Magnetohydrodynamic Waves

Nick Murphy

Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics

Astronomy 253: Plasma Astrophysics

February 17, 2016

These slides are largely based off of §4.5 and §4.8 of The Physics of Plasmas by Boyd & Sanderson (see also
Chapter 6), Wikipedia articles on the wave equation and eigenstuff, Chapter 5 of Principles of
Magnetohydrodynamics by Goedbloed and Poedts, lecture notes by Steve Cranmer, and a discussion with
plasma wave expert Mahboubeh Asgari-Targhi. Extensive discussion of waves beyond MHD is included in
Plasma Waves by D. G. Swanson and Waves in Plasmas by T. Stix.
Outline

I The 1D wave equation

I Algebraic solution
I Eigenmode solution
I Sound waves
I Linearization of equations of hydrodynamics
I Derivation of dispersion relationship
I MHD waves
I Linearization of MHD equations
I Introduce displacement vector ξ and MHD force operator F(ξ)
I Derivation of dispersion relationship
I Shear Alfvén, fast magnetosonic, and slow magnetosonic waves
I Observations of MHD waves
I Solar corona
I Space plasmas
I Laboratory experiments
Why do we care about waves?

I Waves are ubiquitous in magnetized plasmas

I Just as sound waves are ubiquitous in air
I Waves are the simplest way that a system responds to
disturbances and applied forces
I Waves propagate information and energy through a system
I Waves are closely related to shocks, instabilities, and
turbulence
I Plasmas display a rich variety of waves within and beyond
MHD
Applications of waves in plasma astrophysics

I Space physics
I Earth’s ionosphere, magnetosphere, and solar wind
environment
I Solar and stellar physics
I Coronal heating
I Acceleration of solar and stellar winds
I Molecular clouds and star formation
I Interstellar medium
I Cosmic ray acceleration and transport
I Accretion disks and jets
I Pulsar magnetospheres

Whenever a plasma is disturbed, there will be waves!

Example: the 1D wave equation

I The wave equation for u in one dimension is

∂2u 2
2∂ u
= c (1)
∂t 2 ∂x 2
where c is a real constant that represents the wave speed
I The solutions are waves traveling at velocities of ±c
I The wave equation is a hyperbolic partial differential equation
I Connection to conservation laws
The algebraic solution to the 1D wave equation
I Define two new variables

ξ(x, t) = x − ct η(x, t) = x + ct (2)

I Rewrite the wave equation as

∂2u
=0 (3)
∂ξ ∂η
I The solutions are then

u(ξ, η) = R(ξ) + L(η) (4)

u(x, t) = R(x − ct) + L(x + ct) (5)

where R and L are arbitrary functions traveling at velocities

±c (to the right and to the left)
Eigenmode decomposition of the 1D wave equation

I Use separation of variables and look for solutions of the form

uω (x, t) = e −iωt f (x) (6)

I Plug this solution into the wave equation

∂ 2  −iωt 2 ∂
2 
e −iωt f (x)
 
2
e f (x) = c 2
(7)
∂t ∂x
d2
−ω 2 e −iωt f (x) = c 2 e −iωt 2 f (x) (8)
dx
d 2
−k 2 f (x) = f (x) (9)
dx 2
where k = ω/c. This is an eigenvalue equation for f (x).
d2
I Next: identify eigenfunctions of the differential operator dx 2
with corresponding eigenvalue −k 2 .
Eigenmode decomposition of the 1D wave equation
I Look for solutions of the form

f (x) = Ae ±ikx (10)

I The solution to the wave equation for this eigenmode is

uω (x, t) = Ae −ikx−iωt + Be ikx−iωt (11)

I Recall Euler’s formula

e ix = cos x + i sin x (12)

I Take the real part of Eq. 11 to get

uω (x, t) = A cos (kx + ωt) + B cos (kx − ωt) (13)

