Name: Waha Agalin General Chemistry 2 Date: 11/19/2018

1) Use the kinetic molecular model to explain properties of liquids and solids Kinetic Molecular
Theory

The Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT) is a model used to explain the behaviour of matter. It is based on
a series of postulates. Some of the postulates of KMT are as follows:

 Matter is made of particles that are constantly in motion. This energy in motion is called kinetic
energy.

 The amount of kinetic energy in a substance is related to its temperature.

 There is space between particles. The amount of space in between particles is related to the
substance's state of matter.

 Phase changes happen when the temperature of the substance changes sufficiently.

 There are attractive forces in between particles called intermolecular forces. The strength of
these forces increase as particles get closer together.

In this lesson, we will focus on how KMT can be used to explain the properties of liquids and solids.

KMT and Properties of Liquid

One of the most notable properties of liquids is that they are fluid and they can flow. Liquids have
definite volume, but not a definite shape. Liquids are said to have low compressibility; in other words, it's
hard to pack liquid particles closer together. Compared to gases, there is relatively little space between
particles. Compared to solids, however, liquids have some space between particles. This, in tandem with
the fact that liquid particles also have relatively more energy than solid particles, is what allows liquids to
flow. On the molecular level, these two factors give liquids the look of being disorganized.

The types of intermolecular forces in a liquid depend on the chemical make up of the liquid itself.
Strength of intermolecular force is related to the type of intermolecular force, but it is also affected by the
amount of kinetic energy in the substance. The more kinetic energy, the weaker the intermolecular
forces. Liquids have more kinetic energy than solids, so the intermolecular forces between liquid
particles tend to be weaker. We will discuss types of intermolecular forces later.

KMT and Solids

Solid substances have definite shapes and volumes. Solid particles do move, but not very far! Solid
particles have relatively little kinetic energy and vibrate in place. Because of this, they can't flow like
liquids. Most solids are arranged in a tightly packed crystalline structure. The crystalline structure is an
orderly, repeating arrangement of particles called a crystal lattice. The shape of the crystal shows the
arrangement of the particles in the solid.

Some solids aren't crystalline-shaped. The ones that aren't are called amorphous solids. Amorphous
solids don't have orderly internal structures. Examples of amorphous solids include rubber, plastic and
glass. Wax is also an amorphous solid. It can be molded into any shape and remolded anytime it is
warmed up a bit.

2) Describe and differentiate the types of intermolecular forces

The London dispersion force is also known as LDF, London forces, dispersion forces, instantaneous
dipole forces, induced dipole forces, or the induced dipole-induced dipole force. The London dispersion
force is the weakest of the intermolecular forces. This is the force between two nonpolar molecules.
The electrons of one molecule are attracted to the nucleus of the other molecule, while repelled by the
other molecule's electrons. A dipole is induced when the electron clouds of the molecules are distorted by
the attractive and repulsive electrostatic forces.

Example: An example of London dispersion force is the interaction between two methyl (-CH3) groups.

Dipole-dipole interaction occurs whenever two polar molecules get near each other. The positively
charged portion of one molecule is attracted to the negatively charged portion of another molecule. Since
many molecules are polar, this is a common intermolecular force.

Example: An example of dipole-dipole interaction is the interaction between two sulfur dioxide (SO2)
molecules, where the sulfur atom of one molecule is attracted to the oxygen atoms of the other molecule.

Ion-Dipole Interaction occurs when an ion encounters a polar molecule. In this case, the charge of the
ion determines which part of the molecule attracts and which repels. A cation or positive ion would be
attracted to the negative part of a molecule and repelled by the positive part. An anion or negative ion
would be attracted to the positive part of a molecule and repelled by the negative part.

Example: An example of the ion-dipole interaction is the interaction between a Na+ion and water (H2O)
where the sodium ion and oxygen atom are attracted to each other, while the sodium and hydrogen are
repelled by each other.

Van der Waals Forces are the interaction between uncharged atoms or molecules. The forces are used
to explain the universal attraction between bodies, the physical adsorption of gases, and the cohesion of
condensed phases. The van der Waals forces include Keesom interaction, the Debye force, and the
London dispersion force. So, van der Waals forces include intermolecular forces and also some
intramolecular forces.

3) How does the intermolecular force possible to one atom. Explain.

Intermolecular forces are forces that act between stable molecules.

