rates by 324
The ratio of fund under management of the Mutual bp. Consequently there is conversion of fund from
Funds to the third party deposits in banks has been time deposit to Mutual Funds especially in a
drastically growing from 1.07% in January 2002 to number of banks as this investment instrument
5.83% in December 2002. In some banks, Mutual Funds gives more attractive return – at least presently –
have attracted investors who previously made the in comparison to time deposit, as Mutual Funds
investment in traditional products such as time provides fixed income.
deposit. - Investment in Mutual Funds is exempted from
income tax especially for the type of Mutual Funds
41
Chapter 5
maintenance of those customers so that they will not (recap bonds) even have been lower than the interest
turn to the other banks. At present prime customers of SBI for 1 month.
have the main expectation to obtain high return from
their investment in line with the decreasing trend of Impacts on Financial System Stability
interest rate of SBI and time deposit. Viewed from the perspective of monetary system
Viewed from the interest of the Government, the stability, the impact of drastic growth of Mutual Funds
growth of the Mutual Funds gives some advantages. needs to be given close attention especially to the
First, tax exemption will help create secondary market banking sector. There are a number of facts which need
of the Government bond which is liquid and big. Along to be given the close attention to in relation with the
with the exemption from tax, Government bond will growth of Mutual Funds as follows :
become attractive underlying instruments to the
investors and investment Managers, so that these a. Change of Risk Profile of Bank
instruments will be able to trade at prices which reflect Transaction of investment management through
fair market price level. Besides, liquid market will bank has the impact to increase risk of the bank either
eventually encourage yield to maturity (YTM) of the who acts as agent or as standby buyer. The bank who
bond to become lower. Secondly, there will be acts as agent for the marketing of the Mutual Funds
economization of the Government fund. With lower products (white label products) will have the risk of
YTM, there will be economization of the Government lowering its reputation (reputation risk) in case the
fund. Graphic 4.30 shows that YTM of the Government Investment Manager (MI) has default, the more if the
bonds which are active on trade have the tendency of said MI is affiliated with the bank. Public might have
sharp decline in YTM movement. By the end of February perception that the default will fully become the
2003, YTM of bonds of serial number FR 06 and FR 08 responsibility of and can be burdened to the bank. The
bank who acts as standby buyer might have the risk of
Figure 5.5 significantly higher prices, especially those who make
Development of YTM of Some Fixed Rate Bonds
and SBI Rates repurchase agreement of the Government bond with
Percent
15.0 MI. Some banks have made the repurchase agreement
14.5
with MI, in which in case there is withdrawal
14.0
(redemption) in big amount, MI will be allowed to resell
13.5
the Government bond to the said banks. If the interest
13,0
12.5
of SBI gets lower, the price of Government bond which
42
Capital Market
b. Liquidity Risk faced by MI influence the condition of the stability of the national
The investors do not yet fully comprehend the monetary system in the long run. At present disclosure
risk of investment in the Mutual Funds, especially which and transparency of the Investment Manager (MI) is still
is related to redemption, in case the investment in the relatively limited, so that the investors do not yet fully
Mutual Funds is due. MI will face liquidity risk if there comprehend the risk of investment in the Mutual Funds,
is resale (redemption) in big amount within a short particularly in connection with credit risk, liquidity risk
period by holders of the share units. Besides, liquidity and price risk.
risk resulted from the redemption will most likely take
place if bank intermediation prevails soon. This liquidity d. There is no Uniformity of Valuation
risk might also be resulted from basic change in the Method.
policy on interest rate or monetary instruments. Also, At present Bapepam does not yet to introduce
liquidity risk faced by MI will become higher if there is any regulation dealing with method for valuation of
decrease of NAB which generally leads way to the price of bond. The absence of uniformity of method
withdrawal. This case might take place especially when for determining the price of bond which is decided by
the condition in which the investors in Indonesia in Bapepam is potential to affect the interest of the
general do not yet adequately possess knowledge on investors in the Mutual Funds, especially when they
the investment in non-bank instruments and that they wish to redeem their investment. Presently, the price
generally try to avoid the risk (risk-averse). of bond at the time of its redemption by the bank
depends on method of valuation of the price which is
c. There is no Market Discipline applied by MI, whether it is based on mark to market
Taking up that market discipline in Indonesia is or amortization (to be amortized until its due date
not yet fully and properly exercised, investment in (amortization) or by applying the other method of
Mutual Funds has some risk exposure which might valuation.
43
Chapter 5
Box 6 :
MUTUAL FUNDS
Mutual Funds is the instrument of investment to 2. Fixed Income Fund - collection of investment
collect fund from the investors to be invested in stock minimum 80% of the assets is in the form of loan.
portfolio by Investment Manager (MI). Each type of This Mutual Funds has relatively higher risk than
Mutual Funds has its legal entity and NPWP. Besides money market fund. The purpose is to generate
providing income (return), Mutual Funds also perform rate of return which is stable.
as the instrument to diversify risk. Mutual Funds in 3. Equity Fund – collection of investment minimum
Indonesia have been rapidly developing since 2002. 80% of its assets is in the form of stocks which are
This development has been encouraged by active role equity in nature. Its return is in fact higher, yet
of banks in marketing the Mutual Funds and tax the risk is also higher than the previous types of
incentive as well as decrease of the interest rates of the Mutual Funds.
time deposits. There are 131 types of Mutual Funds 4. Discretionary Fund – collection of investment in
with combined outlay of Rp. 56,093.90 billion under the form of stocks which are equity and loan in
its management. nature.
Based on its form, Mutual Funds can be classified The performance of Mutual Funds is reflected
into: by its Net Assets Value (NAB), namely fair market value
1. Corporate Mutual Funds, in which fund is of the whole stocks and the other assets of the Mutual
collected through selling stocks and then the fund Funds deducted by all liabilities of the Mutual Funds
is invested into a number of types of the stock on which become burden of the Mutual Funds during the
the capital market as well as money market. This period. NAB per equity unit on the first day of the
Mutual Fund is further grouped into Closed offer of the Mutual Funds is usually Rp. 1,000, and
Corporate Mutual Funds and Open Corporate NAB of per unit of further equity is the total NAB of
Mutual Funds. the Mutual Funds divided by total amount of the units
2. Mutual Funds under Collective Contract of equity which are under circulation on the related
(Contractual Type), contract between MI and day. Custodian bank shall be obliged to calculate NAB
custodian banks which binds holders of Share of per unit equity of everyday, based on fair market
Units in which MI is given the authority to manage value which is determined by MI and informed to MI
collective investment portfolios and custodian on every business day as the basis of computation of
bank is given the authority to execute collective NAB.
custody. Contractual Type of Mutual Funds is introduced
Based on its investment portfolio, Mutual Funds in Indonesia since 1996. Until the end of December
can be divided into : 2002 there are 122 types of Mutual Funds issued by
1. Money Market Fund – collection of investment in Securities Company who acts as Investment Manager
stocks which is loan in nature and the due date (MI). Mutual Funds has grown rapidly during 2002
is less than one year. The purpose of this particularly since banks have been more active to act
investment is to maintain liquidity and capital. as its broker. Owing to the services banks will get
44
Capital Market
compensation of brokerage fee from MI. Therefore, (1b).Customer fills in resale form along with photo copy
Mutual Funds has become one of the alternatives of of identity to Investment Manager (MI) (T+ 0).
investment which is attractive to the public beside time 2. Bank sends original form of resale along with
deposits. In Malaysia and the United Governments photo copy of identity to Investment Manager
investment in Mutual Funds has reached 50% and 60% 3. Investment Manager submits resale form to
respectively of the total fund investment portfolios. Custodian Bank.
Mechanism of the sale of Mutual Funds through 4. Custodian Bank transfers customer’s fund to Bank.
bank is described in the following mechanism :
a. At the time of purchase of Mutual Funds :
Custodian
Bank Bank
(3)
Custodian
(2)
Bank Bank (4)
(3) (3)
(1a)
Customer Investment
(7) Manager
(6)
45
Chapter 5
46
Capital Market
400
Bank Lippo, Bank Permata and Bank Interpacific are
100 300 very low at Rp. 50/share and even the stock price of
200
50 Bank International Indonesia and Bank Lippo remain
100
47
CHAPTER
Chapter 5
RISKS IN PAYMENT SYSTEMS condition as therein stipulated in Law No. 23 year 1999,
Box 7 :
RISKS IN PAYMENT SYSTEMS
48
Payment Systems
Capital
in Indonesia
Market
Payment system prevailing in Indonesia covers amount of notes in the daily clearing transactions are
cash payment and non-cash payment. Settlement of depicted in Graphic 6.1.
the transaction between banks is made through the
system of exchanging inter-bank notes (clearing) and Real Time Gross Settlement (RTGS)
Real Time Gross Settlement (RTGS), which will be RTGS is an automatic settlement between parties
described below. executed by BI. Time lag in the delivery of the payment
institutions and receipt can be avoided. RTGS
Clearing System settlement has been implemented in 27 cities
This payment system has been conducted by BI throughout Indonesia at the average daily transaction
since the establishment of BI. The instruments cover at the nominal of Rp. 55.7 trillion during 2002. The
using check, clearing account, debit or credit notes. development of the breakdown of transaction and
Members in this payment system include all foreign volume in RTGS is presented in Graphic 6.1.
exchange banks operating in Indonesia. There is also other settlement method which is
Clearing centers are located in all branch offices executed outside Bank Indonesia through ATM, credit
of BI and in a number of cities executed by some state card, debit card etc, but the portion is still relatively
owned banks. The settlement is made separately for small in comparison to that executed through clearing
every clearing center by end of the day. BI may provide transaction and RTGS.
Short Term Loan Facility (FPJP) for banks subject to
availability of liquid collateral and maximum 90 days. ROLE OF PAYMENT SYSTEMS IN THE STABILITY
During 2002, average volume of daily clearing OF FINANCIAL SYSTEM
reaches Rp. 6.3 trillion and 72.979 units of clearing Financial problem faced by a member in payment
accounts. The development of transactions and total system may spark the problem to other member through
the following reasons:
Figure 6.1 - Delay in settlement of collection through clearing
Development of RTGS, clearing and
Non-cash transaction will cause problem of liquidity of the beneficiary,
Trillion Rp
so that it might also result in liquidity risk of the
2,000
Non Cash Clearing RTGS
1,750 beneficiary.
1,500 - The default of the party in the clearing will cause
1,250
credit risk to the beneficiary bank.
1,000
- Delay or failure of payment by one a member will
750
500
create domino effect. For other member the
250 condition might cause systematic risk moreover
0
Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec the stability of financial system.
2000 2001 2002
- Technology malfunction will cause delay of all
49
Chapter 6
5
process of payment system (operational risk), as in the clearing also has to face credit risk which is the
information technology has become important probability of default arises from the paying bank.
sources in the efficiency of the payment system. Liquidity risk and credit risk can be reduced in
Although its probability remains relatively low, but case there is failure to settle. Failure to settle can be
the might cause significant loss to the party of the implemented properly since there is mutual agreement
clearing and user of the finance services. This between parties to be responsible to make settlement.
condition may result in instability of financial This method can be executed through a number of ways
system. which have been mutually agreed upon such as pooling
funds or loss sharing.
Payment Systems Oversight Operational risk in clearing system might take place
Payment System Oversight is meant to ensure the in case the existing system fails to function properly and
efficiency of the payment system in future. The potency therefore, clearing cannot be proceeding. Disturbance
of the problem may then be identified at early stage in clearing system might arise due to some factors among
and put under control so that its negative impact can other include power supply, overload of transaction and
be minimized. Besides, the existing weakness can be the other technical problem. Until today, there is no the
improved for better development ahead. Focus of technical problem which arises and disturbs the process
oversight is directed more to the capability of the of the clearing system. Besides, there is contingency plan
system to process transaction, procedure of execution, if there is some technical problem, so that operational
legal framework, and contingency plan in case problem risk in the clearing system in Indonesia can be regarded
arises in the system and last resort in case the condition as being low. On the other hand, the total amount of
is not normal. Oversight is implemented to evaluate transactions in the clearing has also been decreasing as
and anticipate in case there is any possibility for risk the result of the application of RTGS.
to arise in the payment system and how to avoid or Legal risk in the clearing system might arise due
minimize its negative impact in the future. to unclear mechanism in settlements so that it will be
difficult to make the collection. Clearing system in
Risks in Clearing System Indonesia doesn’t require collateral so participants will
Clearing system result is estimated at the end of be in the relatively weak position to be able to make
day, in which parties being short in the clearing must the collection to paying bank.
be able to cover obligation until the next following
business day. Liquidity risk arises when collection to Risks in RTGS
the paying bank is not yet paid until the following Liquidity risk in RTGS might take place in case
business day. This case will cause the lost of opportunity the process of collection transmission to the other bank
for the beneficiary bank to have an overnight cannot be executed and to some technical problem and/
investments. On the other hand, the beneficiary bank or liquidity problem in other banks.
50
Payment Systems
Capital
in Indonesia
Market
In the course of RTGS implementation in Indonesia, transactions in RTGS cannot be executed. The main
there is no case of gridlock as the volume of RTGS itself cause of the trouble is technical problem in RTGS
remains low. Besides, RTGS members have enough system or volume of transactions which does not
liquidity reflected in significant amount at SBI. The match with the capacity of the existing system.
liquidity risk may be very low to disturb stability of Higher gridlock or the deadlocks of the system at
financial system. The rise of recapitalization bond are the nature of operational risk. In this respect,
trading may require larger liquidity in RTGS. The intra- the comparison between the trend of transaction in
day facilities provided by Bank Indonesia will play RTGS and the capacity of the system in RTGS must
significant role to avoid gridlock in RTGS. be considered to be able to measure whether the
There is no credit risk in RTGS, as the mechanism actual capacity at present is adequate to
of collection to the other banks will be effective if the accommodate the development of transactions in
balance is adequate and the system runs well. Legal RTGS in future. In Indonesia case, the existing
risk in this RTGS is relevant taking into consideration capacity of the system is still relatively big enough
that there is no credit exposure. to cover the future development of RTGS. Therefore,
Operational risk in RTGS might take place in case the capacity of RTGS is regarded to remain under
there is trouble in the transmission system, so that all control in future years.
51
Chapter 6
5
Boks 8 :
FAILURE TO SETTLE SCHEME
In relation with Bank Indonesia’s role in clearing, seems to be more preferable and does not create any
BI may face credit risk exposure to the banks who suffer burden the other clearing participants. The weakness
liquidity mismatch in fails to set-off their obligation in is that in case in the failure of the settlement the
clearing due to short term liquidity mismatch facilities. amount is really big enough, while the capability of
Although it is only an overnight, the credit risk the defaulter is limited, so that the defaulter is not
is relatively high. To minimize the risk, Bank Indonesia able to cover all of his liabilities and therefore the
conducts in Failure-to-Settle (FTS) mechanism adopted payment system fails to become effective.
from Core Principles for Systematically Important Consequently, the system needs adequate collateral
Payment System (CPSIPS). FTS is a mechanism in which provided by participants in the system.
one or more parties in clearing fail to meet their
obligation to make settlement at a given time. Clearing 2. Survivor Pay
system has to settle the obligation of illiquid borne by In this method, failure to settle shall become the
using funds collected from the clearing members. By responsibility the whole member. This method is slightly
doing so, all risk which might arise resulting from lower collateral than defaulter pay and probability of
clearing shall be fully become the responsibility of failure of settlement must also be smaller. However,
the clearing participants. Bank Indonesia is kept there must be strong decision to determine portion
separate from the arising risk. (share) of the collateral of each of the party in a fair
The CPSIPS obliges every multilateral clearing manner.
system to make settlement at the given time and to
bail-out on the failure of settlement of one of the 3. Combination of Survivor and Defaulter Pay
parties in the clearing. According to the standard In this method, failure to settle must first become
CPSIPS, the minimum fund for bailing out from the the responsibility of defaulter up to the maximum limit
clearing participants is based on the largest net debit of the liability of his liquidity. In case the amount is
experienced by the claim participant (or as the balance inadequate it must become mutual responsibility by
of shortfall). The value of bail out is provided in terms the survivors. Under this method, probability of failure
of securities, cash or fund from loss sharing of settlement is lower so that collateral will also be
mechanism. smaller than that in defaulter pay method.
In accordance with the international practices, There are a number of alternatives for fund
there are a number of alternatives of FTS method sources of FTS:
which can also be applied in Indonesia: 1. Cash deposit. Members of clearing must deposit a
total sum of fund in Bank Indonesia. The benefit of
1. Defaulter Pay applying this approach is to accelerate settlement.
In this method, failure to settle shall fully But bank might be doubtful whether the fund
become the responsibility of the defaulter. This method deposited in Bank Indonesia shall become idle.
52
Payment Systems
Capital
in Indonesia
Market
2. Pool of Collateral. Members of clearing must the agreed mechanism. System operator will not
place collateral in the form of SBI, Government responsible for the payment.
