Cognitive Neuroscience 1

RUNNING HEAD: COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE

Cognitive Neuroscience: An Analysis

Jim Yockey

Capella University

Psyc 7421
 Cognitive Neuroscience 2

Abstract

The brain is the most sophisticated computer on the planet, and as such, directs the subtle,

mysterious processes for managing all human activity. Historically, study by cognitive scientists

has been relegated to research using animal subjects, human patients with extraordinary

impairments induced by disease, acquired brain damage, or genetic abnormalities through overt,

observable behavior, and, of course, autopsy of the deceased brain. One of the most fascinating

aspects of neuroscience today is the opportunity to study the concepts of emotion, behavior,

intellect, memory, and consciousness within the context of non-invasive, technologically

advanced, imaging methodologies. This review seeks to relate the importance of cerebral

substratum with current imaging capabilities with particular emphasis on neuronal

communication, interruption of hemispherical interplay, and an examination of in vivo

techniques of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and functional magnetic resonance imaging

(fMRI) useful in studying the functions of the human brain.

Introduction

Historically, study by cognitive scientists has been relegated to research using animal

subjects, human patients with extraordinary impairments induced by disease, acquired brain

damage, or genetic abnormalities through overt observable behavior, and, of course, autopsy of

the deceased brain. One of the most fascinating aspects of neuroscience today is the opportunity

to study the concepts of emotion, behavior, intellect, memory, and consciousness within the

context of non-invasive, technologically advanced, imaging methodologies. Imaging, including

magnetic resonance imaging, MRI functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), positron

emission tomograqphy (PET), computerized axial tomography (CAT), evoked potential, and
 Cognitive Neuroscience 3

other techniques are revolutionizing neuroscience and neuropsychology, giving cognitive

scientists the opportunity to deepen the understanding of how the human brain processes, stores,

and retrieves information.

Discussion

Structures and cellular communications

Major aspects of the neurophysiologic makeup important to cognitive scientists are the

two hemispheres (left and right) consisting of three divisions; forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain,

each with influential functional responsibility. (Bloom, F., Nelson, C.A. , Lazerson, A., 2001).

The cortex of these cerebral hemispheres are further segmented by distinctive function in four

lobes. These four major surface areas (lobes) of the human brain provide interconnected and

intra-connected structure for managing human activity. The frontal lobe and the prefrontal cortex

provides for intelligence, planning, decision making, consciousness, other executive functions

along with expressive, verbal and non-verbal, language, and some voluntary movements via the

primary motor cortex. (Bloom, et.al.) These areas are associated with the limbic system,

important in emotion and memory management. (Bloom, et.al.) Separated from the frontal lobe

by the central sulcus, the parietal lobe is responsible for the processing (synthesis) of sensory

experience of touch (e.g. pain, pressure), spatial organization, and movement processes. The

temporal lobe is involved in organization of hearing, language reception functions, and is

associated, along with the frontal cortex (lobe) with the limbic system which may contribute to

emotion and memory processes, hormone regulation, and the thalamic region which is a primary

gateway or relay station for informational processing. The area responsible for visual sensory

experiences, the occipital lobe and visual cortex, receives and processes signals from retinas.
 Cognitive Neuroscience 4

Although these regions are anatomically distinct and have primary functional

responsibility, they operate in concert as hierarchical systems of systems, managing sensing,

organizing, storing, coordinating, and responding to the internal needs and external environment

to which one is exposed. Consider the interdependence prompted by the stimulus experience of

hearing a loud explosion when walking alone down a dark, isolated street. In order to process the

event, tasks of hearing, mediation of emotional and increased attentional activities, cognitive

appraisal, and behavioral response engage various subsystems. The primary auditory cortex

deep in the temporal lobe is activated by a progression of conductivity involving neurons

stemming from the cochlear nerve through the thalamus. (Miller, 2008) A subset of the thalamic

nuclei, additionally, activates the amygdala. The amygdala is considered to be the “seat” of fear

processing, mediated by the hippocampus to scan for previous experiences in memory. While

studies are ongoing to understand the systems at work regarding a fearful event, several cortical

regions are affected. First, the amygdala sends signals to the brain stem. The dorsolateral

prefrontal cortex (frontal lobe), perhaps modulated by the rostral anterior cingulated cortex

which may allow for some dampening of the fear response initiated by the amygdala, is

involved. (Etkin, Egner, Peraza, Kandel, Hirsh, 2006) Whilst the engagement of the prefrontal

cortex is occurring, autonomic physiological responses are initiated by the hypothalamus

producing elevated heart and breathing rate, Activation of the autonomic nervous system

