UIUC Physics 435 EM Fields & Sources I Fall Semester, 2007 Lecture Notes 2 Prof.

Steven Errede

LECTURE NOTES 2
Gauss’ Law / Divergence Theorem

Consider an imaginary / fictitious surface enclosing / surrounding e.g. a point charge (or a small
charged conducting object). For simplicity, use an imaginary sphere of radius R centered on charge
Q at origin:
ẑ
nˆ , r = Rrˆ
E ( r ) = E ( Rrˆ )
Infinitesimal Area Element, dA

Q θ R
ŷ
ϕ

x̂ Imaginary/Fictitious Surface, S
S aka Gaussian Surface of radius R
centered on charge Q.

Area element dA is a VECTOR quantity: dA = dAnˆ = dArˆ . By convention, n̂ is outward-pointing

unit normal vector at area element dA. In this particular case (because of spherical symmetry of
problem): nˆ = rˆ

FLUX OF ELECTRIC FIELD LINES (through surface S): Φ E ≡ ∫ E ( r )idA

S

Φ E = “measure” of “number of E-field “lines” passing through surface S, (SI Units: Volt-meters).

TOTAL ELECTRIC FLUX ( ΦTOT E ) associated with any closed surface S, is a measure of the (total)
charge enclosed by surface S.

n.b. charge outside of surface S will contribute nothing to total electric flux Φ E (since E-field lines
pass through one portion of the surface S and out another – no net flux!)

Consider our point charge Q at origin. Calculate the flux of E passing through a sphere of radius r:
(see above picture)
Q ⎛ 1 ⎞ 2
Φ E = ∫ E ( r )idA = r
S 4πε o ∫S ⎝ r 2 ⎠
⎜ (
rˆ ⎟i r sin θ dθ dϕ rˆ )
= dA
infinitesimal vector
area element for
sphere of radius r

n.b. Vector area element of sphere of radius, r is dA = dArˆ = ( r 2 sin θ dθ dϕ ) rˆ in spherical-polar

coordinates.

©Professor Steven Errede, Department of Physics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Illinois 1

2005 - 2008. All rights reserved.
 UIUC Physics 435 EM Fields & Sources I Fall Semester, 2007 Lecture Notes 2 Prof. Steven Errede

Q θ =π ϕ = 2π 2π Q θ =π
Thus: Φ E = ∫θ ∫ϕ sin θ dθ dϕ ( rˆirˆ ) = ∫θ sin θ dθ
4πε o =o =o 4π ε o =o
=1
2

2Q Q
= =
2εo εo

Q
∴ Gauss’ Law (in Integral Form): ΦE = ∫ E ( r )idA = ε
s
enclosed

Electric flux through closed surface S = (electric charge enclosed by surface S)/ ε o

If ∃ (= there exists) lots of discrete charges qi (ALL enclosed by imaginary / fictitious / Gaussian
surface S), we know from principle of superposition that:

N
ENET ( r ) = ∑ Ei ( r )
i =1

(∫ ) 1
N
qi Qencl
Then: Φ ENET = ∫ ENET ( r )idA = ∑ Ei ( r )idA = ∑ = ∑q =
S
i =1
S
i =1 εo εo i =1
i
εo

If ∃ volume charge density ρ (r ′) , then: Qencl = ∫ ρ (r ′)dτ ′

v

Then using the DIVERGENCE THEOREM:

1
∫ E ( r )idA = ∫ ( ∇i E ( r ) ) dτ ′ = ε
Q
ΦE =
S v
encl

o
=
εo ∫ ρ ( r ) dτ ′
v

This relation holds for any volume v ⇒ the integrands of ∫ ( ) dτ ′ must be equal, i.e.:
v

ρ (r )
∴ Gauss’ Law (in Differential Form): ∇i E ( r ) =
εo

2 ©Professor Steven Errede, Department of Physics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Illinois

2005 - 2008. All rights reserved.
 UIUC Physics 435 EM Fields & Sources I Fall Semester, 2007 Lecture Notes 2 Prof. Steven Errede

The DIVERGENCE OF E ( r ) : ∇i E ( r )

1 rˆ
Calculate ∇i E ( r ) directly from E ( r ) = ∫ ρ ( r ′ ) dτ ′
4πε o v
r2
all
space

n.b. now extended over all space!