Bond or other Government Commercial Notes
which can be used to cover the shortfall of 4. Pool of Fund. Members of clearing are required
fund. to deposit a certain amount with the minimum
3. Loss Sharing. Members of clearing have no funds is equal by the maximum net debit
placement of collateral to system. In case there extended by a member. The fund may be
is a default, the sharing of loss will be based on managed by the system.
F T S Fund Sources
In case there is
Member of default, Member must
Member of clearing must member must collect deposit
clearing must deposit be responsible in money equal to
deposit a total collateral in the accordance with the largest net
sum of fund in form of SBI/OP proportion and debit extended
clearing which can be mechanism by the member.
system (BI). used to cover which have been
shortfall of fund. mutually agreed
53
CHAPTER
Chapter 5
7 CONCLUSION
1. Financial stability during 2002 can be maintained will create pressure on USD/IDR exchange
in general. However, there are some issues needs rate. This condition may affect commercial
special attention which may spark instability in bank liquidity as impact of the volatility of
high as was indicated by: 2. Banking industry has adequate capital with
- The aggregate non performing loans (NPLs) aggregate capital adequacy ratio (CAR) far above
gross of banking industry remain high with 8%. However, it is necessary to anticipate the
sluggish decline trend, while some banks still decrease of capitali which is caused by additional
has not met the indicative target NPL (net) provision required to cover the increase of NPL and
- There is a tendency of increasing NPLs mainly of CAR incorporating market risk in 2003.
due to the increased number of 3. Currently, there is no formal policy and mechanism
unrestructured loans bought by banks from of crisis resolution. This makes crisis resolution
IBRA. Restructured loans will become NPL very difficult and could led to worsen the crisis if
since there is unsuccessful recovery in real it occurs. Bank Indonesia has developed financial
sector reflected reflected in uncomplete system stability blue-print including policy and
corporate restructuring in IBRA and closure mechanism of crisis resolution. The frame work in
- Risk of political instability due to election in it proposed to the parliament to be formally stated
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Redesigning Indonesia’s Crisis Management
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A b s t r a ct
There are some fundamental problems in current crisis management (resolution) framework: (i)
the absence of comprehensive and clear policy; (ii) weaknesses in government’s guarantee program
(blanket guarantee) which creates moral hazard and may led to future financial crises; and (iii)
unclear function of Bank of Indonesia as the lender of the last resort in a systemic crisis situation.
Two key steps are suggested to improve the crisis resolution in Indonesia: (i) a gradual replacement
the current blanket guarantee with an explicit and limited deposit insurance scheme; and (ii) a
more well-defined lender of last resort which is more transparent both in normal times and
during systemic crises. A more transparent LLR policy will function as an effective tools for crisis
management, provides a clearer accountability that may increase central bank’s credibility, reduce
politic interference, reduce moral hazard and encourage market discipline which will eventually
improve financial stability.
1 Condensed version of paper entitled ‘Indonesia’s Banking Crisis Resolution: Lessons and the Way Forward’ prepared as part of the financial stability
research project at the Centre for Central Banking Studies (CCBS), Bank of England and presented at the Banking Crisis Resolution Conference, CCBS,
Bank of England, London, 9 December 2002.
2 Senior Bank Researcher at Bank Indonesia. The views expressed in this paper are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of Bank
Indonesia. The author would like to thank Peter Sinclair (Former Director CCBS, Bank of England), Glenn Hoggarth (Bank of England), and colleagues at
Bank Indonesia for comments on earlier draft. All errors are those of the author. E-mail address: batunanggar@bi.go.id
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Redesigning Indonesia’s Crisis Management
INTRODUCTION
The East Asian financial crisis stands out as one of the major crisis of the 20th century. After
enjoying marked economic growth for three decades, Indonesia, together with Thailand and South
Korea, experienced an extraordinarily turbulent “twin crisis” – a currency crisis and a banking crisis.
The crisis resolution suffered from two main problems: (i) a lack of understanding from the IMF and on
the part of the authorities of the crisis which resulted in inappropriate strategies both at the macro and
micro level; and (ii) a lack of government commitment to take consistent and objective measures.
The impact of the crisis has been devastating. Indonesia has suffered particularly badly. There has
been a deep and prolonged recession and the fiscal costs of crisis resolution are so far over 50% of
annual GDP. During the last quarter of the century, only the Argentina crisis in the early 1980s was more
costly to the budget. Although the crisis is now over, but Indonesia will experience its effects for years
to come.
There is now a large literature on the causes of the Asian crisis3 . There are two main polar views of
the causes of the crisis. The first view argues that the main cause of the crisis were weak economic
fundamentals and policy inconsistencies (Krugman (1998), Mishkin (1999). The second view believes
that the root of the crisis was pure contagion and market irrationality ((Radelet and Sachs (1998);
Furman and Stiglitz (1998) and Stiglitz (1999, 2002)). While some other commentators such as Corsetti,
Pesenti and Roubini (1998) and Djiwandono (1999) took the middle ground arguing that both contagion
and poor economic fundamentals caused the Asian crisis. Financial crises do not occur only in the
presence of weak fundamentals, but weak fundamentals can trigger bank run psychology and this in
turn can have disproportionately bad effects on the real economy.
Safeguarding financial stability is a core function of a modern central bank, no less important than
maintaining monetary stability (Sinclair, 2001). Financial stability relies on five interrelated elements:
(i) stable macro-economic environment; (ii) well-managed financial institutions; (iii) efficient financial
markets; (iv) a sound framework of prudential supervision; and (v) a safe and robust payments system
(MacFarlane, 1999).
Fragility in financial institutions particularly in banks, is one source of instability (Crockett, 1997,
2001). Therefore, banking crises should be either prevented or resolved in order to avoid disrupting the
payments system and the flows of credit to the economy. Wherein, crisis prevention involves measures
taken to avoid banking problems occurring, crisis management focuses on how the authorities deal with
3 Note, however, the literature predicting the likelihood of a crisis in Indonesia beforehand is much more parsimonious.
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a crisis once it materialises. Facing with a banking crisis, the authorities confronts a trade-off between
maintaining financial stability today – through offering protection to failing banks – and increasing
financial instability in the future through increasing moral hazard (Hoggarth et.al, 2002). In resolving
banking crisis, the authorities should try to minimise the fiscal costs and any moral hazard that may be
induced.
This paper will discusses banking crisis resolution in Indonesia in particular safety nets issues including
blanket guarantees and Bank Indonesia’s liquidity support. Section 2 provides overview of Indonesia’s
banking system. Section 3 discuss Indonesia’s current safety nets. Section 4 proposes some actions that
should be taken to improve financial stability in Indonesia, particularly in the realm of lender of last
resort and deposit insurance. Section 5 concludes.
The banking system, particularly the commercial banks, dominate Indonesia’s financial system and
play a key role in the financial intermediation process4 . Indonesia’s banking system has two main features.
First, it is a highly concentrated with the 15 largest commercial banks accounting for 75% of total assets
(see Table /Appendix). Second, there is a high degree of government control of over 80% of the banking
system’s assets. Domestic private banks and foreign banks account for only 11% and 8% respectively of
total assets. The latter was a result of the bank restructuring programme in 1999–2000.
Following the bank restructuring programme, the banking system performance improved as indicated
by an increase in profit /and capital as well as deposits. However, the banking system is still vulnerable
and its capacity to support economic growth remains constrained by poor capitalisation and continued
high credit risk in the economy. The main problems facing the banking industry are: (i) a high credit risk
indicated by the continued high level of non performing loans; (ii) slow progress in loan and corporate
restructuring, and; (iii) slow credit growth due to unfavourable economic conditions5 .
4 Indonesia’s financial system comprises banks and non-bank financial institutions (security firms, insurance companies, pension funds and pawn brokers).
The banking system consist of commercial banks with shares up to 99% in terms of total asset to the banking system and rural banks. Commercial banks
are the dominant players consisting of almost 80% of the total assets in the financial system.
5 Empirical study by Agung et al. (2001) found strong evidence of the existence of a credit crunch in Indonesia.
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Redesigning Indonesia’s Crisis Management
40 15,000 0
0
20 12,500 -100
-5
0 10,000
-200
-20 7,500 -10
-300
-40 5,000 ROA
-15
Income to Expense Ratio -400
-60 2,500
ROE
NPLs CAR Forex Rate -20 -500
-80 0 Dec Dec Dec Dec Dec Dec Dec Dec Dec Jun
Dec Jun Dec Jun Dec Jun Dec Jun Dec Jun Dec Jun
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
At the heart of the financial crisis in Indonesia in 1997 – 1998 lay a slump in economic growth and
investment. Since 1998, the economy has grown slowly. However, the outlook for the Indonesia economy
is still uncertain. Nasution (2002) observed that the failure of the investment to rebound significantly
suggest that the crisis is having a long-term adverse effect. Moreover, there are critical issues related to
Indonesia’s financial stability including heavy pressures on the government budget deficit, public sector
debts with payment of principal and interests US$9 billion per year, and difficulties in settling private
sector debts.
Table 1. Performance of the Indonesian Banking System: 1997 - 2001 (in trillion rupiah)
Financial Indicators Dec 1997 Dec 1998 Dec 1999 Dec 2000 Dec 2001
A number of issues need to be resolved in order to restore the banking system to full health, so that
it can perform its vital role as financial intermediary to the economy. Bank loans restructuring and
corporate restructuring should be further accelerated in order to foster the internal growth of the
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50 5%
5,000 100,000
0 90,000 0 0%
Jun Sep Dec Mar Jun Sep Dec Mar Jun Jul
QIV QII QIV QII QIV QII QIV QII QIV QII QIV QII
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
2000 2001 2002
Bad Loans Transf'rd to IBRA Restructured bad loans
Foreign debt (mio USD) Forex rate (IDR/USD)
Int`l reserve (mio USD) Ratio
banking industry. In addition, the institutional and organisational capabilities should be enhanced toward
the international standards including risk management, good governance and banking supervision.
Before the 1997 crisis, none of the East Asian crisis countries except the Philippines, which was
least affected by the crisis, had an explicit deposit insurance scheme. Bank Indonesia provided both
liquidity and capital support to problem banks on an ad-hoc basis and in non transparent ways6 . The
support was also not based on any pre-existing formal guarantee mechanism but rather on a belief that
some of the banks that needed support were too big to fail or the failure of a bank could cause contagion.
A limited deposit guarantee in Indonesia was first applied when the authorities closed down Bank
Summa at the beginning of the 1990s which was considered unsuccessful7 . After then, there were no
bank closures until the authorities closed down 16 banks in November 1997 and introduced a limited
guarantee. However, this failed to prevent systemic bank runs.
To restore domestic and international confidence in the economy and the financial system, the
government signed the second agreement with the IMF on 15 January 1998. However, market perceptions
and reactions to the government commitment and capacity to resolve the crisis were still negative.
There was a huge amount of capital flight of around $600 million to $700 million per day. On 22 January,
the rupiah plummeted to a record low of Rp16.500.
6 However, this was done primarily for domestic rather than foreign banks.
7 The plan for establishing a deposit insurance scheme has been discussed quite intensively since the early 1990s. However, the authorities declined the
proposal because they considered that it would create moral hazard.
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Redesigning Indonesia’s Crisis Management
To prevent a further slide and to maintain public confidence in the banking system on 27 January,
the government issued a blanket guarantee. It covered all commercial banks’ liabilities (rupiah and
foreign currency), including both depositors and creditors. It was an interim measure pending the
establishment of the Deposit Insurance Agency8 . Initially, the administration of the blanket guarantee
was a joint task between Bank Indonesia and IBRA. From June 2000 it has been the responsibility of IBRA
alone9 .
The Indonesian case suggests that a very limited deposit insurance scheme was not effective in
preventing bank runs during the 1997 crisis. Deposits denominated of more than Rp20 millions – the
uninsured component – accounted for about 80% of total deposits. Therefore, if a blanket guarantee had
been introduced earlier at the outset of the crisis, the systemic runs might have been reduced.
Figure 5. Figure 6.
Interbank Call Money: 1997 - 1999 Interest Rates: 1997 - 1999
Billion rupiah Percent Percent
300,000 100 90
90 80
250,000
80 70
70 60
200,000
60 50
150,000 50
40
40
100,000 30
30
20
20
50,000
10 10
- 0 0
Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov
1997 1998 1999 1997 1998 1999
Interbank Call Money Rate (%) Inter-bank (o/n) Time deposit (3 mth) BI Certificate (28 days)
That said, the introduction of the blanket guarantee did not instantly stop bank runs. Although
fewer, there were still bank runs on some insolvent banks (although not on the domestic system as a
whole). This was indicated by the increase in Bank Indonesia’s Liquidity Support from Rp92 trillion in
January to Rp178 trillion in August 1998. These banks were run by depositors for some reasons. The first
possibility is a poor public perception due to unclear policies what was covered and a lack of trust that
the government would stick to their commitment. This led depositors to transfer their money from
perceived bad banks to safer banks. After three highly insolvent banks were taken over and closed down
on 21 August 1998 bank runs, and therefore Bank Indonesia’s liquidity support, decreased markedly.
8 Initially it was to be retained for a minimum of two years, with a provision for an automatic six months extension in the absence of an announcement
of termination of the scheme.
9 BI retains the role of administering the guarantee scheme to trade finance, inter-bank debt exchange and rural banks.
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Secondly, depositors anticipated that there would be more bank closures. Even though their deposits
were guaranteed fully by the government, they recognised that they would be transferred to other
banks. This would create a time lag between the claim and the payment of their deposit. To avoid this,
they withdrew their deposits from perceived weak banks and transferred to those banks thought “safer”
(state-owned and foreign banks). There was also a relatively long time lag before the implementation
of the blanket guarantee programme. In fact, IBRA, as administrator of the guarantee programme,
became operational three months after its creation.
Even though it was introduced after some delay, the implementation of a blanket guarantee appears
to have worked. After June 1998 the segmentation in the inter-bank market decreased sharply and
liquidity in the banking system increased. This enabled banks to borrow from the inter-bank market at
lower interest rates (see Figure 5). In addition, there were no significant bank runs despite the change
in government in 1999 and some other policy reversals.
Mishkin (2001) suggests that central bank could promote recovery from financial crisis by pursuing
lender of last resort role in which it stands ready to lend freely during a financial crisis. There are many
instances of successful lender of last resort operations in industrialised countries (Mishkin, 1991).
10 The previous BI’s Law (1967) set BI’s status is a “dependent” agency served as assistance of the Government in carrying out monetary, banking and
payment system policies. The current BI’s Law (1999) sets its the independence from political intervention.
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Redesigning Indonesia’s Crisis Management
As the crisis intensified, the amount of overdraft facilities increased from Rp31 trillion in December
1997 to Rp170 trillion in December 1998. Liquidity support, however, was concentrated on only a
small number of banks - 80 % of the total was provided to five banks and over 60% to four private
banks. All these banks faced huge deposit withdrawals, except Bank Exim (state-owned) which
faced huge losses on foreign exchange transactions. Bank Central Asia, owned by the Salim group
which close links to Suharto, was the largest borrower of Rp31 trillion following riots in May 1998 (see
Figure 6).
According to conventional wisdom, liquidity support should be only provided to illiquid but solvent
banks. In order to reduce the likely hood of losses the central bank should take adequate collateral.
Enoch (2001) argued that there should be restrictions against protracted use of such lending, since this
is likely to be an indicator of solvency difficulties. After the bank closures of November 1997, and given
there was no intention to close more banks in the near future, Bank Indonesia was locked into providing
liquidity. Since then, Bank Indonesia provided support to all banks without taking any collateral (by
allowing their current accounts with Bank Indonesia to go overdrawn). Instead, Bank Indonesia took
only a personal guarantee from banks’ owners that the borrowings were used to meet liquidity needs,
and their banks were in compliance with all prudential regulations. Unsurprisingly, as illustrated in
Figure 6, liquidity support increased markedly.
The large budgetary cost that this entailed created tension and distrust between Bank Indonesia
and the Government particularly over the accountability and integrity of Bank Indonesia in providing
the emergency liquidity support. Enoch (2001) observed that the main criticism of BI’s LLR practices
related to the lack of control over such lending, for example, whether lending matched a commensurate
loss of deposits. While Bank Indonesia did undertake such matching in the latter part of the crisis – in
particular in May 1998 when BCA was subject to severe withdrawals – there seems to have been less
control during the earlier period. In fact, BI placed 2 or 3 supervisors in each distressed bank to verify
the bank’s transactions. However, it was insufficient to ensure that there was no misuse of the liquidity
support by banks’ management and owners11 .
This case has led to investigations into the operation of the LLR facility and dispute between the
Government and Bank Indonesia about the amount of and who should bear the liquidity support12 . After
a prolonged negotiation there is a commitment to finalise and implement a burden-sharing agreement
11 Later, bank examination found that there were a strong indication of moral hazard indicated by dubious interbank transactions between the closed
banks.
12 An investigation was performed by the Supreme Audit Agency (BPK) reported that there were weaknesses in BI’s internal control and governance in
providing liquidity support.
