BULETINUL INSTITUTULUI POLITEHNIC DIN IAŞI

Publicat de
Universitatea Tehnică „Gheorghe Asachi” din Iaşi
Tomul LV (LIX), Fasc. 2, 2009
Secţia
CHIMIE ŞI INGINERIE CHIMICĂ

VEGETAL FIBERS IN COMPOSITE MATERIALS -

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS
BY

DAN GAVRILESCU, BOGDAN MARIAN TOFĂNICĂ,

ADRIAN CĂTĂLIN PUIŢEL and PUIU PETREA

Abstract. Transition to a more sustainable economy and the consequences of

the Kyoto protocol on global climate changes determine a shift of feedstock for
energy and chemical industries from fossil fuels and petrochemicals to renewable
resources. The use of vegetal fibers as major source of renewable resources
represents a valuable alternative both from economical and environmental points
of view. Traditionally, vegetal fibers are widely used in textile industry, paper
manufacture, and packaging. Due to their specific properties, vegetal fibers are
gained increased attention in obtaining composite materials. This paper reviews
the advantages and limitations of vegetal fibers that can be potentially used as
reinforcements in composite materials. The properties of wood and annual plant
fibers are briefly discussed. Some considerations regarding environmental impact
of using vegetal fibers in composites are underlined.

Key words: vegetal fibers, nonwoods, composites, renewable resources,

environment.

1.Introduction

The use of composite materials started many centuries ago with vegetal
fibers. In ancient Egypt, 3 000 years ago, clay was reinforced by straw to build
walls and houses. During the 1960s, the rise of composite materials began when
glass fibers in combination with resins was produced on a large scale. In the last
decade there has been a renewed interest in the natural fiber as substitutes for
synthetic fibers, motivated by potential advantages of weight saving, lower raw
material price, and the ecological advantages of using resources which are
renewable.
86 Dan Gavrilescu, Bogdan Marian Tofănică, Adrian Cătălin Puiţel and Puiu Petrea

Composites are engineered materials made from two or more

constituents with different physical and chemical properties, which remain
distinct within the final product. Composites show properties which exceed
those of the individual constituents. Most composite materials are composed of
two phases; one is continuous (matrix), and the second is discontinuous
(dispersed phase). Properties of composites depend of the properties of the
constituent phases, their relative amounts, and the geometry of the dispersed
phase.
Nature offers excellent examples of composites. Wood represents one
of the most common natural composite materials. The wood dispersed phase is
formed by strong and flexible cellulose fibers and the matrix by lignin, a stiffer
material that surrounds and held together the cellulose fibers.
There are a huge number of natural and manmade composites, which are
difficult to classify in a unique manner. According to shape of dispersed phase
(reinforcing material), there are three main categories: particles reinforced, fiber
reinforced and structural composites. For particle-reinforced composites
dispersed phase consists from particles having approximately the same
dimensions in all directions; for fiber-reinforced composites, the dispersed
phase consists from fibers (materials having high length/diameter ratio) from
different origin. Structural composites are combinations of composites and
homogeneous materials. A simple scheme for classification of composite
materials is shown in Figure 1. The structural properties of composite materials
are derived primarily from the fiber reinforcement. In a composite, the fiber
contributes high tensile strength, enhancing properties in the final product, such
as strength and stiffness while minimizing weight

Fig. 1 – A classification of composite materials (adapted from [1]).

 Bul. Inst. Polit. Iasi, t. LV (LIX), f. 2, 2009 87

Fiber reinforced composites refers to those materials composed of

strong fibers surrounded by a matrix material, which acts as a binder for the
fibers. The matrix also serves to distribute the fibers in a specific manner and to
transmit the stresses to the fibers. Proper selection of the fiber properties (type,
volume, length, orientation) is very important, because it influences the
characteristics of a composite material: density, tensile and compressive
strength and modulus, electrical and thermal conductivities, cost et. [2]. Fiber
reinforced composites are used in various domains of human activity as:
building products (decking, window/door, fencing decorative trim, railings;
infrastructure (boardwalks, bridge, guardrails); transportation (interior panels,
shelves, ducting, truck floor, head liners); industrial/consumer (pallets,
playground, benches/tables, floorings, trash).
Matrix phase performs a variety of functions in a fiber composite which
characterize the behaviour of the composite. Matrix keeps the fibers in the
structure of composites and transfers stresses to the fibers. Matrix protects the
fibers against mechanical and chemical degradation and moisture.
Representative matrix phases in composite materials are presented in Figure 2.

Fig. 2 − Representative matrix phases in composite materials (adapted from [2]).

Fiber reinforced composites uses a polymer matrix. Thermoset

polymers (epoxy polymers, polyesters, and vinylesters) are commonly used as
matrix material in continuous or long fiber reinforced composites, mainly
because of the ease of processing due to their low viscosity. Thermoplastic
polymers (polyolefins - polyethylene, polypropylene) are currently used with
short fiber-reinforced composites that are produced by injection-molding
techniques.

