Int. J. Cur. Tr.

Res (2013) 2 (1): 193-201

ISSN: 2278-8042
www.injctr.com

Occupational hazards associated with geothermal

development activities in menengai prospect,
Kenya
Fankey, A.S*1 , J.G. Githiri2 and C. Mburu1
Institute for Energy and Environmental Technology1, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology,
Nairobi, Kenya.
Department of Physics2, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Nairobi, Kenya.

Received: 5 June 2013/ Accepted: 25 June 2013/ Published online 29 June 2013.

© INJCTR – 2013

ABSTRACT
Kenya’s population has been growing very fast compared to available energy sources. Overdependence on hydroelectric
power which relies on water availability is a big challenge. Alternative energy sources including geothermal energy has
received great attention of late. Despite the significant role geothermal energy may play in enhancing domestic consumption,
its exploitation may pose various occupational safety and health challenges. However, there is insufficient empirical data to
show that the development of geothermal resources requires that this renewable energy be carefully developed to avoid or
minimize the many occupational hazards that may be associated with the various stages of exploitation. The purpose of this
study was to determine the occupational hazards associated with geothermal development activities in Menengai prospect,
Kenya and specifically determine the types of occupational hazards in all the stages of geothermal development in Menengai
prospect. The study population consisted of a census of two hundred and fifty (250) employees of Geothermal Development
Company, Central Rift Region, from various departments who are mainly involved in the various stages of geothermal
development and are exposed to various hazards in the course of their duties. Data was collected through questionnaires and
observation schedules and summarized based on the objectives. The study was conducted using a cross-sectional descriptive
survey design. Data was later subjected to statistical analysis using SPSS computer software and analyzed descriptively.
Qualitative data was analyzed qualitatively using content analysis based on analysis of meanings and implications emanating
from respondents information and documented data. Descriptive methods were employed in analyzing quantitative data
where frequencies and proportions were used. The most common hazard as indicated by the respondents was dust and
exposure to dangerous machinery.

Key words: Occupational hazards, geothermal, exploitation.

Introduction
Kenya’s population has been growing very fast
compared to available energy sources. Overdependence
on hydroelectric power which relies on water availability
is a big challenge. Alternative energy sources including
Geothermal energy has received great attention of late.
According to the International Geothermal Association,
2005, there were 8,933 MW of installed power capacity
in 24 countries, generating 55,709 GWh per year of
green power. IGA reports in 2010 that 10,715 MW
is on line generating 67,246 GWh. This represents a
20%increase in geothermal power on line between 2005
and 2010 (Holm Blodgett et al., 2010). Ten countries in
Europe were listed as having geothermal projects under
development in 2007, and in 2010 this has more than
doubled to 24 (A. Holm, 2010). Africa is endowed with
substantial renewable energy resources with more than
18000 Megawatt of geothermal potential. Prospects for
the wide scale development and dissemination of
renewable energy technologies due to increase in the
human population and demand for energy use, as well as
the consequent environmental and health impacts of
other sources of energy have led to interest in finding
new energy sources that are renewable and have
reduced greenhouse gas emissions such as geothermal