The solutions are waves propagating in the ±x directions. Use

Fourier techniques to find the full solution.
Definitions

I The lines in the u-x plane on which x − ct or x + ct are

constant are called characteristics
I The wave vector k points in the direction of wave
propagation and has a magnitude of k = 2π/λ where λ is the
wavelength
I The phase velocity is the rate at which the phase of a wave
propagates through space
ω
Vp = (14)
k

I The group velocity is the rate at which the overall shape of

the waves’ amplitudes propagates through space
∂ω
Vg = (15)
∂k
Finding the dispersion relationship for sound waves

I Represent variables as the sum of a background component

(denoted ‘0’) and a small perturbed component (denoted ‘1’)

ρ(r, t) = ρ0 + ρ1 (r, t) (16)

p(r, t) = p0 + p1 (r, t) (17)
V(r, t) = V1 (r, t) (18)

I Assume the background is homogeneous, time-independent,

and static (V0 = 0)
I Look for solutions proportional to e i(k·r−ωt)
I Solve for a dispersion relationship that connects the wave
vector k with the angular frequency ω
Linearizing the equations of hydrodynamics
I The equations of hydrodynamics are
∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρV) = 0 (19)
 ∂t 
∂
ρ + V · ∇ V + ∇p = 0 (20)
∂t
∂p
+ V · ∇p + γp∇ · V = 0 (21)
∂t
I Linearize the equations. Drop higher order terms. Use that
the background is constant.
∂ρ1
+ ρ0 ∇ · V 1 = 0 (22)
∂t
∂V1
ρ0 + ∇p1 = 0 (23)
∂t
∂p1
+ γp0 ∇ · V1 = 0 (24)
∂t
Linearizing our first equation

I We start out with the continuity equation

∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρV) = 0 (25)
∂t
Substitute in ρ(r, t) = ρ0 + ρ1 (r, t) and V(r, t) = V1 (r, t).

∂ρ0 ∂ρ1
+ + ∇ · (ρ0 V1 ) + ∇ · (ρ1 V1 ) = 0 (26)
∂t
|{z} ∂t | {z }
=0 second order
∂ρ1
+ ∇ · (ρ0 V1 ) = 0 (27)
∂t
∂ρ0
I We dropped ∂t because the background is time-independent
I We dropped ∇ · (ρ1 V1 ) because ρ1 and V1 are both small, so
the product resulting from this second order term will be
negligibly small.
Deriving a wave equation for hydrodynamics

I Take the time derivative of Eq. 23

∂ 2 V1 ∂p1
ρ0 +∇ =0 (28)
∂t ∂t
∂p1
I Then substitute ∂t = −γp0 ∇ · V1 from Eq. 24 to get a wave
equation
∂ 2 V1
− cs2 ∇ (∇ · V1 ) = 0 (29)
∂t 2
where the sound speed is

γp0
r
cs ≡ (30)
ρ0
Assume that the solution is a superposition of plane waves
I Assume plane wave solutions of the form
X
V1 (r, t) = V̂k ei(k·r−ωt) (31)
k

I Differential operators turn into multiplications with algebraic

factors
∂
∇ → ik, → −iω (32)
∂t
I The problem is linear and homogeneous, so we consider each
component separately.
I The wave equation then becomes

∂ 2 V1
− cs2 ∇ (∇ · V1 ) = 0
∂t 2
(−iω)2 V1 − cs2 (ik) (ik · V1 ) = 0
ω 2 V1 − cs2 k (k · V1 ) = 0 (33)
The dispersion relationship for sound waves

I Choose coordinates so that k = kz ẑ, which then implies that

V1 = V1z ẑ. Eq. 33 becomes

ω 2 − kz2 cs2 Vz1 = 0

(34)

I The non-trivial solutions are

ω = ±kz cs (35)
Find the phase velocity and group velocity

I The dispersion relationship is

ω = ±kz cs (36)

I The phase velocity and group velocity are

ω
Vp ≡ = ±cs (37)
kz
∂ω
Vg ≡ = ±cs (38)
∂k
I Sound waves are compressional because ∇ · V1 6= 0
I Sound waves are longitudinal because V1 and k are parallel
How do we derive the dispersion relation for MHD waves?1

I Linearize the equations of ideal MHD.