2. Vegetal fibers in composite materials

Vegetable fibers are predominantly cellulosic fibers dispersed in an

amorphous matrix of lignin and hemicelluloses. Unlike the proteins of animal
88 Dan Gavrilescu, Bogdan Marian Tofănică, Adrian Cătălin Puiţel and Puiu Petrea

fibers, they resist in alkaline solutions. Vegetable fibers resist at the action of
most organic acids but they are destroyed by strong mineral acids.
Vegetal fibers are divided in wood fibers and nonwood (annual) plant
fibers. Both these fibers are widely used for industrial applications: textile
industry, paper manufacturing, packaging, composite materials. A widely
accepted classification of vegetal fibers is presented in Figure 3, [3].
There are four major types of nonwood fibers: seed fibers, which are
the soft hairs that surround the seeds of certain plants; bast fibers, the tough
fibers that grow between the bark and stem of many dicotyledonous plants;
vascular fibers, the tough fibers found in the leaves and stems of
monocotyledons; and grass-stem fibers. Other fiber types, of limited utility,
include strips of leaf skins, such as raffia; the fiber of fruit cases, such as coir;
and palm fibers. Wood fibers originate from softwood or hardwood species.

Fig. 3 – Classification of vegetal fibers.

Fiber reinforced composites use both annual plant fibers and fibers
isolated from wood. Nonwood fiber component may be sisal, hemp, coconut,
cotton, kenaf, flax, jute, abaca, banana leaf fibers, bamboo, wheat straw or other
fibrous material.
Pulping is the process of converting wood and nonwood vegetal
materials to separate vegetal fibers. Pulping processes differ from purely
mechanical, in which the wood is ground into fibers by disk refiners or
grindstones, to chemical, in which the fibers are separated by chemically
degrading and dissolving of lignin that binds fibers them together. The common
commercial pulps can be grouped into two large classes: mechanical pulps and
chemical pulps. Mechanical pulping process use grinding for logs and disc
refiners for chips. In these processes, mechanical shear forces are used to break
the fibers. In mechanical pulps, majority of the lignin remains within the fibers
and for this reason these fibers are stiffer [4].
Chemical pulp manufacturing is a process where vegetable material is
cooked in association with appropriate chemicals aiming to dissolve lignin. The
 Bul. Inst. Polit. Iasi, t. LV (LIX), f. 2, 2009 89

main commercial chemical pulping techniques comprise sulfate (or kraft), and
sulfite. The dissolution of lignin during pulping is characteristic for each
pulping process, which is reflected in residual lignin content, carbohydrate yield
and composition.

2.1. Wood fibers

Wood consists of cellulose, lignin, hemicelluloses, extractives and ash.

Cellulose constitutes 40-50 % of wood substance by weight and represents the
major component of fibers. Lignin constitutes 18-35 % of wood substance and it
is concentrated between wood fibers [5]. Main species of wood are represented
by hardwoods and softwoods, which differ in chemical composition as is
presented in Table 1.
Table 1
Typical composition of wood, percent [6]
Component Wood species
Hardwoods Softwoods
Cellulose 40-50 45-50
Hemicelluloses 17-35 25-35
Lignin 18-25 25-35
Extractives 1-5 3-8
Ash 0.4-0.8 0.2-0.5
A comparison between fiber dimensions of representative wood species is given
in Table 2 [7].
Typically wood-derived materials for biocomposites are wood flour,
sawdust and wood fibers. Wood flour and sawdust are wood particles resulting
as wood waste during wood mechanical processing. Wood flour is finely
divided ground wood having a flour-like appearance. Particle size of wood flour
ranges 0.05-0.50 mm and aspect ratio (length to thickness of particles) is 3:1-
5:1. Bulk density of wood flour is typically around 0.1–0.3 g/cm3. Sawdust is
essentially the same thing as wood flour except it is not ground but formed as a
by-product of wood sawing. Sawdust typically consists of particles of 0.30-5.0
mm. Wood flour and sawdust decomposes above 190°C. Wood flour and
sawdust decompose above 190°C. This is due to a higher susceptibility to
temperature decomposition of lignin and hemicelluloses, and because cellulose
decomposes above 240°C [8].