Corresponding author*
E.mail: fankey_osman@yahoo.com
193 Fankey et al., Int. J. Cur. Tr. Res (2013) 2 (1): 193-201
energy (Karekezi and Waeni Kithyoma. All chemical
and physical agents associated with geothermal energy
development that might affect public health will affect
geothermal workers first. In addition, other hazards are
unique to geothermal operations. Occupational health
hazards in each operation of geothermal energy
development are divided into six categories: exploration,
drilling, steam field development, power production,
maintenance and emergencies and direct use of
geothermal fluids in energy production. Some hazards in
geothermal energy development power production
result directly from pollution abatement. In power
production, exposure to H2S and hazardous chemicals
and wastes result partly from the particular control
technology used to abate the H2S emissions. However, in
geothermal drilling, hazards only result from the
geothermal fluid and drilling methods. Ideally, the use of
regenerative chemicals to treat geothermal steam before
entry into power plants will reduce hazards associated
with current control technologies (Hahn, 1979).
We can recover heat as steam or hot water and use
it to heat buildings or generate electricity. It is a
renewable energy source because the heat is
continuously produced inside the Earth. Geothermal
energy is the natural heat from the earth’s interior stored
in rocks and water within the earth’s crust. It is
generated in the Earth's core which is hotter than the
surface of the sun. It constitutes the remainder of the
iron-nickel core. Temperatures hotter than the sun's
surface (temperatures there reach 62000C) are
continuously produced inside the Earth by the slow
decay of radioactive particles, a process that happens in
all rocks. The Earth has a number of different layers:
a)The core itself has two layers: a solid iron core and an
outer core made of very hot melted rock, called magma,
b) The mantle surrounds the core and is about 1,800
miles thick. It is made up of magma and rock and c) The
crust is the outermost layer of the Earth, the land that
forms the continents and ocean floors. It can be 3 to 5
miles thick under the oceans and 15 to 35 miles thick on
the continents. The main source of this energy is the
constant flow of heat from the earth’s interior to the
surface. This heat creates the molten rock, or magma,
beneath the surface crust. Geothermal energy is
therefore natural heat from the earth’s interior stored in
rocks and water within the earth’s crust and volcanoes,
geysers, hot springs and fumaroles are the visible
evidence of the great reservoir of heat, which lies within
and beneath the earth’s crust. The magma heats the
surrounding rock structures and when underground
water comes into contact with this heat, geothermal fluid
is formed. This energy can be extracted by drilling wells
to tap concentrations of steam at high pressures and at
depths shallow enough to be economically justifiable.
The steam is then led by pipes to drive electricity-
generating turbines. At an international level,
approximately 8,100 MW of geothermal power is
generated, out of a global potential of 60,000 MW
(Maarita, 2002; Bronicki, 2001).
The Earth's crust is broken into pieces called plates
which are always in constant motion. The plate tectonic
theory is based on a belief that the earth's surface is
broken into a number of shifting slabs or plates, which
average about 80 to 400 miles (50 to 250 km) thick.
According to the Plate tectonics theory, the surface of
the Earth consists of a series of relatively thin, but rigid,
plates which are in constant motion relative to one
another because of the convection currents in the
Earth’s mantle and outer core. The plates are described
as either divergent plate movement, Convergent Plate
Movement or Lateral Slipping (Transform) Plate
Movement in nature. Magma comes close to the Earth's
surface near the edges of these plates. This is where
volcanoes occur. The lava that erupts from volcanoes is
partly magma. Deep underground, the rocks and water
absorb the heat from this magma. The temperature of
the rocks and water gets hotter and hotter as you go
deeper underground. People around the world use
geothermal energy to heat their homes and to produce
electricity by digging deep wells and pumping the heated
underground water or steam to the surface. We can also
make use of the stable temperatures near the surface of
the Earth to heat and cool buildings (National Energy
Education Development Project nd). Naturally
occurring large areas of hydrothermal resources are
called geothermal reservoirs. Most geothermal
reservoirs are deep underground with no visible clues
showing above ground. But geothermal energy
sometimes finds its way to the surface in the form of: (a)
volcanoes and fumaroles (holes where volcanic gases are
released), (b) hot springs, (c) geysers (d) most
geothermal resources are near plate boundaries
(National Energy Education Development Project nd).
The most active geothermal resources are usually
found along major plate boundaries where earthquakes
and volcanoes are concentrated. Most of the geothermal
activity in the world occurs in an area called the Ring of
Fire. This area encircles the Pacific Ocean (U.S.
Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency & Renewable
Energy nd). Geothermal energy can be used to provide
heat for heating, ventilating and air conditioning
(HVAC) or other purposes, as well as for power
generation. It has the potential to play an important role
in the transition from fossil fuels to energy sources that
have minor environmental impacts (Mariita, 2002;
Bronicki, 2001). Most of Africa’s geothermal resources
are located in its Rift Valley. The Rift Valley spans
about 6,000 KMs across East Africa and runs through
Kenya, Ethiopia, Djibouti, Eritrea, Tanzania, Uganda,
and Zambia (Karekezi & Ranja, 1997).
Int. J. Cur. Tr. Res (2013) 2 (1): 193- 201 Fankey et al., 195

Figure 1: Internal layers of the earth based on composition

Source: (National Energy Education Development Project nd)

