CHANDRA SEKHAR ACADEMY

PURI-KONARK MARINE DRIVE ROAD,

BALIGHAI, PURI, ODISHA

2018 – 2019

AN INVESTIGATORY PROJECT ON
DESIGN OF AN APPROPRIATE LOGIC GATE FOR A
GIVEN TRUTH TABLE

SUBMITTED BY
ASWESHA SARANGI
CLASS – XII
SUBJECT – PHYSICS

SUBMITTED TO
CHITTARANJAN NAYAK
 Contents
1. CERTIFICATE

2. DECLARATION

3. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

4. OBJECTIVE OF PROJECT

5. APPARATUS REUIRED

6. THEORY

i) INTRODUCTION

ii) TYPES OF LOGIC GATES

iii) INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

iv) MERITS AND DEMERITS

v) APPLICATION OF ICs

7. PROCEDURE

8. OBSERVATION

9. CONCLUSION

10.BIBLIOGRAPHY
 AKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am overwhelmed in all humbleness and gratefulness to acknowledge my depth to all
those who have helped me to put these ideas, well above the level of simplicity and into
something concrete.

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my PHYSICS teacher,

CHITTARANJAN NAYAK as well as our Principal Miss. Amita Pattnaik who gave
me the golden opportunity to do this wonderful project on the topic “DESIGN OF AN
APPROPRIATE LOGIC GATE FOR A GIVEN TRUTH TABLE”, which also helped me
in doing a lot of research and I came to know about so many new things. I am really
thankful to them.

Any attempt at any level can’t be satisfactorily completed without the support and
guidance of my Parents and Friends who helped me a lot in gathering different
information, collecting data and guiding me from time to time in making this project,
despite of their busy schedules, they gave me different ideas in making this project
unique. I am thankful to them too.

I am making this project not only for marks but to also increase my knowledge...
Thanking you

ASWESHA SARANGI
CLASS - XII
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that ASWESHA SARANGI of class XII
of CHANDRA SEKHAR ACADEMY has successfully
completed the investigatory project on the topic “DESIGN
OF AN APPROPRIATE LOGIC GATE FOR A GIVEN
TRUTH TABLE” under the guidance of
CHITTARANJAN NAYAK during the session 2018-19 in
the partial fulfilment of Physics Practical Examination
conducted by CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY
EDUCATION (AISSCE).

Teacher’s Sign Student’s Sign

Principal’s Sign External’s Sign

Objective
To design an appropriate logic gate for a given truth table.

Apparatus Required
 2 Diodes – 4007
 1 Resistance – 1 KOhm
 1 LED
 1 Battery – 9V
 2 Switch
 Wires
Theory
Logic Gates
INTRODUCTION

A logic gate is an elementary building block of a digital circuit. It makes “logical

decisions” based on the different combinations of digital signals present on its inputs.
Digital logic gates may have more than one input but generally only have one digital
output. Most logic gates have two inputs and one output.

Knowledge Cloud

A gate is a digital circuit that is designed for performance a particular logical operation.
As it works according to some logical relationship between input and output voltages, so
it is generally known as “LOGIC GATES”

At any given moment, every terminal is in one of the two binary conditions low (0) or
high (1), represented by different voltage levels. The logic state of a terminal can, and
generally does, change often, as the circuit processes data. In most logic gates, the low
state is approximately zero volts (0 V), while the high state is approximately five volts
positive (+5 V).

Individual logic gates can be connected together to form combinational or sequential

circuits or larger logic gate functions. Different types of logic gate implements different
Boolean function, that is, it performs a logical operation on one or more logic inputs and
produces a single logic output. Depending on the context, the term may refer to an ideal
logic gate, one that has for instance zero rise time and unlimited fan-out, or it may refer to
a non-ideal physical device.