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on Bank Indonesia liquidity support between Bank Indonesia and the government13 . In fact, the decision
to provide the liquidity support to distressed banks has been discussed in the Economic and Financial
Stabilisation Council and approved by the President – ‘that Bank Indonesia could help distressed but
good banks to maintain the banking system and the payment system’14 . However, as argued by Sinclair
(2000) and Goodhart (2002), within the time scale allowed, it is often difficult, if not impossible, for
central banks to distinguish between a solvency and a liquidity problem. Therefore, the basic problem
was unclear criteria for distinguishing a good from bad banks and the absence of LLR guidelines and
procedures to ensure accountability. In addition, there was also a lack of coordination between agencies
in managing the crisis.
In addition, with a large amount of foreign-denominated debt it made difficult for Bank Indonesia
to promote recovery from a financial crisis by using expansionary monetary policy. This policy is likely to
cause domestic currency to depreciate sharply. For similar reasons, as was argued by Mishkin (2001),
LLR activities by a central bank in a emerging market countries with substantial foreign-denominated
debt, may not be as successful as in an industrialized countries. Bank Indonesia lending to the banking
system in the midst of the crisis expands domestic credit. This led to a substantial depreciation of the
rupiah which resulted in the deterioration of banks’ balance sheets which in turn made recovery from
the crisis more difficult likely. Therefore, the use of the LLR by a central bank in countries with a large
amount of foreign-denominated debt is trickier because central bank lending is now a two-edged sword
(Mishkin, 2001).
Based on its current Law of 1999, Bank Indonesia is permitted only a very limited role as lender of
last resort. Bank Indonesia can only provide limited LLR in normal times to banks (for a maximum of 90
days) that have high quality and liquid collateral; and not in exceptional circumstances. The collateral
could be securities or claims issued by the Government or other high-rated legal entities which can be
readily sold to the market. In practice, government recapitalisation bonds and Bank Indonesia Certificate
(SBIs) are the only eligible assets currently available to banks. The facility serves like a discount window,
which the central bank routinely opens at all times to handle normal day to day operational mismatches
which might be experienced by a bank. However, the facility does not constitute a LLR function typically
used to provide emergency liquidity support to the financial system during crisis periods (i.e. when
banks usually do not have high quality collateral).
13 Stated as a performance criterion in the Letter of Intent with the IMF of 31 December 2001.
14 The Council members are the Coordination Minister of the Economy, the Minister of Finance and the Governor of BI.
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Two strategic issues are proposed as part of a comprehensive crisis management strategy. First,
replace the blanket guarantee with an explicit deposit insurance scheme and, second redesign the
lender of last resort (LLR) facility.
There was a controversy over the adoption of a blanket guarantee. Some commentators such as
Furman and Stiglitz (1998), Stiglitz (1999,2002), Radelet and Sachs (1998) argue that the if the blanket
guarantee had been introduced earlier, before some banks had been liquidated, the damage and costs
of the crisis would have been much less.
In contrast, others criticised the blanket guarantee for being too broad. Goldstein (2000) argued
that had all bad (insolvent) banks been closed at the beginning of the crisis then even with the limited
deposit guarantee scheme in place there would not have been widespread deposit withdrawals because
the remaining banks would have been ‘good’ ones. He believed that with a blanket guarantee, the
government ended-up providing ex-post deposit insurance at a higher fiscal cost and with adverse moral
hazard effects increasing the likelihood of future banking crises. Therefore, he suggested that Indonesian
should develop an incentive-compatible deposit insurance system – along the lines of FDICIA in the
United States – which should be a permanent part of the financial infrastructure.
Honohan and Klingebiel (2000), based on sample of 40 developed and emerging market crises,
found that unlimited deposit guarantees, open-ended liquidity support, repeated recapitalisation, debtors
bail-out and regulatory forbearance significantly and sizeably increase the resolution costs. Moreover,
based on evidence from 61 countries in 1980-97, Demirguc-Kunt and Detragiache (1999), find that that
explicit deposit insurance tends to be detrimental to bank stability, the more so where bank interest
rates are deregulated and the institutional environment is weak. Similarly, Cull et al. (1999) based on a
sample of 58 countries also find that generous deposit insurance leads to financial instability in the
presence of a weak regulatory environment.
However, systemic bank runs in Indonesia at the outset of the 1997 crisis cannot be attributed
solely to the absence of a blanket guarantee. The inconsistent and non transparent bank liquidation
policies applied by the authorities and some political uncertainties during the end of Suharto’s regime
also played their part, as Lindgren et al. (1999) and Scott (2002) document. The introduction of the
blanket guarantee programme at the outset of the crisis might be necessary in order to prevent larger
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potential economic and social costs of the systemic crisis (Lindgren et al. 1999). However, the scheme
should be replaced as soon as possible with one that is more appropriate to normal conditions and does
not create moral hazard.
Garcia (1999, 2000), based on surveys in 68 countries, identified the best practices of explicit
systems of deposit insurance principally should have good infrastructure, avoid moral hazard, avoid
adverse selection, reduce agency problems and ensure financial integrity and credibility. Based on a
study of deposit insurance systems in Asian countries, Choi (2001) argues that it is reasonable in Asia to
establish and maintain an explicit and limited deposit insurance system in order to prevent further
possible financial crisis. Pangestu and Habir (2002) suggest that Indonesia’s deposit insurance scheme
should be designed on two key aspects. First, it should provide incentive to better performing banks by
linking the annual premium payment to their risk profile. Second, it should be self-funded in order to
foster market discipline and reduce the fiscal burden.
In order to avoid a disruption to the banking system, Garcia (2000) suggests that a partial guarantee
should not be introduced ideally until: (1) the domestic and international crisis has passed; (2) the
economy has begun to recover; (3) the macro-economic environment is supportive of bank soundness;
(4) the banking system has been restructured successfully; (5) the authorities possess, and are ready to
use, strong remedial and exit policies for bank that in the future are perceived by the public to be
unsound; (6) appropriate accounting, disclosure, and legal systems are in place; (7) a strong prudential
regulatory framework is in operation; and (8) public confidence has been restored. It seems that currently
Indonesia does not meet all these requirements.
Demirguc-Kunt and Kane (2001) suggest that countries should first assess and remedy the weaknesses
of their international and supervisory environments before adopting an explicit deposit insurance system.
In line with this, Wesaratchakit (2002) reported that Thailand decided to adopt a gradual transition
from a blanket guarantee to a limited explicit deposit insurance scheme. It was considered that there
are some preconditions that should be met – particularly the stability of banking system and the economy
as a whole, effectiveness of regulation and supervision as well as public understanding – before shifting
to an explicit limited deposit insurance system.
There is an issue of how depositors will react to the introduction of the limited scheme. In January
2001, Korea replaced its blanket guarantee with a limited deposit insurance system with an insurance
limit of 50 million won per depositor per institution. There was a noticeable migration of funds from
lower rated to sounder banks. Also, large depositors actively split their deposits to several accounts in
banks and non-bank financial institutions. But there has been no bank run on the Korean financial
system as a whole.
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It is important to prepare a contingency plan before removing the blanket guarantee in order to
anticipate the worst-case scenarios such as a loss of public confidence. If such conditions occur, the
central bank may have to extend liquidity support to illiquid but solvent banks. In addition, there
should be a clear legal framework for the deposit insurance scheme. To reduce moral hazard and to
induce market discipline, the authorities should set a tough sanctions to the financial institutions and
players which are violate the rules and cause problems into banks and ensure that law enforcement are
in place.
Historical experience suggests that successful lender of last resort actions have prevented panics
on numerous occasions (Bordo, 2002). Although there may well be good reasons to maintain ambiguity
over the criteria for providing liquidity assistance, He (2000) argues that properly designed lending
procedures, clearly laid-out authority and accountability, as well as disclosures rules, will promote
financial stability, reduce moral hazard, and protect the lender of last resort from undue political
pressure. There are important advantages for developing and transitional economies to follow a rule-
based approach by setting out ex ante the necessary conditions for support, while maintaining such
conditions is not sufficient for receiving support. In the same vein, Nakaso (2001) suggests that Japan’s
LLR approach has shifted from “constructive ambiguity” towards increasing policy transparency and
accountability.
While individual frameworks differ from country to country, there is a broad consensus on the key
considerations for emergency lending during normal and crisis periods (see Box 2).
In Indonesia, along the line suggested by He (2000), there should be a more clearly defined role for
Bank Indonesia in LLR. In addition, there is also a need for criteria or mechanisms for providing LLR
during systemic crises.
In normal times, LLR assistance should be based on clearly-defined rules. Transparent LLR policies
and rules can reduce the probability of self-fulfilling crises, and provide incentives for fostering market
discipline. It may also reduce political intervention and prevent any bias towards forbearance. LLR in
normal times should only be provided for solvent institutions with sufficient acceptable collateral,
while for insolvent banks stricter resolution measures should be applied such as closure. Therefore,
there should be a clear and consistent adoption of a bank exit policy. Once a deposit insurance scheme
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Box 2.
Key Considerations of Emergency Lending
Normal Systemic
Key Considerations of Emergency Lending
Times Crisis
1. Have in place clearly laid out lending procedures, authority, and accountability. Yes Yes
2. Maintain close cooperation and exchange of information between the central bank, Yes Yes
the supervisory authority (if it is separate from the central bank), the deposit
insurance fund (if exist), and the ministry of finance.
3. Decision to lend to systemically important institutions at the risk of insolvency or Yes Yes
without sufficient, acceptable collateral should be made jointly by monetary,
supervisory, and the fiscal authority.
4. Lending to non-systemically institutions, if any, should be only to those institutions Yes Yes
that are deemed to be solvent and with sufficient acceptable collateral.
5. Lend speedily Yes Yes
6. Lend in domestic currency Yes Yes
7. Lend at the above average market rates Yes Yes
8. Maintain monetary control by engaging effective sterilization Yes Yes
9. Subject borrowing banks to enhanced supervisory surveillance and restrictions on Yes Yes
activities
10. Lend only for short-term, preferably not exceeding three to six months Yes No
11. Have a clear exit strategy Yes No
12. Emergency support operations should be disclosed when such disclosure will not be Yes No
disruptive to financial stability
13. Repayment terms may be relaxed to accommodate the implementation of a systemic No Yes
bank restructuring strategy.
Yes Yes
14. Emergency support operation should be disclosed when such disclosure will not be
disruptive to financial stability.
Sumber: Dong He (2000), Dong He (2000) ‘Emergency Liquidity Support Facilities’, IMF Working Paper No. 00/79.
has been established, the central bank role in LLR in normal time can be reduced to a minimum since
the deposit insurance company will provide bridging finance in the case where there is a delay in
closure process of a failed institution15 .
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In systemic crises, LLR should be an integral part of a well-designed crisis management strategy.
There should be a systemic risk exception in providing LLR to the banking system. Repayment terms may
be relaxed to support the implementation of a systemic bank restructuring programme. In systemic
crises the disclosure of the operation of LLR may become an important tool of crisis management. The
criteria of a systemic crisis will depend on the particular circumstances, thus, it is difficult to clearly
state this beforehand in a law. However, the regulations on the LLR facility should clearly set the
guiding principles and specific criteria of a systemic crisis and or a potential bank failure leading to
systemic crisis. To ensure an effective decision making process and accountability, there should be a
clear institutional framework and LLR procedures. Bank Indonesia should be responsible for analysing
the systemic threats to financial stability while the final decision on systemic crises resolution should be
made jointly by Bank Indonesia and the Ministry of Finance. To ensure accountability, an appropriate
documentation audit trail should be maintained.
CONCLUSION
Indonesia’s experience shows that resolving banking crises can be costly, painful and complicated.
However, it is also brought out some important policy lessons. Unlike the other East Asian countries, the
twin currency and banking crisis in Indonesia resulted in a political crisis, which in turn made the
financial crisis more difficult to manage. Social unrest and the volatile political situation limited the
policy options available to policy makers. A lack of a comprehensive strategy both at the micro and
macro level, a lack of commitment to take tough measures together with high level political intervention
make for less effective and costlier resolution of banking crises. To be effective, the resolution process
should be carried out objectively, transparently, and consistently in order to restore the vitality of the
financial system and the economy.
Two key steps are suggested to improve the resolution mechanism in Indonesia: (i) a gradual
replacement the current blanket guarantee with an explicit and limited deposit insurance scheme; and
(ii) a more well-defined and transparent LLR both in normal times and during systemic crises. Deposit
insurance and LLR can be important tools for crisis management, but they are not sufficient to prevent
banking crises. They should be used along with other financial stability tools such as market discipline
and prudential banking supervision.
To strengthen Indonesia’s financial system stability the current long listed of programmes –
enhancement the effectiveness of bank supervision, bank and corporate restructuring, enhancement of
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market discipline, improvement of legal and judicial systems, reduction of the share of government in
the banking system, and pursuit of price stability – need to be further accelerated. Central to the first
issue is a call for an independent and competent bank supervision which is able to take prompt corrective
actions and resolve failed institutions at least costs without damaging financial stability. To achieve
this, the organization of bank supervision should be developed consistently to meet the international
standards.
Two other important policy options could be considered. First, restrictions on foreign-denominated
debt both for financial institutions and corporate in order to reduce the vulnerability of the economy to
external shock. Second, limiting too big to fail in order to minimize moral hazard incentives for an
excessive risks taking. This could be done by reducing the government control over banks (or privatization)
and intensifying supervision on systemically important banks. In addition, surveillance should also be
improved to identify, assess and monitor related risks to the financial stability. By no less important is to
promote cooperation between relevant institutions, domestic and international, to manage and to
minimise the costs of crisis.
Cross-country experiences show that banking crises are difficult to predict and, thus, to avoid.
History also tells us that the financial crises are often repeated. That said, the crisis prevention is vital
in order to enhance the resilience of the financial system. It is essential to have a well-devised framework
and strategy, but more important is to make these happen. With a strong commitment and enlightened
leadership from senior policy makers, hopefully we will see a healthier Indonesia’s financial system
which is able to foster higher growth and more stable economy in the future.
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Market Risk in Indonesia Banks
Abstract
This paper is intended to compare the impact of adoption CAR with respect to market risk
using BIS standard model and alternative models. Exponential Moving Average (EWMA), which
widely has been used by banks’ practitioners, will be employed to assess the volatility of exchange
rates. Additionally, the objective of this study is to understand how market risk application in
Indonesian affects to capital base with the rationale that a significant capital decrease will
disrupt financial system stability in Indonesia. The result of this study will also explore what
incentive may be received in the adoption of internal models. If the volatility is very high then
the internal model will provide a higher capital charge, which may be higher than that in standard
model. Based on volatility exchange rate and interest rate data, this study concludes that market
risk application in Indonesia will not push down banks’ CAR to a level at below minimum
requirement and will not disrupt financial system stability. By employing sample volatility of
interest rates and exchange rates from year 2001-2002, internal model gives a lower capital
charge.
1 Executive Researcher in Banking Research and Regulatory Directorate (BRRD) of Bank of Indonesia, email: wimboh@bi.go.id
2 Researcher in Banking Research and Regulatory Directorate (BRRD) of Bank of Indonesia, email: enrico@bi.go.id
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INTRODUCTION
One of the main indicators to measure banks’ ability in absorbing their risks is the amount of its
Capital Adequacy Ratio (CAR), which is the ratio capital over risks. The capital measure implies that the
higher risks will absorb the higher capital.
In July 1988, BIS Committee on Banking Supervision (the committee) issued CAR regulation proposal
with respect to credit risk as stipulated in Basle Capital Accord 1988 (BCA, 1988). G10 countries had
committed to adopt the proposal by end of 1992. The committee realized that the BCA 1988 contains
deficiencies, among others, only covers credit risk while banks are also exposed to other risks, such as
market risk and operational risk.
In January 1996, the committee issued an amendment of BCA 1988 to incorporate market risk in
CAR. This amendment was agreed to be applied in internationally-active banks by end of 1997. This
proposal must be agenda for supervisory authority, including BI, as all countries try to improve their
compliant to 25 Basel Core Principles (BCP) in banking supervision. This paper examines the possibility
of applying the amendment in Indonesian banks.
This paper will discuss the importance of risks valuation for market risk and inclusion in
capital adequacy framework. It will then be continued with CAR calculation approach to incorporate
market risk. In fact, practitioners have applied internal models for market risk. Therefore, this
paper will also discuss the internal models and the impact to banks’ capital by conducting an
empirical study.
This paper will be organized in the following structure: Section one shows introduction; Section
two discusses risks in banks and risk management system; Section three discusses BIS Standard Method;
Section four outlines Internal Model in market risk, including qualitative and quantitative minimum
requirements; Section five discusses the result of empirical study; and Section 6 makes a summary and
conclusion.
RISKS IN BANKING
Every business, including banking, faces with various risks due to macro and micro condition. Other
factors, such as technology superiority, suppliers’ mistakes, political intervention or natural disasters
are potential risks faced also by all companies. Nevertheless, banks specific roles in intermediary and
payment system may also create specific risks, which are not faced by other business.