Internal Layers Based on Composition

Only Kenya has exploited the geothermal
potential of the Great Rift Valley and has one of the
highest potentials for geothermal resources in East
Africa. Current resource estimates of the resource
stands at more than 10,000 Megawatts electric
energy (MWe) and has fourteen potential drilling
sites marked for survey in addition to three
operational geothermal plants. Kenya was the first
country in Africa to adopt geothermal energy, in
1956, and houses the largest geothermal power plant
on the continent, Olkaria II. Geothermal energy for
electricity generation is likely to become
increasingly important in Kenya in the future. There
are numerous centers (14) of thermal activity in the
country, particularly within the Rift Valley. The
experience gained so far at Olkaria shows that
environmental problems can be adequately
addressed, though constant monitoring is necessary
for occupational hazards that may arise from the
various development stages or processes. (Karekezi
and Ranja, 1997). However, even with the increased
demand for renewable energy such as geothermal,
there are limited documented and empirical studies
ascertaining the associated occupational hazards,
especially in developing countries like Kenya and in
particular, Menengai geothermal prospect. This is
regardless of the increased exploitation and
geothermal activities in this country that are being
undertaken currently. This study was therefore
carried out to evaluate the occupational hazards
associated with geothermal development activities
in Menengai prospect, Kenya.
Methodology
Study location
Menengai geothermal prospect is situated
within the Eastern sector of the African Rift system,
about 180 km North West of Nairobi, Kenya. The
geothermal resource area estimated to cover about
48 km2 is centered at the Menengai Caldera floor
and the geothermal energy potential of the
Menengai prospect area is estimated to be about
196 Fankey et al., Int. J. Cur. Tr. Res (2013) 2 (1): 193-201

1600 MW. (GDC steam magazine, March-June 2012
issue). The prospect is the first field to be opened in
a big way outside the traditional Olkaria field in
Kenya and was started in 2009 with the aim of
harnessing geothermal energy in line with the
government’s vision 2030 of sustainable energy for
economic growth and hence a new site.
Research design
The study was conducted using a cross-sectional
descriptive survey design to assess the occupational
hazards associated with geothermal development
activities in Menengai prospect.
Population of the Study
The study population consisted of a census of the
employees of Geothermal Development Company of
Central Rift and including staffs from the
departments of drilling, reservoir, infrastructure,
geology, geochemistry, administration and
environment and safety who are mainly involved in
the various stages of geothermal development on day
to day basis and are exposed to various hazards. The
total population of the study was 250 people obtained
from seven main departments as shown in figure 2;
table 1.

Figure 2: Menengai Prospect area in Kenyan Rift Source: Geothermal sites in Kenya

Table 1 staffs from various GDC departments

Department No. of staff Total to be sampled
1. Drilling 150 100%
2. Reservoir 16 100%
3. Infrastructure 20 100%
4. Geology 20 100%
5. Geochemistry 24 100%
6. Administration 10 100%
7. Environment & safety 10 100%
Total 250 100%
Source: GDC Human Resource Department, June 2011
Int. J. Cur. Tr. Res (2013) 2 (1): 193- 201 Fankey et al., 197

Instrumentation involved screening the data with the view of

Data was collected through questionnaires and
observation schedule developed by the researcher.
The instruments were designed for each specific
hazard and some information was collected from the
respondents by asking them specific questions by use
of face- to- face interview. Answers were recorded in
the questionnaire and observation schedule
respectively.Secondary data from existing records
was also used.
Data collection procedure
All necessary research protocols was observed
and followed as required. Permission to conduct
research at Menengai Geothermal prospect was
sought from the area manager, central rift region.
The participants at the study area were informed in
advance to prepare them to participate in the study.
Questionnaires were administered and participants
completed them in the presence of the researcher.
Observation schedules and face-to-face interviews
were also conducted. The researchers then collected
the completed questionnaires and interview
schedules for data processing.
Data Analysis
The research data was subjected to coding and
editing after the actual collection of data was done.
It is imperative that the categories of respondents
that were subjected to research tools varied
according to their duties and responsibilities.
Therefore, the questionnaires were sorted and
classified on the basis of the category. This also
checking the consistency and correctness of
information collected. This was followed by data
classification and tabulation. Data was later
subjected to statistical analysis using SPSS computer
software. Data was analyzed descriptively.
Qualitative data was analyzed qualitatively using
content analysis based on analysis of meanings and
implications emanating from respondents
information and documented data. As observed by
Gray (2004), qualitative data provides rich
descriptions and explanations that demonstrate the
chronological flow of events as well as often leading
to serendipitous (chance) findings. Descriptive
methods were employed in analyzing quantitative
data where frequencies and proportions were used
in interpreting the respondent’s perception of issues
raised in the questionnaires so as to answer the
research questions. Descriptive statistics such as
frequency distribution, percentages, means and
standard deviations was calculated and data
presented in form of tables, graphs and charts.
Results and Discussions
Response Rate
The study targeted the employees of
Geothermal Development Company of Central Rift
including staffs from the departments of drilling,
reservoir, infrastructure, geology, geochemistry,
administration and environment. Out of the 250
questionnaires that were to be filled by the
respondents in this study, 240 were completed and
returned. This was a response rate of 96%(Table 2).