Remember that r is NOT a constant!

r ≡ r − r′

field source
point point
P S
⎡ ⎤
⎢ 1 ⎥
⎛ rˆ ⎞ 1 ⎛ rˆ ⎞
∇i E ( r ) = ∇i ⎢ ∫v ⎜⎝ r 2 ⎟⎠ ( ) ⎥⎥ = 4πε o
ρ r ′ dτ ′ ∫ ∇i⎜ 2 ⎟ ρ ( r ′ ) dτ ′
⎢ 4πε o v ⎝r ⎠
⎢ all ⎥ all
⎣ space ⎦ space

⎛ rˆ ⎞
Now: ∇i⎜ 2 ⎟ = 4π δ 3 ( r ) (see equation 1.100, Griffiths p. 50)
⎝r ⎠ 3− D
Dirac
δ − fcn.

⎛ rˆ ⎞ ⎛ r − r′ ⎞
Thus: ∇i⎜ 2 ⎟ = 4πδ 3 ( r ) or : ∇i⎜ ⎟ = 4πδ 3 ( r − r ′ )
⎝r ⎠ ⎜ r − r′ 3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠

1 ρ (r )
∴ ∇i E ( r ) = ∫ 4π δ 3 ( r − r ′ ) ρ ( r ′ ) dτ ′ = Gauss’ Law in Differential Form:
4π ε o εo
ρ (r )
v
all
space ∇i E ( r ) =
εo

Gauss’ Law in Integral Form:

ρ (r ) ⎛ ρ ( r′) ⎞ 1 1
∇i E ( r ) =
εo
, thus: ∫ ( ∇i E ( r ′) ) dτ ′ = ∫ ⎜
V v
⎝ εo ⎠
⎟ dτ ′ =
εo ∫ ρ ( r ′) dτ ′ = ε
v
o
Qencl

Now apply/use the Divergence Theorem on the volume integral associated with ∇i E ( r ′ ) :
1 1
∫ ( ∇i E ( r ′) ) dτ ′ = ∫ E ( r )idA = ε ∫ ρ ( r ′) dτ ′ = ε Q
v S
o
v
o
encl

Q
Thus we obtain: ∫ E ( r ′)idA′ = ε
S
encl

o
Gauss’ Law in Integral Form

©Professor Steven Errede, Department of Physics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Illinois 3

2005 - 2008. All rights reserved.
 UIUC Physics 435 EM Fields & Sources I Fall Semester, 2007 Lecture Notes 2 Prof. Steven Errede

APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS’ LAW - very explicit, detailed derivation -

Griffiths Example 2.2: Find / determine the electric field intensity E ( r ) outside a uniformly charged
solid sphere of radius R and total charge q:

ẑ draw concentric Gaussian

rˆ, nˆ surface with radius r > R
centered on solid charged
sphere of radius R.
R r
Field Point P @ r
Ο ŷ on Gaussian surface

Infinitesimal area element

dA = dAnˆ = dArˆ
Charged solid dA = r 2 d ( cos θ ) d ϕ
Sphere of x̂ = r 2 sin θ dθ dϕ
Radius R,
Total charge q Fictitious / Imaginary spherical
Gaussian surface S of radius r
1 1 q
Gauss’ Law: ∫ E ( r )idA = ε Q
S
o
encl =
εo
q=
εo
n.b. by symmetry of sphere:
E ( r ) = E ( r ) rˆ dA = dAnˆ = dArˆ E sphere ( r > R ) = E ( r ) rˆ
(for Gaussian sphere) i.e. E must be radial!!

∴ E ( r )idA = ( E ( r ) rˆ )i( dArˆ ) = E ( r ) dA ( rˆirˆ ) = E ( r ) dA

=1

n.b. Here again, by symmetry,

NOTE: E ( r ) = E ( r ) ⇐ the magnitude of E is constant ∀ (for all)/for any fixed r!!!
(on the Gaussian spherical surface).