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Market Risk in Indonesia Banks
Risk Identification
Risk can be defined as volatility or standard deviation from a company/business unit’s net cash
flow (Heffernan, 1995). Some economists classify risk associated with bank’s activities, namely market
risk or general economic risk (Flannery and Gutentag, 1979; Guttentag and Herring, 1988), operational
risk, and management risk (Mullin, 1977; Graham and Horner, 1988). In addition, there are also other
risks that may create loss but are difficult to detect in the first phase, such as interest rate risk and
sovereign risk (Stanton, 1994). Gardener (1986) classifies risks as general risk, international risk, and
solvency risk. General risk is fundamental risks occurred in all banks, such as liquidity risk, interest rate
risk, and credit risk. Votja (1973) suggests, risks are classified according to bank’s activities/operations
namely credit risk, investment risk, liquidity risk, operational risk, fraud risk, and fiduciary risk.
In broad outline, risks classifications by the economists are almost the same in description and
coverage. For now, the most significant risk faced by a bank is failure to diversify. This risk may occur
due to high maturity gap or concentration, credit concentration to specific industry, or bank location in
a city without branches. The larger and more modern of a bank, the more complex of the risks they are
dealing with. McNew (1997) suggests that financial risks in modern banks comprises credit risk, market
risk, liquidity risk, operational risk, regulatory risk, and human factor risk.
If we analyze further, the type of risks suggested by those economists are numerous, but they are
similar. However, the committee only proposes market risks in the guidelines. And the guideline for
operational risks is finally included in the Basel II document and still in the process of discussion.
Risk Management
Risk is a probability of experiencing loss caused by volatility of risk factors, which affect the
value of assets and liabilities. Risk management is an activity to manage risk in such away to minimize
loss supported by sufficient systems, such as organization, guidelines, and information system. The
risk management activities includes, among others, risk identification, risk measurement, routine
control, and policy recommendation (shifting/risk hedging, risk absorbent with pricing, insurance,
adding capital, etc.)
Risk identification process is carried out to discover every risk in a transaction, which may
contain more than one risk. These risks will be calculated by aggregating individual risk, taking into
account their correlations. However, not all type of risk can be quantified, such as fraud and legal
risks.
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Risk measurement procedures are conducted by, among others, determining risk factor, choosing
the approach to be used, running models, and validation. Determining risk factor can be conducted by
identifying source risks (such as credit default, interest rate, exchange rate, and price volatility). Then
measuring risk can be carried out by making forecast on the volatility and trend of risk factors associated
with banks’ position. This step, normally, employs mathematic and econometric models.
Risk management activity can be broken down into 3 (three) category, namely, (1) reduce probability
of risk from happening; (2) limit negative/loss effects to banks; and (3) accept risk by shifting risk
(hedging) or adding capital. However, the management process needs to be accompanied with procedures
and guidelines, organizations and supporting human resources (risk group), and information system.
- Ex-ante screening
Conduct survey and analysis before a deal to measure the probability of occurring on risk event and
estimate the potential loss as a basis to allocate risk premium in pricing and/or credit rationing.
- Ex-post monitoring
Conduct monitoring and analysis after a deal to update risk level and suggest recommendations to
ensure that risk is still at the acceptable level for management and to take action accordingly with
respect to the internal rules, such as hedging.
As the final step, the bank may have to absorb risks because despite all maximum efforts, there are
parts of risks that cannot be fully removed. As consequences, banks will maintain an appropriate capital
level to cover the risks.
Efforts to maintain the adequacy of capital are the main focus regulatory authority in promoting
financial system stability. Therefore, regulatory authority conducts risk assessment on banks to measure
the solvency and enforces prompt corrective action if necessary.
In performing their business activities, bankers always attempt to maximize return with the
consequence of facing a higher risk (high risk, high return, observe Figure 1).
Banks may be more interested in pursuing high returns business and ignore risks. It may be implicit
moral hazard for banks’ management that should be anticipated by supervisory authorities, because
excessive risk in financial institutions can spark systemic risk, which may threat the entire banking
industry. For that reason, regulatory/supervisory authority obligates to set regulation and enforce
implementation to minimize risks in an appropriate manner. The focus of this paper is to conduct
market risk assessment on large foreign exchange banks.
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Market Risk in Indonesia Banks
Market risk is a potential loss occurring either on or off balance sheet position due to volatility in
market price or other commodities. In further details, market risk can be broken down into interest
rate risk, foreign exchange risk, and price risk. Market risk has been incorporated in the CAR in developed
countries in 1997, while regulation of market risk will be issued in Indonesia in 2003 and will be fully
applied in 2005.
Operational risk is a risk related with bank operational activities such as computer system failure,
fraud, wrong doing by internal staff, etc. The committee has issued proposal (Basel II) to incorporate
operational risk in CAR. The proposal has been distributed to various parties for comment and final
version will be released by end of 2003.
The next section will describe standard method to assess market risk as stipulated in amendment
Basel Accord January 1996.
In January 1996, BIS issued “Amendment to the Capital Accord to incorporate market risks” as
guideline in calculating capital charge for market risk. The purpose this Amendment is to ensure the
adequacy of capital against the volatility of market risk variables such as interest rates, foreign exchange
rates and price of commodities.
The amendment re-emphasizes that capital to cover market risk consists of equity capital and
retained earnings (Tier 1) and supplementary capital (Tier 2). Additionally, the proposal also allows
banks to use Tier 3 capital, which is specifically dedicated to cover market risk. Tier 3 consists of short-
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term subordinate debts with minimum time to maturity of 2 (two) years and subject explicit lock-in
clause. Lock-in-clause means that banks are not allowed to pay interest and/or principal even at the
maturity since the payment causes CAR to fall below minimum level. Eligible Tier 3 is limited to
maximum 250% of Tier 1 allocated to cover market risk.
As anticipation from snowball effect that may take place due to bank failure, BIS views that minimum
CAR is a discipline ought to be applied as an effort to strengthen international banking system stability
and sustainability. Nevertheless, CAR application has to calculate all risks in maximum level. Therefore,
BIS conducts regular studies by requesting inputs for various parties related in international financial
system to obtain the most accurate CAR calculation method. After credit risk was approved and regulated
in Basle Accord 1998, the next step was to add market risk into that Accord through the above-mentioned
Amendment. Meanwhile, the next risk, namely operational risk continues to be scrutinized by BIS.
The Amendment specifies in more details with respect to the calculation of risks:
- Interest rate risk in interest related instruments, such as swap, forward, and bonds in trading
books.
The proposal allows banks to adopt internal models to assess the adequacy of their capital subject
to verification by supervisory authorities to satisfy the qualitative and qualitative minimum requirements.
Verification will take a long process and close discussion between banks and supervisory authorities to
come-up with an agreed and sound risk management process.
Standard method focuses its measurement on 5 (five) types of market risks, namely interest rate
risk, equity position risk, foreign exchange risk, commodities risk, and price risk (for options). Risk
assessment in interest rate related instrument adopts a “building-block” approach by separating
assessment on capital charge for specific risk and general market risk.
Specific risk is intended to reflect potential loss due to financial instrument issuer default, while
general market risk is intended to reflect potential loss as a result of interest rate volatility. Both risks
are subject to different capital charge. The total capital charge to cover market risk (on top of capital
charge to cover credit risk as mentioned in Basle Accord 1988) is the aggregation of five risks mentioned
above. Detailed risk calculation is outlined in the following section.
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Market Risk in Indonesia Banks
Capital charge for interest rate risk is divided into 2 (two) types of risk – specific risk and general
market risk.
Specific risk
In calculating specific risk, offsetting is only possible for identical positions (issuer, rate, maturity,
and the other features are the same). Financial instruments, which are subject to interest rate risk are
all fixed-rate and floating-rate debt securities and other instruments with similar characteristic, but
excluding mortgage securities.
Specific risk is broken down into 5 (five) categories as outlined in the following tables:
Government 0.00% -
Qualifying 0.25% Remaining maturity 6 months or less
1.00% Remaining maturity 6 to 24 months
1.60% Remaining maturity more than 24 months
Others 8.00% -
“Government” securities include all securities issued by government such as bonds, treasury bills,
and other government instruments. But supervisory authority has discretion to charge certain percentage
for specific risk on securities issued by foreign governments.
“Other” includes other securities that do not satisfy requirements of “government” and “qualifying”
categories and subject to an 8% charge.
In calculating capital charges for general market risk, there are two options proposed by BIS,
maturity method and duration method. For these two methods, total capital charge is accumulation of
4 (four) components, namely:
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Positions of interest rate related instrument will map into 15 maturity bands based on remaining
maturity for fixed rate instruments and next repricing dates for floating rate instruments. The time
band will be split into 3 (three) zones (Table 2).
Zone 1 : Zone 1 :
0 – 1 month – 1 month 0.00% 1.00
1 – 3 month 1 – 3 month 0.20% 1.00
3 - 6 month 3 - 6 month 0.40% 1.00
6 – 12 month 6 – 12 month 0.70% 1.00
Zone 2 : Zone 2 :
1 – 2 year 1.0–1.9 year 1.25% 0.90
2 – 3 year 1.9–2.8 year 1.75% 0.80
3 – 4 year 2.8–3.6 year 2.25% 0.75
Zone 3 : Zone 3 :
4 - 5 year 3.6-4.3 year 2.75% 0.75
5 – 7 year 4.3–5.7 year 3.25% 0.70
7 – 10 year 5.7–7.3 year 3.75% 0.65
10 – 15 year 7.3–9.3 year 4.50% 0.60
15 – 20 year 9.3–10.6 year 5.25% 0.60
> 20 year 10.6-12 year 6.00% 0.60
12-20 year 8.00% 0.60
> 20 year 12.50% 0.60
The calculation of general market risk charges will be derived from the following steps:
- First step, multiply all position in time-band with risk weights, which represents price sensitivity to
interest rate changes.
- Second step, offsetting the positions derived from first step in each time band, where the smaller
position, long or short, is subject to 10% capital charge (vertical disallowance) for maturity method
and 5% for duration method.
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Market Risk in Indonesia Banks
- Third step offsetting residual value (long and short derived from the second step) with the value in
different time-band in the same zone, and with residual value between different zone. For every
offsetting will be subject to a capital charge as illustrated in Table 3:
3 4-5 year
5-7 year
7-10 year
10-15 year 30%
15-20 year
> 20 year
Table 2 and 3 show the time band and capital charges based on maturity method, while duration
method doesn’t separate coupon above and below 3% and the vertical disallowance is only 5%. Total
capital charge is the aggregation of specific and general market risk as specified in the above steps due
to a limited space in this articles.
Interest rate risk measurement also covers risk arising from interest rate derivatives instruments
and off-balance-sheet instruments in trading book, such as forward rate agreements (FRAs), forward
contract, bond futures, interest rate/cross-currency swap, and currency forward. Each of those
instruments has to be converted according to its underlying transaction/instruments and subject to
specific and general market risk calculation. Capital charge calculation for this kind of instrument is
relatively complex so it will not be discussed in detail in this paper.
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This risk occurs when a bank takes position in equities in trading book. Equities include common
stock, convertible stocks/securities, and commitment to buy/sale those equities. Banking law in Indonesia
prohibits banks to hold stock or other securities in their trading activities. Therefore the risk is irrelevant
to be discussed in this paper.
This risk occurs when a bank takes position in foreign currency, including gold. The BIS standard
method introduces “shorthand” and gross method in calculating capital charge for this risk. This study
only focuses on the standard method with the following rules as stipulated in the proposal.
- Capital charge for foreign exchange risk is 8% from total net open position (local currency) for
foreign exchange and gold.
- DEM long IDR 100 billion - USD short IDR 180 billion
The above position implies that long is IDR 300 billion and short is IDR 200 billion, and gold position
is short IDR 35 billion. Capital charge will be = 8% x (300+35) = IDR 26,8 billion.
Commodities Risk
This risk occurs when a bank takes position in commodity such as agriculture products, mineral and
precious metal (other than gold). But, the same as equity position risk, banks in Indonesia are still
prohibited to involve in commodity trading so commodity risk will not be discussed in this paper.
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Market Risk in Indonesia Banks
Option is a contract to provide a right (but not obligation) to the owner/buyer to buy or sell a
certain amount of currency or other financial instruments with a predetermined price in some point in
time in the future. The risk for buyer is only limited to option premium he/she has to pay plus fee to the
broker. But for risk of seller (writer) is unlimited because it will be determined by the difference
between market price and strike price. Therefore, option seller will face higher risk compared to option
buyers.
BIS recognizes the difficulties of measuring option price risk, thus in this standard method there
are some alternatives approaches:
In summary, capital charge for options with simplified approach is illustrated in Table 4.
Sources: BIS
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Long put capital charge = (market value from underlying transaction/securities x accumulation of
capital charge for specific and general market risk from the underlying) – option value “in the money”
(if any)
Holding underlying assets of 100 sheets of stock with current market value IDR 1.500 / sheet.
Assuming, the position is put option with strike price IDR 1.600 / sheet.
The next section will discuss value at risk (VaR) in the internal model, and qualitative and quantitative
requirements for banks, which are going to use internal model.
In measuring capital charge for market risk, the BIS proposal allows banks to use internal model
since risk management in banks satisfies quantitative and qualitative requirements and approved by the
supervisory authority.
– Using value-at-risk (VaR) method with 99% and one-tailed confidence interval.
– The price shock standard used in the model is a minimum of 10 trading days so the minimum holding
period is equal to that period.
– The amount of capital charge for banks using internal model is the higher of:
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Market Risk in Indonesia Banks
– Apply qualitative standard as indicators in case there is a mistake in using the internal model.
– Provide clear guidance since banks adopt a combination of internal model and Standard Model.
In general, the internal model to measure market risk exposure is based on Value-at-Risk (VaR)
concept. VaR is an approach to measure maximum loss may to occur in a portfolio position due to risk
factors volatility such us price, interest rate and exchange rate in a certain period by using certain
confidence level. In the mathematical formula can be described as follows:
VaRt +1 / t = M t * Vt +1 / t
where,
Application VaR in internal model needs the risk factors volatility to measure the overall risks in
a certain point of time in the future. Therefore, there should be a volatility estimation of risk factor
volatility. There are 2 (two) types of volatility, historical volatility and implied volatility. Historical
volatility is a volatility based on data time series, while implied volatility is derived from option price
into option pricing model such as Black-Scholes formula.
The discussion in the following section will be focused on historical volatility, running model, and
testing procedures.
Data
y +
Ln t 1 * 100 %
yt
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Historical volatility return from time series is calculated with the following equation:
Next, stationary test is required to ensure that there is a proper data included into the model as
the mean-variance analysis assumes that the mean process is constant. The various method can be
applied in stationary test such as Ljung-Box method, Box-Pierce, Dicky-Fuller, etc.
Models
– Simulation
- Historical simulation
– Neural network
– Algorithmic
In this paper, we will employ mean-variance analysis with univariate estimation models.
Mean-Variance Model
Mean is a projection in calculating average of historical time series. In the projection above, the
average data will always create positive and negative error. Therefore, the errors must be squared to
create variance value to asses the model accuracy. Because the estimation of this average still contains
error, there should be an analysis towards those variance behaviors. Among various variance analysis
methods, this study limits the exercise using exponential weighted moving average (EWMA) and
generalized autoregressive conditional heterocedasticity (GARCH).
This approach assumes that today’s projection will be affected by yesterday’s projection and actual
results. The core of EWMA is the application of exponential-smoothing techniques, which previously
used to predict output in marketing and production (operations research) areas.
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Market Risk in Indonesia Banks
In EWMA, the next forecast estimation in a time-series Ft +1 / t is the function of previous forecast
Ft / t− 1 and observation X t .
JP Morgan (1994) has used this model by assuming mean from historical series as 0, so only
Ft +1|t = αFt |t − 1 + (1 − α ) X t (1 − α ) = ρ
Ft +1|t = α ( αFt −1|t − 2 + ρ X t −1 ) + ρ X t
= α 2 Ft −1|t − 2 + αρX t − 1 + ρ X t
= α 2 (αFt − 2 |t −3 + ρ X t − 2 ) + αρX t −1 + ρ X t
= α 3 Ft −2 |t −3 + α 2 ρX t − 2 + αρX t − 1 + ρ X t
forecast variance would be run. Mathematically, EWMA process can be described as follow:
Where,
The value of decay factor is very important in EWMA. The lager value of decay factor (assuming
approaching one), the previous forecast will significantly affect to the forecast. Root mean square
errors (RMSE) is a parameter to select the best decay factor in forecasting.
GARCH method will employ 2 (two) processes, namely, mean and variance process. The mean
process was first introduced by Box-Jenkin (1976) by making a time series analysis with autoregressive
(AR) and moving average (MA) combination. This method, then, will be integrated into ARMA to get a
stationer time series with the following equation:
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Because the error variants are not always constant, Engle (1982) improved it with variance process,
namely forecasting method to address error variants. This model is called auto regressive conditional
heteroscedasticity (ARCH). With variability in variants, forecasting becomes:
Bollerslev (1986) improved Engle work by considering AR process in heteroscedasticity from variants
into generalised auto regressive conditional heteroscedasticity (GARCH), which will be described in the
following equation:
q p
σ t2 = vt2 α 0 + ∑ α i ε t2−1 + ∑ β iσ t2−1
i =1 i =1
In the next section, we will discuss the result of empirical study on 13 largest foreign exchange
banks. By using data from those banks, we will assess capital charge for market risk using the BIS’
standard method and Internal Model.