Logic gates are primarily implemented electronically using diodes or transistors, but can
also be constructed using electromagnetic relays (relay logic), fluidic logic, pneumatic
logic, optics, molecules, or even mechanical elements. With amplification, logic gates can
be cascaded in the same way that Boolean functions can be composed, allowing the
construction of a physical model of all of Boolean logic, and therefore, all of the
algorithms and mathematics that can be described with Boolean logic.
A large number of electronic circuits (in computers, control units, and so on) are made up
of logic gates. These process signals represent either true or false. The most common
symbols used to represent logic gates are shown below.
Types of logic gates
AND gate:

The AND gate is a basic digital logic gate that implements logical conjunction - it
behaves according to the truth table. A HIGH output (1) results only if both the inputs to
the AND gate are HIGH (1). If neither or only one input to the AND gate is HIGH, a
LOW output results. In another sense, the function of AND effectively finds the
minimum between two binary digits, just as the OR function finds the maximum.
Therefore, the output is always 0 except when all the inputs are 1.

We will start with a 2 input AND gate. The symbol for a 2 input AND gate is as
follows.

A
Q
B

The truth table for the 2 input AND gate is shown below.

Inputs Output
B A Q
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

The Boolean expression for a 2 input AND gate is

Q  A.B
OR gate:

The OR gate is a digital logic gate that implements logical disjunction - it behaves
according to the truth table. A HIGH output (1) results if one or both the inputs to the gate
are HIGH (1). If neither input is high, a LOW output (0) results. In another sense, the
function of OR effectively finds the maximum between two binary digits, just as the
complementary AND function finds the minimum. We will start with a 2 input OR gate.
The symbol for a 2 input OR gate is as follows.

A
Q
B

The truth table for the 2 input OR gate is shown below.

Inputs Output
B A Q
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

The Boolean expression for a 2 input OR gate is

Q = A+B
NOT gate (or inverter):

This is the simplest form of logic gate and has only 1 input and 1 output. Simply the
purpose of this gate is to invert the input signal so if a Logic 0 is at the input, the output
will be at Logic 1 and vice versa. The symbol for a NOT gate is as follows.

A Q

The truth table for a NOT gate is the simplest of all Truth Tables and is shown below.

Input Output
A Q
0 1
1 0
The Boolean expression for a NOT gate is

QA
NAND gate:

In digital electronics, a NAND gate (negative-AND) is a logic gate which produces an

output that is false only if all its inputs are true; thus its output is complement to that of
the AND gate. A LOW (0) output results only if both the inputs to the gate are HIGH (1);
if one or both inputs are LOW (0), a HIGH (1) output results. It is made using transistors.
By De Morgan's theorem, AB=A+B, a NAND gate is equivalent to inverters followed by
an OR gate. The NAND gate is significant because any Boolean function can be
implemented by using a combination of NAND gates. This property is called functional
completeness.

We will start with a 2 input NAND gate. The symbol for a 2 input NAND gate is as
follows. (Next page)

A
Q
B

The truth table for the 2 input NAND gate is shown below.

Inputs Output
B A Q
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

The Boolean expression for a 2 input NAND gate is

Q  A.B
NOR gate:

The NOR gate is a digital logic gate which behaves according to the truth table. A HIGH
output (1) results if both the inputs to the gate are LOW (0); if one or both input is HIGH
(1), a LOW output (0) results. NOR is the result of the negation of the OR operator. It can
also be seen as an AND gate with all the inputs inverted. NOR is a functionally complete
operation—NOR gates can be combined to generate any other logical function. By
contrast, the OR operator is monotonic as it can only change LOW to HIGH but not vice
versa.

We will start with a 2 input NOR gate. The symbol for a 2 input NOR gate is as
follows.

A
Q
B

The truth table for the 2 input NOR gate is shown below.