I Take a Lagrangian approach
I Partially integrate the equations with respect to time
I Write equations in terms of the displacement from equilibrium
I Assume solutions proportional to e −i(k·r−ωt)
I Derive a dispersion relationship that relates k and ω
I Investigate the properties of the three resulting wave modes

1
Here we follow Boyd & Sanderson §4.5 and §4.8.
Begin with the equations of ideal MHD

I The continuity, momentum, induction, and adiabatic energy

equations are
∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρV) = 0 (39)
 ∂t 
∂ J×B
ρ +V·∇ V = − ∇p (40)
∂t c
∂B
= ∇ × (V × B) (41)
 ∂t
∂
+V·∇ p = −γρ∇ · V (42)
∂t
The linearized equations of ideal MHD

I The continuity, momentum, induction, and adiabatic energy

equations are linearized to become
∂ρ1
= −V1 · ∇ρ0 − ρ0 ∇ · V1 (43)
∂t
∂V1 (∇ × B1 ) × B0
ρ0 = − ∇p1 (44)
∂t 4π
∂B1
= ∇ × (V1 × B0 ) (45)
∂t
∂p1
= −V1 · ∇p0 − γp0 ∇ · V1 (46)
∂t
Here we ignored second and higher order terms and used
Ampere’s law.
I The terms −V1 · ∇ρ0 and −V1 · ∇p0 vanish if we assume the
background is uniform
The displacement vector, ξ, describes how much the
plasma is displaced from the equilibrium state2

I If ξ(r, t = 0) = 0, then the displacement vector is

Z t
ξ(r, t) ≡ V1 (r, t 0 ) dt 0 (47)
0

I Its time derivative is the perturbed velocity,

∂ξ
= V1 (r, t) (48)
∂t
2
A side benefit of using slides is that I do not have to try writing ξ on the
chalkboard.
Integrate the continuity equation with respect to time

I Put the linearized continuity equation with a uniform

background in terms of ξ
∂ρ1
= −V1 · ∇ρ0 − ρ0 ∇ · V1 (49)
∂t
∂ξ ∂ξ
= − · ∇ρ0 − ρ0 ∇ · (50)
∂t ∂t
I Integrate this with respect to time
Z t Z t 
∂ρ1 0 ∂ξ ∂ξ
0
dt = − 0
· ∇ρ0 − ρ0 ∇ · 0
dt 0 (51)
0 ∂t 0 ∂t ∂t

which leads to a solution for ρ1 in terms of just ξ

ρ1 (r, t) = −ξ(r, t) · ∇ρ0 − ρ0 ∇ · ξ(r, t) (52)

We can similarly put the linearized induction and energy
equations in terms of ξ

I Integrating the linearized equations with respect to time yields

solutions for the perturbed density, magnetic field, and plasma
pressure:

ρ1 (r, t) = −ξ(r, t) · ∇ρ0 − ρ0 ∇ · ξ(r, t) (53)

 
ξ(r, t) × B0 (r)
B1 (r, t) = ∇ × (54)
c
p1 (r, t) = −ξ(r, t) · ∇p0 (r) − γp0 (r)∇ · ξ(r, t) (55)

The perturbed density ρ1 doesn’t appear in the other

equations, which form a closed set
I However, we still have the momentum equation to worry
about!
The linearized momentum equation in terms of ξ and F[ξ]

I Using the solutions for ρ1 , B1 , and p1 we arrive at

∂2ξ
ρ0 = F[ξ(r, t)] (56)
∂t 2
which is reminiscent of Newton’s second law
I The ideal MHD force operator is

F(ξ) = ∇(ξ · ∇p0 + γp0 ∇ · ξ)