Banks in Indonesia are not required to set capital to cover market risk, even though some banks
may expose to this risk. Adoption of CAR market risk may create burden for banks with low capital.
However, market risk regulation is intended to apply just for internationally active banks. In fact, some
Indonesian banks have global operation where the host country supervisory authority also applies market
risk. The absence of market risk in CAR will also create burden for bank to operate globally. Finally,
almost there is no choice for internationally active banks to adopt market risk.
Since financial crisis hit Indonesia in 1997, Indonesian banks have experienced a very significant
capital drain, which causes total capital of the majority banks downed to negative. The government has
taken recovery efforts, among others, bank re-structuring and re-capitalization. However, the small
number of banks of still found difficulty to meet the minimum CAR level of 8% by end 2001. The capital
requirement was only based on CAR calculation according to Basle Accord 1998, thus if the market risk
is also included, they would be in more difficult to achieve 8%.
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Market Risk in Indonesia Banks
Implementation of BIS proposal to incorporate market risk either standard approach or internal
model requires some conditions, among others, includes:
- Consistent policy in allocating portfolio in trading and banking for interest rate related instrument.
Stringent requirement in applying capital charges for market risk implies that risk measurement
in market risk will be complicated due to technical measurement in risk management. These
requirements are intended to ensure accurately measure banks’ exposure in market risk, which is the
main problem for large banks in Indonesia during crisis. Thus, bank capital had been deteriorating
during crisis.
This study assesses the impact of market risk implementation on 13 large banks consisting of 4
state banks and 9 national private forex banks. The exercise employs financial data as of 30 June 2002.
Data gathering was received from survey on those banks. According to the survey, we can summarize
the following information:
- The derivative transactions are still limited to plain hedging transactions, such as swap and forward.
While for a more complex derivative transactions such as forward rate agreement (FRA), futures
and option are rare in Indonesian banking.
- There was a private bank with negative capital due in the process of re-capitalization by government.
The EWMA method is one of approaches in mean-variances forecasting using time-series data. In
general, this study follows the following steps:
1. Collecting interest rate data series from internal BI data base and exchange rate from Bloomberg
for the period of July 2001 to end of June 2002. The exchange rate time series data is the daily mid-
day exchange rate of 41 foreign currency, while the interest rate data is the average of deposit/
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Million Rupiah
Million Rupiah
Table 6 : E M W A
RWA )* CAR (%) Capital Capital Charge New New CAR +/- CAR
Int. rate risk Forex risk RWA )** (%) (%)
savings interest rate for 1 month, 3 months, 6 months, 12 months, and above 12 months time
horizon.
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Market Risk in Indonesia Banks
4. Calculate the volatility by assuming normal distribution with 95% confidence level.
-3
capital charge as a buffer of shock events. The
-4
plot result of volatility projection for exchange
50 100 150 200 250
rates can be illustrated in the following graph. Period (250 days)
Ceiling Floor Actual
4. The findings show that capital charge result according to standard method is higher than that in
internal model calculation. Inclusion of market risk in CAR will provide more prudent capital, but it
may reduce competitiveness due to additional capital cost. However, in volatile market, the
application of internal model will also create a new burden for banks as it will generate larger
capital charge from that the standard method.
Since the end of December 1997, internationally active banks in developed have applied market
risk in their CAR based on the BIS proposal 1996. In general, banks in those countries have sophisticated
risk management system, which among others include adoption of internal models. Nevertheless, standard
method is more prudent than internal models.
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1. Internationally active banks in Indonesia will be subject to market risk if host supervisory authority
applies CAR market risk. If it is the case, market risk regulation in home countries doesn’t create
a new burden for the banks.
2. Application in Indonesia banks will not create disruption to financial stability. Based on this study,
adoption of CAR market risk will not significantly affect to banks’ capital. However, regular exercise
is necessary to ensure that the problem arising from market risk can be identified as early as
possible.
3. Standard method normally provides a higher capital charge than that in internal models because
the prudential principal is the main priority of the proposal.
4. In order to apply market risk management, guidelines from regulatory authority will stimulate
proper implementation of risk management in banks.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Basle Committee on Banking Supervision (1996), “Amendment to the Capital Accord to Incorporate
Market Risk”, Basle : Bank for International Settlements, January.
Box, G. and G. Jenkins (1976), “Time Series Analysis, Forecasting and Control”, San Francisco, CA
: Holden Day.
96
Market Risk in Indonesia Banks
Flannery, M.J. and J.M. Guttentag (1979), “Identifying Problem Banks”, in proceedings of a
Conference on Bank Structure and Competition, Chicago: The Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago.
Gardener, E.P.M. (1986), “UK Banking Supervision-Evolution : Practice and Issues”, London : Allen
and Unwin.
Graham, F.C. and J.E. Horner (1988), “Bank Failure : An Evaluation of the Factors Contributing to
the Failure of National Banks, in proceedings of a Conference on Bank Structure and Competition,
Chicago: The Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago.
Guttentag, J.M. and R. Herring (1988), “Prudential Supervision to Manage System Vulnerability”,
Chicago: The Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago.
Heffernan, S.A. (1996), “Modern Banking in Theory and Practice”, Chichester, UK : John Wiley &
Sons Ltd.
Jorion, P. (1996), “Value at Risk : The New Benchmark for Controlling Market Risk”, Chicago : Irwin
Professional Publishing.
J.P. Morgan (1995), “RiskMetrics – Technical Document”, New York : Morgan Guaranty Trust Company,
Global Research, 3rd Edition.
J.P. Morgan (1996), “RiskMetrics – Technical Document”, New York : Morgan Guaranty Trust Company,
Global Research, 4th Edition.
Ljung, G. and G. Box (1978), “On a Measure of Lack of Fit in Time Series Models”, Biometrica 65,
pp. 297-303.
Mullin, R. (1977), “The National Bank Surveillance System” in : E.I. Altman and A.W. Sametz, eds.,
Financial Crises : Institutions and Markets in a Fragile Environment, New York : John Wiley & Sons.
Sharpe, W.F. (1970), “Portfolio Theory and Capital Market”, New York : McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Stanton, T.H. (1994), “Non Quantifiable Risk and Financial Institutions : The Mercantilist Legal
Framework of Banks, Thrifts and Government-sponsored Enterprises, in C.A. Stone and A. Zissu, eds.,
Global Risk Based Capital regulations, Illinois : Richard D. Irwin.
Votja, G.J. (1973), “Bank Capital Adequacy”, New York : First National City Bank.
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Dadang Muljawan1
Abstract
In this paper, we analyze the process of credit migration in an Islamic commercial bank
operating in Indonesia. In particular, we explore the relevance of industrial performance to the
dynamic of loan status in the selected bank. From the statistical results, we find two interesting
phenomena. First, industrial performance is statistically significant in affecting the credit migration
process. And, second, we find irreversibility in the credit migration process. This analysis can be
used to provide additional information to Indonesian banks, as well as their supervisors, to help
improve the accuracy of the risk assessment process, and the efficiency of external oversight
respectively.
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An Empirical Analysis of Credit Migration In Indonesian Banking
INTRODUCTION
Loan quality influences the operational soundness of a bank. Loan quality, in fact, is determined by
many factors, such as the credit granting process, business capacity and the business environment. The
Basel Committee on Banking Supervision has issued a consultative paper on the principles underlying
sound management of credit risk (Basel Committee, 1999a). The main objective of credit risk management
should be to maximize a bank’s risk-adjusted rate of return by maintaining credit risk exposure within
acceptable parameters. The Basel Committee document covers the following areas: (a) establishing an
appropriate credit risk environment; (b) operating under a sound credit granting process; (c) maintaining
an appropriate credit administration and monitoring process; and (d) ensuring adequate controls over
credit risk.
A number of quantitative models have been developed to support more sophisticated credit-risk
assessment. Some models are based on an actuarial approach, while others use statistical approaches.
One of the leading methodologies has been developed by J.P Morgan (J.P Morgan Technical Document,
1997). The approach involves the adoption of a “Mark-To-Market” (MTM) process and the use of a
transitional-probability matrix of the credit migration. The Basel Committee has also issued a document
reviewing current practices and applications of credit risk modeling (Basel Committee, 1999b).
The loan classification process has an important impact on the operational soundness of banking
operations, and can be evaluated using an accounting process (indicators) to assess the financial condition
of the borrowers (using delinquency periods, turn-over ratios and profit/loss figures as the internal data
set). The banks, as well as their supervisors, should be able to conduct ex-post asset valuation and ex-
ante risk assessment in order to obtain accurate estimates of the banks’ real asset values. Apart from
using such an accounting process, loan classification can also be estimated by finding the relevant
external economic indicators, such as industrial performance, that influence asset quality. Such
information can help the banks and their supervisors to reconcile the asset valuation and risk assessment
processes. This paper studies the correlation between industrial performance and the migration of loan
quality for one Islamic commercial bank operating in Indonesia, to help shed light on these issues.
The paper proceeds as follows. The next section provides some background analysis relating the
level of earnings and breakeven analysis to the probability of companies having financial problems.
Section 3 discusses the model used to estimate the correlation between the dynamics of loan classification
and the industrial performance index. Section 4 discusses the empirical results. Section 5 concludes the
paper.
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BACKGROUND ANALYSIS
A company can maintain its operational sustainability only if its operation has reached a breakeven
point (BEP)(i.e. revenue earned is at least the same as the costs incurred, including the cost of borrowing2 )
(Brewster, 1997). Breakeven analysis is usually
Break
costs incurred (e.g. during a recession), there is
Point
a high probability that the company will face
Fixed
Π
costs financial problems in the near future since the
Q BEP
revenue earned will ultimately determine the
Q
level of profitability.
P (Π)
let us assume that the earnings of the companies
are normally distributed, as shown in Exhibit 2.
µ π ( Q ) , σ π ( Q) and π (QBEP ) represent the average
The aggregate level of business activity in a particular sector of industry can be portrayed using
economic indices. The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth rate per sector can be used as an indicator
2 The Islamic bank applies a mark-up rate that is invariant to interest rates (10% on average); therefore, the cost of borrowing is relatively fixed and the
BEP is not affected by the fluctuation in interest rates.
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An Empirical Analysis of Credit Migration In Indonesian Banking
This leads to the hypothesis that the level of financial distress (as indicated in the bank’s loan
classification) can also be represented by the variability of the macroeconomic indicator, such as the
GDP growth rate.
At different points in time, banks may have different proportions of non-performing loans in their
assets. Over time, the loan status may thus change, with loans either being upgraded to a better status,
or remaining in the same status, or being downgraded to a lower status. The probabilities of such
changes occuring in the loan status (credit migration) are illustrated in Exhibit 4. In the analysis, we
also check to see if irreversibility exists in the credit migration process (i.e. the possibility of having
different levels of probability for an individual loan to get downgraded during a recession period and to
get upgraded during a period of growth). In order to capture this phenomenon, the analysis is conducted
3 Recent research disaggregates economic output to study dynamic developments within different industrial sectors.
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COLL X
P(X/1), P(X/2), P(X/3) and P(X/4) represent the
P ( X / 3) COLL 3
probabilities of loans of status X migrating to loans of
P ( X / 4)
COLL 4 status 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively, where the total of
the migration probabilities is equal to 1 (i.e. P(X/1) +
P(X/2) + P(X/3) + P(X/4) = 1).
Data set
Loan status is classified into 4 categories: ‘current’, ‘sub-standard’, ‘doubtful’ and ‘loss’. The
banks conduct loan classification analysis periodically (every month). The loan classification process is
also checked and adjusted during on-site supervision by the supervisory authority (Bank Indonesia)4 .
The data series of individual loans covers the period 1992 to 20005 .
GDP growth rate data is obtained from the Central Bureau of Statistics (Biro Pusat Statistik (BPS)).
Quarterly data is used for the period 1992 to 2000.
Statistical model
We use a logistic function to estimate the probabilities of credit migration6 . The representative
credit migration probability between two different classifications/ categories, is given as follows:
1
Pi = E (Y = 1/ X i ) = −( β1 + β2 X i )
1+ e
Exhibit 5 illustrates the methodology used to conduct the regression analysis using the logistic
function.
Step 1 of the logit analysis involves calculating the probability of loan quality migrating to/ remaining
in the loan classification ‘loss’ (coll-4)7 . Step 2 of the logit analysis calculates the probability of loan
4 On-site supervision is conducted on an annual basis or otherwise on an ad-hoc basis if there is an indication of fraudulent practices by a particular bank.
5 Individual loans are unidentified.
6 Logistic regression has been widely used in the finance industry to predict corporate failure and assess the performance of consumer credit. Recent
studies include Hand (2001), Westgaard and Van der Wijst (2001), Laitinen (1999) and West (2000).
7 We use measures of collectibility (‘Coll’) to derive the loan classifications. Coll-1, Coll-2, Coll-3 and Coll-4 represent 4 loan classifications: ‘current’,
‘sub-standard’, ‘doubtful’, and ‘loss’.
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An Empirical Analysis of Credit Migration In Indonesian Banking
quality migrating to/ remaining in the loan classification ‘doubtful’ (coll-3). Step 3 of the logit analysis
calculates the probability of loan quality migrating to/ remaining in the loan classification ‘current’
(coll-1) or ‘substandard’ (coll-2).
STATISTICAL RESULTS
Using the coefficients obtained, we try to simulate the probability of credit migration as a function
of the GDP growth rate8 (see Exhibit 6 and the Appendix for the full regression results9 ). From the
simulation we can observe two interesting phenomena.
First, the external factor (GDP growth rate) is statistically significant in affecting loan status. In
can be seen that during an economic downturn, the probability of loan status being downgraded is
higher than in “normal” economic conditions (especially during the period 1998 to 1999 when economic
turbulence badly affected the Indonesian economy)(Bank Indonesia, 1999). From Exhibit 6(a), it can be
seen that in ‘normal’ conditions, there is only a small possibility of coll-1 type of loans becoming
valueless (coll-1 to coll-4). In a recession, the probability of coll-1 type loans being downgraded (coll-1
to coll-2) is slightly higher. Exhibit 6(b) shows that there is a higher probability of coll-2 type of loans
being downgraded or defaulted on (coll-2 to coll-3/4). Exhibit 6(c) shows very a high probability of coll-
3 type of loans being defaulted on (coll-3 to coll4). In a recessionary period, the probability of loans
being defaulted on jumps from about 30% to 80%. This phenomenon arises because companies with
poorer loan quality most probably perform less well financially. The lower the grade of loans, the higher
the possibility of the loans being downgraded or defaulted on. Mathematically:
8 We have also tried to include other (internal) factors like terms and loan sizes as independent variables in the regression process. Surprisingly, those
factors are not statistically significant in affecting the credit migration process; hence, those factors are excluded.
9 The regression is run under E-Views software package.
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Second, there is irreversibility in the credit migration process. The loan status can easily be
downgraded during a recessionary period but upgrades during periods of growth are more difficult to
achieve. Exhibit 6(b) shows some possibility of coll-2 type of loans being upgraded (coll2 to coll-1).
From Exhibits 6(c) and 6(d), it can be seen that the lower the quality of loans, the lower the possibility
of the loans being upgraded (coll-3 to coll-2/1 or coll-4 to coll-3/2/1). Exhibit 6(d) shows almost no
possibility of loans in default being upgraded, even in normal conditions. Mathematically:
Intuitively, it can be understood that once a company falls into financial crisis or bankruptcy, it will
be difficult to rectify the situation since the company will struggle with a heavier financial burden.
The analysis conducted of the dynamic of the loan classification provides significant benefits in at
least three areas:
a. Cross checks – The banks sometimes have to optimize two different objectives simultaneously:
efficiency of operations and the accuracy of information on borrowers’ financial soundness. Too
intensive monitoring by the banks could raise monitoring costs to unacceptable levels; yet, at the
same time, the banks need an adequate level of accuracy in respect of the information gathered.
The analysis conducted shows how banks and their supervisors can reconcile ‘on-the-spot’-based
loan classification with a macro-index-based-estimation of loan classification.
b. Anticipatory action – Banks can also use this analysis for achieving a better loan diversification
strategy. Investment quality in a different sector of the economy may have a different level of
sensitivity to the changes in its industrial performance.
c. Understanding the nature of the credit migration process – Finally, the banks, as well as their
supervisors, will be better able to understand the behaviour of credit migration, including the
irreversibility of the migration of loan quality. As a result of this study, it is clear that deterioration
of loan quality in Indonesia cannot be rectified automatically during the period of growth. Therefore,
it is not possible to establish a direct function relating the level of non-performing loans to the level
of industrial performance.
