Mentorship

Program for IAS

Polity Lecture 1
Historical underpinnings
 The process of centralisation in British
India witnessed its high point from the
Acts of 1773 to 1833. Discuss.
• The major concern of East India Company was with
earning revenue and having a monopolistic control
over trade rather than any aspirations of direct rule
over India.
• The declining power of the Mughals in 18th century and
its tussle with the French counterpart in Carnatic led to
greater ambitions of the EIC.
• The first major military foray of the Company into the
territorial skirmishes of India came in 1757 in the battle
of Plassey followed by the crucial battle of Buxar in
1764.
• Battle of Buxar resulted in defeat of the Emperor of
India and the EIC shedding its inhibitions for territorial
control, indirectly taking over the reigns of the country
for the first time.
• The Regulating Act of 1773 was the first step taken by
the British Government to control and regulate the
affairs of the East India Company in India, wherein it
recognised the political and administrative functions of
EIC.
• The first attempt at creating a centralised
administration came in the form of Governor of Bengal
being made the Governor-General of Bengal with an
Executive Council with the Presidencies of Madras and
Bombay being made subordinate to Bengal.
• Furthermore, it prohibited private trade by the EIC
servants and mandated the Court of Directors to report
to the British government regarding revenue, civil and
military affairs in India.
• The Declaratory Act of 1781 while making an attempt
to separate the executive and judiciary, curtailed
powers of the Supreme Court in favour of the
Governor-General in Council, adding to the centralising
tendencies.
• The Pitts India Act of 1784 further added to the same
by terming Company’s territories in India as the ‘British
possessions in India’; and second, the British
Government was given the supreme control over
Company’s affairs and its administration in India
through the establishment of Board of Control.
• The Charter Act of 1833 is regarded as the final step
towards centralisation in British India with the G-G
Bengal being designated as the G-G of India having
authority over the entire territorial area possessed by
the British in India as well as exclusive legislative
powers, curtailing those of Madras and Bombay.
• The Charter Act of 1853, marked withering of this
process. It established the G-G Legislative Council with
limited local representation which functioned as
functioned as a mini-Parliament.
• The EIC and territories held by it were left at the whim
of the British Parliament. The Act of 1858 post the
Indian mutiny established British Crown as the
sovereign which became the moment of absolute
control. Further, The provincial governments became
totally subsidiary to the Council. The evolution of civil
services in India since 1765 also aided in this
centralisation.
• The impetus for decentralisation came through the
initiatives of Lord Canning which bore fruit in the 1861
Indian Councils Act. Despite the changes brought
through the various Acts following 1861, the
decentralisation was a relative one with the British
government maintaining a firm grip through the offices
of G-G and Secretary of State.
 The Act of 1858 culminated in the
grounding of colonialism in India from
Imperialism. Comment.
• Though both imperialism and colonialism are
synonymous with suppression, Colonialism is where
one nation assumes control over the other and
Imperialism refers to political or economic control,
either formally or informally.
• Prior to the Act of 1858 termed as the Act of Good
Government of India, the EIC was in control of
territories in India. The Government of India 1858 Act
abolished the East India Company, and transferred the
powers of government, territories and revenues to the
British Crown, thereby bringing in colonialism.
• The British Crown gained sovereignty over
India. D.D. Basu correctly remarks that the act
formalised absolute imperial control and
“subsequent history upto the making of Indian
Constitution is one of gradual relaxation of
imperial control and evolution of a
responsible government.”
• It ended the system of double government by
abolishing the Board of Control and Court of
Directors. It created a new office, Secretary of
State for India with a 15-member Council of
India (advisory body), vested with complete
authority and control over Indian
administration.
• The essential features of the Act included:
1. The administration of the country was not just unitary
but rigidly centralised. The provincial governments
had to function under the strict superintendence,
direction and control of the G-G.
2. All authority- civil, military, legislative and executive
were vested in the G-G in Council who was
responsible to the Secretary of State for India.
3. The control of SS over Indian administration was
absolute with regard to anything related to the
government or revenue of India, accountable only to
the British government.
