ROPEMAN'S HANDBOOK

Hopeman~ Handbook

Published by the National Coal Board

in collaboration with the
Health and Safety Executive and
The Federation of Wire Rope Manufacturers
 Rrst Edition 1952
Reprinted 1954
Reprinted 1955
Reprinted
Reprinted
1956
1960
Preface to Third Edition
Reprinted 1961 The ropeman is the person responsible to the colliery management for the
Second Edition 1966
examination of winding, haulage, guide and balance ropes, and this
Reprinted 1971
Third Edition 1980 handbook is intended to assist him in carrying out his duties.
Reprinted 1985 Since the first edition was published in 1952, the handbook has received
international recognition as the ropeman's book of reference. In this third
edition the text has been updated once again and new illustrations
incorporated.
As in previous editions, the handbook deals with the construction, installa-
tion and maintenance of the various types of rope used for mining work. For
convenience, winding, haulage, guide and balance ropes are again treated in
©Crown copyright.
separate chapters each of which deals with the choi.ce, installation and care
of ropes and the common forms of deterioration and damage likely to be
experienced. Other chapters give details of rope handling including serving
and splicing, rope lubrication, rope examination methods and procedures
for fitting various types of cappings or end-fixings. The appendices give a
summary of the circumstances under which a rope should be withdrawn
from service and some useful information on the tension in ropes on various
gradients. An index is also provided to help the ropeman to find the subject
,he requires.

622.625.505
National Coal Board, Mining Department
Acknowledgement
Ropeman's hSndbook
This third edition of 'Ropeman's Handbook' has been prepared jointly by
NCB
the National Coal Board, The Health and Safety Executive Research and
Printed by Simpson Drewett and Co. Ltd., Richmond, Surrey
Laboratory Services Division (previously Safety in Mines Research Establish-
ment), HM Inspectorate of Mines and Quarries and The Federation of Wire
Rope Manufacturers of Great Britain. Acknowledgement is made to the many
engineers, writers and illustrators who have helped in its compilation.

5
Contents
TypesofWire,Strand and Rope 9
2 Rope Handling, Serving and Splicing 26
3 Rope Lubrication 44
4 Methods of Capping Wire Ropes . 52
5 Rope Examination 70
6 Types of Deterioration in Ropes 80
7 Winding Ropes 104
8 Balance Ropes 129
9 Guide and Rubbing Ropes 139
10 Haulage Ropes 149

Appendix 1-Amethod of determining the

minimum breaking strength
required of a haulage rope 167
Appendix 2-When to discard a rope 169
Bibliography 170
Index . . . 172

7
Chapter 1

Types of wire strand and rope

A wire rope consists of many individual wires laid into a number of strands
which are, in turn, laid round a centre core (Fig 1). The type and size of
wire used, the number of wires in the strands, the type of core and the rope
construction determine the characteristics and strength of a wire rope of
any given diameter and hence the uses for which it is suitable.

Figure 1. Components of a rope

Rope wire
Mild steel as used for structural purposes (for girders, arches, etc) has a
tensile strength q.f about45 kilogrammes per square millimetre (28 tons per
square inch); ie 1or every square millimetre of its cross-sectional area a
piece of mild steel will take a load of about 45 kg (99 lb) before breaking.

9
Ropeman 's handbook Types of wire strand and rope

On the other hand, rope steel may have a tensile strength of 180 kgf/mm 2 Wire shapes used in the manufacture of ropes are as follows:
(115 tonf/in2) or more; ie it can be more than four times as strong as mild
steeL The increased strength is obtained mainly by wire-drawing, that is by -Round ie circular in cross-section (Fig 2a)
drawing the wire several times through small tapered holes in metal blocks - Half-lock ie rail-shaped, with the sides curved to take a round wire
or dies, the holes being always slightly smaller than the wire to be drawn on each side (Fig 2b)
through them. This treatment steadily decreases the diameter of the wire - Triangular ie triangular in cross-section, as used for the core wires of
and increases its length, elongating into fibres the grains of which the steel some strands (Fig 2c)
is composed, and thus increasing the tensile strength of the steel as - Full-lock ie Z-shaped or shaped like an inclined bull-head rail
measured in kgf/mm2 or tonf/in2 (not the breaking strength of the reduced which will fit snugly against, or lock into, another wire of
wire as measured in kgf or toni). the same shape (Fig 2d).

Wire manufacture is a very complicated process. Wire-drawing tends to

make the steel brittle and heat-treatment is needed from time to time to
correct this tendency to brittleness or, in other words, to restore ductility (a) Round
(the ability of the wire to stand up to bending and other forms of wire
distortion without breaking abruptly). Also, to produce good rope wire,
the manufacturer must start with clean steel of suitable composition and
must take care not to introduce any faults at any stage of production.
Eventually a wire of the required size and tensile strength, within
acceptable tolerances, is produced, which still retains the ductility and (b) Half-lock (c) Triangular (d) Full-lock
other properties necessary in good rope wire.

If the wire is to be used in the making of stranded ropes, the tensile strength Figure 2. Wire shapes
will normally be 160 grade (160 kgf/mm2 to 189 kgf/mm 2) or 180 grade (180
kgf/mm 2 to 219 kgf/mm 2). Wire in 180 grade is therefore stronger than wire
in 160 grade. However, the fatigue strength (ie the resistance to fatigue) of Strands
wire of tensile strength up to 110 kgf/mm2 is proportional to the breaking
strength. For higher tensile grade steels, the ratio of fatigue strength to A strand is formed by laying up or spinning one or more layers of wires
breaking strength decreases with increasing breaking strength. Therefore around a strand core as shown in Fig 3. The strand core is either a single
the higher the tensile grade of the wire the more likely it is to suffer fatigue, wire or a built-up-core of a group of wires (Fig 4). The types and shapes of
strands are as follows:
ie to develop fine cracks which eventually propagate throughout the wire
cross-section and cause breakage of the wire (see Chapter 6). - Round as in Fig 3a and b
- Triangular as in Fig 3c and d
Guide ropes have large wires which have not been much reduced by - Oval as in Fig 3e
drawing; they usually lie in the tensile grades 80 or 90 (80/104 or 90/114 - F1at or Ribbon as in Fig 3f
kgf/mm 2). Some older rod guide ropes, which were made by spinning six
rods around one and are now no longer produced, may be in the tensile Apart from the flat (ribbon) strand, which has no core, all other types
grades 50 or 70 (50/74 or 70/94 kgf/mm 2 ). The specification to which round should have a core which gives good support to the outer wires. Fig 4 shows
wire rims! conform before being made up into ropes is generally covered by the types in general use, those shown in 4h and j being known as
built-up-cores (BUC).
British Standard (BS) No 2763:1968, although large diameter wires and
shaped wires, for example those used in half-locked guid<: ropes, are A simple method of describing briefly, but in detail, the construction of a
outside the scope of that specification and are covered by the relevant NCB strand is to quote its type (shape) and the number of wires in each layer,
Specification. A complete list of specifications relating to ropes will be starting from the outside. In Fig 3a the strand is 'round 6/1 ';in Fig 3d it is
found in the Bibliography (p 170). 'triangular 9/12/BUC'; in Fig 3f it is 'flat 6/nil'.

10 11
 Types of wire strand and rope
ku~man 's handbook

Round strands
Round strands may be of simple construction with only one layer of wires
around the strand core (as in Fig 3a) or of compound construction with
more than one layer (as in Fig3b ). In any shape of strand of a given size, the
more wires there are the smaller those wires will be and the more flexible
will be the strand. However, from the point of view of safety, there is a limit
to obtaining flexibility in this way. When the outer wires of a strand are less
than 2 mm (0.08 in) in diameter they may be insufficiently sturdy to stand
up to the normal degree of wear and corrosion that occur in colliery
service. Therefore, for winding and haulage purposes, the so-called
'flexible' type ropes with outer wires of less than 2 mm (0.08 in) diameter
(14 swg) should be used only after careful consideration.
Triangular strands
Triangular strands (Figs 3c and d) should have strand cores which are
tri~ngular in shape as in Figs 4f to j. The solid triangular core (Fig 4f) is
sansfactory when small, but when large is rather inflexible and therefore
liable to break up in fatigue when subjected to bending round small drums
or pulleys. For the larger strands triangular cores composed of several
round wires should be used (Figs 4g to j).
Oval strands
Oval strands are used mainly as the inner strands of multi-strand ropes.
They normally consist of one or two layers of round wires laid up as shown
m Fig 3e round an oval core composed of three round wires (Fig 4d) or one
fiat ribbon wire (Fig 4e).

Flat strands
Flat strands also are used, in general, only in multi-strand ropes. They are
normally composed of six or eight wires laid up as shown in Fig 3f and are
(a) 6/1 (c) 7/6 (e) 9/1 used mainly in ropes for shaft duties where non-rotating properties,
Triangular Oval
Round coupled with flexibility, are very important - eg balance ropes and
shaft-sinking ropes.