(sympathethic) introduces secretion of epinephrine and, thus, a neurotransmitter norepinephrine

facilitating this increase in blood flow to heart, brain and muscles, increased blood pressure and

subsequently breathing rate, heightening into an alerted state. (Miller) One’s heighten senses

include a visual search for movement in the darken street. Image detection is on alert, iris widely

dilating the pupil, corneal activation continuing through the retina as the search for the source of
 Cognitive Neuroscience 5

the noise is initiated, sending visual information to relay targets in the thalamus and

hypothalamus. While the visual system consists of many neuronal feedback loops throughout

(e.g. cortex, brain stem, back to the retina), generally the primary visual cortex in the occipital

lobe receives information from the thalamic nuclei (lateral geniculate), then sends information to

the temporal lobe for feature detection and the parietal area for spatial perception. (Bloom,2001;

Miller, 2008) Further cognitive evaluation occurs within the frontal cortex to assess the fight or

flee decision.

A similar demonstration of the systems of systems is present in the diverse activities of

driving while talking on a cell phone. The tactile senses, language, and speech production, along

with auditory processes of hearing the voice on the other end of the call, are provided access

through the somatosensory, and auditory systems. In a symphony of activity the parietal lobe,

temporal lobe, occipital, and frontal lobes are variously engaged it accommodating the task. The

physical movements of gripping the wheel of an automobile, regulating the extremity movement

of the feet and legs, are facilitated through the lumbar region of the Peripheral Nervous System

(PNS) through the coordination of the cerebellum, called upon by the cerebral cortex. (Miller) In

a similar fashion to that discussed above, hearing engages the cochlear nerve, through the

thalamus and on to other locations identified above. Simultaneously, the visual system is

processing sight (e.g. optic nerve through the thalamus and parietal regions to the visual cortex in

the occipital lobe) on a continuum. (Bloom; Miller) Speech, both receiving (Wernicke’s areas)

and transmitting (Broca’s area), are activated in the temporal lobes in a simplex manner. Recent

research has identified “a sensory-motor circuitry for speech in the left posterior temporal

lobe…thought to translate between speech recognition and speech production systems.” ( Miller,

p.24) While these seemingly simultaneous activities are being managed, the frontal cortex is
 Cognitive Neuroscience 6

being variously accessed to calculate, evaluate, and decide on items like vehicle routing, traffic

conditions; initiation of memory retrieval and other evaluative activities may occur at the

subconscious level as the concert progresses.

Cellular

Neurons are the highways of these aforementioned communications in the brain, and are

the primary cell bodies in the brain that facilitate chemically (neurotransmitters) and electrically

(synapses) stimulated communications through input dendrites and output axons. Neuronal cells

are classified in terms of the number of axon extensions and direction of informational flow

toward or away from the central nervous system and the respective sensory area. The neuronal

cell size is extended by dendrites and many related synapses as receivers, conducting signals to

the cell nucleus via the soma (think of this as a combining chamber). Axons carry electrical

impulses derived from ion channels allowing these atoms to enter or leave cells through the

membrane as the voltage changes (synaptic firing). (Miller) Again, one can think of axons as

having the “transmitting” responsibility, while dendrites carry “receiving” information to the

neuronal cells, and the passing of information occurring through synapses formed at the

connection of axons and other neuronal cells. (Miller) The synaptic “firing, or action potentials,

initiate the release of “chemical messengers” (Miller, p. 4) called neurotransmitters through

nerve terminals which bind to the surface receptors of targeted cells. (Miller) In a serial fashion,

the activity at the receptors signals activation or deactivation of other neurons. Miller alludes to

the neurotransmitter as a key that unlocks and turns on or off the next cell in the process much

like an automobile key would activate or deactivate the engine.

Neurotransmitters are specific to exciting or inhibiting the action of target neuronal cells.

These chemical neurotransmitters are generally segmented into amino acids (e.g., glutamate),
 Cognitive Neuroscience 7

chains of amino acids called peptides (e.g.,endorphins), and monoamines (like norepinephrine or

serotonin), all of which contribute to control of various hormones, proteins, and complex system

activations and are specific in affective function. As an example, the event of a fearful nature

similar to that described previously may introduce norepinephrine and epinephrine (or adrenalin

into the body via the adrenal medulla stimulating the fight or flight systems including higher

blood pressure, heart rate, breathing and the like.