Table 2
Fiber dimensions of representative wood species
Wood species Fiber dimensions, mm
Fiber length Fiber width
Softwoods 2-4 0.02-0.04
Hardwoods 0.7-1.7 0.15-0.04
90 Dan Gavrilescu, Bogdan Marian Tofănică, Adrian Cătălin Puiţel and Puiu Petrea

Depending on the fiber separation process, chemical composition of

fibers, fiber dimensions and shape, fiber strength, flexibility, and ability to
adhere to other fibers or matrix material differ widely between different types of
wood fibers [9], [10]. Wood fibers are processed in a way to optimize the
properties of the paper. In this respect, high fiber flexibility is necessary to
assure a large contact area over the fiber–fiber bonds that strongly influence the
paper mechanical properties. For composite application most relevant properties
of wood fibers are stiffness and dimensional stability, (Neagu et al., 2006).
Conventional methods used in wood fibers separation may very well be
employed in the manufacture of wood fiber for composite applications. Wood
fibers can be further processed for enhanced properties by means of chemical or
mechanical modifications [11].

2.2. Nonwood plant fibers

According to FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations - commercial non-wood pulp production has been estimated to be 10%
of the global pulp production and is expected to increase. The dynamics of non-
wood fiber pulp production between 2001 and 2007 shows an increase of 28 %
as is presented in Table 3 [12]. The main sources of non-wood raw materials are
agricultural residues: straw (46%), bagasse (14%), bamboo (6%) and the
remainder consists mainly of industrial crops [13].
Theoretically, all plants can be used as a source of cellulose fibers.
However, for a plant to be considered suitable for production of fiber pulp, it is
necessary to accomplish several requirements concerning availability,
performance and manufacturing costs. A vegetable fiber crop must accomplish
several technical requirements for processing into adequate pulp. It must be
adaptable to practical agricultural methods and produce dry matter and fiber
yield at economically attractive levels. There must also be a sufficient supply of
good quality raw material for running the process throughout all the year. It has
been shown that non-wood species have high biomass production capacity and
the pulp yields have in most cases been higher than those from wood species
(Table 4) [14].
Table 3
Dynamics of nonwood fiber pulp and wood pulp for paper [12].
Production ( million tones)
Country Year
Other Fiber Pulp Pulp for Paper
World 2001 14.33 177.16
World 2002 15.90 181.12
World 2003 16.50 184.81
World 2004 16.80 189.63
World 2005 17.87 189.91
World 2006 18.11 190.76
World 2007 18.36 192.00
 Bul. Inst. Polit. Iasi, t. LV (LIX), f. 2, 2009 91

Table 4.
Annual dry matter and pulp yields of various fiber plants.
Dry Matter yield Pulp yield
Plant species
(t/ha) (t/ha)
Wheat straw 2.5 1.1
Rye straw 2.2 1.1
Rice straw 3 1.2
Common reed 9 4.3
Reed canary grass 6 3
Hemp 12 6.7
Bamboo 4 1.6
Miscantus 12 4.2
Bagasse 9 4.2
Kenaf 15 6.5
Softwood (coniferous) 1.5 0.7
Hardwood (birch) 3.4 1.7

2.2.1. Properties of nonwood plant fibers

Vegetable fibers due to their chemical composition, structure and

properties are suitable for uses in industrial sectors as textile, paper
manufacture, packaging and composites. Knowing of morphology and chemical
composition of plants is useful in searching for fiber crops and gives indications
of the potential of various species to be used as a fiber source. Properties of the
fibers depend on the type of cells from which the fibers are derived, as the
chemical and physical properties are based on the cell wall characteristics. The
amount and composition of the cell wall compounds differ among plant species
and even among plant parts, and they affect the pulping behavior of the vegetal
material [15]. It is known that various parts of a plant (roots, stem, trunk, and
leaves) have different chemical and physical properties. Even fibers taken from
plants that are in various phases of ages have different chemical composition
and physical properties [16].

2.2.1.1. Chemical properties

All vegetable materials, including products of nonwood and wood

origin, are constituted by three polymers (cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin),
and components of low molecular weight that are soluble in water (water
soluble fraction) or organic solvent (the extractible fraction). The main
component of plant cell walls is cellulose, ranging from 10% to 20% of the dry
weight of leaves, roughly 50% of the weight of wood and about 90% by weight
of cotton fibers. The non-cellulose components of the cell wall include
hemicelluloses, lignin, pectins, and certain minerals. Some non-wood fiber
92 Dan Gavrilescu, Bogdan Marian Tofănică, Adrian Cătălin Puiţel and Puiu Petrea