Ropes
A rope of the stranded type is formed by laying up one or more layers of
(b) 9/9/1 (d) 9/12/BUC (f) 6/nil
Flat or ribbon
strands around a main core and a rope of the single strand type by laying up
Round Triangular
only one straight strand containing one or more layers of wires. Both types
Figure 3. Strand shapes
are descnbed here. The mam core of a stranded rope is designed to support
the strands and IS usually a fibre rope (fibre main core or FMC) but it may
be a wire strand (wire strand core or WSC) or a small wire rope
(independent wire rope core or IWRC).
A fibre main core, which may be of natural or synthetic fibres, is flexible
(b) 6/1 (c) Die-formed (d) 3 (e) Ribbon wire and suitable for all conditions except those in which the rope is subjected to
(a) 1
ROUND OVAL severe crushmg (workmg under high load and on very small pulleys and
drums, coilmg on top of Itself m numerous layers on a drum, etc). The wire
strand core makes the rope more resistant to crushinrr but also makes it less
~
w flexible. The independent wire rope core (Fig 5a, right) makes the rope
resistant to crushmg without greatly reducing its flexibility. Natural fibre
(g) 3 (h) Woven (j) Rolled
(f) to
cores are covered by BS 525:1973. This standard and the appropriate NCB
SMRE SpecificatiOns (see Bibliography) state that jute shall not be used for the
TRIANGULAR
cores of winding or haulage ropes; this is because jute is liable to rot and is
Figure 4. Strand cores
too soft to give continued support to the strands throughout some three

13
12
 Ropeman 's handbook Types of wire strand and rope

years of service. Synthetic fibres such as polypropylene (fibrefilm core or

•
FFC) may be used as a main core. Such cores have several advantages in
that they are easier to manufacture, are rot-proof and are more resistant to
crushing, so giving better support to the wire strands. Ropes with synthetic
fibre cores are being used successfully as haulage ropes. Extreme care (a) Round strand rope
should be taken when socketing these ropes with white metal since
polypropylene, for example, melts at about 130°C and there is a danger
that the part of the core close to the capping could be adversely affected by
heat during the capping process.
To reduce corrosion and friction between wires, the various specifications (b) Triangular strand rope
for ropes (see Bibliography) state that the wires and any natural fibre core
must be thoroughly lubricated during manufacture unless otherwise stated
by the purchaser. These specifications also give the different sizes
(diameters) of rope available and quote their breaking strengths.
The main types of wire rope are as follows:
- Round strand, as in Fig 5a;
- Triangular strand, as in Fig 5b;
- Multi-strand, as in Fig 5c;
- Flat rope, as in Fig 5d;
- Locked coil, as in Fig 5e:
- Half-locked, as in Fig 51, used only as guide and rubbing ropes;
- Rod guide rope, as in Fig 5g, now being superseded by the half-locked (d) Flat rope
rope.
The first four above are stranded ropes, being composed of several
spirally-laid strands; the last three are single-st..and ropes having only one
straight strand.
The standard method of denoting the construction of a rope is to quote its (e) Locked coil rope
type, number of strands, number of wires per strand, construction of
strand, direction and type of lay and the type of rope core. For example,
the rope shown on the right of Fig 5a is 'Round strand, 6x19 (9/9/1) RH
Lang's IWRC', meaning 'Round strand rope having six strands, each
consisting of nine wires over nine wires over one wire, with an independent
(f) Half-locked guide rope
wire rope core, laid up in right hand Lang's lay'. The rope on the left of Fig
Sb is 'Triangular strand, 6x8 (7/ 6) RH Lang's FMC' meaning 'Triangu-
lar strand rope having six strands, each consisting of seven wires over one
triangular wire laid up in right hand Lang's lay over a fibre main core'.

Round strand ropes

SMRE
Round strand rope consists of six ronnd strands laid around a main core, (a) and {b) each show simple {left) and compound {right} forms of construction.
the strands being either of simple construction with only one layer of wires,
as in Fig Sa (left), or of compound construction with more than one layer of Figure 5. Ropes and rope sections

14 15

I1
t\.'l .
Ropeman 's handbook
wires, as in Fig Sb (right). Round-strand ropes are uncomplicated in
construction and relatively easy to examine in service as about half the
length of each outer wire lies on the surface. Depending upon the actual
application, round strand rope constructions can range from the compara-
tively inflexible haulage rope, with strands of six wires over one, to the
flexible type with strands of 36 wires. In round strand rope approximately
55 per cent of the cross-section is steel when the main core is of fibre. It will
have a tendency to twist (rotate about its own centre-line) when the load
changes in value and, therefore, when used as a winding rope, to twist the
cage in the shaft. Reference should be made to the section on round strands
on page 12for other qualities and possible faults in this type of rope. Round
strand ropes are covered by different specificatiOns accordmg to therr
intended use (see Bibliography).
Triangular strand ropes
Triangular strand ropes have six almost-triangular strands laid around a
main core, the strands being either of simple constructiOn, as m Fig Sb.
(left), or of compound construction as in Fig Sb (right). As the strands are
triangular and have almost flat sides, they fit together more closely than
round strands and give a more compact rope in which about 62 per cent of
the cross-section is steel (when the main core is of fibre). They are about 10
per cent stronger than round strand ropes of the same size and tensile
strength material, they stand up better to wear as they are of more
smoothly circular shape, and they resist crushing better as the strands have
a greater bearing area. However, they are slightly less flexible (because
they are more compact) and a smaller proportion of the totallength of wire
in the rope can be examined at the surface. Like the round strand rope the
triangular strand rope has a tendency to twist when the load changes in
value. Reference should be made to triangular strands on page 13 for
further characteristics. Triangular strand ropes for colliery use are covered
by the specifications listed in the Bibliography.
Multi-strand ropes (non-rotating stranded ropes)
A multi-strand rope is built up of two or more layers of strands laid around
a main core which is either a small fibre rope (fibre main core), as in Fig 5c,
or a wire strand core (WSC), or an independent wire rope core (IWRC).
Each layer of strands may be composed of round, triangular, oval or fiat
strands. The outer layer of strands is always laid in the opposite direction to
the inner layer or layers so as to discourage the rope from twisting when the
load changes; hence the term 'non-rotating'. This type of rope is not easy to
examine visually as only about half the length of the outer wires of one
layer of strands can be seen and there may be several layers of mner strands
whose wires cannot be seen at all unless the rope is carefully opened up by
16
Types of wire strand and rope
the rope manufacturers (see p 73). It is a fairly flexible type of rope, the
degree of flexibility depending on the shape of the strands. Multi-strand
ropes are suitable for conditions where rope twist must be minimised but
where flexibility is required (as for balance ropes beneath the cages). There
is no British Standard or NCB Specification for multi-strand ropes for
colliery purposes, but BS 302 (see Bibliography) covers these ropes for
general engineering purposes.
Flat ropes
A fiat rope (Fig Sd) is made up of several small ropes called 'srn.ntls' or
'ropelets' laid side by side. The ropelets are usually composed for four
'reddies' over a fibre core, each reddy being of 6/1 wire construction. The
ropelets are stitched together with one or two fiat or slightly twisted
stitching strands of soft wire so as to hold the rope together and equalise the
load between the separate ropelets. If there is only one stitching strand
(single stitching) this emerges from one edge of the rope, encircles a reddy
at that edge, re-enters the rope and passes through the rope to the other
edge, following a wavy path of W-form. If there are two stitchings (double
stitching) the second stitching strand follows a similar wavy path but at a
position half a wave behind. The rope in Fig 5d is made up of six rope lets
lymg side by side, each laid in the opposite direction to its neighbours in
order to make the rope non-rotating, and fiat parts of the double stitching
strands may be seen appearing regularly at the two edges of the rope. In Fig
5d (left) it may be seen that each of the six ropelets is composed of four
reddies of 6/1 wire construction; the stitching strands are shown as a white
line passing through the rope. This type of rope has a high percentage of
the wire surface present on the rope exterior so that it is easy to examine,
but It IS also more vulnerable to corrosion attack than an equivalent round
rope which will have much less of its wire surface area exposed. For this
reason and because; being hand-made, they are very expensive, these
ropes are now becoming obsolete.
locked coil ropes
Locked coil rope (Fig 5e) consists of one straight strand containing as many
wires as are necessary to give the required rope strength. Its main core is a
single central wire as would be present in any round strand. To make the
rope non-rotating, the outermost layer or 'cover' is always laid in the
opposite direction to the next layer (and usually in the opposite direction to
all the inner layers or 'core'). The outermost layer is always composed of
full-bck wires (Fig 2d); these lock together and give a very smooth circular
shape to the rope, thus minimising external wear. The locking action of the
full lock wires is designed to reduce the possibility of a broken wire
unravelling from the rope and, at the same time, restrict the ingress of
17
Ropeman 's handbook
moisture to the internal wires. If a broken wire is detected in the outer layer
it should be repaired by lifting out the two broken ends for a distance of
approximately 500 mm and either annealing and caulking them back into
position leaving a small gap between the wire ends or by brazing in a new
length of wire. These are skilled operations and best performed by experts
from the rope manufacturers. The second layer of wires, laid in the
opposite direction to the outer layer, is composed of shaped wires
(alternate half-lock and round wires, Fig 2b) to provide a smooth bed for
the outer wires and to ensure that they do not break as a result of nicking
(cross-cutting between crossing wires). If the manufacturer introduces a
second change in direction of lay amongst the inner layers of a large rope,
to balance more accurately the tendency to twist, he will probably also
introduce another layer of shaped wires at the same place to prevent
cross-cutting. However, locked coil ropes should have no more layers of
shaped wires than are necessary, for these close fitting wires leave little
space for lubricant.
Locked coil winding ropes have many advantages:
:::J Size for size they are of greater strength than stranded ropes in the same
tensile grade.
:::J The smooth external surface gives greater resistance to wear by
abrasion.
:::J They are virtually non-rotating.
:::J The elastic and permanent stretch is less than that of stranded ropes.
:::J They can operate under higher radial pressures than any other type of
rope.
It is, however, less flexible than other ropes. To ensure long service it
should not be bent sharply but should work on drums and pulleys whose
diameters are not less than those shown in Table 7 (p 119). This type of
rope is particularly suitable as a winding rope in cases where large loads
have to be raised and where rope twist cannot be tolerated.
However, it has some disadvantages.
o Only one layer of wires (representing between 18 per cent and 40 per
cent of the total length of all wire in the rope, depending upon the rope
size and construction) lies on the surface. Therefore, although the
outermost surfaces of the wires of the outer layer can be examined
throughout their length, the wires of the inner layers cannot be
examined visually at all.
:::J Locked coil ropes of 38 mm (H in) diameter or more sometimes give
trouble by distorting into a wavy or spiral form instead of remaining
straight, as discussed later (see Figs 57 and 64). The reason for this is that
the larger ropes, being built up of more layers of wires, are more
complex than smaller ropes and as such are more readily affected by any
18
Types of wire strand and rope
deficiency in manufacturing techniques or operating conditions. Modern
friction winding installations, designed to raise heavy loads, are of the
multi-rope type employing several small locked coil ropes in parallel
rather than one large rope. Tills is better for service life and smaller
ropes can work on smaller driving sheaves. There is no British Standard
for locked coil ropes, but NCB Specification No 186:1970 applies (see
Bibliography). ·
Half-locked ropes (for guide and rubbing ropes}
Half-locked ropes, Fig 51, offer a smooth wearing surface to the cage shoe
or rubbing plate and contain very large section wires to give the best
possible wear characteristics. Locking action of the outer wires is designed
to ensure that any broken wires whi~h may develop are held in position in
the rope so as not to interfere with the free running of the cage or skip.
They are manufactured in accordance with NCB Specification No 388 from
wire in the tensile grades 80 to 90.
Round ropes (for guide and rubbing ropes)
Round ropes consist of one straight strand, usually of six round rods (large
wires) laid around a single rod (6/1 construction) as in Fig 5g or,
sometimes, of nine rods around six around one (9/6/1 construction). In the
past these ropes have been used as guide and rubbing ropes but they are
now being superseded by the half-)ocked type and are no longer being
manufactured.
Table 11ists the advantages and disadvantages of most of the rope types.
Rope lay
Direction and length of lay
In a stranded rope the strands twist around the rope like screw threads. If
they twist in the same direction as a right-hand thread then the rope is in
right-hand lay, as in Figs 6a, 6c and 7; if they twist in the opposite direction
it is in left-hand lay (Figs 6b and d). The individual wires also twist around
the strands. If they twist in the same direction as the strands, then the rope
is in Lang's lay (Figs 6a, 6b and 7a); if they twist in the opposite direction to
that of the strands, then the rope is in ordinary lay* (Figs 6c, 6d and 7b).
Therefore, a stranded rope may be in Lang's right-hand lay as in Fig 6a or
in one of the other three lays shown in Fig 6. However, a single-strand
rope, such as a locked coil rope, can be only in right-hand or left-hand lay
according to the direction of lay of the outer wires. Since there are no
* Lang's lay is so called because John Lang patented it in 1879. Ordinary lay is so called
because that lay was always used in early ropes (and is still used for fibre ropes).
19
Ropeman 's handbook
(a) Lang's right-hand (b) Lang's left-hand
(c) Ordinary right-hand (d) Ordinary left-hand
Figure 6. Type, direction and length• of lay
strands twisting round the rope, there is no question of Lang's lay or
ordinary lay being involved.
Which lay is best? It does not usually make any difference whether
right-hand or left-hand lay is used (but seep 29) and, if neither is specified,
the manufacturer will always supply right-hand lay as standard. However,
in a multi-rope friction-winder one half of the set of ropes may be in
right-hand lay and the other half in left-hand lay so as to cancel any rope
twist effects. In a drum-winding installation the two ropes working on the
drum should have the same direction of lay; it is much better that these
ropes should twist the conveyances in the same direction so that they
remain parallel to one another, than that they should twist them in
opposite directions and reduce the clearance, corner to corner. Lang's lay
is better than ordinary lay for withstanding wear; in ordinary lay the wires
are bent very sharply around the strand on the outside of the rope and, in
20
Types of wire strand and rope
(a) Lang's lay: wires and strands laid in same direction
(b) Ordinary lay: wires and strands laid in opposite directions
Figure 7. Identification of lay
consequence, wear is concentrated on a short length of wire and so is likely
to be deeper. The best lay for normal colliery purposes is therefore Lang's
right-hand lay; other lays should be used only when there is a special reason
for doing so.
The length of lay (pitch) of a stranded rope is the distance, measured along
the rope, between the crown (highest point) of one strand and the next
crown of that strand along the rope. In Fig 6 one strand has been coloured
white and the distance between the two crowns, representing one rope lay
(one length of lay), has been marked. In the case of a single-strand rope,
such as a locked coil rope or half-locked guide rope, the length oflayis the
distance, measured along the rope in a line parallel to the axis, between a
position on one outer wire and a similar position on the same outer wire
when it next crosses the line of measurement.
Types of lay
Where there are several layers of wire, as in a locked-coil rope or in a
strand of compound construction, the wires of one layer usually cross over
those of the underlying layer a number of times in each metre of rope
length. This helps to bind the rope together but it also causes internal wear.
21
Ropeman 's handbook Types of wire strand and rope