System Interruption Analysis

Consider the interruption of neuronal connectivity as further explanation, or analysis, of

the importance of neural structure and neuron communications. For instance, as a method of

reducing intractable seizures, an epileptic patient has undergone a procedure severing the corpus

callosum (that web of nerve fiber interconnectivity between hemispheres). Suppose the patient

has been asked to draw a three dimensional form with the left hand, and he or she is successful in

completing the task. Yet, when the patient is asked to draw the same object with the right hand,

he or she is unsuccessful. It has long been understood that each hemisphere has specific

functional characteristics, stemming from research by Nobel Prize winner Roger Sperry and

others. This lateralization of the brain shows the distal hand movements, among other aspects,

are controlled by opposite hemispheres (e.g. left hand, right hemisphere). In-so-far as the

transcallocially projecting neurons, because of modern techniques the beginning and ending of

these projections can be positively identified. (Zaidel, Iacoboni, p. 140) Thus much more is

known about inter hemispherical communications and the role of the corpus callosum than ever

before. Vision is unique in that “objects perceived by one eye are sent simultaneously to both

hemispheres.” (Zaidel, Iacoboni, 2003). Essentially the thalamocortical pathway via the optic

chiasm permits this transfer. (Zaidel, Iacoboni) However, in cases where the corpus callosum has
 Cognitive Neuroscience 8

been severed completely (commissurotomy including complete division of splenium and tip)

functions, including visual and perception, may be disconnected. (Zaidel, Saidel, & Bogen) In

cases where some of the corpus callosum is retained (splenium), there is evidence that

reorganization within the brain may compensate for some functions. (Zaidel, Zaidel, & Bogen,

2008) Still, the two hemispheres process information specifically, with the left processing

language, speech, linear reasoning or logic, and skilled movement, while the right is responsible

for visuospacial, intuitive processing. In the case of the inability to draw a three dimensional

figure with the right hand, one could presume that the contralateral relationship of the right hand

with the left hemisphere interrupts this ability since the left hemisphere does not process the

visuospatial objects; that processing is lateralized to the right hemisphere as dominant . This is

predicated by the understanding that the image is exposed to the left and right visual fields

independently and no residual processing from these exposures and there is no communications

between the hemispheres. Further, it is assumed instructions are given without priming the left

hemisphere.

Imaging and Research

The whole of brain research has leapt forward with the technological advances providing in vivo,

non-invasive exploration of the mystic processes of this incredible organ. The introduction of

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and, subsequently functional magnetic resonance imaging

(fMRI) provide researchers the ability to peer inside humans in real time. In the effort to

understand the internal functions and structure of humans without invasively administering

substances or surgery, these techniques consist of exposing the subject to a very strong magnetic

field, then introducing a second electromagnetic radiofrequency field. The first exposure aligns

the water molecules (protons) with the magnetic field direction. The brief introduction of a radio
 Cognitive Neuroscience 9

frequency causes these protons to absorb energy and subsequently release that energy in a

frequency which can be monitored by the scanner. By measuring the times of tissue recovery

(signal decay) diseased or affected tissue may be contrasted from normal tissue indicating some

areas of further interest. Although contrast agents may be utilized (injected) to aid distinguishing

properties, the procedure is deemed very safe since no radiation in introduced in the subject. The

results are two or three dimensional, static images of anatomical structure.

Functional MRI

Moving forward in the quest to peer inside the human anatomy, fMRI dynamically

measures changes in actions of neurons in the brain (or other blood vessels in various parts of the

body). Neuronal activity is predisposed to increased blood flow. That blood carries oxygen and is

therefore an indication of that neurological activity. As activity is evident by function, this

technique allows observation of changes in the oxygenation, corresponding to the area of interest

following oxygenation and de-oxygenation of neurons There is a large volume of documentation

supporting corresponding findings between fMRI and other electrophysiological techniques

localizing specific functions of the human brain. (see: Atlas, 1996; Puce, 1995; Burgess, 1995;