plants contain more pentosans (over 20%), holocellulose (over 70%) and less
lignin (about 15%) as compared with hardwoods. The low lignin content in
grasses and other annual plants lowers the requirement of chemicals for cooking
of these plants and for bleaching of pulps. Inorganic compounds are absolutely
necessary for plants growth and development but they are not wanted in pulping
and papermaking [17], ..., [19].
Carbohydrate portion of majority of plants is composed of cellulose and
hemicellulose polymers with minor amounts of other sugar polymers such as
starch and pectins. The combination of cellulose and hemicelluloses are called
holocellulose and usually accounts for 65–70 percent of the plant dry weight.
These polymers are made up of simple sugars, mainly, D-glucose, D-mannose,
D-galactose, D-xylose, L-arabinose, D-glucuronic acid, and lesser amounts of
other sugars such as L-rhamnose and D-fructose. These polymers are rich in
hydroxyl groups, which are responsible for moisture sorption through hydrogen
bonding [20].
Cellulose is the most abundant biopolymers in the nature since is the
main structural component of the vegetal cells and is the main structural
component that provides strength and stability to the plant cell walls and the
fiber. From the structural point of view, cellulose is a linear polymer, whose
basic unit is D-glucose that connects by means of a glycosidic bond in the
configuration β-(1-4) forming a cellobiose unit that is repeated exactly in the
polymeric chain. A number of cellulose macromolecules form cellulose
microfibrils. Cellulose macromolecules have a tendency to form intra crystalline
regions. Most plant-derived cellulose is highly crystalline and may contain as
much as 80% crystalline regions.

Table 5.
Chemical composition of common plant species [16].
Chemical composition (%)
Plant species
Cellulose Lignin Pentosans Inorganic Silica
Cotton 85-96 0.7-1.6 1-3 0.8-2 -
Wheat straw 29-51 16-21 26-32 4.5-9 3-7
Rye straw 33-50 16-19 27-30 2-5 0.5-4
Rice straw 28-48 12-16 23-28 15-20 9-14
Common reed 44-46 22-24 20 3 2
Jute 41-48 21-24 18-22 0.8 -
Hemp 57-77 9-13 14-17 0.8 -
Bamboo 26-43 21-31 15-26 1.7-5 0.7
Bagasse 32-48 19-24 27-32 1.5-5 0.7-3.5
Kenaf 44-57 15-19 22-23 2-5 -
Softwoods 40-45 26-34 7-14 <1 -
Hardwoods 38-49 23-30 19-26 <1 -
The remaining portion has a lower packing density and is referred to as
amorphous cellulose [21]. Table 5 shows the average cellulose contents for a
 Bul. Inst. Polit. Iasi, t. LV (LIX), f. 2, 2009 93

wide variety of plant types. On a dry weight basis, most plants consist of
approximately 45-50% cellulose. Cellulose content can vary from almost 90%
for cotton, to about 30% for rice straw or bamboo. The amount of cellulose in a
plant influences the properties of fibers, economics of fiber production and the
utility of the fibers for various applications. Fibers having higher cellulose
content would be preferable for composites, textile, paper and other fibrous
applications [22].
Hemicelluloses are heterogeneous polysaccharides constituted by
monosaccharides units including pentoses (xylose and arabinose), hexoses
(glucose, manose and galactose) and uronic acids, connected by glycosidic
bonds, forming graft and generally amorphous structures. Some hemicelluloses
are associated to the cellulose fraction, whereas others are associate to the
lignin. They first act like support for cellulose microfibrills in the cell wall, and
are of smaller molecular mass, more accessible, more degradable and easier to
dissolve than the cellulose [16]. Mechanically, hemicelluloses contribute little
to the stiffness and strength of fibers or individual cells. Hemicelluloses are
easily hydrolyzed into sugars and therefore fibers containing a higher proportion
of hemicelluloses would be preferable for producing sugars, chemicals and
eventually for car-fuels such as ethanol [21]. Pentosans represent the fraction of
the hemicelluloses consisting of monosaccharides containing five carbon,
mainly D-xylose and L-arabinose. Identification of this fraction in a plant
material indicates its potential utilization for producing furan-type chemicals
[20].
Lignin is an aromatic polymer formed by condensation of some
phenolic precursors. Lignin is an amorphous and highly branched aromatic
polymer. The function of lignin in plants is as an encrusting agent of the
cellulose/hemicelluloses matrix. It is often referred to be the plant cell wall
adhesive. Lignin provides plant tissue and individual fibers with compressive
strength and stiffens the cell wall of the fibers to protect the carbohydrates from
chemical and physical damage. Lignin is also associated with the
hemicelluloses, forming lignin-carbohydrate complexes that are resistant to
hydrolysis even under pulping conditions [23].
Extractives are a group of plant chemicals formed by lipophilic
compounds (mainly consisting of fats, fatty acids, fatty alcohols, terpenes, resin
acids, rosin, waxes, etc.) and phenolic compounds (phenols, steroids, etc.).
These chemicals exist as monomers, dimers and polymers. One of the main
functions of extractives compounds is the protection of plants against the
pathogens. The low degradability of many of these compounds contributes to
this aim, but also creates problems in some industrial uses of the vegetal
biomass, resulting in the formation of deposits, called pitch, during the
manufacture of paper pulp, [24].
The inorganic content of a plant usually refers to ash content, which is
an approximate measure of the mineral salts and other inorganic matter in the
94 Dan Gavrilescu, Bogdan Marian Tofănică, Adrian Cătălin Puiţel and Puiu Petrea

fiber after combustion at a temperature of 575 ± 25°C. Ash present in vegetable,

especially straw, contains silica that has many undesirable effects. Silica blunts
cutting machinery, interferes with the pulping process by forming deposits on
the surface of the reactors and makes combustion of the spent liquors more
difficult [22].