This internal wear takes the form of short and relatively deep nicks when disadvantages. The greatest advantage is that the wires are continuously
the two layers are of opposite direction oflayso that the wires cross at a big : supported by being continuously in contact with other wires, so they are
angle; it takes the form of long and relatively shallow grooves when the two not liable to fail in fatigue due to secondary bending (p 89). Another
layers are laid in the same direction so that the wires cross slowly at a small advantage is that internal wear (nicking between crossing wires) is
angle. Internal nicking can often be reduced by adopting 'equal lay' in · avoided. However, equal lay is rather less flexible than cross lay because it
which the wires of one layer do not cross over those of th~ underlying layer is more compact (some or all of the wires of one layer lying continuously in
but lie parallel to them (ie the two layers are laid in the same direction and the valleys between wires of the underlying layer); for the same reason,
have the same length of lay). In Fig Sa a strand in normal (cross) lay has all there are less spaces left for lubricant.
but one of its outer wires removed and one of its inner wires coloured
black. This has been done to show that the outer wire has a much longer
length of lay than the black inner wire (about 2! times as long) and that the
outer wire keeps crossing over inner wires. Fig Sb shows a similarly
prepared strand in equal lay and it will be seen that, in this, the outer wire
has the same length of lay as the black inner wire and does not cross over

(a) Seale (b) Warrington

Figure 9. Types of equal lay strand construction

Preforming and postforming

> t ,,
Most types of stranded ropes are either preformed or postformed during
,l / ~;-
£1, __ }_. :.-.• •. ;:.;,_.,_;;___ : -~~---=:
manufacture to give the strands and wires the form they will take up in the
(a) Cross lay: inner and outer wires have different lengths of lay completed rope: In preformmg, the strands are given the correct spiral
(b) Equal lay: inner and outer wires have the same length of lay
form before bemg made up mto a rope. In postforming the wires and
strands are _given the reqmred spiral form after the rope has been laid up;
Figure 8. Difference between cross and equal lay this operatiOn, which IS performed by passing the rope through sets of
rollers, beds the rope in addition to bending the wires and strands. Both
processes produce the same results- a dead rope which does not tend to
any inner wires. To obtain equal lay between any two, or more, layers of unravel or to form itself into loops or kinks when it is slack or free of load.
wires without deforming the rope shape it is necessary to have either the Such ropes are less lively and are therefore easier to handle than
same number of wires in each layer (so that each wire in one layer sits conventional types but it must not be assumed that they will not twist when
always in the valley between the same two wires of the other underlying loaded. It is only the non-rotating types, such as multi-strand and locked
coil ropes, which resist twisting under changes of load.
layer, as in Fig 9a) or to have different sizes in one layer (so that the larger
ones may lie in the valleys and the smaller ones directly on top of wires in
the underlying layer as in Fig 9b ). The various types of equal lay are called
Seale, filler Seale or Warrin.gton lay, depending on the numbers and sizes Surface finishing (galvanising)
of wires in the layers, but it will be simpler if all forms are referred to as There are many forms of surface finish which could be applied to ropes but,
equal lay in this handbook. The advantages of equal lay outweigh the at present, the best one for colliery ropes is galvanising (coating of the