Table 2 Response rate

Department Questionnaires Questionnaires Percentage

administered administered and
returned
1. Drilling 150 146 97.3%

2. Reservoir 16 16 100%
3. Infrastructure 20 19 95%
4. Geology 20 18 90%
5. Geochemistry 24 22 91.7%

6. Administration 10 10 100%
7. Environment & safety 10 9 90%
Total 250 240 96%

According to Mugenda and Mugenda (1999) a response rate for this study can be said to be very
50% response rate is adequate, 60% good and above good at 96%.
70% rated very good. Based on this assertion the
198 Fankey et al., Int. J. Cur. Tr. Res (2013) 2 (1): 193-201

Demographic Information Figure 3 Respondents gender

In order to achieve the main purpose of this

study, the researcher found it useful to find out the 17.50%(
demographic information of the respondents. The Female)
demographic information of the respondents
included gender, age, professional qualification,
department and work experience. 82.50%
(Male)
Distribution of Respondents by Gender
The study sought to find out the respondents
gender where the study findings indicated that the
respondents profile comprised of 17.5% female and Figure 3. Respondents gender
82.5% male as displayed in figure 3.

Respondents distribution by Age

Based on the study findings, majority (44%) of Analysis of findings also indicated that 18% of the
the respondents were in the age bracket of 31-40 respondents were over 40 years of age. Minority (9%)
years while 29% were in the age bracket of 26-30 had less than 25 years as indicated in figure 4.
years.
Figure 4 Respondents Age

44%
45%
40%
35% 29%
30%
25% 18%
20%
15% 9%
10%
5%
0%
<25 Years 26-30 Years 31-40 Years >40 Years

Education Qualification

Analysis of the findings indicated that 43% of the
respondents had attained a university degree in
their areas of specialization while 41% of the
respondents at least had a diploma award in their
respective areas. The study findings further
indicated that 9% had masters’ degree and 7% had a
certificate. The analysis therefore indicates that the
respondents are suitable in answering the questions
as presented in the research instruments. The
findings of the study are displayed in figure 5.
Work experience
The respondents were asked to indicate
the years they have worked in the GDC Menengai
project. Based on study findings, majority (48%)
of the respondents had worked in the company for a
period of 1-2 years while 41% of the respondents had
worked for over two years. Generally all
respondents had worked in the company for a
period not exceeding two and a half years. This is
supported by the fact that the geothermal was
started in 2009 with the aim of harnessing
geothermal energy in line with the government’s
vision 2030 of sustainable energy for economic
growth and hence a new site. Figure 6 shows the
findings of the study.
Int. J. Cur. Tr. Res (2013) 2 (1): 193- 201 Fankey et al., 199

Stage of GDC work the drilling stage which concurs with report by GDC
steam magazine, 2010 while 7% of the respondents
The study findings indicated that 93% of the were of the view that the GDC work was in the
respondents were of the view that GDC work was in prospecting stage as depicted by figure 7.