∫ E ( r )idA = ∫ E ( r ) dA = ε
∴ q
S S o

= E ( r ) ∫ dA =E ( r ) ( 4π r 2 ) = q
S εo

q 1 q 1 q
∴ E (r ) = q or: E ( r ) =
= rˆ = rˆ
4πε o r 4πε o r
2
2
4πε o r 2
4πε o r 2
= Electric field outside a charged sphere of radius R at radial distance r > R from center of sphere.

n.b. the electric field (for r > R) for charged sphere is equivalent / identical to that of a point charge q
located at the origin!!!
4 ©Professor Steven Errede, Department of Physics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Illinois
2005 - 2008. All rights reserved.
 UIUC Physics 435 EM Fields & Sources I Fall Semester, 2007 Lecture Notes 2 Prof. Steven Errede

GAUSS’ LAW AND SYMMETRY

Use of (Geometrical / Reflection) symmetry (and any / all kinds of symmetry arguments in general)
can be extremely powerful in terms of simplifying seemingly complicated problems!!

⇒ Learn skill of recognizing symmetries and applying symmetry arguments to solve problems!

Examples of use of Geometrical Symmetries and Gauss’ Law

a) Charged sphere – use concentric Gaussian sphere and spherical coordinates

b) Charged cylinder – use coaxial Gaussian cylinder and cylindrical coordinates
c) Charged box / Charged plane – use appropriately co-located Gaussian “pillbox” (rectangular
box) and rectangular coordinates
d) Charged ellipse – use concentric Gaussian ellipse and elliptical coordinates
e) Charged planar equilateral triangle Think about
f) Charged pyramid these!!

APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS’ LAW (CONTINUED) - very explicit detailed derivation

Griffiths Example 2.3 Consider a long cylinder (e.g. plastic rod) of length L and radius S that carries
a volume charge density ρ that is proportional to the distance from the axis s of the cylinder / rod –
i.e.
⎛ coulombs ⎞
ρ(s) = ks ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ( meter )3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ coulombs ⎞
k = proportionality constant ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ( meter )4 ⎟
⎝ ⎠

a) Determine the electric field E ( r ) inside this long cylinder / charged plastic rod
- Use a coaxial Gaussian cylinder of length l and radius s: (with l << L)

Q
Gauss’ Law ∫ E ( r )idA = ε
S
encl

Enclosed charge: Qencl = ∫ ρ ( s′ )dτ ′ = ∫ ( ks′ )( s′ds′dϕ dz ) ⇐ integral over Gaussian surface
v v

s′= s ϕ = 2π z =l s′= s
Qencl = ∫
s′= 0 ∫ϕ ∫ ( ks′)( s′ds′dϕ dz ) = 2π kl ∫
=0 z =0 s ′= 0
s′2 ds′

2
Qencl = π kls 3
3

©Professor Steven Errede, Department of Physics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Illinois 5

2005 - 2008. All rights reserved.
 UIUC Physics 435 EM Fields & Sources I Fall Semester, 2007 Lecture Notes 2 Prof. Steven Errede

LHS Gaussian endcap Coaxial Gaussian cylinder

Long charged cylinder of

l radius S and length L
S nˆ = − zˆ s nˆ = + zˆ S
ẑ
z=0 z=l
nˆcyl . = rˆ RHS Gaussian endcap
L
(L >> l)

Cylindrical Symmetry ⇒ E ( r ) = E ( r ) rˆ (i.e. E points radially outward, ⊥ to z-axis.)

∫ E ( r )idA = ∫
S
cylindrical
E ( r )idAcyl . + ∫
LHS endcap
E ( r )idALHS +
endcap
∫
RHS endcap
E ( r )idARHS
endcap
portion⋅of portion⋅of portion⋅of
Gaussian Gaussian Gaussian
surface surface surface

Again, from cylindrical symmetry (here):

E ( r ) = E ( r ) = constant on cylindrical Gaussian surface – i.e. fixed r = r = s

What are dAcyl . , dALHS , and dARHS ???

endcap endcap

dAcyl . = sdldϕ rˆ ← ( nˆcyl . = rˆ ) dALHS = sdsdϕ ( − zˆ ) = − sdsdϕ zˆ ← ( nˆ LHS = − zˆ )

endcap endcap
infinitesimal surface area
element of Gaussian cylinder dARHS = sdsdϕ ( + zˆ ) = + sdsdϕ zˆ ← ( nˆ RHS = + zˆ )
endcap endcap

∴ ∫ E ( r )idA = ∫ ( E ( r ) rˆ )i( sdldϕ rˆ ) + ∫ ( E ( r ) rˆ )i( − sdsdϕ zˆ ) + ∫ ( E ( r ) rˆ )i( + sdsdϕ zˆ )