22 23
Ropeman 's handbook
individual wires with zinc). A colliery rope can be supplied in one of three
finishes:
- Ungalvanised (or black)
- Galvanised, Type A (a heavy coating of zinc)
- Galvanised, Type Z (a lighter coating of zinc)
Ta~le 1 Rope characteristics
Rope Type Advantages
Round strand Easy to examine visually
Fairly wide range of
flexibility
Fairly easy to examine
Triangular strand
visually
Stronger than round strand
rope of equivalent size and
wire tensile strength
Withstands crushing and
external wear better than
round strand rope
Multi-strand Non-rotating
Fairly flexible
Easy to examine visually
Flat
Very flexible in one
direction only
Non-rotating
Locked coil Non-rotating
Resistant to external
wear
Stronger than other ropes
of same size and wire
tensile strength
Elastic and permanent
stretch less than for
stranded ropes
Can operate under higher
radial pressures than
any other type
24
Types of wire strand and rope
BS 2763:1968 (Round steel wire for ropes) gives details of the two forms of
galvanising and refers to BS 443:1969 (Zinc coatings). Why should Type Z
ever be used when the heavier coating (Type A) is available? There are
reasons. For instance, in locked-coil ropes it is unwise to introduce any
factor which might encourage looseness of lay and, therefore, rope
distortion; a thick coating of soft zinc which could readily be indented or
nicked by crossing wires would be such a factor. All ropes to current NCB
Specifications, except half-locked guides and locked-coil winding ropes,
specify Type Z galvanising.
Disadvantages
The actual process of applying the zinc to the wire may be carried out by
Tendency to twist as dipping the wire in molten zinc (the hot-dip process) or by electro-plating
load changes methods (the electro-galvanising process). At one time the hot-dip process
Rather vulnerable to was not altogether satisfactory because the mechanical properties of the
external wear wire (strength, ductility, etc) were affected by the heat of the process.
Tendency to twist as
Nowadays, however, in all processes the wire is galvanised at an early stage
load changes of wire-drawing; consequently the later stages of wire-drawing give the
Less flexible than steel the required mechanical properties and, at the same time, form the
round strand rope zinc into a drawn-galvanised coating which adheres better than an undrawn
coating. There is, therefore, no need to specify the process, only the finish
required, ie ungalvanised, galvanised Type A or galvanised Type Z.
Galvaiiised finish should always be specified for ropes which will have to
work under conditions which are known to be corrosive. Ungalvanised
Interior cannot be easily ropes should preferably be used only where conditions are dry. Galvanised
examined visually
coatings protect the steel partly by acting as a physical barrier between the
steel and the corrosive media and partly because they are attacked in
Vulnerable to corrosive preference to the steel. When a galvanised coating has been removed, the
attack steel will be open to attack. It is therefore important to keep galvanised
Very expensive to ropes, like ungalvanised ones, well lubricated during storage and service
produce unless there is a good reason why they should not be lubricated (such as the
danger of slip of a friction-winding rope on its driving sheave or the slip of
haulage clips on a haulage rope working on a steep incline).
Rather inflexible
Interior cannot be
examined visually
Large sizes sometimes
tend to distort
25
I
Chapter 2
Rope handling, serving and splicing
Storage of ropes
A rope may be in store at a mine for more than two years and during this
time it is essential to take precautions against external or internal
corrosion. A new rope should not be stored in the open on ashes or other
corrosive surfaces, with a tarpaulin or plastic sheet merely thrown over it or
even enclosing it completely. A rope and its reel must be able to 'breathe',
that is, any condensation collecting under the waterproof must be able to
escape easily, otherwise the reel is likely to rot and the rope be attacked by
corrosion. In one instance, a galvanised rope which had been in store in the
open enclosed in plastic sheeting for 31 months was found to be corroded in
those parts which had contacted the reel flanges. The reel was a wooden
one and moisture collecting under the plastic sheet had caused bacteria to
Figure 10. Protective hood for rope in store
attack the wood, forming acids which then attacked the rope. If wooden
reels are to be used, then Baltic redwood is the best timber as it takes
preservatives well and is not so prone to attack. If ropes must be stored in
the open, the best arrangement is to use a hood, as shown in Fig 10,
consisting of corrugated steel sheeting fastened to a timber frame which
rests on top of the reel flanges. This keeps off the rain, grit, etc but allows
air to circulate all round the reel.
26
Rope handling, serving and splicing
However, it is much better if reels or coils of new rope can be stored away
from the weather and any fumes in a dry, cool, well-ventilated building out
of th~ path of the sun's ra~s and under conditions where the temperature
remams as steady as possible and does not rise much above the normal
value of 16°C. A steady temperature avoids condensation: a temperature
which does not rise much above 16°C prevents the lubricantfrom becomino
thin and running out of the rope. At 21°C most lubricants are twice as fluid
as at 16°C: at 27°C they are about three times as fluid. The coil or reel
should stand on timbers rather than on a concrete floor and if stored
vertically, should be rotated from time to time to prevent d;ainage of
lubricant to the bottom. Any place where ropes are stored should be kept
free of rodents since rats and mice would be attracted to the rope lubricant;
their droppings could set up corrosion in the ropes.
If the rope remains in store for a considerable time it should be inspected
at interval~ and fresh lubricant applied as necessary. If the ropes are to
be used on fnction-wmders, any re-lubricating should be discussed with the
Colliery Engineer.
Uncoiling and unreeling of ropes
Rope reels and coils should always be handled with care. Never drop a reel
or coil from a lorry or truck when unloading but put a suitable bar through
the central hole of the reel a~d hft it with suitable slings and lifting tackle.
Never lift a coil of rope by its securing bands but always pass the sling
throngh the central hole in the coil.
Coils and reels of rope may be unwound by one of the following methods:
o A light coil of rope may be unrolled along the ground like a hoop as in
Fig lla. Make sure that the floor is clean and that all the remaining
rope is held together so that no tight coils or kinks occur. Rope should
never be pulled from a statiOnary coil as in Fig. llc.
o A coil or small reel of rope may be laid on a turntable (Figs llb and 12a)
and the free end of rope pulled off as the turntable revolves.
0 A bar may be passed through the centre hole of a reel and mounted on a
stand (Fig 12a) so that the reel rotates as the rope is pulled off. If loops
should form they must be taken out by carefully rolling them to the free
end of the rope, otherwise kinks will form. The rate of rotation of large
reels should be controlled by some simple form of braking. This may be
either a plank held agamst the reel flange as in Fig 12b or an adjustable
fnctlon drum on the shaft or side plate as in Fig 12c.
27
Ropeman's handbook Rope handling, serving and splicing

Correct coiling of stranded ropes on drums

If a stranded rope is fitted incorrectly to a smooth-surfaced drum it may coil
badly, forming open or widely spaced coils instead of closely packed coils,
The correct way to fit a rope to such a drum in order to encourage close
coiling in the first layer of coils is given below.
When looking at the drum in a direction towards the shaft or haulage
(a) Right: rolling the coil (b) Right: using a turntable plane:
along the ground
o A rigbt-hand lay underlap rope should have its dead end at the
right-hand flange of the drum.
o A rigbt-hand lay overlap rope should have its dead end at the left-hand
flange of the drum.
It has already been mentioned (p 20) that both ropes in a shaft should have
the same direction of lay, normaiiy right-hand lay. The above method of
fitting the ropes may be remembered by the foiiowing means:
(c) Wrong: pulling the rope from a non-rotating coil
When looking at the drum in a direction towards the shaft or haulage
Figure 11. Right and wrong methods of uncoiling a rope plane:
o Extend your rigbt hand (for right-hand lay) towards the under side of the
drum (for the under rope), with the palm towards the drum (ie upwards)
and with the index finger pointing towards the shaft or haulage plane.
The thumb will then be near to the right-hand flange of the drum where
the dead end of the underlap rope should be (Fig 13a).

(a) Taking a rope from a small reel

(a) Underlap rope (b) Overlap rope

Cb) Braking with a plank against the reel flange (c) Braking with an adjustable friction drum
on the shaft or side plate
Use ofindexfinger of right hand to deoidecorreot method

Figure 12. Correct methods of unreeling a rope Figure 13. Starting a right-hand lay rope on the drum

28 29
Ropeman's handbook
o Extend your right hand (for right-hand lay) towards the top side of the
drum (for the over rope), again with the palm towards the drum (ie
downwards) and again with the index finger pointing towards the shaft
or haulage plane. The thumb will then be nearest the left-hand flange of
the drum where the dead end of the overlap rope should be (Fig 13b).
In the unlikely event of the ropes being of left-hand lay, the left hand
should be use.d instead of the right. It will then be found that a left-hand lay
underlap rope should have its dead end at the left-hand flange, and an
overlap rope at the right-hand flange.
In the case of a haulage rope which coils badly in the first or subsequent
layers on the drum because of flapping of the incoming rope in front of the
drum, the solution may be to mount a pulley freely on a long shaft
extending across the full width of the front of the drum. As the rope runs in
this pulley the flapping will be damped by the pulley which, however, can '
move slowly along its long shaft to feed the oncoming rope onto the correct
part of the drum.
Except on bicylindroconical (BCC) drums the direction of coiling is not '
as important for locked coil ropes as it is for stranded ropes. ·
Serving a rope
A serving (sometimes referred to as a 'seizing') is a wrapping of wire laid·
tightly around a rope to prevent its wires from 'kicking' or moving to
slacken themselves when the rope is cut between two adjacent servings. A
serving is not sufficient unless it prevents all kicking or movement of the
wires. The colliery ropeman should know how to serve a rope efficiently.
It is no use wrapping a few turns of wire, string or insulating tape around
the rope in the form of open or partly-overlapping coils. That is not
serving. The correct size and type of serving wire must be applied to the
rope tightly, under proper tension and in neatly-laid parallel coils which
are in hard contact with one another (otherwise they could move sideways
and become slack). Only single wire should be used as a strand of fine wires
might collapse or flatten in places and, consequently, become slack. The
serving wire must be of soft material so that it will readily take a permanent
bend and accommodate itself to the shape of the rope. If it did not, the rope
would kick and accommodate itself to the shape of the serving. Thus, a
good serving on a six-strand rope will appear somewhat six-sided.
To sum up, the serving must be applied by means of a serving mallet to
keep it under proper tension and get it tight; the wire used should be tinned
annealed mild steel serving wire or soft iron serving wire; it should be single
wire, not a strand; and it should be of the correct size for the rope.
30
Rope handling, serving and splicing
Size of serving wire
Serving wire which is very thin is too weak and fragile; one that is very thick
is too rigid and unlikely to accommodate itself to the shape of the rope.
Only three sizes of serving wire are needed to cover the full range of rope
sizes. These are given in the following table:
Table 2 Sizes of tinned annealed mild steel or soft iron serving wire for
ropes of various sizes
Rope diameter Size of single Standard
mm(in) serving wire wire gauge
mm (in) SWG
Less than 22 m 1.32 (0.052) 17
22 to 38 (t- H) 1.57 (0.062) 16
Larger than 38 (H) 1.83 (0.072) 15
Length of serving
The length of rope to be served depends on the object of the serving and on
the size and type of the rope. If the serving is to restrain the cut end of a
rope it must be longer than one intended to restrain the end of a short
sample to be cut from a rope. A rope of the stranded type exerts only a
moderate bursting force on a serving but a large locked coil rope exerts a
considerable bursting force and, should the serving burst, the rope will
unlay itself violently over a long length. Thus, for the cut end of a stranded
rope, two servings each of a length at least six times the rope diameter
should be used and kept in place until the rope end is otherwise secured.
For the cut end of a large locked coil rope a serving or servings each a
length of twenty times the rope diameter is advisable, and such servings
should be backed up by a minimum of six two-bolt clamps set clear of the
served length until the rope end is otherwise secured. Servings should be
left permanently on locked coil winding ropes so that there is one about
0.6 m (2ft) clear of the cape! to allow proper examination of the rope at
this point and another between the cape! and the nearest pulley or driving
sheave in the headframe. This is to localise any unlaying of the rope end,
or of broken wires, in the event of some incident.
Serving tools
The tools essential for serving are as follows:
o A vice or other means of holding the rope.
o Serving mallets, such as the types shown in Fig 14a for stranded ropes,
31
Ropeman 's handbook Rope handling, serving and splicing

and Fig 15a for locked coil ropes. The heads of the mallets should be
shaped to enable them to sit on the rope and should be of brass or other
soft material, which will not score the rope. The handles of the type
shown in Fig 14a should be long enough to take a reel of wire.
o A reel capable of being mounted on_the handles of the mallets shown in
Fig 14a and on which sufficient wire can be wound to complete a serving.
o Pliers and wire-cutters, for twisting wire ends together and cutting them
short.
o A small soft-headed hammer, for tapping the coils of a serving into
contact with one another.
D A heavy soldering iron, made from a copper block approximately (b)
76 mm x38 mm with one long face ground flat, for completing a soldered
or wiped serving.