You will also remember from the previous chapter, that we can describe molecules as being
either polar or non-polar. A polar molecule is one in which there is a difference in electronegativity
between the atoms in the molecule, such that the shared electron pair spends more time close to the
atom that attracts it more strongly. The result is that one end of the molecule will have a slightly positive
charge (δ+δ+), and the other end will have a slightly negative charge (δ+δ+). The molecule is said to be
a dipole. However, it is important to remember that just because the bonds within a molecule are polar,
the molecule itself may not necessarily be polar. The shape of the molecule may also affect its polarity.
4) Describe the following properties of liquids, and explain the effect of intermolecular forces on
these properties: surface tension, viscocity, vapour pressure, boiling point, and molar hest of
vaporization.

Intermolecular forces and their effect on properties of liquids Intermolecular (or interparticle ) forces are
weak interactions between particles. They decrease as you go from solid to liquid to gas. As the
intermolecular attraction increases, • The vapor pressure ( the pressure of the vapor that is in
equilibrium with its liquid) decreases • The boiling point ( the temperature at which the vapor pressure
becomes equal to the pressure exerted on the surface of the liquid) increases • Surface tension ( the
resistance of a liquid to spread out and increase its surface area) increases • Viscosity ( the resistance of a
liquid to flow) increases. Higher the intermolecular forces between the liquid particles, harder it is for it
to escape into the vapor phase, ie., you need more energy to convert it from liquid to the vapor phase, in
other words, higher its boiling point. If it is harder for a liquid to escape into vapor, because it is held back
into the liquid by the neighboring particles attraction, you have less vapor and hence low vapor pressure.
Three types of intermolecular forces exist between neutral molecules which are known as Van der Waals
forces.

Intermolecular forces in a liquid are strong enough to keep the substance in a definite volume but loose
enough to allow particles to slide past each other and take the shape of its container. They affect the
boiling point and freezing points. The greater the inter-molecular forces the higher the boiling point and
the higher the freezing point. The lower the inter-molecular forces the lower the boiling point and the
lower the freezing point. It also affects the fluidity of the liquid, the greater these forces the slower the
liquid flows.

5) Properties of water with its molecular structure and intermolecular forces

Water seems so ubiquitous, many people are unaware of the unusual and unique properties of water,
including:

Boiling Point and Freezing Point-the boiling point of water is 100°C. So despite its small molecular
weight, water has an incredibly big boiling point. This is because water requires more energy to break its
hydrogen bonds before it can then begin to boil. The same concept is applied to freezing point as well, as
seen in the table below. The boiling and freezing points of water enable the molecules to be very slow to
boil or freeze, this is important to the ecosystems living in water. If water was very easy to freeze or boil,
drastic changes in the environment and so in oceans or lakes would cause all the organisms living in
water to die. This is also why sweat is able to cool our bodies.

Surface Tension, Heat of Vaporization, and Vapor Pressure- besides mercury, water has the
highest surface tension for all liquids. Water's high surface tension is due to the hydrogen bonding in
water molecules. Water also has an exceptionally high heat of vaporization. Water's heat of vaporization
is 41 kJ/mol. Vapour pressure is inversely related to intermolecular forces, so those with stronger
intermolecular forces have a lower vapor pressure. Water has very strong intermolecular forces, hence
the low vapor pressure, but it's even lower compared to larger molecules with low vapour pressures.

Solid State- all substances, including water, become less dense when they are heated and more dense
when they are cooled. So if water is cooled, it becomes more dense and forms ice. Water is one of the few
substances whose solid state can float on its liquid state! Why? Water continues to become more dense
until it reaches 4°C. After it reaches 4°C, it becomes LESS dense. When freezing, molecules within water
begin to move around more slowly, making it easier for them to form hydrogen bonds and eventually
arrange themselves into an open crystalline, hexagonal structure. Because of this open structure as the
water molecules are being held further apart, the volume of water increases about 9%. So molecules are
more tightly packed in water's liquid state than its solid state. This is why a can of soda can explode in the
freezer.

Liquid State- it is very rare to find a compound that lacks carbon to be a liquid at standard temperatures
and pressures. So it is unusual for water to be a liquid at room temperature! Water is liquid at room
temperature so it's able to move around quicker than it is as solid, enabling the molecules to form fewer
hydrogen bonds resulting in the molecules being packed more closely together. Each water molecule
links to four others creating a tetrahedral arrangement, however they are able to move freely and slide
past each other, while ice forms a solid, larger hexagonal structure.