Inputs Output
B A Q
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

The Boolean expression for a 2 input NOR gate is

Q = A+B
XNOR gate:

The XNOR gate has 2 inputs and is the inverted form of the EXOR gate. The
XNOR gate (sometimes spelled "exnor" or "enor" and rarely written NXOR) is a digital
logic gate whose function is the logical complement of the exclusive OR (XOR) gate. A
HIGH output (1) results if both of the inputs to the gate are the same. If one but not both
inputs are HIGH (1), a LOW output (0) results. The symbol for a 2 input XNOR gate is as
follows.

A
Q
B

The truth table for the 2 input XNOR gate is shown below.

Inputs Output
B A Q
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

The Boolean expression for a 2 input XNOR gate is

Q  A B

alternativ ely Q  A.B  A.B

EXOR gate.

The EXOR gate has 2 inputs and is a specialised version of the OR gate. The XOR gate
(sometimes EOR gate, or EXOR gate and pronounced as Exclusive OR gate) is a digital
logic gate that implements an exclusive or; that is, a true output (1/HIGH) results if one,
and only one, of the inputs to the gate is true. If both inputs are false (0/LOW) or both are
true, a false output results. XOR represents the inequality function, i.e., the output is true
if the inputs are not alike otherwise the output is false. A way to remember XOR is "one
or the other but not both". The symbol for a 2 input EXOR gate is as follows.
A
Q
B

The truth table for the 2 input EXOR gate is shown below.

Inputs Output
B A Q
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

The Boolean expression for a 2 input EXOR gate is

Q  A B

alternativ ely Q  A.B  A.B

Using combinations of logic gates, complex operations can be performed. In theory, there
is no limit to the number of gates that can be arrayed together in a single device. But in
practice, there is a limit to the number of gates that can be packed into a given physical
space. Arrays of logic gates are found in digital integrated circuits (ICs).

As IC technology advances, the required physical volume for each individual logic gate
decreases and digital devices of the same or smaller size become capable of performing
ever-more-complicated operations at ever-increasing speeds.
Summary of 2-input Logic Gates

The following Truth Table compares the logical functions of the 2-input logic gates
above.

Inputs Truth Table Outputs For Each Gate

A B AND NAND OR NOR EX-OR EX-NOR

0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1

0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0

1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0

1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1

Universal logic gates

NAND and NOR gates as digital building blocks.

The repeated use of the OR, the AND or the NOT gates alone cannot give a different
gate. But the repeated use of the NAND or the NOR gates alone can give all basic gates
like OR, AND and NOT gate. Hence the NAND and the NOR gates are also called
Universal Logic Gates. In digital circuits, these gates serve as digital building blocks.

Knowledge Cloud

Charles Sanders Peirce (winter of 1880–81) showed that NOR gates alone (or
alternatively NAND gates alone) can be used to reproduce the functions of all the other
logic gates, but his work on it was unpublished until 1933.The first published proof was
by Henry M.Sheffer in 1913, so the NAND logical operation is sometimes called Sheffer
stroke; the logical NOR is sometimes called Peirce's arrow.
Integrated Circuits
INTRODUCTION

An integrated circuit (IC), sometimes called a chip or microchip, is a semiconductor

wafer on which thousands or millions of tiny resistors, capacitors, and transistors are
fabricated. An IC can function as an amplifier, oscillator, timer, counter, computer
memory, or microprocessor.

Integrated Circuits or IC’s as they are more commonly called, can be grouped together
into families according to the number of transistors or “gates” that they contain. For
example, a simple AND gate my contain only a few individual transistors, were as a more
complex microprocessor may contain many thousands of individual transistor gates. A
particular IC is categorized as either linear (analog) or digital, depending on its intended
application.

Classification of Integrated Circuits

Small Scale Integration or (SSI) – Contain up to 10 transistors or a few gates within a

single package such as AND, OR, NOT gates.

Medium Scale Integration or (MSI) – between 10 and 100 transistors or tens of gates
within a single package and perform digital operations such as adders, decoders, counters,
flip-flops and multiplexers.

Large Scale Integration or (LSI) – between 100 and 1,000 transistors or hundreds of gates
and perform specific digital operations such as I/O chips, memory, arithmetic and logic
units.