2.2.1.2. Physical properties

There are several physical properties that are important to know about
each non-wood plant fiber before that fiber can be used to reach its highest
potential. Fiber dimensions, strength and variability are the most important
properties. Major differences in fiber structure: fiber length and width, fiber
density, cell wall thickness, determine differences in physical properties.
Fiber length and width are very important for comparing different
species of agro-fibers. A high aspect ratio (length/width ratio) is essential in
fiber reinforced composites as it give an indication of possible strength
properties of the final product. In many cases, there is a wide variation in both
length and width of different fibers, [25]. The length and width of common
annual plant fibers and wood fibers are shown in Table 6.

Table 6
Length and width of selected annual plant fibers and wood fibers [16].
Ratio
Plant Fiber length (µm) Fiber width (µm)
length/
species
Average Range Average Range width
20000-
Cotton
30000 50000 20 12-30 1500:1
Wheat
straw 1400 400-3200 15 8-34 110:1
Rye straw 1400 600-3200 13 7-24 110:1
Rice straw 1400 400-3400 8 4-16 175:1
Common
reed 2000 1000-3000 16 10-20 75:1
Jute 2000 500-5000 20 10-25 100:1
5000-
Hemp
25000 55000 25 10-55 1000:1
1300- 135-
Bamboo
4000 500 - 9000 6-30 3-55 175:1
Bagasse 1700 800-2800 20 10-34 85:1
Kenaf 5000 2000-6000 21 14-33 135:1
Softwoods 3000 2700-3600 32 30-43 100:1
Hardwoods 1250 1000-1800 25 20-50 50:1
 Bul. Inst. Polit. Iasi, t. LV (LIX), f. 2, 2009 95

Common fibers used in composites and their basic physical properties are presented in
Table 7. Vegetal fibers show low density but their mechanical properties are at the same
level as carbon or aramid fibers
Table 7
Common fibers used in composites and their basic properties [26]
Fiber Density, Elongation Tensile strength Young’s
(g/cm3) (%) (MPa) Modulus
(GPa)
Cotton 1.55 7.0-8.0 300-600 5.5-12.6
Jute 1.3 1.5-1.8 400-800 26.5
Flax 1.5 2.7-3.2 345-1035 69.3
Hemp 1.48 1.6 690 70
Ramie 1.5 3.6-3.8 100-938 61.4-128
Softwood kraft 1.5 - 1000 40
Viscose (cord) 1.52 11.4 593 11
Glass 2.5 2.5 2000-3500 70
Aramid 1.4 3.3-3.7 3000-3150 63-67
Carbon 1.4 1.4-1.8 4000 230-240

3. Advantages of using vegetal fibers in composite materials

There are many advantages of vegetal fibers when are used as a composites
component:
- Low specific weight, which results in a higher specific strength and stiffness
than glass fibers;
- It is a renewable resource, the production requires little energy, CO2 is
sequestered while oxygen is given back to the environment;
- Producible with low investment at low cost, this makes the material an
interesting product for low-wage countries;
- Friendly processing - less problem regarding health and safety of workers, no
wear of tooling, no skin irritation;
- Thermal recycling is possible, where fibers glass causes problems in
combustion furnaces;
- Strong and flexible, good thermal and acoustic insulating properties;
- Good price-performance ratio
The primary advantages of using vegetal fibers as reinforcements in
composites can be divided as properties advantages and environmental and
socio-economic advantages. These advantages are listed in Table 8 [27]. It is
well known that specific gravity of vegetal fibers based composites is much
lower than the mineral filled composites. The density of natural fibers is in the
range of 1.25-1.5 g/cc compared with 2.54 g/cc for glass fibers and 1.8–2.1 g/cc
for carbon fibers. Specific gravity of a 50% (by weight) kenaf-polypropilene
composite is about 1.07, while that of a 40% (by weight) glass–polypropylene
composite is 1.23.
96 Dan Gavrilescu, Bogdan Marian Tofănică, Adrian Cătălin Puiţel and Puiu Petrea

Table 8
The primary advantages of using vegetal fibers as reinforcements in composites
Property Advantages Environmental and Socio-Economic
Advantages
Wide variety of fibers It is a renewable resource
Low specific weight Producible with low investment at low
High specific strength and stiffness cost
Non abrasive The production requires little energy
Unlike brittle fibers, the vegetal fibers will Biodegradable
not fracture when processing over sharp Generates rural jobs
curvatures. Non-food agricultural/farm based
Good thermal and acoustic insulating economy
properties Reducing the "greenhouse effect”: CO2
is used while oxygen is given back to the
environment
Easily recyclable