Gas State- as water boils, its hydrogen bonds are broken. Steam particles move very far apart and fast, so
barely any hydrogen bonds have the time to form. So, less and less hydrogen bonds are present as the
particles reach the critical point above steam. The lack of hydrogen bonds explains why steam causes
much worse burns that water. Steam contains all the energy used to break the hydrogen bonds in water,
so when steam hits your face you first absorb the energy the steam has taken up from breaking the
hydrogen bonds it its liquid state. Then, in an exothermic reaction, steam is converted into
liquid water and heat is released. This heat adds to the heat of boiling water as the steam condenses on
your skin.

The properties of water make it suitable for organisms to survive in during differing weather conditions.
Ice freezes as it expands, which explains why ice is able to float on liquid water. During the winter when
lakes begin to freeze, the surface of the water freezes and then moves down toward deeper water; this
explains why people can ice skate on or fall through a frozen lake. If ice was not able to float, the lake
would freeze from the bottom up killing all ecosystems living in the lake. However ice floats, so the fish
are able to survive under the surface of the ice during the winter. The surface of ice above a lake also
shields lakes from the cold temperature outside and insulates the water beneath it, allowing the lake
under the frozen ice to stay liquid and maintain a temperature adequate for the ecosystems living in the
lake to survive.

Chemical Structure of Water

Each molecule of water consists of one atom of oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen, so it has the chemical
formula H2O. In each water molecule, the nucleus of the oxygen atom (with 8 positively charged protons)
attracts electrons much more strongly than do the hydrogen nuclei (with only one positively
charged proton). This results in a negative electrical charge near the oxygen atom (due to the "pull" of the
negatively charged electrons toward the oxygen nucleus) and a positive electrical charge near the
hydrogen atoms. A difference in electrical charge between different parts of a molecule is called polarity.
A polar molecule is a molecule in which part of the molecule is positively charged and part of the
molecule is negatively charged.

6) Describe the difference in structure of crystalline and amorphous solids

Crystalline solids, or crystals, have distinctive internal structures that in turn lead to distinctive flat
surfaces, or faces. The faces intersect at angles that are characteristic of the substance. When exposed to
x-rays, each structure also produces a distinctive pattern that can be used to identify the material. The
characteristic angles do not depend on the size of the crystal; they reflect the regular repeating
arrangement of the component atoms, molecules, or ions in space.

Crystals tend to have relatively sharp, well-defined melting points because all the component atoms,
molecules, or ions are the same distance from the same number and type of neighbours; that is, the
regularity of the crystalline lattice creates local environments that are the same. Thus the intermolecular
forces holding the solid together are uniform, and the same amount of thermal energy is needed to break
every interaction simultaneously.

Amorphous solids have two characteristic properties. When cleaved or broken, they produce fragments
with irregular, often curved surfaces; and they have poorly defined patterns when exposed to x-rays
because their components are not arranged in a regular array. An amorphous, translucent solid is called
a glass. Almost any substance can solidify in amorphous form if the liquid phase is cooled rapidly enough.
Some solids, however, are intrinsically amorphous, because either their components cannot fit together
well enough to form a stable crystalline lattice or they contain impurities that disrupt the lattice.

amorphous solids tend to soften slowly over a wide temperature range rather than having a well-defined
melting point like a crystalline solid. If an amorphous solid is maintained at a temperature just below its
melting point for long periods of time, the component molecules, atoms, or ions can gradually rearrange
into a more highly ordered crystalline form.

7) Describe the different types of crystals and their properties

1. There are four main categories of crystals, as grouped by their chemical and physical properties.

2. Covalent Crystals: A covalent crystal has true covalent bonds between all of the atoms in the
crystal. You can think of a covalent crystal as one big molecule. Many covalent crystals have
extremely high melting points. Examples of covalent crystals include diamond and zinc sulfide
crystals.

3. Metallic Crystals: Individual metal atoms of metallic crystals sit on lattice sites. This leaves the
outer electrons of these atoms free to float around the lattice. Metallic crystals tend to be very
dense and have high melting points.

4. Ionic Crystals: The atoms of ionic crystals are held together by electrostatic forces (ionic
bonds). Ionic crystals are hard and have relatively high melting points. Table salt (NaCl) is an
example of this type of crystal.

5. Molecular Crystals: These crystals contain recognizable molecules within their structures. A
molecular crystal is held together by non-covalent interactions, like van der Waals forces
or hydrogen bonding. Molecular crystals tend to be soft with relatively low melting points. Rock
candy, the crystalline form of table sugar or sucrose, is an example of a molecular crystal.
As with the lattice classification system, this system isn't completely cut-and-dried. Sometimes it's hard
to categorize crystals as belonging to one class as opposed to another. However, these broad groupings
will provide you with some understanding of structures.