Very-Large Scale Integration or (VLSI) – between 1,000 and 10,000 transistors or

thousands of gates and perform computational operations such as processors, large
memory arrays and programmable logic devices.

Super-Large Scale Integration or (SLSI) – between 10,000 and 100,000 transistors within
a single package and perform computational operations such as microprocessor chips,
micro-controllers, basic PICs and calculators.
Ultra-Large Scale Integration or (ULSI) – more than 1 million transistors –used in
computers CPUs, GPUs, video processors, micro-controllers, FPGAs and complex PICs.

While the “ultra large scale” ULSI classification is less well used, another level of
integration which represents the complexity of the Integrated Circuit is known as the
System-on-Chip or (SOC) for short. Here the individual components such as the
microprocessor, memory, peripherals, I/O logic etc., are all produced on a single piece of
silicon and which represents a whole electronic system within one single chip, literally
putting the word “integrated” into integrated circuit.

These complete integrated chips which can contain up to 100 million individual silicon-
CMOS transistor gates within one single package are generally used in mobile phones,
digital cameras, micro-controllers, PIC’s and robotic type applications.

Merits and Demerits

Merits of Integrated Circuits

Miniature in size. As fabrication process is used for the integration of active and passive
components on to a silicon chip, the IC becomes a lot smaller. When compared to a
discrete circuit, it may be at least a thousand times smaller.

Due to small size, the weight of the IC also reduces, when compared to the discrete
circuit.

To produce hundreds of discrete circuits on a PCB (Printed circuit board) for the same
logic takes more time and increase the cost factor. But for the production of hundreds of
ICs the cost of production will be very low and less time consuming.

The PCB (Printed circuit board) consisting soldered joints will be less reliable. This
problem is omitted in IC’s because of no soldered joints, with fewer interconnections, and
thus highly reliable.

The small size of ICs causes lesser power consumption and lesser power loss.

In a discrete circuitry, if a single transistor becomes faulty, the whole circuit may fail to
work. This transistor has to be desoldered and replaced. It is difficult to find out which
component has failed. This problem can be omitted in an IC by replacing an entire IC as it
is low in cost.
Increased operating speed because of absence of parasitic capacitance (is an unavoidable
and usually unwanted capacitance that exists between the parts of an electronic
component or circuit simply because of their proximity to each other) effect.

As the IC’s are produced in bulk the temperature coefficients and other parameters will be
closely matching.

Improved functional performance as more complex circuits can be fabricated for

achieving better characteristics.

All IC’s are tested for operating ranges in very low and very high temperatures.

As all the components are fabricated very close to each other in an IC, they are highly
suitable for small signal operation, as there won’t be any stray electrical pickup.

As all the components are fabricated inside the chip, there will not be any external
projections.

Demerits of Integrated Circuits

The power rating for most of the IC’s does not exceed more than 10 watts. Thus it is not
possible to manufacture high power IC’s.

Some components like transformers and inductors cannot be integrated into an IC. They
have to be connected externally to the semiconductor pins.

There is a large value of saturation resistance of transistors.

The IC will not work properly if wrongly handled or exposed to excessive heat.

It is difficult to achieve low temperature coefficient and fabricate an IC with low noise.

It is not possible to fabricate capacitors that exceed a value of 30pF. Thus, high value
capacitors are to be connected externally to the IC.

There is a large value of saturation resistance of transistors

Some complex IC’s maybe costly. If such integrated circuits are used roughly and
become faulty, they have to be replaced by a new one. They cannot be repaired as the
individual components inside the IC are too small.
Application of Integrated Circuits

Because of the above mentioned advantages IC's found numerous applications from cars
(automotive controls), televisions, computers, microwaves, portable devices like laptops,
MP3, play stations, cameras, cellular phones to ship equipment’s, aero planes, space
craft’s. These are also used in switching telephone circuits and data processing. They also
found applications in military equipment’s. The most common application of IC is digital
watch which tells hour, second, minute, day and month. Another common but important
application is scientific calculator which can perform basic functions like addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division as well as complex functions like square root,
cube, permutations, combinations , trigonometric functions, etc.