1
+ (∇ × B0 ) × [∇ × (ξ × B0 ]
4π
1
+ {[∇ × ∇ × (ξ × B0 )] × B0 } (57)
4π
which is a function of the displacement vector ξ and
equilibrium fields, but not of V1 = ∂ξ
∂t .
Building up intuition for the displacement vector ξ and
force operator F(ξ)

I The displacement vector ξ gives the direction and distance

a parcel of plasma is displaced from the equilibrium state

I The force operator F(ξ) gives the direction and magnitude

of the force on a parcel of plasma when it is displaced by ξ

Discussion question: What is the sign of ξ · F(ξ)

when the configuration is unstable? Why?
Deriving the dispersion relation for MHD waves

I Assume that the plasma is uniform and infinite

I Perform a Fourier analysis by assuming solutions of the form
X
ξ (r, t) = ξ (k, ω) e −i(k·r−ωt) (58)
k,ω

I The linearized momentum equation,

∂2ξ
ρ0 = F (ξ (r, t)) , (59)
∂t 2
then becomes
{k × [k × (ξ × B0 )]} × B0
ρ0 ω 2 ξ = kγp0 (k · ξ) + (60)
4π
Deriving the dispersion relation for MHD waves
I Choose Cartesian axes such that

k = k⊥ ŷ + kk ẑ (61)

I Expanding the vector products yields

 
ω 2 − kk2 VA2 ξx = 0 (62)
ω 2 − k⊥
2 2
cs − k 2 VA2 ξy − k⊥ kk cs2 ξz


= 0 (63)
−k⊥ kk cs2 ξy + ω 2 − kk cs2 ξz


= 0 (64)

where cs is the sound speed

I The Alfvén speed is defined as
s
B02
VA ≡ (65)
4πρ0
The dispersion relation for MHD waves

I To get a non-trivial solution (ξ 6= 0), we need

 
ω 2 − kk2 VA2 0 0
det  0 ω 2 − k⊥2 c 2 − k 2V 2 −k⊥ kk cs2  = 0
 
s A
0 −k⊥ kk cs2 ω 2 − kk2 cs2
(66)
I Eq. 66 reduces to the dispersion relation for MHD waves
 h i
ω 2 − kk2 VA2 ω 4 − k 2 cs2 + VA2 ω 2 + k 2 kk2 cs2 VA2 = 0

(67)
Non-trivial solutions of the dispersion relation for MHD
waves
I The solution corresponding to shear Alfvén waves is

ω 2 = kk2 VA2 (68)

I The solution corresponding to slow and fast magnetosonic

waves is
1
h √ i
ω 2 = k 2 cs2 + VA2 1 ± 1 − δ (69)
2
where δ is
4kk2 cs2 VA2
δ≡
2 , 0≤δ≤1 (70)
k 2 cs2 + VA2

I All three solutions are real

I No growth or decay
I No dissipation or free energy
Shear Alfvén and magnetosonic waves

I Left: Shear Alfvén waves propagating parallel to B0

I The displacement ξ is orthogonal to B0 and k
I These are transverse waves
I Right: A magnetosonic wave propagating orthogonal to B0
I The displacement ξ is parallel to k but orthogonal to B0
I These are longitudinal waves
Properties of the shear Alfvén wave

I The dispersion relationship is ω 2 = kk2 VA2

I The wave is transverse
I The restoring force is magnetic tension
I No propagation orthogonal to B0
I The displacement vector ξ = ξx x̂ is orthogonal to both
B0 = B0 ẑ and k = k⊥ ŷ + kk ẑ
I Shear Alfvén waves are incompressible
I Since k · ξ = 0, the linearized continuity and energy equations
show that both ρ1 and p1 are 0
Properties of slow and fast magnetosonic waves

I Magnetosonic waves are analogous to sound waves modified

by the presence of a magnetic field
I Magnetosonic waves are longitudinal and compressible
I The restoring force includes contributions from magnetic
pressure and plasma pressure
I These are also known as ‘magnetoacoustic waves’ and
‘slow/fast mode waves’
What is the difference between slow and fast magnetosonic
waves?