Figure 5 Respondents level of qualification

41% 43%
50%
40%
30%
20% 9%
7%
10%
0%
Certficate Diploma Degree Masters degree

Figure 6 Work experience in years

11%
41%
< 1 Year

1-2 Years
48%
> 2Years

Figure 7 Stage of GDC work

93%

100%

80%

60%

40%
7%
20%

0%
Prospecting Drilling
200 Fankey et al., Int. J. Cur. Tr. Res (2013) 2 (1): 193-201
Types of Occupational Hazards
According to the analysis, the most common
hazard as indicated by 63% and 57% of the
respondents was dust and exposure to dangerous
machinery respectively. The other common hazards
that the employees were exposed to included
unpleasant smell and corrosive or dangerous
chemicals as indicated by 52% and 42% of
Table 3 Types of occupational hazards
Hazards Frequency
High levels of noise 106
High temperatures
Unpleasant smells
Dust
Wet and damp work
environment
Corrosive or dangerous
chemicals
Slippery floors
Worn out floors
Trailing cables on the floor
No handrails on stairs
Falling objects
Dangerous machinery
In order of the significance the hazards that the
employees are exposed to included dust, dangerous
machinery, falling objects and noise. The protective
measures against the hazards as mentioned by
respondents include use of helmets, ear muffs,
goggles, aprons, safety boots, and gloves among
other protective gears.
According to the analysis, the most common
hazards as indicated by the respondents are dust and
exposure to dangerous machinery respectively. The
other common hazards that the employees are
exposed to included unpleasant smell and corrosive
or dangerous chemicals. According to analysis,
majority of the employees had been injured at work
in the last one year and some of them have
developed health conditions which are attributed to
the fact that the work environment is unsafe. In
order of the significance the hazards that the
employees are exposed to included dust, dangerous
machinery, falling objects and noise. The protective
measures against the hazards as mentioned by
respondents include use of helmets, ear muffs,
goggles, aprons, safety boots, and gloves among
other protective gear. Other hazards mentioned by
the respondents included high temperatures, wet
and damp work environment, corrosive or
respondents. This is in agreement with the findings
of Marrita, 2002; Bronicki, 2001; Hahn,1979, which
indicate that exposure to noise, H2S, NH3,
hazardous chemicals and wastes, dusts and heat are
the major occupational health hazards associated
with geothermal energy development-from drilling
to power production (Table 3).
Percentage
44%
91 38%
125 52%
151 63%
89 37%
101 42%
50 21%
82 34%
96 40%
79 33%
115 48%
137 57%
dangerous chemicals, slippery floors, worn out
floors, trailing cables on the floor, no handrails on
stairs and falling objects respectively.
Conclusions
Based on the findings, the study concluded that
exposure to noise, H2S, hazardous chemicals and
wastes, noise and heat were the major occupational
health hazards associated with geothermal energy
development. Primary sources of noise associated
with exploration include earth-moving equipment
(related to road, well pad, and sump pit
construction), vehicle traffic, seismic surveys,
blasting, and drill rig operations.
The study also concluded that geothermal
development emits poisonous gases which is a
health hazard to employees, for instance H2S is a
poisonous gas with a pungent smell similar to that of
rotten eggs. Workers exposed to levels higher than
the recommended limits of 10ppm can easily get
irritated, chocked and eventually die if proper
measures are not taken immediately to remove
them from the vicinity. From the findings, the study
concluded that the work environment in the GDC is
Int. J. Cur. Tr. Res (2013) 2 (1): 193- 201 Fankey et al.,
not conducive to good health. The respondents
expressed dissatisfaction with the ventilation of
rooms, lighting and overcrowding.
According to the findings, it was concluded that
the employees in GDC Menengai project were
being provided with nearly all the necessary
equipment as indicated by majority of the
respondents minority of the respondents indicated
that they were provided with few of the necessary
resources. It was also concluded that the
replacement of worn out protective gear was done
at irregular intervals which exposed the employees
to hazardous conditions as they wait for
replacements.Arising from the findings, the study
recommends that the employees should be provided
with all the necessary equipment and protective
gears for their work. Such protective gear includes;
helmets, ear muffs, goggles, aprons, safety boots,
and gloves among other protective gear. The study
also recommends that the replacement of worn out
protective gear should be done immediately or at
regular intervals to ensure that the employees are
always protected. Based on the findings, the study
recommends that the employees should be trained
on aspects of occupational safety and health. Such
areas of training include; firefighting and prevention
skills, occupational safety and health and first aid.
This is because the study revealed that a large
proportion of the employees had not been trained in
those areas contrary to the provisions of OSHA
(2007). From the findings, the company should
conduct a risk assessment to identify the potential
hazards in the organization and measures that can
be taken to control the hazards that could arise in
the work place. All groups of people and individuals
in the vicinity of the organization including visitors,
contractors and temporary workers should be given
information regarding health and safety. The
analysis of the empirical study has indicated a
number of relevant issues that the study did not
investigate, but which might be important for
further research on occupational hazards associated
with geothermal development activities. Firstly, this
study was conducted at Menengai geothermal
project; other studies should involve more
geothermal projects in Kenya and explore the
occupational hazards faced by employees. A study
should also be undertaken to investigate the safety
hazard that geothermal activities poses to the
surrounding community.
Acknowledgement
First and foremost, I would like to thank our
Almighty Allah whose powerful handled me
201
throughout the study period. I would also like to
acknowledge the encouragement given by my family
and friends throughout the study period and to all
those, who, in one way or another, contributed to
the success of this study, I say, “May Allah bless you
all abundantly”.I would also wish to acknowledge
the entire JKUAT fraternity and particularly the
humble contribution of my university supervisors
for their scholarly comments and value added
insights that guided me through the process of
writing this research project.
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