Learning

Definition of learning:
Learning is a process of development in an individual’s
behavior on the basis of exercise and reinforcement.
(Woodworth)
which brings about changes in the individual’s way of
responding as a result of contact with aspects of
environment
(Floyd L. Rush)
Learning is result of physical and mental activity
responding to new or changing circumstances.
(Henry E Garrett)
The fundamental elements or factors of learning:
1. Arousal
2. Motivation
3. Reinforcement
4. Association
Types of Changes due to learning:
1. Physical changes
 2. Neural changes
3. Mental changes
4. Psychological changes

Laws of learning:
Thorndike describe the laws of learning
1. Laws of effect :
Law of effect based on the emotional reaction and
motivation, learning is become strong with pleasant
or unpleasant feelings tends stop.
2. Law of readiness:
It is a degree to preparedness to learn .If a person is
physically ready the connection is satisfying for
organism.
3. Learning of exercise:
Things that are more often repeated and practiced are
best remembered.
Types of Learning:
1. learning through trial and error
2. learning through observation or learning by
imitation or modeling
 3. learning through insight
4. learning through conditioning

Learning through trial and error:

Learning by trial and error is the method in which
the unsuccessful activities are left and successful
activities are continued.
Learning through observation or imitation:
The process of learning through watching others,
retaining the information, and then later replicating the
behaviors that were observed. ... A tremendous amount
of learning happens through this process of watching
and imitating others.
Learning through insight:
The complex form of learning that requires the
manipulation of mental concepts for developing an
adaptive behaviour is called insight learning.
Example of Insight behaviour:
A chimpanzee is placed in a cage. Hang a piece of banana
from the ceiling. Place some boxes of different sizes in
the cage. The chimpanzee first thinks that can't reach the
fruit. But after short period of scratching, the chimpanzee
will move the largest box and pile the other smaller boxes
on it and climb up to reach the fruit.
So, he found the solution to a problem quite novel to him,
using his insight.
Learning through conditioning:
Behavioral process whereby a response becomes more
frequent or more predictable in a given environment as a
result of reinforcement, with reinforcement typically
being a stimulus or reward for a desired response. Also
known as learning by association.
Two types of learning through Conditioning
1. Classical Conditioning
2. Operant Conditioning

Classical Conditioning:
Learning in which conditioning results from the
association of two stimuli in the environment.
Ivan Pavlov was researching salivation in dogs in response to
being fed. He inserted a small test tube into the cheek of each
dog to measure saliva when the dogs were fed (with a powder
made from meat).
Pavlov predicted the dogs would salivate in response to the food
placed in front of them, but he noticed that his dogs would begin
to salivate whenever they heard the footsteps of his assistant
who was bringing them the food.

When Pavlov discovered that any object or event which the dogs
learned to associate with food (such as the lab assistant) would
trigger the same response food is an unconditioned stimulus and
salivation is an unconditioned response. (i.e., a stimulus-
response connection that required no learning).
Pavlov found that for associations to be made, the two stimuli
had to be presented close together in time (such as a bell). If the
time between the conditioned stimulus (bell) and unconditioned
stimulus (food) is too great, then learning will not occur.
.

The unconditioned stimulus (or UCS) is the object or event

that originally produces the reflexive / natural response.
The response to this is called the unconditioned response (or
UCR).
The neutral stimulus (NS) is a new stimulus that does not
produce a response.
Once the neutral stimulus has become associated with the
unconditioned stimulus, it becomes a conditioned stimulus
(CS). The conditioned response (CR) is the response to the
conditioned stimulus.

Key Terms
Stimulus

Any feature of the environment that affects behavior. E.g. in Pavlov’s experiments
food was a stimulus.

Response

The behavior elicited by the stimulus. E.g. in Pavlov’s experiments salivation was
a response.

Unconditioned Stimulus

A feature of the environment that causes a natural reflex action. E.g. a puff of air
blown into the eye causes an involuntary blink.