I Obvious differences
I Fast waves are faster (or the same phase velocity)
I Slow waves are slower (or the same phase velocity)
I Plasma pressure and magnetic pressure perturbations may
work together or in opposition
I In the slow wave, these two effects are out of phase
I In the fast wave, these two effects are in phase
I The phase velocity depends on the angle of propagation with
respect to the magnetic field and plasma β
I Slow mode waves cannot propagate orthogonal to B0
I Fast mode waves propagate quasi-isotropically
Phase velocity and energetics

I Friedrichs diagrams plot the phase speed of waves as distance

from the origin as a function of angle with respect to B0
I The wave energy includes contributions from kinetic,
magnetic, and thermal energy
I Half of wave energy is kinetic energy for all three waves
I Half of the shear Alfvén wave’s energy is magnetic
I The energetics of the slow and fast waves depend on the type
of wave, the angle of propagation, and plasma β
 kz kz kz kz kz

kx kx

β = 0.1 β = 0.5 β=1 β=2 β = 10

“Friedrichs diagrams” for MHD waves: Phase speed plotted as radial distance, with the angle between k and B0 shown as the angle away
from the y–axis. Here, β = (cs /VA )2 . Blue point: Alfvén speed. Black point: sound speed. Curve color-codes shown below.

GREEN: SLOW-MODE RED: FAST-MODE

BLUE:
ALFVÉN

Illustration of how MHD waves partition their total fluctuation energy into kinetic, magnetic, and thermal energy in various regimes: wavevectors
parallel to B0 (top row), an isotropic distribution of wavevectors (middle row), wavevectors perpendicular to B0 (bottom row); columns denote plasma β
regimes. Kinetic energy fractions are denoted vi , magnetic energy fractions are denoted Bi , and the thermal energy fraction is denoted ‘th’.

Accessibility note for the top row of plots: The (green) slow mode is always the
contour closest to the origin, and the (red) fast mode is always the contour
furthest from the origin.
Limitations of this analysis

I We linearized the equations of ideal MHD and combined them

to derive the dispersion relationship for shear Alfvén waves,
fast magnetosonic waves, and slow magnetosonic waves for a
uniform, static, and infinite background

Discussion questions: In what ways do our assump-

tions limit the applicability of these results? What are
some situations where these assumptions are invalid?
In situ measurements of waves in space plasmas

I Spacecraft observations provide highly detailed localized

information
I Anticorrelations between δB and δV in Wind data are due to
Alfvén waves in the solar wind near 1 AU (Shi et al. 2015)
Observations of plasma waves in the solar corona

I Alfvén waves are a leading mechanism for heating solar &

stellar coronae and accelerating solar & stellar winds
I Power spectra of Doppler velocity observations show
counter-propagating waves, which are necessary for the
development of turbulence (Morton et al. 2015)
Laboratory experiments on plasma waves

I Laboratory experiments offer an opportunity to study plasma

waves in detail
I Left: The Large Plasma Device at UCLA which is used to
study Alfvén waves, interacting magnetic flux ropes, and other
phenomena
I Right: Polarized shear Alfvén waves detected in the
experiment (shown are isosurfaces of field-aligned current and
perturbed magnetic field vectors)
X-ray stripes in Tycho’s supernova remnant are interpreted
as cosmic ray acceleration sites

I Accelerated particles around supernova remnant shock waves

generate Alfvén waves
I Laming (2015) proposed that the interaction between these
Alfvén waves and the shock may result in these stripes
Summary

I Waves are ubiquitous in astrophysical, laboratory, space, and

heliospheric plasmas
I The three principal wave modes for ideal MHD are the shear
Alfvén wave, the slow magnetosonic wave, and the fast
magnetosonic wave
I The shear Alfvén wave is a transverse wave that propagates
along the magnetic field
I Slow and fast magnetosonic waves are longitudinal waves that
may propagate obliquely
I Plasma waves are well-studied in solar, space, and laboratory
plasmas and play important roles in a variety of astrophysical
plasmas