S Cyl . LHS RHS
Gaussian Gaussian Gaussian Gaussian
cylinder surface endcap endcap

rˆ i rˆ =1 rˆ i zˆ = 0 rˆ i z=
ˆ 0
Note(s):
E ( r ) = E ( r ) = constant on cylindrical Gaussian surface (fixed r = s)
E ( r ) = E ( r ) rˆ by symmetry of charged cylinder
On LHS and RHS endcaps E ( r ) is not constant, because r is changing there - (but E still points
in r̂ direction! However, note that rˆirˆ = 1 and rˆi( ± zˆ ) ≡ 0 ⇒ Gaussian endcap terms do not
contribute!!!
Constant here

z =l ϕ = 2π
∴ ∫ E ( r )idA = ∫ E ( r ) sdldϕ = E ( r ) s ∫ ∫ϕ dldϕ = E ( r ) sl ( 2π ) = 2π slE ( r )
z =0 =0
S cylindrical
Gaussian Gaussian
cylinder surface

Q 2
Putting this all together now: ∫ E ( r )idA = ε
S
encl

o
where (here): Qencl = π kls 3
3
6 ©Professor Steven Errede, Department of Physics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Illinois
2005 - 2008. All rights reserved.
 UIUC Physics 435 EM Fields & Sources I Fall Semester, 2007 Lecture Notes 2 Prof. Steven Errede

inside
3
2π ks 2 l
2π s l E ( r ) =
3ε o
or: Ein ( r ) =
ks 2
3ε o
rˆ ( )
n.b. r ≡ s ← as used in Griffith’s

(s = r < S ) book, page 73

b) Find ELECTRIC FIELD E ( r ) outside of this long cylinder / charged plastic rod
Again, use Coaxial Gaussian cylinder of length l (<< L) and radius s (> S):
Q
Gauss’ Law: ∫ E ( r )idA = ε
S
encl

2
Enclosed charge (for s > S): Qencl = π klS 3 coaxial Gaussian cylinder
3
radius s > S and length l << L
nˆcyl . = rˆ
Long charge cylinder of
radius S and length L

s
nˆ LHS = − zˆ nˆ RHS = + zˆ S ẑ
Endcap Endcap

l << L

Again, from symmetry of long cylinder E ( r ) = E ( r ) rˆ = constant (radial) direction!!

r = s (fixed radius)

∫ E ( r )idA = ∫
S
cylindrical
E ( r )idAcyl + ∫
LHS
E ( r )idALHS +
endcap
∫
RHS
E ( r )i dARHS
endcap
Gaussian Gaussian Gaussian
surface endcap endcap

dAcyl = sdldϕ rˆ dALHS = sdsdϕ ( − zˆ ) = − sdsdϕ zˆ = dALHS ( − zˆ )

endcap endcap

= dAcyl rˆ = dAcyl rˆ dARHS = sdsdϕ ( + zˆ ) = + sdsdϕ zˆ = dARHS ( + zˆ )

endcap endcap

Now: rˆirˆ = 1 and rˆi( ± zˆ ) ≡ 0

©Professor Steven Errede, Department of Physics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Illinois 7

2005 - 2008. All rights reserved.
 UIUC Physics 435 EM Fields & Sources I Fall Semester, 2007 Lecture Notes 2 Prof. Steven Errede

Then: =0 =0
⎛ ⎞
∫ E ( r )idA = ∫ ( E ( r ) rˆ )i( dA rˆ ) + ∫ ( E ( r ) rˆ )i⎜⎝ −dA
cyl LHS zˆ ⎟ + ∫ ( E ( r ) rˆ )i⎛⎜ dA
RHS
⎞
zˆ ⎟
S
cylindrical LHS endcap ⎠ RHS ⎝ endcap ⎠
Gaussian Gaussian endcap
surface endcap
z =l ϕ = 2π
= E (r ) ∫ ∫ϕ sdldϕ = 2π slE ( r )
z =0 =0

2π k l S 3 kS 3
∴ Electric field outside charged rod (s = r > S) : Eout ( r ) = r=
3i 2π s l ε o 3sε o

ELECTRIC FIELD (INSIDE/OUTSIDE) LONG CHARGED CYLINDER

vs. radial distance s (radius S, ρ(s) = ks)

Inside (s < S): Outside (s > S):

ks 2 kS 3 ⎛ 1 ⎞
Ein ( r ) = sˆ Eout ( r ) = ⎜ ⎟ sˆ ( sˆ = rˆ )
3ε o 3ε o ⎝ s ⎠

Make a plot of E ( r ) vs. radial distance s:

E (r )

Emax ( s = S )
kS 2
=
3ε o
Varies as s2 Varies as ~1/s

Radial
Distance
s
0 s=S

8 ©Professor Steven Errede, Department of Physics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Illinois

2005 - 2008. All rights reserved.
 UIUC Physics 435 EM Fields & Sources I Fall Semester, 2007 Lecture Notes 2 Prof. Steven Errede

APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS’ LAW - very explicit / detailed derivation –

Griffiths Example 2.4: An infinite plane carries uniform charge σ (coulombs / meter2).
Find the electric field a distance z = zo above (or below) the plane.

Use Gaussian Pillbox

centered on ∞ -plane:
ẑ “Square”
Gaussian
Pillbox

h
Ο ŷ
l

x̂

Edge-on Perspective: ẑ

z = +h/2
x̂ (out of page)
h ŷ
z = −h/2
l
y = −l/2 y = +l/2

Again, from the symmetry associated with ∞ -plane,

E ( r ) = E ( r ) zˆ = E ( z ) zˆ (above plane), = − E ( z ) zˆ (below plane)

The Gaussian Pillbox has 6 sides – and thus has six outward unit normal vectors: :
nˆ5 , + zˆ
A2 (back) nˆ2 , − xˆ
A5 (top)

nˆ4 , − yˆ nˆ3 , + yˆ

A4 (RH side) A3 (LH side)

A1 (front) nˆ1 , + xˆ nˆ6 , − zˆ A6 (bottom)

©Professor Steven Errede, Department of Physics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Illinois 9

2005 - 2008. All rights reserved.
 UIUC Physics 435 EM Fields & Sources I Fall Semester, 2007 Lecture Notes 2 Prof. Steven Errede

Then:

∫ E ( r )idA = ∫ E ( r )idA + ∫ E ( r )idA + ∫ E ( r )idA

S A1 1 A2 2 A3 3

+ ∫ E ( r )idA + ∫ E ( r )idA + ∫ E ( r )idA

4 5 6
A4 A5 A6

dA1 = + dydz xˆ dA2 = dydz ( − xˆ ) = −dydz xˆ

dA3 = + dxdz yˆ dA4 = dxdz ( − yˆ ) = −dxdz yˆ
dA5 = + dxdy zˆ dA6 = dxdy ( − zˆ ) = − dxdy zˆ

for z > 0: E ( r ) = + E ( z ) zˆ Again, by symmetry (of plane)

for z < 0: E ( r ) = E ( z )( − zˆ ) = − E ( z ) zˆ n.b. E(z) = constant (at least for
fixed z).

z>0
Now because E ( r ) = ± E ( z ) zˆ for respectively, we must break up integrals over z into
z<0
z =+ h / 2 z =0 z =+ h / 2
two separate regions: ∫ z =− h / 2
dz = ∫
z =− h / 2
dz + ∫
z =0
dz

Then:
y =+ l / 2 z =+ h / 2 y =+ l / 2 z =+ h / 2
∫ E ( r )idA = ∫
S y =− l / 2 ∫
z =− h / 2
E ( r )i( dydz xˆ ) + ∫
y =− l / 2 ∫ z =− h / 2
E ( r )i( −dydz xˆ )
x =+ l / 2 z =+ h / 2 x =+ l / 2 z =+ h / 2
+∫ ∫ E ( r )i( dxdz yˆ ) + ∫ ∫ E ( r )i( −dxdz yˆ )
x =− l / 2 z =− h / 2 x =− l / 2 z =− h / 2
x =+ l / 2 y =+ l / 2 x =+ l / 2 y =+ l / 2
+∫ ∫ E ( r )i( dxdy zˆ ) + ∫ ∫ E ( r )i( −dxdy zˆ )
x =− l / 2 y =− l / 2 x =− l / 2 y =− l / 2

( ) ( )
⎡ z =0 − E ( z ) zˆ i xˆ dydz + z =+ h / 2 + E ( z ) zˆ i xˆ dydz ⎤ ← side A1 (front)
y =+ l / 2
∫ E ( r ) • dA = ∫
S y =− l / 2 ⎣⎢ ∫z =− h / 2 ∫z =0 ⎥⎦
⎡
( ) ( )
+ E ( z ) zˆ i− xˆ dydz ⎤ ← side A2 (back)
y =+ l / 2 z =0 z =+ h / 2
+∫ − E ( z ) zˆ i− xˆ dydz + ∫
y =− l / 2 ⎢⎣ ∫z =− h / 2 z =0 ⎥⎦