Detre, et al, 1995; George, 1995; Ives,1993). Since neurosurgery and other fields rely on a

precise delineation of structural/functional aspects of the brain, the role for fMRI is very

significant. Evaluations of a variety of brain pathologies like injury, disease, malformations, even

some without structural brain changes (e.g. addictions) is facilitated. The main advantages to

fMRI as a technique to image brain activity (specific task or sensory process) include: the signal

does not require injections of radioactive isotopes; total scan time required short, 1.5 to 2.0 min

per run (depending on the paradigm); in-plane resolution of the functional image is significant

and is generally about 1.5 x 1.5 mm with resolutions less than 1 mm possible. Functional MRI
 Cognitive Neuroscience 10

can identify the location of normal brain function in order to allow surgeons to attempt to avoid

these areas during brain surgery, enable detection of a stroke at a very early stage so physicians

can initiate effective treatments earlier, and the technique allows detection of abnormalities that

might be obscured by bone tissue with other imaging methods.

Beyond the fact that exposure to radiation is avoided, fMRI studies can help physicians

monitor the growth and function of brain tumors and guide the planning of radiation therapy or

surgical treatment with images of the brain and other head structures that are clearer and more

detailed than images obtained with other methods. Of course there are disadvantages. System

variability, noise (radiological and other), susceptibility distortion and blurring, along with

interpretation bias and the significant cost demonstrate that the techniques are imperfect. Similar

the MRI, an undetected metal implant may be affected by the strong magnetic field, so patients

with mechanical devices (e.g. shunts and valves) are at risk. The possible risk of exposure to

magnetic fields is not specifically known; therefore fMRI is generally avoided in the first 12

weeks of pregnancy unless there is a strong medical reason for using the technique.

Perhaps the most interesting advance has been the introduction of simultaneous fMRI

scanning the researchers at Baylor, Emory and Princeton Universities call hyperscanning.

(Montague, Berns, Cohn, et.al. 2002) In this technique two subjects are concurrently engaged in

a behavioral social interaction while functional MRI is acquired simultaneously. This linkage

marks the expansion of neurological research into real time inquiries of the normal brain and the

exploration of individual differences, this the bane of psychological and neuropsychological

(among other fields) search for truth.

 Cognitive Neuroscience 11

References

Bloom, F.; Nelson, C.A. ; Lazerson, A. (2001). Brain, Mind and Behavior, 3rd edition. Worth

Publishers.

Etkin, A., Egner, T., Peraza, D.M., Kandel, E.R., Hirsch, J., Resolving emotional conflict: a

model for amygdalar modulation by the rostral anterior cingulate cortex, Neuron 2006, 51,

1–12. Retrieved (2008) from: http://www.fmri.org/pub.htm.

Hornak, J.P. (1996-2008) The Basics of MRI. Center for Imaging Science, Rochester Institute of

Technology, Rochester, NY Retrieved (2008) from: http://www.cis.rit.edu/htbooks/mri/

LeDoux, J.E., Phelps, E.A. In Handbook of Emotions (2nd ed.) Lewis, M., Haviland-Jones, J.M.

(eds.) (2000), p. 157-172. The Guilford Press, NY.

Miller, M. (ed.) (2008) Brain Facts: A Primer on the Brain and Nervous System. Society for

Neuroscience.Washington, DC. Retrieved (2008) from:

http://www.sfn.org/skins/main/pdf/brainfacts/2008/brain_facts.pdf

Montague, P.R., Berns, G.S., Cohen, J.D., McClure, S.M., Pagnoni, G., Dhamala, M.,Wiest,

M.C.,Karpov, I., King, R.D., Apple, N., Fisher, R.E. (2002) Hyperscanning: Simultaneous

fMRI during Linked Social Interations. NeuroImage 16, 1159-1164.

Noll, D. C. (2001) A Primer on MRI and Functional MRI (version 2.1, 6/21/01)

Departments of Biomedical Engineering and Radiology, University of Michigan, Ann

Arbor, MI 48109. Retrieved (November, 2008) from:

http://www.eecs.umich.edu/~dnoll/primer2.pdf.

Zaidel, E.,Iacoboni, M. (2003) The Parallel Brain: The Cognitive Neuroscience of the Corpus

Callosum. Contributor Marco Iacoboni, MIT Press: MA.

 Cognitive Neuroscience 12

Zaidel, E.,Zaidel, D.W., Bogen, J.E. (2008) The Split Brain. Retrieved (2008) from:

Http://www.its.caltech.edu/~jbogen/text/refl30.htm.