IC's are of Linear, digital and mixed types. Linear IC's also known as analog Integrated
circuits are used in:

 Power amplifiers
 Small-signal amplifiers
 Operational amplifiers
 Microwave amplifiers
 RF and IF amplifiers
 Voltage comparators
 Multipliers
 Radio receivers
 Voltage regulators

Moore’s Law

In 1965, Gordon Moore co-founder of the Intel corporation predicted that “The number of
transistors and resistors on a single chip will double every 18 months” regarding the
development of semiconductor gate technology. This is popularly known as Moore’s law.
When Gordon Moore made his famous comment way back in 1965 there were
approximately only 60 individual transistor gates on a single silicon chip or die.

The world’s first microprocessor in 1971 was the Intel 4004 that had a 4-bit data bus and
contained about 2,300 transistors on a single chip, operating at about 600 kHz. Today, the
Intel Corporation have placed a staggering 1.2 Billion individual transistor gates onto its
new Quad-core i7-2700K Sandy Bridge 64-bit microprocessor chip operating at nearly
4GHz, and the on-chip transistor count is still rising, as newer faster microprocessors and
micro-controllers are developed. The number of transistors per chip has risen
exponentially and each year computers are becoming more powerful, yet cheaper than the
year before.

It is intimated from current trends that the computers available in 2020 will operate at 40
GHz (40,000 MHz) and would be much smaller, more efficient and less expensive than
present day computers.

Knowledge Cloud

The explosive growth in the semiconductor industry and computer technology is best
expressed by a famous quote from Gordon Moore: “If the auto industry advanced as
rapidly as the semiconductor industry, a Rolls Royce would get half a million miles per
gallon, and it would be cheaper to throw it away than to park it”.
Working And Circuit realization
1. When both A and B are earthed (i.e. connected to low input 0), both the diodes do not
conduct and no voltage develops across R. Therefore the voltage at C is zero with respect
to earth. Hence the output Y is 0 (in levels).

2. When A = 0 and B = 1 (i.e., connected to positive terminal), the diode D2 conducts but
D1 does not. Since D2 is ideal, no voltage drop takes place across D2 and a full voltage
drop of 5V takes place across R at C, +9V with respect to earth. Therefore Y is 1 (in
level).

3. When A = 1 and B = 0, D1 conducts but D2 does not. For the same reason as stated
above the output Y is 1 (in level).

4. When A = 1 and B = 1, both diodes conducts since the diodes are ideal and connected
in parallel, the voltage drop across R cannot exceed 9V, with C at +9V with respect to
earth. Hence the output Y will be 1 (in level)

5. Repeat above procedure for all type of logic gate circuits.

Conclusion
We had mainly discussed about the design, property and operation of various logic gates.

Using combinations of logic gates, complex operations can be performed. In theory, there
is no limit to the number of gates that can be arranged together in a single device. But in
practice, there is a limit to the number of gates that can be packed into a given physical
space.

Arrays of logic gates are found in digital integrated circuits (ICs). As IC technology
advances, the required physical volume for each individual logic gate decreases and
digital devices of the same or smaller size become capable of performing ever-more-
complicated operations at ever-increasing speeds.
Bibliography
I would like to declare the array of references hereby and submit that I took help from
following sources

1. Comprehensive Physics Practical

A textbook for Physics practical’s ISBN 978-81-318-0384-4

2. NCERT CBSE Text book for physics

3. Wikipedia.com

The Online Encyclopedia indexing world’s best articles with genuine references

4. TCYonline.com

An online video tutorial and educational Centre

5. Meritnation.com

The leading educational site in India

6. http://projects.icbse.com/forums

Online help for CBSE projects