( ) ( )
⎡ z =0 − E ( z ) zˆ i yˆ dxdz + z =+ h / 2 + E ( z ) zˆ i yˆ dxdz ⎤ ← side A3 (RHS)
x =+ l / 2
+∫
x =− l / 2 ⎣⎢ ∫z =− h / 2 ∫z =0 ⎦⎥
⎡ z =0
( − E ( z ) zˆi− yˆ ) dxdz + ∫ ( + E ( z ) zˆi− yˆ ) dxdz ⎤⎥⎦ ← side A
x =+ l / 2 z =+ h / 2
+∫
⎢⎣ ∫z =− h / 2 4 (LHS)
x =− l / 2 z =0

( − E ( z ) zˆi− zˆ ) dxdy + ∫ ( E ( z ) zˆi zˆ ) dxdy

x =+ l / 2 y =+ l / 2 x =+ l / 2 y =+ l / 2
+∫ ∫ ∫
x =− l / 2 y =− l / 2 x =− l / 2 y =− l / 2

side A6 (bottom) side A5 (top)

Now: ( zˆi xˆ ) = 0 ( zˆi yˆ ) = 0 ( xˆ i zˆ ) = 0 ( yˆ i zˆ ) = 0 etc.

And: ( xˆ i xˆ ) = 1 ( yˆ i yˆ ) = 1 ( zˆi zˆ ) = 1

10 ©Professor Steven Errede, Department of Physics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Illinois

2005 - 2008. All rights reserved.
 UIUC Physics 435 EM Fields & Sources I Fall Semester, 2007 Lecture Notes 2 Prof. Steven Errede

∴ Because xˆ ⊥ yˆ ⊥ zˆ , no contributions to ∫ S
E idA (here) from 4 sides of Gaussian Pillbox
(i.e. A1, A2, A3 and A4)

⇒ Only remaining / non-zero contributions are from bottom and top surfaces of Gaussian Pillbox
because nˆ5 = − zˆ and nˆ6 = + zˆ which are (or anti-parallel) to E ( z ) zˆ

Thus, we only have (here):

( − E ( z ) zˆi( − zˆ ) ) dxdy
x =+ l / 2 y =+ l / 2
∫ E ( r )idA = ∫ ∫ ← side A6 (bottom)
S x =− l / 2 y =− l / 2

( + E ( z ) zˆi zˆ ) dxdy
x =+ l / 2 y =+ l / 2
+∫ ∫ ← side A5 (top)
x =− l / 2 y =− l / 2

These integrals are not over z, and E(z) = constant for z = fixed = zo
∴ can pull E(z) outside integral, zˆ i zˆ = 1 − zˆ i zˆ = −1 etc.

x =+ l / 2 y =+ l / 2
∴ ∫ E ( r )idA = + E ( z ) ∫
S x =− l / 2 ∫ y =− l / 2
dxdy ← side A6 (bottom)
x =+ l / 2 y =+ l / 2
+E ( z) ∫ ∫ dxdy ← side A5 (top)
x =− l / 2 y =− l / 2

= E ( z ) l 2 + E ( z ) l 2 = 2E ( z ) l 2

But: l 2 = l × l ≡ Α = surface area of top and bottom surfaces of Gaussian Pillbox

Q
Now: ∫ E ( r )idA = encl What is Qencl (by Gaussian Pillbox)?
S εo
⎛ Coulombs ⎞
Qencl = σ ⎜ ⎟ × Α ( meters ) = σ l ( Coulombs )
2 2
2
⎝ meter ⎠
⎛1⎞ σ
E ( z) = ⎜ ⎟σ =
Q
∴ ∫ E ( r )idA = encl ⇒ 2 E ( z ) l 2 = σ l 2 ε o or: ε
S εo ⎝ 2 ⎠ o 2ε o

Vectorially: E ( z ) = ⎛⎜ σ ⎞
⎟
⎝ 2ε o ⎠
{ + zˆ, for z > 0
− zˆ, for z < 0 } NOTE: E ( z ) = constant!!

No z – dependence for charged ∞ plane!