Unconditioned Response

Pavlov showed the existence of the unconditioned response by presenting a dog

with a bowl of food and the measuring its salivary secretions.
Conditioned Stimulus

A feature of the environment that has an effect through its association with a
U.C.S. E.g. Pavlov’s dog learned to

Operant Conditioning:
Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs
through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through
operant conditioning, an individual makes an association
between a particular behavior and a consequence
(Skinner, 1938).
Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but
his work was based on Thorndike’s law of effect. According to
this principle, behavior that is followed by pleasant
consequences is likely to be repeated, and behavior followed by
unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated.
Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting
experiments using animals which he placed in a 'Skinner Box'.

Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow

behavior.
• Neutral Operant: responses from the environment that neither
increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated.
• Reinforces: Responses from the environment that increase the
probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforces can be either
positive or negative.
• Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the
likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior

Positive Reinforcement
Skinner showed how positive reinforcement worked by placing
a hungry rat in his Skinner box. The box contained a lever on the
side, and as the rat moved about the box, it would accidentally
knock the lever. Immediately it did so a food pellet would drop
into a container next to the lever.
The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few
times of being put in the box. The consequence of receiving
food if they pressed the lever ensured that they would repeat the
action again and again.
Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by providing a
consequence an individual finds rewarding. For example, if your
teacher gives you £5 each time you complete your homework
(i.e., a reward) you will be more likely to repeat this behavior in
the future, thus strengthening the behavior of completing your
homework.
Negative Reinforcement
The removal of an unpleasant reinforce can also
strengthen behavior. This is known as negative
reinforcement because it is the removal of an adverse
stimulus which is ‘rewarding’ to the animal or person.
Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior because it stops or
removes an unpleasant experience.
For example, if you do not complete your homework, you give
your teacher £5. You will complete your homework to avoid
paying £5, thus strengthening the behavior of completing your
homework.
Skinner showed how negative reinforcement worked by placing
a rat in his Skinner box and then subjecting it to an unpleasant
electric current which caused it some discomfort. As the rat
moved about the box it would accidentally knock the lever.
Immediately it did so the electric current would be switched off.
The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few
times of being put in the box. The consequence of escaping the
electric current ensured that they would repeat the action again
and again.
In fact Skinner even taught the rats to avoid the electric current
by turning on a light just before the electric current came on.
The rats soon learned to press the lever when the light came on
because they knew that this would stop the electric current being
switched on.
Punishment (weakens behavior)
Punishment is defined as the opposite of reinforcement since it
is designed to weaken or eliminate a response rather than
increase it. It is an aversive event that decreases the behavior
that it follows.
Like reinforcement, punishment can work either by directly
applying an unpleasant stimulus like a shock after a response or
by removing a potentially rewarding stimulus, for instance,
deducting someone’s pocket money to punish undesirable
behavior.

Schedules of Reinforcement:
Behaviorists discovered that different patterns (or schedules) of
reinforcement had different effects on the speed of learning and
extinction. Skinner devised different ways of delivering
reinforcement and found that this had effects on
1. The Response Rate - The rate at which the rat pressed
the lever (i.e., how hard the rat worked).
2. The Extinction Rate - The rate at which lever pressing
dies out (i.e., how soon the rat gave up).

(A) Continuous Reinforcement

An animal/human is positively reinforced every time a specific
behavior occurs, e.g., every time a lever is pressed a pellet is
delivered, and then food delivery is shut off.
(B) Fixed Ratio Reinforcement
Behavior is reinforced only after the behavior occurs a specified
number of times. e.g., one reinforcement is given after every so
many correct responses, e.g., after every 5th response. For
example, a child receives a star for every five words spelled
correctly.

(C) Fixed Interval Reinforcement

Once reinforcement is given after a fixed time interval providing
at least one correct response has been made.
(D) Variable Ratio Reinforcement
Another example would be every 15 minutes (half hour, hour,
etc.) a pellet is delivered (providing at least one lever press has
been made) then food delivery is shut off.

(E) Variable Interval Reinforcement

Providing one correct response has been made, reinforcement is
given after an unpredictable amount of time has passed, e.g., on
average every 5 minutes. An example is a self-employed person
being paid at unpredictable times.
Difference between classical and operant
conditioning: