POETRY ASSUMPTIONS
• Readers of poetry often bring with them
many related assumptions:
• That a poem is to be read for its "message,"
• That this message is "hidden" in the poem,
• The message is to be found by treating
the words as symbols which naturally do
not mean what they say but stand for
something else,
• You have to decipher every single word
to appreciate and enjoy the poem.
STRUCTURE and POETRY
Method of analyzing a poem
• look at the stanza structure or style
of a poem. structure has to do with
the overall organization of lines
and/or the conventional patterns of
sound.
STANZAS: series of lines grouped together
and separated by an empty line from other
stanzas.
1. couplet (2 lines)
2. tercet (3 lines)
3. quatrain (4 lines)
4. cinquain (5 lines)
5. sestet (6 lines)
6. septet (7 lines)
7. octave (8 lines)
FORM: A poem may or may not have a
specific number of lines, rhyme scheme
or metrical pattern
Types of Poems According to Form:
1. LYRIC Poetry: with one speaker (not
necessarily the poet) who expresses
strong thoughts and feelings.
Types of Poems According to Form:
1. LYRIC – descriptive or expository in
nature. Poems meant to be sung.
2. NARRATIVE- It is a poem that tells a story;
3. DRAMATIC- a story is told through verse
Dialogues
Subtypes of the three styles above:
1. ODE: It is usually a lyric poem of
moderate length, with a serious
subject, an elevated style, and an
elaborate stanza pattern.
2. ELEGY: It is a lyric poem that mourns the
dead.
- no set metric or stanzaic pattern,
- begins by reminiscing about the dead
person, laments the reason for the death,
and then resolves the grief by concluding
that death leads to immortality.
- It often uses "apostrophe"
3. SONNET: It is a lyric poem consisting of
14 lines and, in the English version, is
usually written in iambic pentameter
the Italian (or Petrarchan) sonnet -
consists of an octave (eight lines) and a
sestet (six lines) and the Shakespearean
(or Elizabethan/English) sonnet - consists
of three quatrains (four lines each) and a
concluding couplet (two lines).
The Petrarchan sonnet tends to divide the
thought into two parts (argument and
conclusion);
The Shakespearean, into four (the final couplet
is the summary).
4. BALLAD: It is a narrative poem that
has a musical rhythm and can be sung.
A ballad is usually organized into
quatrains or cinquains, has a simple
rhythm structure, and tells the tales of
ordinary people.
5. EPIC: It is a long narrative poem in
elevated style recounting the deeds of
a legendary or historical hero.
Elements of Poetry: Sense, Sound, Structure
A. SENSE – it is revealed through the meaning
of words images and symbols
1. DICTION – denotation and connotation
2. IMAGES – sight, sound, smell, taste, 5. SYNECDOCHE – uses a part to represent the
touch, motion and emotion. whole.
3. FIGURES OF SPEECH I’m bringing my wheels.
The meal is 200 per head.
Respect is due for snowy hair.
FIGURES OF SPEECH
I. COMPARING
III. ADDRESSING
1. SIMILE comparing 2 things using like or
6. APOSTROPHE – a direct address to
as.
someone absent, dead or inanimate.
Your face is as big as a seed,
“Where, O death, is your victory?”
But you do not bear fruit.
“Blue Moon, you saw me standing alone
(Lines from A Secret – Carlos
Without a dream in my heart
Bulosan)
Without a love of my own.”
Life is like a game of chess.
Death is like a thief in the night.
7. ALLUSION – indirect reference to another
His skin is as cold as ice.
work of literature or art (literary, biblical,
King Richard was as brave as a lion.
historical, mythological, scientific event,
He smokes like a chimney.
character or place)
The killer wore a mark of Cain as he stalked
2. METAPHOR – direct comparisons of 2
his brother.
unlike things or ideas.
I violated the Noah’s rule: predicting rain
You are the light of my life.
doesn’t count; building ark does.
You are the salt of the earth.
Life is a dream.
IV. OPPOSING
She was a flower in the company of her
8. IRONY – says the opposite of what is meant.
brothers.
Neither is man aware of the unkind flight of
time; for, though it gives him life, it is
II. REPRESENTING
dragging him nearer his grave. (Juan de
3. PERSONIFICATION – gives human traits to
Atayde, “The Man”)
inanimate objects or ideas.
I’m so glad you lost my calculator.
Opportunity knocks at the door but once.
This house is friendlier.
9. LITOTES – makes a deliberate
Money talks.
understatement used to affirm by negating
The wind moaned and screeched.
its opposite.
Death reached down and carried the
War is not healthy for children
old man.
And other living things.
There is no small problem.
4. METONYMY – substitutes to word that
He was not unfamiliar with the work of
closely relates to a person or a thing.
Shakespeare.
The White House called for an emergency
Even in his plain dress, I find him not at all
meeting.
displeasing.
He is an avid reader of Shakespeare.
Throw him the book.
10. ANTITHESIS – involves contrast of words or
The pen is mightier than the sword.
ideas.
The crown will have an heir.
Many are called, but few are chosen.
You’re easy on the eyes but hard on the
heart….
“Man proposes, God disposes.”
“Love is so short…. Forgetting is so long.”
You may be through with past but the
past isn’t through with you.
11. PARADOX – a contradictory statement
which may appear false, but it is in fact
true.
There is grief in happiness.
Deep down, you’re really shallow.
Freedom is slavery.
The child is a father of the man.
My dear, canst thou resolve for me
This paradox of love concerning thee
Mine eyes, when opened, with they beauty fill
But when they’re closed they see thee
better still.
(Lines from Paradox – A.E. Litiatco)
12. OXYMORON – putting together in one
statement two contradictory terms.
resident-alien
Silent scream
Deafening silence
Found missing
Peaceful war
Living dead
Clearly misunderstood
Parting is such a sweet sorrow.
It is a bitter-sweet experience.
They were alone together.
V. OTHERS
13. HYPERBOLE – use of exaggeration.
I could sleep for a year.
He is older that the hills.
She wept oceans of tears.
I know not what to name thy charms,
Thou art half human, half divine;
And if I could hold thee in my arms,
I know both heaven and earth were
mine.
(Lines from the Rural Maid – Fernando M.
Maramang)
14. ONOMATOPOEIA – use of words which
imitate sounds or any word whose
sound is suggestive of its meaning.
Whisper Bang
Buzz Crackle
Boom
The cat meows in the dark.
And early evening, like croaking of the
frogs, evoking memories lost.
The fire crackled and the popcorn
popped.
B. SOUND- is the result of a combination of
elements.
1. TONE COLOR ( alliteration, assonance,
consonance, rhyme, repetition, anaphora).
2. Rhythm 3. Meter
4. Rhyme scheme
1. TONE COLOR –is achieved through repetition
Repetition of Single Sounds
a. ALLITERATION – repetition of similar and
accented sounds at the beginning of words.
In a somer seson, whan soft was the sonne…
(Piers Plowman)
Big bad Bob bounced bravely.
b. ASSONANCE – repetition of similar
accented vowel sounds.
Thou still unravished bride of quietness,
Thou foster child of silence and slow
time.
(Ode on a Grecian Um)
c. CONSONANCE – repetition of similar
consonant sounds within or at ends of words.
“Out of this house” – said rider to reader
“Yours never will” – said farer to fearer
“They’re looking for you” – said hearer and
horror,
“As he left them there, as he left them there.
(O Where Are You Going?)
Rhyme – repetition of
the same stressed FOOT – basic unit of meter consisting of a
vowel sounds. group of two or three syllables.
Internal - within the
line SCANSION – process of determining prevailing
Terminal- end of the foot, types and sequence of different feet,
line measuring verse (marking accented/unaccented
"In mist or cloud, on syllables) dividing lines into feet, identifying
mast or shroud" or metrical pattern and noting variations.