4. The entire machinery was bureaucratic, totally
unconcerned by the public opinion in India.
 The Act of 1861 marked the advent of
decentralisation reaching finality in GOI
Act 1935. Discuss.
• The Indian Councils Act was regarded as a
remarkable piece of legislation for two important
reasons: first, it was certainly an important step
towards decentralization of power.
• Secondly, it also introduced Indians in the
administration by recommending the inclusion of
non-official members as a further step to assuage
Indians after the 1857 revolt. This introduced a
popular element in the legislative business of the
Council.
• The Act provided that the viceroy should nominate
some Indians as non-official members of his expanded
council. In 1862, Lord Canning, the then viceroy,
nominated three Indians to his legislative council—the
Raja of Benaras, the Maharaja of Patiala and Sir Dinkar
Rao.
• It initiated the process of decentralisation by restoring
the legislative powers to the Bombay and Madras
Presidencies. It also provided for the establishment of
new legislative councils for Bengal, North-Western
Frontier Province (NWFP) and Punjab.
• Lord Canning’s Portfolio system started in 1859 for
reasonable division of functions amongst the various
functionaries of the government found recognition in
the 1861 Act. However, there was also the introduction
of the Ordinance making power granted to the Viceroy.
• These attempts at decentralisation were furthered by
the 1870 Mayo Resolution on financial decentralisation
• and 1882 Ripon Resolution that provided both
revenue and administrative decentralisation.
Ripon divided the sources of revenue into three
categories, Viz. Imperial, Provincial and Divided.
• Further, rural areas District Boards and Local
Boards known as “tahsil or “taluk boards were
established. The members were to be elected by
rent-payers. The nominated members should not
be more than one third of the total strength. The
management of health, education, roads and
communications were to remain under the
control of the local boards.
• The 1892 Councils Act further increased the
number of additional (non-official) members in
the Central and provincial legislative councils and
their power including discussion of the budget.
• The 1892 Act provided for the nomination of some
non-official members of the (a) Central Legislative
Council by the viceroy on the recommendation of
the provincial legislative councils and the Bengal
Chamber of Commerce, and (b) that of the
Provincial legislative councils by the Governors on
the recommendation of the district boards,
municipalities, universities, trade associations,
zamindars and chambers.
• The Royal Commission on Decentralisation (1907)
led to the enactment of the 1909 Morley-Minto
reforms. It was the first attempt at introducing a
popular element by increasing the size of the
legislative councils, both Central and provincial and
providing elected non-official majority in provinces.
However, it also led to the vice of communal
electorate for Muslims, legalising communalism.
• The GOI Act 1919 further relaxed central control by demarcating
and separating the central and provincial subjects and introducing
dyarchy at provincial level. The provincial budgets from the
Central budget and authorised the provincial legislatures to enact
their budgets. The introduction of bicameralism and direct
elections was a further improvement.
• However, centralised control remained intact as pointed out by
the Muddieman Committee. The 1935 GOI Act aimed to establish
a federal form of government in which the constituent provinces
had autonomous legislative and executive powers, the Act paved
the way for a parliamentary form of government in which the
executive was made accountable within certain bounds to the
legislature.
• The Act divided the powers between the Centre and units in
terms of three lists—Federal List, Provincial List and the
Concurrent List. Residuary powers were given to the Viceroy. It
provided for provincial autonomy and dyarchy at Central level.
Furthermore, it provided for the establishment of not only a
Federal Public Service Commission but also a Provincial Public
Service Commission and Joint Public Service Commission for two
or more provinces.
• While the All India Federation never came into
being, provincial autonomy saw shape in the
1937 elections. Despite this autonomy, the
central control was maintained by allowing the
Governor to act in his discretion on certain
matters. Further, the old executive council
provided under the 1919 Act continued to advice
the G-G until the India Independence Act, 1947.
• Thus, while responsible government and
attempts at decentralisation were made, these
were purely in pursuit of the gains of colonialism
and to prolong its existence in India.