Serving operations
A new ropeman must acquire his skill in serving under the instruction of an
experienced man_ There are two types of serving, as follows:

The ordinary or buried-wire serving is usually confined to stranded ropes :

and to parts of the rope which have not to he fitted into sockets or other ·
confined spaces. The basic idea is to lay the first part of the serving wire !
along the length of rope to be served, and then to wind the wire tightly over '
it in coils so that the two ends of the serving wire finish at the same place
where they can be twisted together and cut off short to complete the
1
serving. ~

Firstly, in making such a serving, the free end of the serving wire on the reel ,
is paid out for about 0.5 m (18 in) and its extreme end is clamped in the vice /
together with the rope (Fig 14b). This paid-out wire is then led from the r

'ice along the rope to the far end of the rope length to be seized (in a ·
stranded rope, after the first few turns of the serving have secured it, the
wire would be laid in a valley between two strands and would, therefore, !

spiral around the rope)- This part of the wire is the buried wire_ The
paid-out wire is then bent to lie at right-angles to the rope and is given a
couple of turns around the rope, so as to lie on top of the buried wire and
form the beginning of the serving (Fig 14b). The serving mallet is then
placed on the rope, on top of these two turns (Fig 14c). Then the wire
leading from these turns is passed over the top edge of the mallet and round
the back of the handle (Fig 14c)_ The process is continued by passing the
wire over the top edge of the mallet again, under the rope, up over the
other edge of the mallet and the reel placed on the handle of the serving
mallet (Fig 14d), the reel being turned to take up the slack wire.
i SMRE
·
(a) Serving mallets and reel of wire. (b) Rope and end of wire clamped in
vice and wire wound between strands to star: of serving. (c) Two turns of
: wire mede around rope and serving mallet placed 1-n position. (d) Wire
brought over edge of mallet. around handle and back over mallet edge,
i
then under rope and over opposite edge of mallet. Reel then placed on
. handle. (e) Serving begun keeping wire taut. ':fl Serving finished and ends
· of wire twisted together with pliers.
Figure 14. One method of serving a stranded rope

32 33
 Rope handling, serving and splicing
Rope man's handbook

As the mallet is rotated round the rope in a direction to continue the

serving (Fig 14e) the drag or friction of the wire passing round the mallet
handle will ensure that the serving is applied tightly to the rope, under
proper tension. The ropeman must control the turning of the reel on the
handle so as to pay out wire only at the rate at which it is needed; slack wire
will mean slack serving. As he lays more and more coils or turns of serving
on the rope he must keep those turns tight and keep them in hard contact ,.
with one another. If the wire tends to form open coils not in contact with .
one another he must tap the coils into place with his soft-headed hammer .·
before he proceeds further, so as to pack the coils closely together. A
method of guiding the wire into close packed coils is to cut a guide-groove ;
for the wire in the head of the mallet, as shown in Fig 14a. When the length i
of serving is completed, the wire from the final coil and that from the buried !
wire are twisted together, pulled tight, twisted further to keep them tight i·
and cut off so as to leave about four twists remaining in the twisted end (Fig \
14f). This short twisted end is then knocked down with the hammer so as to j.
lie neatly against the rope. In the case of a stranded rope the expenenced ~
man will arrange that the twist is so situated that it•can be knocked down 1
into a valley between two strands. j
I
The soldered or wiped serving is the best type of serving. It is suitable for ~­
locked coil ropes and for parts of rope which are to be threaded through ,
sockets. The Idea IS to serve directly on to the rope, Without any buned ~
wire being present, so that the two ends of the serving wire lie at opposite ~
ends of the serving. No attempt is made to twist or join these ends of wire. 1:
The type of serving mallet used is shown in Fig 15a and the steps in the [ Figure 15. Method of applying soldered serving to a locked coil rope (British
Ropes Ltd)
process for serving right-hand lay rope in Figs 15a to 15d. !

Using the recommended size of tinned annealed mild steel wire, the !
starting end of the wire should be reeved from the bobbin on the serving I
mallet and made fast to a nearby object or lashed to the rope with yarn or :
tape. This fastened end should be to the ropeman's left hand. The serving
mallet is then passed around the rope until the wire holds it in position
where the cut is to be made. The serving proper is now started by raising
the handle of the mallet upwards and towards the body, passing it over the
rope and down away from the body, moving to the right (Fig. 15a). When
the serving has reached a length of about 150 mm (6 in) its surface should
be thoroughly cleaned, in preparation for soldering (Fig 15b). On this
cleaned surface a liberal quantity of Coraline flux (or powdered rosin) ,
should be spread (Fig 15c). Baker's fluid or killed spirit should never be '
used as a flux because they could penetrate between the turns of the serving :
and severely corrode the rope. The coils of wire should now be soldered :·
together along one side of the rope using the heavy soldering iron and [
tinman's solder. The hot iron should be passed to and fro across the surface :
of the serving so that the solder flows into the interstices between the turns
of servingwir~ (Fig 15d). The sequence of serving and soldering is repeated
until the requrred length (20 times the rope diameter) of serving has been
completed.
Splicing of haulage ropes
Splicing cannot be learnt from a book alone; a new rope man must acquire
~IS skill un~er the tmtmn of an experienced splicer. A description of the
long splice as used for JOmmghaulage ropes end to end, or for inserting a
new l~ngth of rope mto an endless haulage rope, is given below. The 'short
splice_, as used for formmg an eye or loop on the end of a rope, will not be
desmbed as 1t IS not employed in colliery practice in this country. It is
llllportant, of course, to ensure that any rope spliced into another is of
similar size and construction, and of reasonably similar length of lay.

34 35
Ropeman 's handbook Rope handling, serving and splicing

The long splice

If the splice joining two ropes (Rope A and Rope B) were made over a very Rope B
short length, the rope would be definitely weakened and distorted at that
place. However, haulage ropes usually have six strands and, consequently,
a much neater and stronger splice can be obtained by spacing the 'joints' of
the six strands at well-separated intervals along the rope. In Figs 16b and c,
Strand NolA (of Rope A) is replaced by Strand No 1B (of Rope B) at a
joint situated well away from the joint at which Strand No 2A will be
replaced by Strand No 2B, and so on until all the six strands of Rope A have
been replaced by strands of Rope B. This is the principle on which the long
splice is based. Fig 16d shows the resulting six joints, with the ends of their
strands crossed and ready for tucking into the rope. (The joints are shown
much closer together than they should be, in order to fit them into the
illustration.) Each joint is completed by arranging that the strand of Rope
A and its opposite number of Rope B meet and pass one another for a
distance equal to the selected tucking length (Fig 17a). Then this tucking
length of each strand is tucked or buried in the heart of the rope, in place of
an equal length of the main core which is cut out (Fig 17b).
The minimum length of each strand which must be tucked in order to give a
secure joint, and therefore the minimum length of the whole splice,
depends on the size and length of lay of the rope and also on the conditions
under which the rope works.'The Engineer will advise on these lengths.
The minimum length of the whole splice is twelve times the tucked length
of each strand in the case where no main core is left between tucks. A
tucked length for each strand of 75d (d=rope diameter) has been found
reliable for all but the most exceptional conditions. The following table for (c) ;:,;:~::::;;~~~~
the values of the length of tuck and length of splice is based on that value.

Table 3 Lengths of tucks and splices

Rope diameter Length of tuck Length of splice

mm in m in m ft SMRE

9-13
14-19
21-26
~
i-~
16-4

~ -1
. 1
1.5
2
40
60
80
12
18
24
40
60
80
(a) Ropes served at half the length of the intended splice and strands
splayed out. (b) Ropes brought tightly together. strands paired, serving
removed and strand 1 A unwound from rop~ A for full length of splice.
29-32 H-H 2.5 100 30 100 (c) Space left by strand 1 A is filled by strand 1 8 from rope B and short
lengths of each are left for tucking. (d) Six pairs of strands treated similarly.
35-38 H-H 3 120 36 120
41-44 H-H 3.5 140 42 140
48-51 H-2 4 160 48 160
51-54 2 -2! 4.5 180 54 180 Figure 16. Making a long splice

36 37
 Ropeman 's handbook
There are several varieties of the long splice and several orders in which the
operations may be carried out. These are best learnt from an experienced
splicer. The following description is given merely to show the general
principles of one type:
o Serve each rope (Rope A and Rope B) atadistancefromits end equal to
half the length of the splice. Put a short serving or whipping of string on
the free end of each strand. Separate the strands of both ropes as far back
as the main serving and cut away the two free pieces of main core (Fig
16a).
o Marry the two rope ends so that the strands of Rope A lie regularly and
in order between the strands of Rope B (Fig 16b).
o Divide the strands into pairs, each pair consisting of one strand from
Rope A and its adjoining strand from Rope B. Tie the two strands
together where they cross, if that will help to keep them in their pairs. In
Fig 16 Strand lA (from Rope A) and Strand 1B (from Rope B) form a
pair; Strands 2A and 2B form another pair; and so on.
o Pull the two ropes hard together by some means, fix them in that
position, and remove the two servings (Fig 16b).
o Take one pair of strands, say lA and lB. Run lA out of its rope and lay
1B in its place until the whole length of lB, except the length to be
tucked, has been used up (Fig 16c). Cut lA so that only the length to be
tucked remains, as on the extreme left of Fig 16c. Tuck these two ends
(as explained later), or tie them in place ready for tucking.
o Do the same with the next pair of strands, but in the opposite direction
along the rope. That is, run 2B out of its rope and lay 2A in its place,
leaving only the tucking lengths free as before.
o Run the third pair in the same direction as the first pair, but only for
three-fifths of the distance. That is, run 3A out of its rope and replace it
by 3B for three-fifths of the length from the marrying point to the joint
where lA and lB are tucked or ready for tucking. Cut 3A and 3B so as to
leave free only their tucking lengths.
o Do the same with the next pair, 4A and 4B, but in the opposite direction.
(It is usual to run successive pairs of strands in opposite directions but
some forms of splicing do otherwise.) That is, run 4B out and replace it
by 4A for three-fifths of the length from the marrying point to the joint
where 2A and 2B are tucked or ready for tucking. Cut the ends so as to
leave only the tucking lengths free. ·
o Run SA out of its rope and replace it by 5B over a length equal to
one-fifth of the length from the marrying point to the joint where lA and
lB are tucked or ready for tucking. Trim the ends to leave only the
tucking lengths free.
o Run the last pair in the opposite direction. That is, run out 6B and
replace it by 6A for one-fifth of the length from the marrying point to the
38
Rope handling, serving and splicing
joint where 2A and 2B are tucked or ready for tucking. Trim the ends to
leave only the tucking lengths free.
There should uow be six pairs of strand ends tucked or ready for tucking,
that is to say, six joints spaced equally along the splice as m Fig 16d. (For
ease of illustration the joints are shown much too close together.) In that
illustration the joints are shown in the order: l, 3, 5, 6, 4, 2, readmg from
left to right.
In other varieties of the long splice the order of the joints may be different;
for instance the order: 1, 3, 5, 2, 4, 6 may be considered better because it
keeps the joints in neighbouring strands further away from each ?!her. As
already stated, the actual form of splice and the order of operation~ to be
) adopted in a particular case is best decided by an expenenced splicer.
1
i Tucking
1
When a strand is to be tucked, the pull on the rope should be slackened off
1
1 enough to allow for the insertion between the strands of a tuckmg tool,
' spike or needle. If the rope is of round-strand constructiOn, the whole of
!.·
, the tucking length (Fig 17a) of each strand should be wrapped with twmeor
tape, from the extreme end up to a pointabout 25 mm_ (1m) from the J~mt
1 to make it at leastthe same size as the mam core that It Is to replace. (This IS
to ensure that the tucked length will be securely held inside the rope.) If the
rope is of flattened strand construction, its strands will already be larg~r
than its main core and the wrappmg will not be necessary. However, m this
Strand A Strand 8
(a)
Strand A Strclhd 8
Core
SMRE
Tucked ends
Figure 17. Tucking strand ends into a rope
39
 Rope handliag, serving and splicing
Rope man's handbook

case, the extreme end of each tucking length should be served or whipped
with fine string or tape to prevent it collapsing. If the rope is of the I
preformed type (p 23) the tucking lengths should be straightened before
being tucked. :1

An experienced splicer is best fitted to give detailed instruction on tucking,

but the general method of tucking a pair of strands is as follows:
o Fix the rope in a vice (or by some other means) so that the joint of the
two strands to be tucked is just clear of the vice or fixing.
o Insert into the rope the spike, needle or tucking tool at the point where
the two strands cross, pull out the main core and cut it through. Figure 18. Rope worn at a faulty tuck ' .!
o Rotate the spike around the rope with the lay (iemove italongtherope,
while still in the rope, rotating it around the rope m the same direction as
the rope lay). Move it in a direction away from the joint or crossing point
of the two strands and, at the same time, keep pulling out the main core
and replacing it by the strand to be tucked until the whole length of that
strand is tucked. Cut the main core so that the end of the core remammg
in the rope abuts hard against the end of the tucked strand and no part of
the rope is left hollow. (A hollow rope will collapse or distort.)
o Move the vice or alternative fixing along the rope so that the second
strand of the pair can be tucked.
o Before running in this second strand, get the crossing point of the tw_o
strands to fit snugly into the rope with the aid of hammer blows on aprur
of splicing tongs or swage. Run in the second strand as m the third Item
above. SMRE
Figure 19. Protruding end to tucked strand
o Smooth out the shape of the rope over the tucked lengths, using hammer
blows on tongs or swage, or by hammering the rope itself between two
wooden mallets which will not damage the wires. The two tucked strands one instance when a protruding strand end caught in a rail slot. The tucked
should now-lie within the rope as shown in the diagram in Fig 17b. strand was torn out of the rope until the tuck cross-over point was reached
o Tuck the other pairs of strands in the same way and smooth out the shape when a holdfast occurred and the rope eventually broke.
of the rope over the whole splice.
"There are two main types of tuck:
Tucking is the most skilled part of splicing. The most important thin~ in
tucking is to get the rope back to its proper shape and as nearly as possible - the parallel, or flat, or side-by-side tuck;
to its original diameter at the point where the two tucked strands enter the - the crossed, or round, or locked tuck.
rope. If parts of the tucked strands (or any strands) protrude from the rope
or 'stand proud' at this point, they will rapidly become worn through The side-by-side tuck (Fig 20a) is probably the easiest to make and is quite
during service. It usually happens that the two tucked strands do he neatly satisfactory. In fact tucks of either type seldom pull out if they are of
in the rope but that the two neighbouring strands (under which the tucked sufficient length and are well made; the most common trouble with long
splices is localised wear, as in Fig 18. In the side-by-side tuck the two
strands ar~ first tucked) stand proud and become heavily worn. fig 18 1
shows such a case where the two tucked strands have escaped wear, but the strands to be tucked enter the rope without first crossing one another, so
strands on each side of the joint have become severely damaged by wear. that they lie parallel or side-by-side at the joint as in Fig 20a and present a
somewhat flat appearance. In the crossed tuck th two strands cross one
Care must be taken to tuck the ends of the tucked strands well into the '
rope. If this is not done, as was the case with theropeinFig19, theendmay another or are locked before entering the rope, as in Fig20b, and present a
more round appearance.
catch on some obstruction and be torn out of the rope. This happened m

40 41
Ropeman 's handbook
I strands instead of six at
I Point o,f repa"ir
(a) Side-by-side tuck
(b) Locked or crossed tuck
Figure 20. Types of tuck used in splicing
It is difficult to get a rope back to shape, and to its original diameter, at a
joint because at some point in the joint two strands are attemptmg to
occupy the space intended for only one. However, a good splicer can grve
instruction on the many ingenious ways of restoring the rope to its proper
shape. One device is to slightly untwist the two strands to be tucked, over a
length of 25 mm (1 in) or so at the part where they he together m passmg
one another. As a result this part of each strand is made soft and spongy
and capable of being re-shaped by the pressure of the tongs or swage; also,
in the case of a crossed tuck, the loosened outer wires of the two strands
mesh together to some extent.
If a strand stands proud in a joint and becomes worn through as in Fig 18, it
will unravel from the rope and may cause an accident. Thus, the ropeman is
sometimes faced with the need to make a speedy repair during a shift. One
fairly common practice (or malpractice) is to trim the broken ends of the
strand and to tuck them into the rope, so that theydonotpassoneanother
42
Rope handling, serving and splicing
(a) On the right incorrect
method of repair, whereby
the rope is reduced to five
point of repair
...... , ...................... <·:·:·>:"{
,,,,.,•••••••••••••. ,, .• , •.•••.•.••.J.··
.;.:-::-:,::::* <=:=· ...... , ..,,.,.,.,,,,,,:,:;,,:
..
Defective strand Replacement strand Defective strand
..J I I
=~: ·······.····.··.·.··.·=~:::~··········;:: ~:=
••• •••••• ••••••••••••·•••••••.•••.••.•.••.•••.•·.•.••.w.··;·>: ·,·,;.. ;.:ow.<'.·
·····················.·:·:·:·:·<=:<=~·;:,:•:w.•• • •• • •• ••••• ···:·>"•:•:•: ··:·:·:·:·>:;:·
SMRE
(b) Correct method of repair
Figure 21. Method of replacing a defective strand in a six-straiid rope
before entering the rope, as in the diagram in Fig 21a. This leaves the rope
with only five useful'strands, for the tucked strand has no strength at its cut
ends. Many ropes have broken at such five-stranded parts. In tucking, the
two strands must always pass one another before being tucked into the
rope; otherwise they cannot hand over their load to one another. Even in
an emergency repair the rope must have six strands on the outside. The
correct procedure in making such a repair is to cut out several yards of the
defective strand and to insert a somewhat longer length of similar strand in
its place as a replacement strand, tucking all four ends so that their ends
pass before being tucked as shown in the diagraminFig21b (where the two
joints are shown much too close together in order to fit them in the
diagram).
Thus, the main points to remember in connection with splicing are:
o Get the tucked strands and their neighbours at the jointto fit snugly into
the rope so that no strand stands proud, otherwise that strand will
rapidly wear through in service.
o If a strand does become worn through, or broken from any cause, cut out
several yards of the defective strand and replace that length by a similar
strand. The tucks at the end of the replacing strand should be so made
that the strands pass one another before being tucked (Fig 2lb).
43

Chapter 3
Rope lubrication
The purpose of wire rope lubrication is two-fold. Firstly, it facilitates
freedom of movement between wires within the rope, thus reducmg
friction and internal wear and improving the distnbutwn of load.
Secondly it protects both internal and external surfaces of the wires from
corrosion'. External lubricant reduces friction and exte:r;nal wear between
the rope and any drum or pulley over which It passes; It can also help to
reduce internal wear by restricting penetration of dirtand gnt which could
otherwise cause increased abrasion. In certain conditions, however, too
liberal use of too sticky an external lubricant will attract grit and so reduce
rope life.
The essential properties of a wire rope lubricant are:
0 it must be tough enough to resist abrasion but sufficiently plastic to
remain intact as the rope flexes in service; . .
0 it must adhere firmly to the wires and b~ VIscous enough to resist
gravitational forces (ega winding rope hangmg vertically m a shaft) and
centrifugal forces (ega rope working on a high speed wmder);
0 it must, itself, be non-corrosive, stable over the range of temperatures
and environmental conditions (eg salt water) likely to be encountered
and under no circumstances give rise to any by-products which would
attack the metal strands;
0 it must be water-repellent to protect internal and external surfaces from
corrosion; h b
0 it must not deteriorate with age, exposure or temperature c anges, eg Y
hardening or cracking; and . . ..
0 a lubricant (dressing) applied externally durmg serVIce should, additiOn-
ally, have good penetration to compensate, as far as possible, for any
loss of the manufacturer's internal lubncant. It must also be fully
compatible with the lubricant used in manufacture.
Lubrication of ropes during manufacture
Because it is difficult to lubricate fully the internal part of a rope once it is
made up, ropes are thoroughly lubricated at the manufacturmg stage. The
44
I: Rope lubrication
majority of lubricants now used for this fall into two main classes:
- petroleum-based compounds,
- bitumen in mineral oil compounds,
with a predominance of the petroleum-based type. Chemicals are added to
the basic lubricant to improve the performance. These additives include
anti-corrosion, anti-oxidation, water-repellent, anti-fret agents, etc. Ex-
cept in certain cases, the lubricant is applied during all stages of
manufacture. It is sometimes applied cold but more generally heated,
according to its viscosity, to obtain the optimuin condition for application.
The completed rope may be passed through a final bath of lubricant. For
locked coil friction-winding ropes, specially developed bitumen-based
lubricants may be used. General practice is to heavily lubricate the inner
layers of the rope with a bitumen-in-oil compound, laying up the outer one
or two layers in a virtually dry condition. In service the lubricant spreads to
the outer layers but should still be contained within the rope, thus avoiding
contamination of the sheave linings and, hence, rope slip. Lubricants
(batching fluids) are necessary during the spinning of natural fibre cores to
prevent the fibres from breaking. To avoid internal corrosion of the rope,
these lubricants must be free from acids and water. The core fibres
themselves must be free from acids and salt and should contain only the
combined water necessary to prevent brittleness. BS 525:1973 gives the
requirements for such cores. Before incorporation into a rope, a fibre core
may be impregnated with further lubricant.
Lubrication during service
If a rope is to remain in good condition it is important to re-lubricate it at
intervals during service. The oil or grease (dressing) used should be one
1!. ·
specially designed or approved for ropes and should be free from all
harmful substances such as acids. It should be of mineral origin rather than
animal or vegetable origin, for the latter tend to break down eventually and
I produce acids. The rope manufacturers and oil companies will advise on
suitable lubricants, including the additives to improve the properties.
The kind of dressing used and the frequency of application varies with the
type of rope and its usage, but there. are certain general principles to be
followed. These are:
[ o Whenever practical the dressing should be applied as soon as the rope is
II put to work.
f o The dressing should be re-applied at regular intervals, normally before
1 the rope is showing signs of corrosion or dryness.
45
Ropeman 's handbook Rope lubrication

o Periodically, it is important to clean existing lubricant from the rope
before relubricating, particularly in dirty or dusty conditions (eg skip
winding shafts).
o If loose corrosion products are present on the rope surface these should
also be removed before fresh dressing is applied.
o The dressing and method of application should be such that a thin, even,
adherent coating covers all the wires in the rope.
Advice should be sought from oil suppliers and rope manufacturers as to
the most suitable lubricant, bearing in mind that the lubricant must be
compatible with the lubricant used in rope manufacture.
The atmospheric temperature and weather conditions may affect the
viscosity of the oil, particularly where long pipe runs are exposed.
Protection of the pipes and keeping the temperature of the oil reasonably
constant in the small reservoir are advisable.

Drum-winder ropes
Drum-winder ropes should be re-lubricated at regular intervals; this
should be at least once a week for busy ropes in wet shafts. For such
arduous conditions, lubricants are available containing additives having
anti-corrosion, tackiness, water-repellent and, in some cases, de-watering
properties. The de-watering additives in bitumen-based dressings emulsify
with the water present on the rope and ensure that oil is kept in close
contact with the surfaces of the wires. It is necessary to clean this type of
dressing from the rope before it becomes saturated with water. The right
time to clean andre-lubricate the rope can be judged from the colour of the ! Oil feed to be applied preferably
dressing which changes as its water content increases. With petroleum- !.· to descending rope

based compounds containing de-watering additives water is removed from I

the rope but it is not absorbed by the compound to. the same extent as by I
bitumen-based compffounds.hWThinding rohpeds hmayhbe cldeanetd andfregrebased 1.
manually, using a sti brus . IS met o as t e a van age o ena 1mg
the rope exterior to be examined at the same time but it is a rather long and
laborious one. Other methods are available and are described below.
Automatic lubrication of winding ropes can be achieved by pumping
lubricating oil from a small reservoir positioned either in the winding Headgear pulley
engine house or at the headgear pulley level (the pump being motorised
or driven by either the winding engine or the headgear pulley shaft). The
oil is distributed by smaU flexible pipes to the point of application onto
the rope as in Fig 22; bending of the rope round the pulley then assists
penetration and distribution of the lubricant. Figure 22. Automatic rope lubrication
The quantity of oil dripped onto the rope is usually determined by It is also important to remember that the ropes still require cleaning at
experience. Care must be taken to ensure that control of the supply is keJ?t intervals to free them from dirt, grit, etc. One method of cleaning ropes is
under close supervisi9n as excess oil on the rope may result m shown in Fig 23. A method for cleaning locked coil ropes, which also serves
contamination of the winding drum brake path and linings, the headgear as a broken outer wire detector, is to use a short length of high tensile steel
and the engine house. Experience has shown that automatic lubrication, wire in the manner shown in Fig 24.
carefully controlled, results in the ropes being uniformly lubricated and the
quantity of oil applied is usually Jess than that used by manual methods. It A type of pressure lubricator has been developed which is particularly
is important, when using the drip feed method, that the rope lengths suitable for the internal lubrication of locked coil ropes. It consists of a
between the cape] and the headgear pulley and between the headgear gland which is easily clamped to a stationary rope and, when working at
pulley and the drum are oiled manually. 2 kg/mm 2 (3000 lb/in2), is said to be capable of Jubricating9-12m (30-40ft)

46 47
Ropeman 's handbook Rope lubrication l~:I
I
\f
of rope on each side of any one clamping position. With this device, !lj.. '
particular lengths likely to suffer deterioration (such as the acceleration ':il
zone) may be treated effectively without lubricating the whole rope. It is
also useful in arresting waviness (see p 99) in a locked coil rope,
particularly when this is due to insufficient freedom of movement between
the rope wires. Before this type of lubricator is used the rope manufacturer
should be consulted.

Friction-winder ropes
In the case of friction-winder ropes externally applied lubricants or
dressings must not seriously reduce the coefficient of friction between the
rope and the driving sheave. When friction winding was first introduced,
these ropes were not lubricated in service but now specially developed
dressings for friction-winder ropes are available and have proved quite
successfuL The dressings can be applied by hand at, say, monthly intervals,
but very great care must be taken not to over-lubricate; the dressings
should be used sparingly and any surplus should be wiped off with a cloth.
Too much lubricant could cause rope slip directly or could result in the
build up of deposits which could eventually cause either rope slip or uneven
rope travel (and hence unequal tensions in the ropes). If the Engineer
Figure 23. Typical wire brush rope cleaner agrees, it is often a good idea to clean andre-lubricate one rope at a time on
(British Ropes Ltd) multi-rope friction-winders, say, one per week or one per night.
Despite the precautions taken during manufacture, newly-installed ropes
sometimes exude excess lubricant. Consequently, new ropes should be
frequently and carefully examined during the initial operating period.
Similar precautions need to be taken if a rope has been recently pressure
lubricated.
If excess lubricant is found it should be removed with a cloth, moistened, if
necessary, with a little transformer oil to help to dissolve the lubricant, and
finally wiped dry with a clean cloth.
The nse of harmful drying agents such as gritty dusts should be avoided
although, as a last resort in very extreme cases, cement dust has been found
successful in absorbing excess lubricant. Such methods must only be used
on the authority of the mine Engineer.