"Whiles all the night
through fog-smoke TABLE OF METRICAL FEET
white" ("The Ancient Name of Foot Pattern of Accent
Mariner") Iambic Unaccented, Accented
I think that I shall Trochaic Accented, Unaccented
never see Anapestic Unaccented, Unaccented, Accented
A poem as lovely as a Dactylic Accented, Unaccented, Unaccented
tree. (Trees) Spondaic Accented Accented
I saw a fairy in the wood, Table of Line Lengths
He was dressed all in green. Name of Feet/Line Measure
He drew his sword while I just stood, One foot MONOMETER
And realized I'd been seen. Two feet DIMETER
Three feet TRIMETER
RHYME SCHEME – Pattern of rhyme form Four feet TETRAMETER
that ends a stanza or a poem. Five feet PENTAMETER
Helen, thy beauty is to me a Six feet HEXAMETER
Like those Nicean barks of yore, b Seven feet HEPTAMETER
That gently, o’er a perfumed sea a Eight feet OCTAMETER
The weary, way-worn wanderer bore b Shall I │compare │ thee to │ a sum │
To his own native shore b mer’s day
(To Helen) That time | of year | thou mayst | in
me | behold
REPETITION OF WORDS In her room│ at the prow │ of the house
My dreams are dreams of thee, fair maid. Where light breaks, │ and the windows
(Rural Maid) │ are tossed...
Repetition of Sentences or Phrases (From "The Writer", by
I dream that one day our voices will be heard Richard Wilbur)
I dream that one day our hope becomes C. STRUCTURE
worth. 1. WORD ORDER
(Paraiso) 2. SYNTAX
3. ELLIPSIS
2. RHYTHM – sound patterns – pitch, volume, 4. PUNCTUATION
duration, stress, intonation.
LITERARY APPROACHES
3. METER – recurrence of stressed and unstressed LITERARY CRITICISM
syllables. - is the method used to interpret any given
work of literature.
- is the study, discussion, evaluation, and
interpretation of literature.
- is the evaluation of literary works.
This includes the classification by
genre, analysis of structure, and
judgement of value.
APPROACHES USED
IN THE STUDY OF LITERATURE
Literary Criticism & Questions for
A VARIETY OF APPROACHES
I. Formalistic/Literary Approach:
This approach focuses on the
elements, form, symbols, images,
and structure.
1. How is the work’s structure unified?
2. How do various elements of the
work reinforce its meaning?
3. What recurring patterns (repeated
or related words, images, etc.) can you
find? What is the effect of these
patterns?
4. How does repetition reinforce the
theme(s)?
5. How does the writer’s diction
reveal or reflect the work’s meaning?
6. What is the effect of the plot, and
what parts specifically produce that
effect?
7. What figures of speech are used?
(metaphors, similes, etc.)
8. Note the writer’s use of paradox,
irony, symbol, plot, characterization,
and style of narration. What effects
are produced? Do any of these relate
to one another or to the theme?
9. Is there a relationship between the
beginning and the end of the story?
10. What tone and mood are
created at various parts of the
work?
11. How does the author create tone
and mood? What relationship is there
between tone and mood and the
effect of the story?
12. How do the various elements
interact to create a unified whole?
II. MORAL/PHILOSOPHICAL APPROACH:
- This approach focuses on themes, view
of the world, moral statements, author’s
philosophy.
1.What view of life does the story present?
Which character best articulates this
viewpoint?
2. According to this work’s view of life, what
is mankind’s relationship to God? to the
universe?
3. What moral statement, if any, does
this story make? Is it explicit or
implicit?
4. What is the author’s attitude
toward his world? Toward fate?
Toward God?
5. What is the author’s conception of
good and evil?
6. What does the work say about
the nature of good or evil?
7. What does the work say about
human nature?
III. BIOGRAPHICAL APPROACH:
- Focuses on connection of work to
author’s life and personal experiences.
- It is necessary to know about the author
and the political, economical, and
sociological context of his times in order
to truly understand his works.
1. What aspects of the author’s personal
life are relevant to this story?
2. Which of the author’s stated beliefs
are reflected in the work?
3. Does the writer challenge or support
the values of her contemporaries?
4. What seem to be the author’s
major concerns? Do they reflect
any of the writer’s personal
experiences?
5. Do any of the events in the story
correspond to events experienced
by the author?
6. Do any of the characters in the story
correspond to real people?