The specific mechanical properties of these composites compare

favorably to other filled commodity plastics. Since materials are bought in
terms of weight and pieces or articles are, in general, sold by the number, more
pieces can be made with vegetal fibers as compared to the same weight of
mineral fibers. This could result in significant material cost savings in the high
volume and low cost commodity plastic market [28].
Material cost savings due to the incorporation of the relatively low cost
vegetal fibers and the higher filling levels possible, coupled with the advantage
of being non-abrasive to the mixing and molding equipment, are benefits that
are not likely to be ignored by the plastics industry for use in the automotive,
building, appliance, and other applications. In general, cellulosic fillers or fibers
have a higher Young’s modulus as compared to commodity thermoplastics,
thereby contributing to the higher stiffness of the composites. The increase in
the Young’s modulus with the addition of vegetal fibers depends on many
factors such as the amount of fibers used, the orientation of the fibers, the
interaction and adhesion between the matrix, the ratio of the fiber-to matrix
Young’s modulus, etc [29].
Vegetal fibers have accessible functional groups, hydroxyl and carboxyl
end, which bond the fibers more firmly to the polymer matrix. The fibers
therefore show more versatility and the interface may be tailored to achieve an
optimal interface with regards to an important engineering property for a given
application. This opens opportunities to optimize the material performance with
a more rational materials development.
Cellulosic fibers are soft and non-abrasive and high filling levels are
possible; 60% by weight of fiber has been successfully incorporated in PP-
based composites. Reduced equipment abrasion and the subsequent reduction of
re-tooling costs through the use of agricultural based fibers are definitely factors
 Bul. Inst. Polit. Iasi, t. LV (LIX), f. 2, 2009 97

that will be considered by the plastics industry when evaluating these natural
fibers. In addition, agro-based fibers are less brittle and softer than glass fibers
and are likely to result in composites that are easier to recycle than mineral
based fibers.

4. Limitations of using vegetal fibers in composite materials

The most important limitations of using vegetal fibers in composite

materials are:
- Variable quality, depending on unpredictable influences such as weather;
- Moisture absorption, which causes swelling of the fibres and dimension
instability;
- Restricted maximum processing temperature due to their low melting point;
- Lower durability, fibre treatments can improve this considerably;
- Poor fire resistance, susceptibility to rotting;
- Price can fluctuate by harvest results or agricultural politics
The primary drawback of the use of agro-fibers is the lower processing
temperature permissible due to the possibility of vegetal fibers degradation
and/or the possibility of volatile emissions that could affect composite
properties. At temperatures higher than 200°C, natural fibers start to degrade,
first by the degradation of hemicelluloses and then by the degradation of lignin.
The degradation leads to odor, discoloration, release of volatiles, and
deterioration of mechanical properties. The processing temperatures are thus
limited to about 200°C, although it is possible to use higher temperatures for
short periods. This limits the type of thermoplastics that can be used with agro-
fibers to commodity. Thermoplastics such as polyethylene, polypropylene,
polyvinyl chloride, and polystyrene, polyamides, polyesters and polycarbonates
require processing temperatures higher than 250°C. However, it is important to
note that these lower-priced plastics constitute about 70% of the total
thermoplastic consumed by the plastics industry, and subsequently the use of
fillers/reinforcement presently used in these plastics far outweighs the use in
other more expensive plastics [30].
The second drawback is the high moisture absorption of vegetal fibers.
Vegetal fibers are hydrophilic in nature as they contain strongly polarized
hydroxyl groups. These fibers, therefore, are inherently incompatible with
hydrophobic thermoplastics, such as polyolefins. The major limitations of using
these fibers as reinforcements include poor interfacial adhesion between polar
hydrophilic fiber and hydrophobic matrix, and difficulties in mixing due to poor
wetting of the fiber with the matrix. This in turn would lead to composites with
inadequate mechanical properties. Moisture absorption can result in swelling of
the fibers, and concerns about the dimensional stability of the vegetal fibers
composites cannot be ignored. The absorption of moisture by the fibers is
minimized in the composite due to encapsulation by the polymer. It is difficult
98 Dan Gavrilescu, Bogdan Marian Tofănică, Adrian Cătălin Puiţel and Puiu Petrea