©Professor Steven Errede, Department of Physics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Illinois 11

2005 - 2008. All rights reserved.
 UIUC Physics 435 EM Fields & Sources I Fall Semester, 2007 Lecture Notes 2 Prof. Steven Errede

E ( r ) from ∞ - plane (slight return):

Note that in the initial process of setting up the Gaussian Pillbox, if we’d shrunk the height h of the
Pillbox to be infinitesimally small, i.e. h → δh and then took the limit δh→0, the contributions to
∫ E ( r )idA from (infinitesimally small) sides of (A1, A2, A3 and A4) Gaussian Pillbox would
S

( )
(formally) have vanished (i.e. = 0) independently of whether integrand E ( r )idA vanished on these
sides (or not). Only top and bottom surfaces contribute to ∫ E ( r )idA then (here).
S

So using this “trick” of the shrinking Pillbox at a surface / boundary very often can be useful, to
simplify doing the problem.

This explicitly shows that (sometimes) there is more than one way to correctly do / solve a problem
– equivalent methods may exist.

→ It is very important, conceptually-speaking to have a (very) clear / good understanding of how to

do these Gauss’ Law-type problems the “long’ way and the “short” way!

12 ©Professor Steven Errede, Department of Physics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Illinois

2005 - 2008. All rights reserved.
 UIUC Physics 435 EM Fields & Sources I Fall Semester, 2007 Lecture Notes 2 Prof. Steven Errede

The Curl of E ( r ) : (∇ × E ( r ))
1 ⎛q⎞
First, study / consider simplest possible situation: point charge at origin: E ( r ) = ⎜ ⎟ rˆ
4πε o ⎝ r 2 ⎠
(note: r ≡ r − r ′ = r here because r ′ = 0 - charge q located at origin!!!)
Thus (here), E ( r ) is radial (i.e. in r̂ − direction) due to spherical symmetry of problem (rotational
invariance), thus static E -field has no rotation/swirl/whirl ⇒ no curl! (Read Griffith’s Ch. 1 on curl)
⇒ ∇ × E ( r ) = 0 (must = 0)

Let’s calculate:

∫ E ( r )i d
b
Line integral as shown in figure below:
a

ẑ r̂
ẑ
ϕ̂
b
rb θ θ ŷ
q ŷ Ο
ra d ϕ ϕ̂
a d
x̂ x̂

In spherical coordinates: d = drrˆ + rdθθ + r sin θ dϕϕˆ

E ( r )i d =
1 ⎛q⎞
{
⎜ ⎟ rˆi drrˆ + rdθθ + r sin θϕϕˆ
4πε o ⎝ r 2 ⎠
}
Again: rˆirˆ = 1 rˆiθ = 0 rˆiϕˆ = 0 r̂ , θ , and ϕ̂ are mutually
θ iθ = 1 θ irˆ = 0 θ iϕˆ = 0 orthogonal basis vectors
ϕˆ iϕˆ = 1 ϕˆ irˆ = 0 ϕˆ iθ = 0 (form ortho-normal basis)

1 ⎛q⎞
∴ E ( r )i d = ⎜ ⎟ dr
4πε o ⎝ r 2 ⎠

rb
1 q −1 ⎛ q ⎞ 1 ⎛q q⎞ q ⎛1 1⎞
∫ E ( r )i d
b b
Thus:
a
=
4πε o ∫
a r 2
dr = ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ − ⎟= ⎜ − ⎟
4πε o ⎝ r ⎠ r 4πε o ⎝ ra rb ⎠ 4πε o ⎝ ra rb ⎠
a

ra = distance from origin Ο to point a. rb = distance from origin Ο to point b.

The line integral ∫ E ( r )i d around a closed contour C is zero!