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An Empirical Analysis of Credit Migration In Indonesian Banking
0,5
0,8
0,4
0,6
0,3
0,4
0,2
0,2
0,1
0 0
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
(a) Probability of migration From coll 1 to 2,3,4 (b) Probability of migration From coll 2 to 2,3,4
0,8 0,8
0,6 0,6
0,4 0,4
0,2 0,2
0 0
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
c3p1 c3p2 c3p3 c3p4 c4p1 c4p2 c4p3 c4p4
(c) Probability of migration From coll 1 to 2,3,4 (d) Probability of migration From coll 4 to 2,3,4
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The ability to conduct sound risk assessment analysis is very important for the maintenance of the
sustainability of banking operations. Banks, as well as their supervisors, can use relevant information to
improve the accuracy of their estimates of credit migration and loan quality. One of the relevant
indicators to use, at least within an Indonesian context, in the assessment of asset quality is the GDP
growth rate. The indicator can be used to calculate the probability of migration of loan status for an
individual bank. Using the analysis, there are at least three benefits to be gained. First, the banks, as
well as their supervisors, are better able to assess asset values fairly. Second, the banks can avail
themselves of an additional tool to achieve a better loan diversification strategy. And, finally, the
analysis can be used to provide a better understanding of the nature of the credit migration process in
Indonesian banking.
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APPENDIX
Regression Results
CM1
123-4
LOGIT // Dependent Variable is NCOLL
Date: 11/11/00 Time: 21:48
Sample: 1 764
Included observations: 764
Convergence achieved after 6 iterations
Log likelihood-44.43098
Obs with Dep=1 8
Obs with Dep=0 756
Variable Mean All Mean D=1 Mean D=0
C 1.000000 1.000000 1.000000
12-3
LOGIT // Dependent Variable is NCOLL
Date: 11/11/00 Time: 21:59
Sample: 1 756
Included observations: 756
Convergence achieved after 5 iterations
Log likelihood-132.5068
Obs with Dep=1 32
Obs with Dep=0 724
Variable Mean All Mean D=1 Mean D=0
C 1.000000 1.000000 1.000000
1-2
LOGIT // Dependent Variable is NCOLL
Date: 11/11/00 Time: 22:04
Sample: 1 724
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An Empirical Analysis of Credit Migration In Indonesian Banking
Log likelihood-239.1804
Obs with Dep=1 78
Obs with Dep=0 646
Variable Mean All Mean D=1 Mean D=0
C 1.000000 1.000000 1.000000
INDUSTRY 5.654972 2.617949 6.021672
CM2
123-4
LOGIT // Dependent Variable is NCOLL
Date: 11/12/00 Time: 01:35
Sample: 1 112
Included observations: 112
Convergence achieved after 4 iterations
Log likelihood-44.60844
Obs with Dep=1 16
Obs with Dep=0 96
Variable Mean All Mean D=1 Mean D=0
C 1.000000 1.000000 1.000000
INDUSTRY 1.719643 -1.787500 2.304167
12-3
LOGIT // Dependent Variable is NCOLL
Date: 11/12/00 Time: 01:42
Sample: 1 96
Included observations: 96
Convergence achieved after 3 iterations
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Log likelihood-53.64330
Obs with Dep=1 25
Obs with Dep=0 71
Variable Mean All Mean D=1 Mean D=0
C 1.000000 1.000000 1.000000
INDUSTRY 2.304167 -0.252000 3.204225
1-2
LOGIT // Dependent Variable is NCOLL
Date: 11/12/00 Time: 01:48
Sample: 1 71
Included observations: 71
Convergence achieved after 2 iterations
Log likelihood-44.71626
Obs with Dep=1 48
Obs with Dep=0 23
Variable Mean All Mean D=1 Mean D=0
C 1.000000 1.000000 1.000000
CM3
123-4
LOGIT // Dependent Variable is NCOLL
Date: 11/12/00 Time: 01:59
Sample: 1 93
Included observations: 93
Convergence achieved after 4 iterations
Log likelihood-57.32033
Obs with Dep=1 35
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An Empirical Analysis of Credit Migration In Indonesian Banking
12-3
LOGIT // Dependent Variable is NCOLL
Date: 11/12/00 Time: 02:04
Sample: 1 58
Included observations: 58
Convergence achieved after 3 iterations
Log likelihood-28.17191
Obs with Dep=1 47
Obs with Dep=0 11
Variable Mean All Mean D=1 Mean D=0
C 1.000000 1.000000 1.000000
1-2
LOGIT // Dependent Variable is NCOLL
Date: 11/12/00 Time: 02:08
Sample: 1 11
Included observations: 11
Convergence achieved after 4 iterations
Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob.
C -2.302585 1.048799 -2.195449 0.0528
Log likelihood-3.350997
Obs with Dep=1 1
Obs with Dep=0 10
Variable Mean All Mean D=1 Mean D=0
C 1.000000 1.000000 1.000000
CM4
123-4
LOGIT // Dependent Variable is NCOLL
Date: 11/12/00 Time: 02:14
Sample: 1 100
Included observations: 100
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Log likelihood-30.25378
Obs with Dep=1 91
Obs with Dep=0 9
Variable Mean All Mean D=1 Mean D=0
C 1.000000 1.000000 1.000000
12-3
LOGIT // Dependent Variable is NCOLL
Date: 11/12/00 Time: 08:20
Sample: 1 9
Included observations: 9
Convergence achieved after 3 iterations
Log likelihood-2.249341
Obs with Dep=1 1
Obs with Dep=0 3
Variable Mean All Mean D=1 Mean D=0
C 1.000000 1.000000 1.000000
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REFERENCES
Basel Committee (1999b). Credit Risk Modelling: Current Practices and Applications. Basel, April.
Basel Committee (1999a). Consultative paper on Principles for the management of Credit Risk. Basel, July.
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indi_perbankan/analisis_perbankan/
Brewster, D (1997). Business Economics: Decision Making and the Firm. The Dryden Press, Thames Valley University,
London.
Hand, D.J. (2001) ‘Modeling Consumer Credit’. IMA Journal of Management Mathematics, October, Vol.12, No.2.,
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JP MORGAN (1997). Credit MetricsTM – Technical Documents. New York: JP Morgan Securities).
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nt2.ec.man.ac.uk/ses/discpap/
Laitinen, E. K. (1999) ‘Predicting a Corporate Credit Analysist’s Risk Estimate by Logistic and Linear Models – The
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West, D (2000) ‘Neural Network Credit Scoring Models’. Computers and Operational Research. September, Vol. 27,
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Westgaard, S and Van der Wijst, N (2001) ‘Default Probabilities in a Corporate Bank Portfolio: A logistic model
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Authors:
Indra Gunawan, Bambang Arianto, G.A. Indira, Imansyah
Abstract
As proposed in the Second Consultative Package document from Basel Committee, the
New Accord has the objective of improving the soundness of financial system by underlining
attention to banks management and internal supervision, supervisory review process and market
discipline. The New Accord implementation requires completion of several conditions which
involves not only banks but supervisory authorities and market players as well. This includes
completing requirements – both qualitative and quantitative – in utilizing the New Accord
approaches. The utilization of some alternative approaches in the New Accord will not only
change banks behavior but will ultimately change perception towards banking business
environment and supervisory activities. Supervision authorities are required to conduct a forward
looking comprehensive analysis by focusing on risks confronting banking industry. Preliminary
analysis on the impact of the New Accord in Indonesian banking industry was conducted by
implementing Quantitative Impact Study (QIS) 3 survey. It was expected that the QIS 3 survey
could give information on the possibilities and impacts of the implementation of the New
Accord in Indonesian banking industry.
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FOREWORD
Among recent topics that have been discussed heavily among stakeholders in Indonesian banking
industry is the readiness of banking industry to the future implementation of the New Basel Capital
Accord. The discussion arises as the Bank for International Settlement (BIS) released a statement that
they are in the process of establishing and calibrating a proposal to replace the 1988 Basel Capital
Accord. The proposal, known as the New Basel Capital Accord, is aimed to capture a comprehensive
perspective of risk in banking activities and expected to be more risk sensitive than the 1988 Basel
Capital Accord. In this case, the discussion is focused on the steps to be taken, either in banking
industry and supervisory authority, to foresee the future implementation of the New Basel Capital
Accord.
As stated in the January 2001 Consultative Document (CP2), the main objective of the New Basel
Capital Accord is to improve the soundness of financial system by granting more attention to bank
management and internal control, supervisory review process, and market discipline. In line with the
above objective, there are several preconditions that have to be met prior to the implementation of the
New Basel Capital Accord. Analysis of bank’s conditions should address any significant aspect that
affects its performance. In this case, consolidated basis approach would be the best option to capture
the overall condition of a banking institution. Another precondition is the implementation of risk based
analysis in the supervisory methodology. However, the heavily used quantitative aspects in risk based
analysis require supervisors to be adequately supported by statistical and econometric skills and should
also be accompanied by knowledge improvement as a basis to do judgment on risk based analysis.
In order to have some insight of the New Basel Capital Accord proposal, discussion on the condition
and challenges confronting both banking industry and supervisory authority would be beneficial. On top
of that, a quantitative impact study will give us an insight of essential measures to be taken prior to the
implementation of the New Basel Capital Accord.
In July 1988, the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision issued a report titled International
Convergence of Capital Measurement and Capital Standards (The 1988 Basel Capital Accord) that consists
of two main recommendations; (i) the need for banking institutions (especially for internationally active
banks) to have a minimum capital ratio of 8% to minimize insolvency risk and create a level playing
field, and (ii) capital assessment using forward looking concept, which accommodate credit risk in the
banking book. It uses risk weight bucket (0%, 20%, 50%, and 100%) to fit various assets into certain risk
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Even though the 1988 Basel Capital Accord had successfully promote stability in banking industry,
it has several weaknesses; (i) vast categorization of risk weighting, (ii) disregard the intention to have
portfolio diversification; (iii) create un-level playing field to non-bank financial institution; and (iv)
does not accommodate increasing risk in the financial and capital market.
Considering those weaknesses, in 1996 the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision released an
amendment of the 1988 Basel Capital Accord to incorporate market risk in the assessment of capital
requirement. The amendment consists of four components to be considered in assessing capital
requirement, e.g. equity risk, commodity risk, foreign exchange risk, and interest rate risk, and allow
bank to develop its own internal model in measuring market risk, subject to approval from supervisory
authority.
On the next step, the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision issued the First Consultative Package
on The New Accord (CP1) in June 1999, which was intended as first proposal to replace the 1988 Basel
Capital Accord. Major improvement in CP1 compared to the 1988 Basel Capital Accord is the methodology
to assess capital charge in a more risk sensitive manner. After receiving comments from various
stakeholders, the committee issued the Second Consultative Package (CP2) in January 2001 with some
refinement and calibration in the formula used to calculate risk weighted assets and capital charge.
According to the agenda setup by the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision, The New Accord will be
finalized and published in late 2003 and its implementation for the G-10 countries will begin in 2006
with three years transition period.
As stated in previous section, the 1988 Basel Capital Accord uses one size fits all approach in
calculating capital requirement with credit risk factor as the sole element. In line with the dynamic
and a more complex environment in the financial system, banks are now confronting the increasing type
and exposure of risks. As an impact, bank needs a more sophisticated technique to deal with those risks
for the purpose of assessing its capital charge. Considering the vast development in financial system,
Basel Committee on Banking Supervision issued the proposal of the New Basel Capital Accord with
broader and a more complex coverage compared to the 1988 Basel Capital Accord. The proposal
attempts to align the need for adequate capital with risks confronting bank activities by providing
several approaches to measure credit risk, market risk, and operational risk. In addition, the proposal
also incorporates supervisory review process and market discipline as main elements in determining
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minimum capital requirement. Other major substance in the proposal is the flexibility for banks to
develop their own internal model to assess risks, subject to approval from the supervisory authority.
The main objectives of the New Basel Capital Accord proposal are (i) strengthening and improving
the soundness of financial system by maintaining current capital ratio, (ii) improving level playing field,
(iii) creating a more comprehensive approach to incorporate risks, (iv) providing banks with several
approaches to align capital requirement with various level of risks, and (v) focusing on internationally
active banks, even though its basic principles can be applied to all banks.
The New Basel Capital Accord proposal has three main pillars that are interrelated; minimum
capital requirements, supervisory review process, and market discipline. Partial implementation of
those pillars would impair the contribution of the New Basel Capital Accord to the soundness of financial
system. In this case, if a country could not implement the three pillars simultaneously then constructive
measures should be taken.
The main substances that have not been changed since the implementation of the 1988 Basel
Capital Accord are the definition of capital and minimum capital adequacy ratio of 8%, including the
incorporation of Tier 2 Capital in the assessment of banks’ capital (maximum 100% of Tier 1 Capital). On
the other side, significant changes apply to the calculation of risk weighted assets, in which it now
incorporate credit risk, market risk, operational risk, and the use of consolidated basis principle.
Changes in credit risk include the availability of approaches to use, i.e. standardized approach and
internal ratings-based approach, and the introduction of credit risk mitigation techniques that cover
collateral, guarantee and credit derivatives, netting and asset securitization. Those changes are expected
to be incentives for banks in improving their risk management and administration of risk mitigation
factors. With regard to market risk, the 1996 amendment document of the 1988 Basel Capital Accord
remains unchanged. Therefore, approaches used in the market risk amendment would still be used in
the New Basel Capital Accord.
The newly introduced operational risk covers three approaches, i.e. basic indicator approach,
standardized approach and advanced measurement approach. Basic indicator approach uses one indicator
(referred as alpha) as a factor to obtain capital charge for operational risk, while standardized approach
uses several different indicators (referred as beta) for each business line. In addition, advanced
measurement approach uses banks’ internal loss data to estimate capital charge for operational risk.
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Other changes included in the New Basel Capital Accord are the existence of pillar 2 - supervisory
review process and pillar 3 - market discipline. Supervisory review process requires internal control
within a bank to be in place and supervisory authority has to evaluate its effectiveness. In addition,
intensive dialogue between banks and supervisory authority is a compulsory. With regard to pillar 3,
proper disclosure of financial information is the main objective of market discipline. In this case, an
effective disclosure would be a fundamental aspect to ensure that stakeholders could evaluate risk
profile of a bank and its corresponding capital adequacy.
In the New Basel Capital Accord proposal, risk weighted assets comprises of three components, i.e.
risk weighted assets for credit risk plus risk weighted assets for market risk and operational risk.
Total capital
= CAR (min. 8%)
RWA for Credit risk, Market risk, Operational risk
Credit risk
There are 2 (two) alternative approaches available within the credit risk framework; standardized
approach and internal ratings-based approach (IRB). Basically, credit risk assessment in the standardized
approach is the same as the 1988 Basel Capital Accord. The main difference is on the risk weighting
application, which uses official rating issued by recognized rating agencies. The rating is then converted
into corresponding risk weight of 0%, 20%, 40%, 50%, 75%, 100% and 150%.
Unlike the standardized approach, the internal ratings-based approach has two approaches;
foundation internal ratings-based approach and advanced internal ratings-based approach. In foundation
approach, banks are allowed to have their own estimate only for probability of default while in advanced
approach they are allowed to estimate all factors of risk weighted assets; probability of default, loss
given default, and exposure at default. Implementation of both approaches requires approval from
supervisory authority.
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Market risk
Approaches used to assess market risk capital charge are remains unchanged from those in the
1996 amendment document. The standardized method uses building block approach that calculates
specific risk and general market risk, while internal model enables banks to use their own risk management
model in assessing capital charges. To be able to use internal model, a bank has to fulfill qualitative and
quantitative requirements and also receive written approval from supervisory authority.
Operational risk
There are three approaches used in the calculation of operational risk capital charge in the New
Basel Capital Accord; basic indicator approach, standardized approach, and advanced measurement
approach. Basic indicator approach uses alpha factor as proxy for overall risk exposures and multiply it
with banks’ net operating and non-operating income. In general, alpha factor is approximately 20% of
regulatory capital. Banks that meet minimum requirements can use standardized approach instead of
basic indicator approach. The standardized approach acknowledges eight types of business line with
different beta factor for each business line. In this approach, total capital charge is the summation of
capital charges for each business line.
Another approach, the advanced measurement approach, requires banks to meet stringent
requirements. There are three types of data needed in relation with business lines and type of risks;
operational risk indicator data, probability of event data, and loss given event data. Within the advanced
measurement approach, capital charge for each business line is obtained by multiplying those data with
gamma factor determined by the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision, based on industry aggregation.
Furthermore, total capital charge for operational risk is equal to the summation of capital charges for
each business line.
The second pillar of the New Basel Capital Accord has the objective to ensure that all banks have
adequate internal processes to assess their capital adequacy, which is based on comprehensive risks
evaluation. In addition, supervisory authority has to take responsibility of evaluating banks’ internal
processes that includes assessment of measures to be taken to anticipate correlation among risks.
However, supervisory review process is not meant to replace judgment and professionalism of banks’
management, or to handover the responsibility of meeting capital requirement to the supervisory
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authority. On the contrary, banks’ management would still be the sole party that has a better
understanding of banks’ risk profile and takes responsibility in managing risks. Moreover, capital adequacy
could not be used as a replacement for lack of supervision or adequate risk management processes of
banks’ management. Supervision of banks’ compliances to existing regulation should also be conducted
by using any necessary means, including on-site and off-site supervision/examination and intensive
discussion with banks’ management.