FROM THE QUIRINO GRANDSTAND
DANTON R. REMOTO
More than two million faces
awash in the early summer sun
The lady in yellow raises
her hands in the defiant sign
fingers roar in the sudden air
Clouds of doves wheel above, Noah’s
messengers finally sighting a land
now dried a dictator’s blood-flood.
In the park of a freed people,
Bermuda grasses weep in sweet pain.
The fountains leap and sing.
A spring of happiness rises like a hymn.
IV. HISTORICAL APPROACH:
- This approach focuses on connection
of work to the historical period in
which it was written
- literary historians attempt to connect
the historical background of the work
to specific aspects of the work (wars,
slavery depression, and others)
1. How does it reflect the time in which it was
written?
2. How accurately does the story
depict the time in which it is set?
3. What literary or historical influences
helped to shape the form and content
of the work?
4. How does the story reflect the
attitudes and beliefs of the time in which
it was written or set?
(Consider beliefs and attitudes related to
race, religion, politics, gender, society,
philosophy, etc.)
5. What other literary works may have
influenced the writer?
6. What historical events or movements
might have influenced this writer?
7. How would characters and events in
this story have been viewed by the
writer’s contemporaries?
8. Does the story reveal or contradict the
prevailing values of the time in which it
was written?
9. Does it provide an opposing view of
the period’s prevailing values?
10. How important is it the historical
context (the work’s and the reader’s)
to interpreting the work?
V. PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH:
- This approach focuses on the
psychology of characters.
- Applies psychological and psychiatric
concepts (esp. S. Freud) to texts,
characters, and/or authors.
Use of images in Defining traits of
characters
1. How do the principal characters
view the world
2. What forces are motivating the
characters?
3. Which behaviors of the characters
are conscious ones? Which are
unconscious?
4. What factors must have caused him
to behave in a certain manner?
5. What conscious or unconscious
conflicts exist between the characters?
6. Given their backgrounds, how
plausible is the characters’ behavior?
7. Are the theories of Freud or other
psychologists applicable to this
work? To what degree?
8. Do any of the characters correspond
to the parts of the tripartite self?
(Id, ego, superego)
9. What roles do psychological disorders
and dreams play in this story?
10. Are the characters recognizable
psychological types?
11. How might a psychological approach
account for different responses in
female and male readers?
12. How does the work reflect the
writer’s personal psychology?
13. What do the characters’ emotions
and behaviors reveal about their
psychological states?
14. How does the work reflect the
unconscious dimensions of the
writer’s mind?
15. How does the reader’s own
psychology affect his response to the
work?
VI. SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACH:
- focuses on man’s relationship to others
in society, politics, religion, and business.
- Uses economic, racial, and political
contexts -- e.g., Marxism, Social
Darwinism, etc.
1. What is the relationship between
the characters and their society?
2. Does the story address societal
issues, such as race, gender, and class?
3. How do social forces shape the power
relationships between groups or classes
of people in the story? Who has the
power, and who doesn’t? Why?
4.How does the story reflect urban, rural,
or suburban values? How does the story
reflect the Great American Dream?
6. What does the work say about
economic or social power? Who has it
and who doesn’t? Any Marxist learnings
evident?
7. Does the story address issues of
economic exploitation? What role does
money play?
8. How do economic conditions
determine the direction of the
characters’ lives?
8. How do economic conditions
determine the direction of the
characters’ lives?
9. Does the work challenge or affirm
the social order it depicts?
10. Can the protagonist’s struggle be
seen as symbolic of a larger class
struggle? How does the microcosm (small
world) of the story reflect the macrocosm
(large world) of the society in which it
was composed?
11. Do any of the characters
correspond to types of government,
such as a dictatorship, democracy,
communism, socialism, fascism, etc.?
What attitudes toward these political
structures/systems are expressed in
the work?
VII. CULTURAL
Cultural forces (beliefs, traditions,
customs, superstitions, fashion etc.)
and responses to forces are capable of
shaping, dividing or binding
communities.
VIII. IMPRESSIONISTIC
- A reader looks for unforgettable in
the selection
- His impression of the protagonist
- What makes it memorable