to entirely eliminate the absorption of moisture without using expensive surface

barriers on the composite surface. If necessary, the moisture absorption of the
fibers can be dramatically reduced through the acetylation of some of the
hydroxyl groups present in the fiber, but with some increase in the cost of the
fiber. Good fiber-matrix bonding can also decrease the rate and amount of water
absorbed by the composite.
Water absorption and specific gravity of vegetal fiber composites are
important characteristics that determine end use applications of these materials.
Water absorption could lead to a decrease in some of the properties and should
be considered when selecting applications. Moisture build-up in the cell wall
could result in fiber swelling and affect the dimensional stability. A typical 50%
by weight of kenaf-polypropylene blend absorbed about 1.05% by weight of
water in a 24 h water soak test. This is considerably higher than any mineral
filled systems. It is therefore very important to select applications where this
high water absorption is not a critical factor such as in electrical housing
components. [31].
Properties such as dimensional instability, flammability,
biodegradability, and degradation caused by acids, bases, and ultraviolet
radiation are all a result of chemical degradation reactions (hydrolysis,
oxidation, dehydration, and reduction) which can be prevented or, at least,
slowed down if the cell wall chemistry is altered. This approach is based on the
premise that the properties of any resource are a result of the chemistry of the
components of that resource. In the case of ago-based resources, cell wall
polymers, extractives, and inorganics are the components that, if modified,
would change the properties of the resource. Based on performance
requirements, modifications can be carried out to get the desired change in
property and, therefore, change in performance.
Vegetal fibers are affected by environmental temperature and humidity
of the medium in which they are immersed, due to the lignin and hemicelluloses
decomposition. An acidic or alkaline pH also affect mechanical properties of
fibers so that aging effects are intensified [32]. It is important to keep these
limitations in perspective when developing end-use applications. By
understanding the limitations of these composites, these renewable fibers are
not likely to be ignored by the composites industry for use in the suitable
applications.

5. Environmental impact

Durability, compatibility, and sustainability are the challenges of

converting renewable resources into industrial materials. Sustainable
development provides growth of both ecological integrity and social equity to
meet basic human needs through viable economic development over time.
When a new material is designed and manufactured, one consideration should
 Bul. Inst. Polit. Iasi, t. LV (LIX), f. 2, 2009 99

be sustainability, including resource availability, land use, biodiversity,

environmental impact, energy efficiency, soil conservation, and the impact on
the social community. Besides a favorable life cycle analysis, research and
development of bio-based products should consider the limits that will maintain
sustainable development. The design of bio-based materials should favor
increased materials supplements, optimized land use, improved plant
biodiversity, minimized environmental pollution, and improved energy
efficiency, while at the same time meeting consumer demands.
Fiber reinforced composites are considered promising candidates for
sustainable development because they contribute to the substitution of
renewable resources for depletable petrochemical feedstocks, help to decrease
greenhouse gas emissions. If these fibers are used in the form of biodegradable
polymers, allow the closing of the loop of organic carbon and nutrients by
means of composting [33].
Production of vegetal fibers results in less severe environmental
impacts compared with production of petroleum-base fibers or glass fibers.
Cultivation of vegetal fibers needs solar energy, and fiber production and
separation use low fossil fuels consumption. Synthetic fibers production is a
high energy process depending on non-renewable energy. A comparison of non-
renewable energy requirements for producing of different fibers is presented in
Table 9.

Table 9
Nonrenewable energy requirements for production of different fibers [34]
Nonrenewable energy requirements, MJ/kg
Glass fiber matt Flax fiber matt China reed fiber
Raw materials, 1.7 Seed production, 0.05 Cultivation, 2.50
Mixture, 1.0 Fertilizers, 1.0 Transport plant, 0.40
Transport, 1.6 Transport, 0.9 Fiber extraction, 0.08
Melting, 21.5 Cultivation, 2.0 Fiber grinding, 0.40
Spinning, 5.9 Fiber separation, 2.7 Transport fiber, 0.26
Mat production, 23.0 Mat production, 2.9
Total: 54.7 Total: 9.55 Total: 3.64

As can be seen from Table 10, glass fiber production needs 5-10 times
more energy than vegetal fiber production and as a result the pollutant
emissions from glass fiber production are much higher than from natural fiber
production. Table 12 compares the environmental impacts for producing
different types of fibers.

It is obvious that the emissions from production of natural fiber are

much lower exception nitrates and phosphates that originate from fertilizers
used for China reed cultivation. Substitution of synthetic fiber by natural fibers
100 Dan Gavrilescu, Bogdan Marian Tofănică, Adrian Cătălin Puiţel and Puiu Petrea

improves environmental impacts of composites, with possible exception of

water eutrophication.
Low density of natural fibers used in fiber reinforced composites reduces the
weight of the final product. By example, the replacing of glass fibers with hemp
fibers in composites for automotive applications results in 20–30% reduction in
weight. Lower weight components improve fuel efficiency and in turn
significantly lower emissions during the use phase of the component life cycle
[35].
Table 10
Environmental impact of producing different types of fibers [34].
Environmental impact China reed Glass fiber Polypropylene
Energy use, (MJ/kg) 3.64 54.7 77.19
Carbon dioxide generation, (kg/kg) 0.66 2.04 1.85
Carbon monoxide generation, (g/kg) 0.44 0.80 0.72
SOx emissions, (g/kg) 1.23 8.79 12.94
NOx emissions (g/kg) 1.07 2.93 9.54
Particulate matter (g/kg) 0.24 1.04 1.48
BOD to water, (mg/kg) 0.36 1.75 33.94
COD to water, (mg/kg) 2.27 18.81 178.92
Nitrates to water, (mg/kg) 24481 14.00 18.78
Phosphates to water, (mg/kg) 233.6 43.06 3.39