The third pillar of the New Basel Capital Accord can be considered as part of supervision effort to
improve bank and financial system soundness. In this context, transparency is believed to be beneficial
for stakeholders and promote an effective market discipline. Moreover, market discipline could encourage
banks to run their business in a sound and efficient manner. On top of that, adequate public disclosure
regime could perform as supervisory means to encourage banks to measure every risk appropriately,
maintain a safe capital level, and develop and maintain the soundness of risk management. In this
regard, disclosure acts as the main buffer for minimum capital requirement of pillar 1 and improves
supervisory review process of pillar 2. Information to be disclosed should be in timely manner and
sufficient enough for stakeholders to assess risks in banks’ activities. Among several characteristics of
disclosure are materiality, proprietary information, frequency, and comparability.
Standardized Approach
The standardized approach is intended to align capital calculation with key element of risks by
providing broader risk weight classification and recognition of credit risk mitigation techniques. The
main difference from the 1988 Basel Capital Accord is the use of rating from recognized rating agencies
in assigning appropriate risk weight to certain exposure. Moreover, the classification of OECD and Non-
OECD countries has been eliminated.
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0,10, 20 or 50% - Claims to domestic public-sector entities, other than Central Government, and loans
(national discretion) secured by those entities.
50% - Claims to multilateral development banks (IBRD, IADB, AsDB, AfDB, EIB) and bills secured
by or own securities collateral issued by those banks.
- Claims to banks in OECD countries and loans guaranteed by bank in OECD countries.
- Claims to banks outside OECD countries with remaining time less than 1 (one) year and
loans with remaining time less than 1 (one) year secured by banks outside OECD countries.
- Claims to non-domestic OECD public-sector entities, other than Central Government,
and loans secured by those entities.
- Cash in the process of collection.
50% - Loans fully secured by mortgage on residential property which will be used or rented by
debtors.
Ratings issued by rating agencies are becoming more important to assign appropriate risk weight
to certain exposure. In line with the importance of rating agencies, their qualification has to be
recognized by supervisory authority. Some criteria used as reference in determining the eligibility of
a rating agency are objectivity, independency, transparency/international access, disclosure, resources,
and credibility.
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STANDARDIZED APPROACH
PERINGKAT
TYPES OF CLAIM RATING
AAA to AA- A+ to A- BBB+ to BBB- BB+ to B- Under BB- Under B- Unrated
Compared to the 1988 Basel Capital Accord, the standardized approach has some advantages in
credit risk assessment; (i) provide balance between simplicity and accuracy by giving chances to banks
to calculate its capital requirements based on a sound risk management practices; (ii) more risk sensitive
as shown by wider risk weight classification for each type of claim and endorse the calculation of
economic capital for assessing capital requirements; (iii) a more transparent credit risk assessment by
using rating issued by rating agency to determine risk weight, while at the same time resolving dispute
between bank and market players in assigning proper risk weight for certain exposure; (iv) more emphasis
on economic consideration rather than political influence by eliminating sovereign floor limitation; (v)
process of recognizing rating agency by supervisory authority can be utilized to collect information and
methodology comparison among rating agencies in evaluating creditworthiness of an institution. It may
expand the insights and expertise of supervisory authority in assessing credit risk.
Yet, besides its advantages, the standardized approach has the potential of creating various problems
in its implementation as well. One of them is related with the assignment of risk weight that utilizes
rating from rating agencies. The New Accord implementation will affect the capital requirements,
especially with sovereign and interbank exposures that rated below investment grade. Under 1988
Basel Capital Accord, sovereign and interbank exposures are assigned 0% and 20% risk weight respectively,
while in the standardized approach the risk weight can vary between 0% and 20% to 150%. For example,
if Indonesia has sovereign rating of CCC+, then claims to Indonesian Government have the risk weight of
150%. Considering the present condition with recap bonds form 36,03% of total banking assets, under
the standardized approach banks should hold more capital rather than 1988 Basel Capital Accord.
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Other problems confronting supervisory authority in recognizing rating agency are related to its
competence to assess a qualified rating agency, monitor the fulfillment of those qualifications
continuously, moral obligation in case the acknowledged rating agency do not satisfy those qualifications.
Another dilemma is the different definitions and rating symbols used by different rating agencies. For
instance, S&P uses symbol AAA, AA+, etc. and Moody’s uses symbol Aaa, Aa1, etc., while in fact those
symbols have similar definitions. In this case, the challenge faced by supervisory authority is to make a
map and rating result conversion of all recommended rating agency to avoid differences in the result of
credit risk assessment. Therefore, an objective and consistent “standard assessment framework” is
needed to resolve different assessment standards from all rating agencies.
The other implication is related with solicited and unsolicited rating. In practice, rating agency
may issue a rating for an entity or instrument in financial/capital market based on request (solicited
rating) or without any request from respected parties (unsolicited rating). The issue of solicited/
unsolicited rating has the potential of creating moral hazard to rating agency to force the use of solicited
rating to institutions assessed.
Using rating as references also has the potential to create problems that arises from the impact
of pro-cyclicality. Theoretically, and historically, economic condition of a country will always
experience cycles. As a consequence, the rating result will be affected by the economic cycle (pro-
cyclicality). When the economy is good (boom), rating agency will give a good assessment and it
decrease banks credit risk exposure and increase capital adequacy ratio (overcapitalized). On the
contrary, when the economy is in recession, credit risk exposure will increase as a result of low
rating and capital ratio will decreases (undercapitalized). The problem becomes even worse when
overcapitalization motivate banks to expand their loan aggressively. This is creating another problem
in banks in the event of downturning economy. The capital they hold would be less than required as
an impact of increasing impaired loan. Considering the above impact, an effective supervisory
process is essential to ensure that banks have enough additional capital as reserve (buffer) to
anticipate the movement in economic cycle.
Other potential problem arises from limited recognition for collateral as credit risk mitigation
factor. As implemented in other developing countries, collateral structure in Indonesia is dominated
with lands and buildings, especially collaterals provided by Small and Medium Enterprises (UKM). In this
case, standardized approach will discourage banks to extend loans to UKM sectors because physical
collateral provided by UKM can not be utilized as risk mitigation factor.
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This approach has the advantage of risk sensitivity in calculating capital requirement and encouraging
the completion of bank risk management to obtain a lower amount of capital. However, the approach
requires bank to fulfill certain requirements and consistency principle in its implementation towards
banks’ significant portfolios and business lines. In general, there are five main elements in internal
ratings-based approach; exposure classification, risk component for every exposure, risk weight for
every risk component, minimum requirement, and supervision of the compliance to the minimum
requirements.
Exposure Classification
Bank for International Settlements (BIS) has determined 7 (seven) exposure classifications; corporate
exposure, bank exposures, retail exposures, sovereign exposures, specialized lending exposures, project
finance exposures, and equity exposures. From those exposure classifications, there are five exposure
classifications that have been defined and have the concept of minimum capital allocation. They are
corporate exposure, bank exposures, retail exposures, sovereign exposures, and specialized lending
exposures. Other classifications are still under research and planned to be included in the third
consultative documents which will be released in the first quarter of 2003.
There are four risk components in every exposure classification; i.e. probability of default (PD),
loss given default (LGD), exposure at default (EAD), and maturity (M). Probability of default (PD) is the
probability of an obligor and or guarantor to experience default, which is estimated through historical
data. Loss given default (LGD) is the estimated loss that could happen in the event of default. Exposure
at default (EAD) is the estimated outstanding of exposure in the event of default. Maturity (M) is related
with exposure time frame, where the longer period has the bigger maturity risk. In internal ratings-
based approach, an obligor is declared as default if one or more criteria is met: (i) It is confirmed that
the obligor cannot fulfill his debt obligation in full (principal, interests or fee); (ii) There is a credit loss
event related with obligor’s obligation, such as charge-off, specific provision, or is forced to accept
restructuring which includes reduction or postponement of principal, interests or fee; (iii) There is a
past-due of more than 90 days; (iv) The obligor file bankrupt request or similar protection from its
creditors.
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There are 2 (two) methods in this approach, foundation approach and advanced approach. Foundation
approach is intended for banks that experience difficulties in estimating its valid risk factors but can
obviously determine its obligors’ default risk and meet minimum requirements related to the internal
rating system, risk management process, and risk component estimation. In this case, bank can utilizes
its estimation to determine probability of default and uses the guideline from the supervisory authority
to determine loss given default (LGD), exposure at default (EAD), and maturity (M). The other approach,
advanced internal ratings-based approach, is intended for banks that can estimate obligor default risk
and other risk components consistently, by paying attention to minimum requirements and additional
minimum requirements fulfillment for each of the estimated risk components. In this approach, banks
are allowed to estimate all risk components (PD, LGD, EAD, and M).
The important thing that should be taken into account from the above two approaches is that the
implementation of both approaches should accompanied by validation and written approval from the
supervisory authority. On top of that, it should be tested in parallel with the standardized approach to
have comparison on its results.
The internal ratings-based approach concept has its own strengths and weaknesses. One of the
strengths is the ability to accommodate different risk characteristics in calculating minimum capital
requirements. In this case, higher risk will require more capital allocation. This is in turn encourages
banks to fix and enhance its risk management. Other strength is the wider collateral scope compared to
the standardized approach. Within internal ratings-based approach, banks have more flexibility in utilizing
types of collateral to mitigate risk.
The weaknesses in internal ratings-based approach are mostly related with, among others, the
requirements to have a complete historical data – at least the last 3 to 5 years – and as much as possible
the data should include business cycle in a normal economy condition (not in crisis period). For banks
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that do not have a comprehensive database system, this requirement could be a problem and needs
time, efforts and expensive cost to improve the database. Other weakness is its implementation process
that requires a relatively long time horizon to prepare the database, establish structure and rating
criteria, model determination, and rating system supervision and its repeated evaluation with some
adjustment to adopt changing environments.
Considering the tight minimum requirements and the present condition of Indonesian banking
industry, the internal ratings-based approach is unlikely to implement in Indonesia in the near future.
This is based on the fact that most Indonesian banks do not have a comprehensive obligor database with
sufficient data of the latest 3-5 years time frame. It is estimated that compliance to the requirements
in the internal ratings-based approach could take more than 5 (five) years, especially due to the expensive
cost and human resources needed to improve the database. Moreover, post-crisis economy still has not
reached normal condition. In this case, data collected from abnormal condition will lead to bias probability
of default and it may cause errors in determining rating obligor/guarantor and calculation on banks’
capital adequacy.
From supervisory perspective, the implementation of internal ratings-based approach will resulted
in a specific risk characteristic for a bank and therefore one bank will have different characteristic from
other bank. As a consequence, supervisor needs to have in-depth understanding of the bank activities.
It will need a dedicated bank supervision system. Furthermore, the need to have prior validation from
supervisory authority will confront supervisor to have in-depth knowledge and competency on statistics
and econometric analysis.
Standardized Method
The objective of Amendment to the Capital Accord to Incorporate Market Risks issued by BIS on
January 1996 was to encourage banks in providing enough capital against price changing risk in its
trading activities. The Amendment 1996 re-emphasized that the required capital to cover market risk
should comprise of stockholder capital and retained earning (Tier 1) and supplementary capital (Tier 2).
But banks are allowed to add capital for Tier 3 specified to cover market risk. Tier 3 comprises of short-
term subordinated loan with minimum of 2 (two) years and has lock-in clause which means that they are
not allowed to pay interest or principal (even on due time) if it will cause CAR to drop below the
minimum level. Thus, Tier 3 calculated amount could also be limited to 250% of Tier 1.
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Market risks that should also be calculated as determined in Amendment 1996 are market price
change risk of financial instruments (such as bonds, swap, future, options, etc.) or equities sensitive to
interest rate changes on bank’s trading book; interest rate risk of financial non-derivatives instruments;
foreign exchange risk and risk on holding position in commodities (agriculture product, non-oil mineral,
and non-gold precious metal) on overall bank business activities, both trading book and banking book.
There are 2 (two) approaches in calculating market risk they are standardized method and internal
model. Standardized method focus the measurement to 5 (five) types of market risk component, interest
rate risk, equity position risk, foreign exchange risk, commodities risk, and price risk (for option). The
approach used is called “building-block” by calculating capital charge for specific risk and general
market risk of the traded financial instrument positions (trading book) and all foreign currency and/or
commodity positions (both trading book and banking book). Specific risk is price change risk of financial
instrument due to the issuer factor, while general market risk is price change risk of financial instrument
due to general market fluctuation factor. These two types of risk are subject to different capital charge
calculation. Total additional capital charge to cover market risk (on top of capital charge to cover
credit risk according to 1988 Basel Capital Accord) is arithmetic total of each capital charge subject for
each of the 5 (five) risks mentioned above.
Capital charge calculation for interest rate risk is divided into 2 (two) type of risks, specific risk
and general market risk. In calculating specific risk, offsetting is only possible for identical positions
(issuer, rate, maturity and other same features). Finance instruments exposed to interest rate risk are
all fixed-rate and floating-rate debt securities and other instruments with similar characteristics but
not classified as securities with KPR-based (mortgage securities). Specific risk application is divided
into 5 (five) general categories with 5 (five) capital charges weight classification: (i) Government (0,00%);
(ii) Qualifying (0,25%, 1,00%, and 1,60%); and (iii) Other (8,00%).
The “government” category includes all securities issued by government such as bonds, treasury
bills, and other short-term instruments. Supervision authorities have the right to impose a certain
percentage to specific risk for securities issued by other foreign government. The “qualifying” category
includes securities issued by state-owned entities, multilateral development banks, and other securities
with rating investment grade issued by rating agency acknowledged by banking supervisor. While “other”
category includes all other securities not included in “government” and “qualifying” categories and are
subject to the highest charge of 8%.
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There are 2 (two) alternative options to calculate capital charge for general market risk, maturity
method and duration method. In these two methods, the capital charge total is a total of 4 (four)
components: (i) Net short or long positions of all trading book; (ii) Matched position in all time-band
(vertical disallowance); (iii) Matched position between time-band (horizontal disallowance); (iv) Net
charge for option position. All bank positions are then sorted (slotting) according to remaining time
frame (fixed-rate instruments) or the next repricing date (floating rate instruments) into 15 time-band
which are divided into 3 (three) zones:
1. Multiplying all position in every time-band with risk weight reflects price sensitivity caused by
interest rate changes;
2. Offsetting position in every time-band, where the smaller position, both long or short, is subject to
10% capital charge (vertical disallowance);
3. Horizontal disallowance, a residual value (long and short difference from the second step) is offset-
ed with other time band position in the same zone, and then with the residual value between
different zones. Each offset result is subject to capital charge with calculation as follow:
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Both tables above refer to maturity method, while duration method cannot differentiate coupon
above and below 3% and vertical disallowance of only 10%. Total capital charge amount for those three
steps is the capital charge for market risk.
Interest rate risk measurement should also calculate all interest rate derivatives instruments and
off-balance-sheet instruments in trading book, such as forward rate agreements (FRAs), forward contract,
bond futures, interest rate/cross –currency swap, and forward of foreign currency. Each of those
instrument positions has to be converted according to its underlying transaction and is subject to
specific and general market risk calculation. Capital charge calculation for this kind of instrument is
relatively more complex.
This risk occurs if bank has or take position in equities in trading book. The equities meant here
are common stock, convertible stock/securities, and commitment to buy/sell those equities.
This risk occurs if bank has or take position in foreign currency, including gold. Standardized model
introduced shorthand method in calculating capital charge for this risk, that is: (i) Capital charge for
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foreign exchange risk is 8% of total net open position (local currency) for foreign currency and gold; (ii)
Net open position is a total or Net short position or long position (which is the greater) and Net (without
differentiating long or short) position in gold.
Commodities Risk
This risk occurs if bank has or take position in commodities such as agriculture products, mineral
and precious metal (besides gold). But the same as equity position risk, banking in Indonesia is still not
allowed to do commodities trading.
Option
Option is a contract that causes right (but not obligation) for its holders/buyers to buy or sell a
certain amount of currency or other finance instruments with a price agreed upon on or before a certain
date in the future. The risk for buyer is limited only to option premium that is paid plus fee to broker.
But for seller (writer) the risk is unlimited because it is determined by the difference of market price
and the agreed price (strike price). Therefore, bank that sells option will face a bigger risk compare to
the option buyer bank. Standardized model give some alternatives they are (i) Bank only as option
buyer can use simplified approach; (ii) Bank that also sell/write option is expected to use intermediate
approach or a comprehensive risk management model. Basel Committee thinks that the more significant
for a bank to do trading option the more it has to use a comprehensive risk assessment method.