©Professor Steven Errede, Department of Physics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Illinois 13

2005 - 2008. All rights reserved.
 UIUC Physics 435 EM Fields & Sources I Fall Semester, 2007 Lecture Notes 2 Prof. Steven Errede

i.e. ∫ E ( r )i d
C
= 0 This is not a trivial result! (Not true ∀ vectors!!)
(But is true for static E -fields)

Use Stokes’ Theorem (See Griffiths, Ch. 1.3.5, p. 34 and Appendix A-5)

∫ ( ∇ × E ( r ) )idA = ∫ E ( r )id
S C
=0

arbitrary closed arbitrary closed

surface S contour C (on S)

Since ∫ ( ∇ × E ( r ) )idA = 0
S
must be / is true for arbitrary closed surface S,
this can only be true for all ∀ closed surfaces S IFF (if and only if): ∇ × E ( r ) = 0

Can use the Principle of Superposition to show that:

N
1 N
qi
ETOT ( r ) = ∑ Ei ( r ) = ∑r rˆi ← i = 1,2,3. . . N discrete charges, and ri = ( r − ri )
i =1 4πε o i =1 i
2

= E1 ( r ) + E2 ( r ) + E3 ( r ) + ... + EN ( r )
E ( r ) @ field point P
ẑ
r2 r3
source points q2 q3 P
@ r1 , r2 … rN r1
q1 r2 r3 r
r1
Ο ŷ

x̂ ri = ri = r − ri

( )
N N
Then: ∇ × ETOT ( r ) = ∇ × ∑ Ei ( r ) = ∑ ∇ × Ei ( r )
i =1 i =1
N ⎛ 1 ⎛ qi ⎞ ⎞
= ∑ ∇ × ⎜⎜ ⎜ 2 ⎟ rˆi ⎟⎟ = 0 ⇐ n.b. all individual terms = 0 !!!
i =1 ⎝ 4πε o ⎝ ri ⎠ ⎠
1 N
⎛ 1 ⎞
or: ∇ × ETOT ( r ) = ∑
4πε o i =1
qi ∇ × ⎜ 2 ⎟ rˆi = 0
⎝ ri ⎠

It can be shown that ∇ × E ( r ) = 0 FOR ANY STATIC CHARGE DISTRIBUTION

STATIC = NO TIME DEPENDENCE / VARIATION

14 ©Professor Steven Errede, Department of Physics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Illinois

2005 - 2008. All rights reserved.
 UIUC Physics 435 EM Fields & Sources I Fall Semester, 2007 Lecture Notes 2 Prof. Steven Errede

∇ × E ( r ) = 0 HOLDS FOR:
• Static Discrete/Point Charges q (r )
• Static Line Charges λ (r ) All Static Charge Distributions
• Static Surface Charges σ (r )
• Static Volume Charges ρ (r )

Again, this not trivial (we’ll see why, soon. . . )

One other (very important) point about the mathematical & geometrical nature of vector fields:

The nature of a (physically-realizable) vector field A ( r ) is fully specified if both its divergence
∇i A ( r ) and its curl ∇ × A ( r ) are known.

This is a consequence of the so-called Helmholtz theorem – see/read Appendix B of Griffiths book.

The Helmholtz theorem also has an important corollary:

Any differentiable vector function A ( r ) that goes to zero faster than 1 r as r → ∞ can be expressed
as the gradient of a scalar plus the curl of a vector:

⎛ 1 ∇′i A ( r ′ ) ⎞ ⎛ 1 ∇′ × A ( r ′ ) ⎞
A(r ) = ∇ ⎜ − ∫ dτ ′ ⎟ + ∇ × ⎜ ∫ dτ ′ ⎟
⎜ 4π v′ r ⎟ ⎜ 4π v′ r ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

For the case of electrostatics: ∇i E ( r ) = ρ ( r ) ε o and ∇ × E ( r ) = 0

⎛ 1 ∇′i E ( r ′ ) ⎞ ⎛ ∇′ × E ( r ′ ) ⎞
1
E (r ) = ∇ ⎜ − ∫ dτ ′ ⎟ + ∇ × ⎜ ∫ dτ ′ ⎟
⎜ 4π v′ r ⎟ ⎜ 4π v′ r ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Thus:
1 ⎛ ρ ( r ′) ⎞
=− ∇⎜∫ dτ ′ ⎟ = −∇V ( r )
4πε o ⎝ v′ r ⎠

1 ρ ( r′)
i.e. E ( r ) = −∇V ( r ) with V ( r ) ≡ ∫ dτ ′ = Electrostatic Potential SI Units:
4πε o v′ r Volts

This result is valid e.g. in electrostatics for localized (i.e. finite spatial extent) charge distributions.
For infinite-expanse charge distributions (n.b. these are unphysical/artificial!), we must appeal to
(more sophisticated) mathematical formalisms than the Helmholtz theorem…

©Professor Steven Errede, Department of Physics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Illinois 15

2005 - 2008. All rights reserved.