When fiber reinforced composite materials reach the end of their utility,
vegetal fibers are composted naturally by micro-organisms and the carbon
dioxide absorbed during the growth of the plant is released back into the
atmosphere. When vegetal fibers are incorporated into a composite material
with petroleum-based polymers, incineration is a likely end-of-life possibility.
In this case, the petrochemical component adds to the total atmospheric
emissions, including carbon dioxide formerly locked up in underground fossil-
fuel deposits. The combustion value of the petrochemical matrix and natural
fiber components combined can total as much as a quarter of the original energy
used in production [36].
With the increasing consumer market new products have been
introduced in order to replace material such as metals, cement and some
synthetic polymers that are very heavy, corrosive and less environment friendly.
In the past 30 – 40 years fiber composites have been competing with materials
such as steel, aluminum and concrete in cars, aircraft, buildings, bridges, and
many everyday goods. It has such a wide range of application due to its
possibility to combine high strength and stiffness with low weight it is non-
corrosive and less expensive in cost when compared to other materials. They are
also cheaper because they reduce the cost over the product’s lifetime as they
have very low maintenance costs. The most important thing is that vegetal
fibers composites are more suitable with sustainability concepts.
 Bul. Inst. Polit. Iasi, t. LV (LIX), f. 2, 2009 101

6. Conclusions

1. There are many types of vegetal fibers that are divided in nonwood
plant fibers and wood fibers. Both these fibers are widely used for industrial
applications: textile industry, paper manufacture, packaging, composite
materials. In composites, vegetal fibers are used as reinforcement materials.
2. When vegetal fibers are used as composites component the main
advantages are: vegetal fibers are renewable, fibers are strong and flexible and
give less problem regarding health and safety of workers, they have good
thermal and acoustic properties, vegetal fibers show good price-performance
ratio. At the same time, the disadvantages of vegetal fibers are: dimension
instability, high moisture absorption, susceptibility to rotting, restricted
processing temperature.
3. Most important limitations of using vegetal fibers in composite
materials are: dimension instability, high moisture absorption, susceptibility to
rotting, restricted processing temperature. Vegetal fibers are also affected by
environmental temperature and humidity of the medium
4. Production of vegetal fibers results in less severe environmental
impacts compared with production of petroleum-base fibers or glass fibers.
Cultivation of vegetal fibers needs solar energy, and fiber production and
separation use low fossil fuels consumption. Synthetic fibers production is a
high energy process depending on non-renewable energy. Substitution of
synthetic fiber by natural fibers improves environmental impacts of composites

Received, June 3, 2009 Technical University “Gheorghe Asachi”of Iasi

Department of Natural and Synthetic Polymers
e-mail: gda@ch.tuiasi.ro
puitelac@ch.tuiasi.ro

Acknowledgements
This work was financial supported by CNCSIS-UEFISCSU - Program IDEI, grant code
308/2008 “INTEGRATED STUDIES ON THE OBTAINING, BEHAVIOUR AND
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF SOME CELLULOSIC COMPOSITES ON RECYCLABLE
MATERIALS BASIS – ECO-COMPOZ”

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104 Dan Gavrilescu, Bogdan Marian Tofănică, Adrian Cătălin Puiţel and Puiu Petrea

FOLOSIREA FIBRELOR VEGETALE ÎN MATERIALELE COMPOZITE.

AVANTAJE ŞI LIMITE

(Rezumat)

Tranziţia la o economie durabilă şi consecinţele protocolului de la Kyoto cu

privire la schimbările climatice, determină trecerea de la materiile prime pe bază de
petrol pentru producerea energiei şi în industria chimică la folosirea resurselor
regenerabile. Utilizarea fibrelor vegetale ca sursă majoră de resurse regenerabile
reprezintă o alternativă viabilă atât din punct de vedere economic cât şi din punctual de
vedere al protecţiei mediului. Tradiţional, fibrele vegetale se folosesc pe scară largă în
industria textilă, la fabricarea hârtiei şi a ambalajelor. Datorită proprietăţilor specifice,
fibrele vegetale şi-au câştigat o atenţie sporită pentru obţinerea materialelor compozite.
Lucrarea trece în revistă avantajelor şi limitele fibrelor vegetale folosite ca materiale de
ranforsare în materialele compozite. Se discută pe scurt proprietăţile fibrelor din lemn şi
din plante anuale. Se subliniază impactul asupra mediului al folosirii fibrelor vegetale la
fabricarea materialelor compozite.