Capital charge calculation for option with simplified approach can be seen as follow:
Long Long put Capital charge = (Market value of underlying transaction/securities x the
amount of capital charge for specific and general market risk of the
underlying securities) – the value of “in the money” option (if any)
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Internal Model
The Basel Committee allows bank to use internal model other than the standardized model to
fulfill qualitative and quantitative requirements determined by Basel Committee and after regaining
approval from banking supervision authorities. The quantitative requirements are: (i) Using value-at-
risk (VAR) method which daily calculated with 99% and one-tailed confidence interval; (ii) Price shock
standard used in the model is minimum 10 trading days so the minimum holding period is also the same
with the period; (iii) The model use observe-resulted historical data of a minimum 1 (one) year; (iv) The
amount of capital charge for bank using internal model the bigger one of yesterday’s VAR value or 3
(three) times daily VAR average for the latest 60 working days.
Meanwhile, the qualitative requirements determined by BIS, among others fulfilling general criteria
of adequate risk management system; possess qualitative standard in the event there is a mistake in the
internal model; possess guidelines for a sufficient market risk factor categorization; possess guidelines
for stress testing; possess validation procedure for external error in model utilization; and possess a
clear rule in the even the bank use a combination of internal model and standardized method.
In general, internal model used by banks is based on Value-at-Risk (VAR) concept. VaR is an approach
to measure loss amount occur on a portfolio position as a result of risk factors changes including price,
interest and exchange rate for certain period by using certain probability level. VaR application method
in internal method require the risk factors changes data to calculate the amount of overall risks faced
by a bank in a certain point of time. Thus, it is also needed to do volatility analysis that is a projection
of risk factor changing in calculating position in portfolio.
There are 2 (two) types of volatility they are historical volatility and implied volatility. Historical
volatility is a volatility based on time series data, while implied volatility is applied for option (non-linear
instruments) calculated by inputting option price into option pricing model like the Black-Scholes formula.
Basic Indicator Approach is a very simple approach and can applied to all banks, but it is more
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appropriate for small-scale banks with small business activities variation. This approach uses a certain
financial indicator in calculating risk profile, namely gross income. Next, the amount of a (alpha
factor) is determined which is a multiplication factor to forecast the amount of operational risk, in this
case is the function of gross income. Based on researches conducted by Basle Committee, it is forecasted
the operational risk reach 20% of minimum capital maintenance obligation, so the a factor estimation
is 30% of gross income.
Standardized Approach
It is an approach using combination between financial indicator and bank business line which
determined by supervisor in determining capital charge. This approach divides business units and activities
into several groups and determines indicators for each group to reflect various risk profile of each of
those business activities. The substance of this approach is to calculate b factor (beta factor) for each
business unit which reflects the proxy amount of losses relations from operational risk and each business
line activities which is represented by certain financial indicator. Example of a bank business unit and
activity division can be seen as follow:
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Calculation Method
The calculation of operational method is by determining b factor for each business unit determined
by supervision authorities. Next weighting is determined for each business unit.
Retail Banking 21 - 31
Commercial Banking 16 - 24
Payment & Settlement 15 - 22
Agency Services 10 - 15
Trading & sales 18 – 28
Total 80 – 120
[By using 20% ratio of [Kewajiban Penyediaan Modal Minimum] (Minimum Capital Supply Obligation)
as required capital amount standard to anticipate operational risk than the amount will be allocated to
all business units. Capital allocation for each of those business lines is then divided with financial
indicator to get the b factor number.
This approach is applied when a bank has a comprehensive database so it can determine the type
of loss related with operational risk (loss types), make probability estimation of the loss (probability of
loss event), and estimation of proportion amount of a transaction or exposure that may inflict loss (loss
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given event). This approach tries to combine the past two approaches they are supervision importance
and loss data of each bank in calculating the bank capital need.
Bank ability to fulfill certain criteria will determine which criteria it will use in calculating the
required capital to cover operational risk. This approach demands bank to have loss event database for
each business line which can be used to determine calculation parameters that is parameter that reflects
the probability of a loss on each business line (Probability of Loss Event/PE) and the loss amount that
may occur in each business line (Loss Given Event/LGE). Based on those parameters we can obtain loss
expectation on each business line (Expected Loss/EL) by multiplying PE, LGE and indicator of each
business line. Next, loss expectation on each of those business lines will be multiplied with certain
percentage (g factor) to determine capital amount a bank need to reserve as anticipation to operational
risk.
Measurement Method
a. Bank will classify its activities into various business activities, determining operational risk of each
of those business units, also determining financial indicator to become proxy of the amount of each
business unit operational risk exposure (Exposure Indicator/EI). In practice, supervision authorities
will determine business unit standard, risk type and financial indicator for bank references;
b. By using their own loss database, the bank determine a parameter to reflect the probability of loss
for each business unit (Probability of Loss Event/PE) and the loss amount that might occur on each
business unit (Loss Given Event/LGE);
c. Based on those parameters they can obtain loss expectation of each business unit (Expected Loss/
EL) that is EI x PE x LGE;
d. In capital calculation context, authorities will determine g factor (gamma factor) that is a [konstanta]
(constant) used to transform EL value into capital amount a bank has to form (capital charge), g
factor can be define as maximum loss amount in every holding period in a certain confidence
interval.
Although capital charges calculation for operational risk in the New Accord has accommodated
several approaches but there are still some things need to be completed especially in relation with
quantitative criteria. Some of those problems are related with no clear definition that differentiates
credit risk and market risk. It is especially related with a clear limitation with other risks and as a
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foundation for quantification of relevant and credible operational risk. Thus, the impact amount of
operational risk might be very much determined by the bank supervision quality. Operational risk
calculation not entirely related to the bank losses historical data. The main issue is whether the supervision
mechanism conducted is good or not. Management responsibilities cannot be measured by the amount
of capital charge. In contrast, the quality of forward-looking control is the main thing compare to losses
historical data used to calculate operational risk.
Other critic comes from a very different operational risk characteristic if compared with credit
risk and market risk. Operational risk emphasize more on internal bank, context-dependent, highly
multifaceted, interdependent and is not determined or evaluated based on market value. Some of
operational risk components – especially those not related with overall context – can be calculated with
credit risk model. The most important component of operational risk for management – events seldom
happen but has a big impact – is not included in capital calculation. The limitation use in credit risk and
market risk models may not always suitable to calculate those risks.
To do calibration and completion of the New Accord proposal, the Basel Committee compose a
Quantitative Impact Study (QIS) 3 as a comprehensive field test to get required information to for the
calibration process so it can minimize capital charge due to uncertainty factor. The objective of QIS 3
is to collect data which is related with the bank capital calculation (Bank’s capital requirements) and
also fulfilling industry demand for the New Accord to be supported quantitatively. This survey is
conducted by collecting banking data/information of G-10 countries and other countries (± 40 countries
participate with participating bank amount reach ± 200 banks) with different risk profiles background.
In conducting QIS 3 survey in Indonesia, they use a workbook standardized approach based on
consideration that generally Indonesian banking has not fulfilled some pre-requirement for internal
rating-based approach implementation (for instance information technology, human resources,
understanding of the estimation models in IRB, etc.) Thus, Bank of Indonesia as supervision authorities
is considered of not having the ability and expertise to do analysis and validation to the estimation
models in IRB yet.
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From the QIS 3 survey result it can presents some information as follows:
a. Bank Capital
In the implementation of QIS 3 survey in Indonesia, bank capital need is calculated using standardized
approach and calculating risk mitigation factors and operational risk, but it did not include market
risk component. The survey showed a significant decreasing impact of Capital Adequacy Ratio
compare to 1988 Basel Capital Accord. All banks experience a variety decrease of CAR between
2,45% - 22,13%.
Credit Risk
The CAR decrease related with credit risk was recorded significantly, between 2% - 18%. The
significant CAR decrease was caused by several things, some of them are bank assets portfolios
which are dominated by sovereign claims (Recap bond and SBI / Indonesian securities) subject to
20% risk weight (national discretion). In this survey, the sovereign claims were given 20% risk weight
(different with 1988 Basel Capital Accord that gave 0% risk weight). Because majority of participating
bank investors are in the form of SBI / Indonesian securities and recap bond then the 20% risk
weight to sovereign claims give a direct impact to CAR’s decrease.
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Placement for banks that do not have rating with 50% risk weight (national discretion) – exception
for placement with time frame < 3 months (20%) – also give an impact to bank’s CAR decrease. In
this survey, treatment for bills to banks used option 2 by using national discretion on determining a
certain risk weight. For banks that do not have rating, they are subject to 50% risk weight (bigger
compare to risk weight on 1988 Basel Capital Accord which was only 20%). Besides that, most
debtors do not own rating from acknowledged rating agency (Moody’s, S&P, and Fitch IBCA) so they
are subject to 125% risk weight (national discretion). If in 1988 Basel Capital Accord risk weight for
commercial debtor (other than bank and state-owned institutions) is 100%, in the QIS 3 survey the
risk weight is raised to 125% (national discretion) for debtors who do not have rating. Plus, all
overdue asset portfolios more than 90 days are subject to 150% risk weight.
From collateral side, majority of collateral owned by bank are not eligible so banks could not get
incentive to mitigate risk. Generally, collaterals received by participating bank are in the form of
physical collateral such as property/real estate so they are not eligible to be calculated in risk
mitigation so bank could not get incentive to lessen the exposure risk weight although it has high
collateral value.
Besides those things that inflict financial loss to bank capital, the New Accord also gives incentive
in the form of special treatment to KPR and retail debtors who are subject to risk weight each 40%
and 75%, lower compare to 1988 Basel Capital Accord (50% and 100%). Other incentive is the 0% risk
weight given to guarantee issued by bank which is unconditionally cancelable.
Operational Risk
Additional capital charge placement to anticipate operational risk by using basic indicator approach
and standardized approach that is by using a factor of 15% or b factor of 12% - 18% for every
business lines cause CAR decrease around 0,1% - 6,7%. The relatively insignificant CAR decrease
may be related with some factors such as the use of gross income indicator in approximately the
last 3 (three) years (1999 – 2001) in basic indicator approach resulted in a relatively small capital
charge calculation number for operational risk because profitability performance of some big banks
in 1999 showed a negative net interest margin number as implication of negative spread. Besides,
some big banks could not identify gross income indicators for each business lines according to
standardized approach, so they have no basic in calculating capital charge for operational risk.
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The survey result shows that risk management process conducted by participating bank still has a
lot of weaknesses. Some of those weaknesses include risk identification process where the most
prominent weakness is unavailability/not yet available a standard reference for bank recording
system; unstructured information management system; and a very short database timeframe between
1 – 3 years.
Most of data collected by banks are still qualitative data so they are not informative enough to be
used in capital requirement calculation. One of the reasons is relatively limited information
technology support so bank information management has difficulty in maintaining and supplying
quantitative data. Thus there is no commitment from each organization level also the unavailability
of standard guidelines both internal guidelines and guidelines for supervision authorities which
make risk management initiative really dependent to each bank’s management policy.
To anticipate the implementation of the New Accord then banking need to pay attention to some
problems they are facing, among others, that the New Accord implementation requires bank to fulfill
some conditions including improving risk analysis and management abilities, information availability
and documentation. As a result, banks have to increase and equip their knowledge in risk analysis area
or further do changes in organization structure, procedures and decision-making process. A healthy risk
analysis and management also required the use of comprehensive and adequate internal data. This will
need a well-structured information management (database).
All risk mitigation practices really need a good management process (administration and
documentation) especially if it is related with the existing legal aspect. As a consequence, in
implementing risk mitigation a bank has to retain its cautious principal by referring to the available
legal instruments. Therefore, banks have to improve their administration and documentation systems
plus complement their knowledge on legal aspects especially those related with their risk mitigation
practices.
To anticipate potential problems which may occur in the future, banking industry needs to
understand its assets’ structure and capital fulfillment consequences related with the New Accord
implementation so banks could be more careful in conducting their financing policies.
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The New Accord proposal was organized to anticipate developments and innovations in financial
system by giving various approach alternatives in capital calculation which is more risk sensitive. The
implementation of the New Accord will give implication to supervision authorities in the form of demand
to do adjustments in their assessment methods and means which give emphasis to a forward looking risk
profile of a bank (Risk based supervision) without disregarding compliance audit. Therefore, supervision
authorities needs to realize the importance of knowing and understanding the philosophies o all approaches
used in calculating credit risk, market risk, and even operational risk. Understanding the process requires
supervisors’ adequate competence and expertise so supervisors’ resources needs are not only quantitative
but also qualitative especially those related with statistic and econometric disciplines. Furthermore,
analysis and validation for internal model used by banks made each bank has a unique and specific
nature. This requires specialization in each bank’s supervision. Therefore, supervision authorities is
also required to know overall bank operational activities that need dedicated and specialist supervision.
Indonesian banking condition today is still in recovery period after the crisis so it affected banking
data availability as reference to do analysis or projection to obtain a coefficient of a statistic or
econometric model. Data validity test is also needed considering those data were obtain in not a normal
condition. If the data, which was obtained in not a normal condition, is use for analysis or projection, it
will create bias which will result in inaccurate model.
Based on those conditions, it is important for supervision authorities to take anticipatory steps by
improving competence and expertise in performing risk analysis and developing risk based supervision
that focused to human resources and information technology development. Another important thing is
improving quantitative analysis ability in credit risk, market risk and also operational risk.
Moreover, supervision authorities also needs to encourage banks to do anticipatory steps towards the
New Accord implementation plan through a set of policy and regulation so bank take the initiative to make
changes and improving of their internal infrastructures (such as human resources, decision making process,
information technology, etc.). Also involving market player through a continuous market dialogue to exchange
information and create understanding on New Accord implementation and its impact on financial system in
general also to understand best practices used all these times as reference by market players.
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REFERECES
1. International Convergence of Capital Measurement and Capital Standards, Basle Committe on Banking
Supervision, July 1988.
2. Amendment to the Capital Accord to Incorporate Market Risk, Basle Committe on Banking Supervi-
sion, January 1996.
3. The New Basel Capital Accord, Consultative Document, Basel Committe on Banking Supervision,
January 2001.
4. The Standardised Approach to Credit Risk (Supporting Document to the New Basel Capital Accord),
Consultative Document, Basel Committe on Banking Supervision, January 2001.
5. The Internal Ratings-Based Approach (Supporting Document to the New Basel Capital Accord),
Consultative Document, Basel Committe on Banking Supervision, January 2001.
6. Operational Risk (Supporting Document to the New Basel Capital Accord), Consultative Document,
Basel Committe on Banking Supervision, January 2001.
7. Pillar 2 (Supervisory Review Process) (Supporting Document to the New Basel Capital Accord),
Consultative Document, Basel Committe on Banking Supervision, January 2001.
8. Pillar 3 (Market Discipline) (Supporting Document to the New Basel Capital Accord), Consultative
Document, Basel Committe on Banking Supervision, January 2001.
9. Credit Risk Modelling: Current Practices and Applications, Basle Committe on Banking Supervision,
April 1999.
10. Comments on “The New Basel Capital Accord”, The Market Consultative Paper by the Basel Committe
on Banking Supervision, Bank of Japan.
11. Comments on “Consultative Document “The New Basel Capital Accord”, Superintendence of Banks
of Chile,
12. Public Interest Comment on The Basel Committe on Banking Supervision’s Second Consultative on
the New Basel Capital Accord, Regulatory Studies Program, Mercatus Center, George Mason University.
13. Will the Proposed New Basel Capital Accord Have a Net Negative Effect on Developing Countries?,
S. Griffith-Jones & S. Spratt, Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex, July 2001.
14. A Capital Accord for Emerging Economies?, Andrew Powell, Universidad Torcuato Di Tella and Visiting
Research Fellow, World Bank, September 6th, 2001.
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15. How The Proposed Basel Guidelines on Rating-Agency Assessments Would Addect Developing
Countries?, Giovanni Ferri, Li-Gang Liu, and Giovanni Majnoni, World Bank, University of Bari (Italy).
16. From Basel I to Basel II: Implications and Challenges for Emerging Markets, Liliana Rojas-Suarez,
Presentation.
17. EMEAP Workshop on Macroeconomic Impact of the New Basel Capital Accord, Impact of the New
Basel Capital Accord on Banks in Asia, Simon Topping, Hong Kong Monetary Authority, March 2002.
18. Quantitative Impact Study (Overview, Instruction, Technical Guidance, National Discretion), Basel
Committe on Banking Supervision, October 2002.
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FINANCIAL
S TA B I L I T Y
R E V I E W
JUNE 2003
Coordinators
Nelson Tampubolon & Muliaman D Hadad
Editor in Chief
Wimboh Santoso & S Batunanggar
Analysts
S Batunanggar Dicky Kartikoyono Ita Rulina
Endang Kurnia Saputra Ricky Satria Yossy Yoswara Dwityapoetra S Besar
Article Contributors
Wimboh Santoso S Batunanggar Enrico Hariantoro
Dadang Muljawan Imansjah G A Indira
Bambang Arianto Indra Gunawan
Partners
On-site Supervisory Presence Team
Directorate of Bank Licensing and Banking Information
Directorate of Bank Supervision 1
Directorate of Bank Supervision 2
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Bureau of Credit
Translation Consultant
Skip Edmonds