Balance ropes
Balance ropes, whether galvanised or not, should be kept well lubricated
for they often work in corrosive conditions. Oeaning is just as important as
Wooden handle
lubricating for, if the lubricant cannot reach the rope surface, it does no
Figure 24. Looped wire method of cleaning and examining good whatsoever. A lubricant of the type used for guide ropes may be nsed
locked-coil winding ropes but in many cases, especially for flat balance ropes, a thinner dressing

48 49
Rope man's handbook
Rope lubrication

applied by spray gives better results. This method offers bette: penetra-
tion, keeps the ropes cleaner and enables the ropes to be exammed more
easily.
Guide ropes
A commonly used type of dressing which gives good results in dry oro?IY
slightly wet co11ditions is a viscous, bitumen-based compound contammg
anti-rust tackiness water repellent and de-watenng addJI1ves. In wet
shafts, d~essings with adhesive and emulsifying properties generally give
better results. Under the most severe conditions, where large amounts of
corrosive Water are present, dressings with anti-rust and dew~tering
properties but containing no emulsifying agents are often used. Th1s type
of!ubricant is difficult to apply, since the surface of the gmde rope must first
be thoroughly dried, but it lasts for a reasonable time before a fresh
application is needed.
Lubricating after capping
When a rope is capped or recapped with a white metal socket, it is possible
for some of the internal lubricant to be lost from the part of the rope
adjacent to the cape!. This loss could encourage corrosion and fatigue of
the wires at this critical part. After completion of the capping process,
therefore, the rope close to the mouth of the cape! should be thoroughly
regreased. For fibre-cored ropes, a patented system is also available
whereby a lubrication tube, fitted with a grease nipple, is cast into the white
metal having been previously pushed down the wire brush and its end
inserted into the fibre core. When the completed capping is cold, lubricant
is pumped in to replace any which may have melted out. The process can be
repeated as necessary during the life of the rope.

Haulage ropes
Haulage ropes, whether galvanised or not, should be kept well lubricated.
The same care should be given to the smaller, occasionally used haulage
ropes as to the busy man-riding ropes; it is often on these small installations
that the more serious accidents occur. Haulage ropes suffer mamly from
wear and corrosion and the dressings most suited to combat these are
either very viscous oils or soft greases which contain tackiness additives
together with either molybdenum disulphide orgraphite. Other dressmgs
which may be used with success are heavy residual oils and b1tummous
compounds. A mechanical lubricator suitable for man-riding haulage
ropes where the rope is horizontal is shown m Fig 25. As the rope IS drawn
slowly through, the pulley transfers lubricant from the bath onto the rope,
the wiper removing excess lubricant, distributing the remainder and
working it into the rope.

Pulley adjustable
for height

Figure 25. Lubricator for haulage ropes

50
51
 [ Metlwds of capping wire ropes

Chapter 4 - Axis of pin

j
'
Old capping

x•~
Methods of capping wire ropes '
Fibre core Molten Completed
' . (if any) metal capping
removed poured

A new ropeman cannot become expert in capping merely by reading a AT

6d discard
book on the subject; he must acquire his skill and experience under the
X---
- ,,_1_
~---X-
tuition of a man already skilled in the wrrk. However, a book can help both C
of them and act as a reminder of the various steps that have to be taken and il!
:::
the correct order_ It must be remembered that efficient serving is important
in all types of capping. The three types of capping which will be described
here are as follows:
- white metal cappings; Rope
centring ....
- wedge-type cappings; clamp -tl
- cappings with inserted cones and tails. @
~

Note: After· completion of capping or recapping of a windi-ng or haulage -~

rope, a trial run with the &flpel subjected to normal load should be •
_§
c
carried out, followed by an examination of the capping, before the rope
T Bolts in
is returned to service.
I marker
clamp
oriented
same as
Capping with molten white metal pin in new
capping
White metal is an excellent medium for capping, is widely used, and works 3.6m
on the principle of gripping the wires individually in a single cone of white {12ft)
Rope
metal within a conical socket. When properly made and in BS or NCB I
diameter
standard sockets, this type of capping is as strong as the rope. The correct l (d)

procedure for making this type of capping was determined by a team of fgo
NCB, HM Inspectorate, rope manufacturers and SMRE staff; to ensure
that a reliable capping is obtained it should be strictly observed. The
progressive operations for capping are illustrated in Figs 26-28 and SMRE
'r
I~
oN

detailed below. : ,J_

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

Serving and clamping
(a) Serving and clamping. (b) Cuning. (c) Unserving and cleaning of brush.
In order to prevent any loosening of the wires during the cutting and (d) Preparation of brush for socket. (e) Positioning the socket and pouring.
capping operations, the rope must be securely served before cutting off the (f) Completed capping; clamps and servings removed.
old capping or excess length of new rope and, where appropriate, clamped
on both sides of the proposed cutting point X in Fig 26a. Tinned annealed
serving wire of the size shown in Table 2 (p. 31) should be used. On no Figure 26. Progressive operations for capping with molten white metal
account should copper wire be used as it is iiable to cause corrosion.
53
52
Ropeman 's handbook Methods of capping wire ropes

For stranded ropes apply two or more short servings at least 6d in length
(d=rope diameter) to secure the rope end; the servings may be of the
soldered type or of the type where the ends of the serving wire are finally
twisted together to complete the serving.
In the case of locked coil ropes, more stringent precautions are necessary.
With these ropes, the serving AB (Fig 26a) on the part of the rope to be
discarded should be at least 6d in length. On the part to be retained, the
serving CD should have an overall length of not less than 20d plus the
length of the socket basket. A further length of serving, 20d in length,
should be applied lower down the rope about 3.6 m (12ft) from the first
serving. Then, as an extra safeguard, six clamps should be fitted between (b) Cleaning the brush
(a) Opening out the brush
these two lengths of serving (D toE in Fig26a). Each served length must be
of the soldered type but need not necessarily be composed of one
continuous length of wire. When applying the serving wire, the serving
mallet should be rotated in the direction that will tend to flatten the locked
wires into the rope rather than in the opposite direction which would tend
to raise their leading edges.
The six clamps should be of the half-clamp, two-bolt type with a machined
bore and having a 3 mm (kin) gap between the half clamps when tightened
on the rope. The clamps should be set on the rope alternately at right
angles to one another, the clamp nearest the old capping being used as a
marker clamp, if required, with the bolts in the required direction of the
pin in the new socket.
Before cutting the rope, set temporary clamps at Band C immediately on (d) Pulling the socket into place
(c) Wire twitch applied to brush
either side of the cutting point X.

Cutting
Cut the rope at X by any suitable method which does not disturb the wires.
With percussive or shearing methods special care is required to avoid any
disturbance to the serving or to the wires in the rope.
After cutting the rope, remove the temporary clamp at C and thread the
new socket (to NCB Specification 465/1965 for a winding rope) over the
end of the rope, pushing it along the serving as far as the marker clamp.
(Before threading the socket onto the rope, make sure that the inside of the
socket basket is clean and dry and that there are no rough places on the
radiused position at the socket mouth.) Apply another clamp over the
serving at F so that the length XF (Fig 26b) is equal to the length of the (e) Rope centring clamp
basket less about 2d. The value of about 2d is recommended so that
sufficient length of served rope will be inserted into the mouth of the socket Figure 27. Preparing a rope for capping with molten white metal
to ensure that the point at which the wires begin to separate to form the (British Ropes Ltd)

54 55
Rope man's handbook
brush will be well embedded in white metal, rather than being in hard
contact with the small end of the conical bore of the socket.
Opening up and cleaning the brush
Remove that part of the long serving between X and F. With large
locked-coil ropes care should be taken with this operation, as the rope
wires will tend to open with some force, and a clamp at F is essential to
ensure that the rope does not loosen beyond this point. Open the rope over
the length XF.
Separate all the wires (Fig 27a) but do not straighten them, and take great
care to avoid bending or twisting any wire too sharply at F (Fig 26),
otherwise deformed wires may break in fatigue during service. If there is a
fibre core it must be cut at F and removed. To ensure secure grip of the
white metal on the wires, thoroughly clean each wire of all traces of
lubricant or dirt with a water-soluble degreasing fluid or a non-flammable
organic solvent. Paraffin is not recommended. During this operation keep
the brush in a downward position (Fig 27b) to make sure no de greasing
fluid enters the unopened part of the rope as this may affect its internal
lubricant. The brush should remain in a downward position until all the
wires are completely dry.
Preparing the brush
By means of a single turn of serving wire placed around the brush near its
top end (Fig 27c) or, in the case of a large rope, two or three single or
double-turn servings spaced along the length of the brush where required,
draw the cleaned wires of the brush slightly together, but only sufficiently
to prevent appreciable lengths of the outermost wires from bearing against
the wall of the socket when the socket is pulled onto the brush. This will
ensure that the wires are effectively embedded in the white metal.
Positioning the socket and pouring the white metal
The temporary clamp at F (Fig 26) can now be removed and the socket
pulled onto the brush so that the ends of the wires are approximately 5 mm
above the top of the socket basket at S; this leaves a length of about 2d of
the serving at F contained within the mouth of the socket. Before the
socket is pulled into position it sho'uld be rotated on the rope until
orientated similarly to the marker clamp at D. It can then be drawn
carefully over the prepared brush by any means which provides a direct
axial pull. Fig 27d shows a suitable method. The drawing operation should
finish when the wire ends still protrude approximately 5 mm above the top
of the socket basket so that any movement of the wires relative to the white
metal may be noted, but care must be taken that the wire ends will not foul
56
Methods of capping wire ropes'
the mating unit which will be subsequently connected to the pin of the
socket.
A special rope-centring clamp should now be fitted to align the socket
accurately with the rope (Fig 27e). This clamp should also provide for an
annular space at the base of the socket which is filled with white metal
during the pouring operation and incorporates a drain hole which acts as a w
tell-tale during pouring to indicate that the required penetration has :j'
occurred.
The rope end should now be carefully positioned vertically. It is essential
that the rope should be exactly vertical for a distance of at least 36 times the
rope diameter directly below the socket. It is helpful if the rope can be
clamped to a kingpost known to be truly vertical, otherwise check the
verticality carefully with a plumb bob. Whichever method is used, also
check with a spirit level to make sure that the socket is exactly level. If a
rope and its socket are not exactly aligned, bending stresses will be
produced in the rope at the mouth of the socket; these could induce
premature fatigue failure of the wires in this region.
In order to prevent chilling of the metal during pouring, the socket should
now be pre-heated to the correct temperature (see Table 4) by fitting a
suitable furnace around it, or by means of constantly moving blowtorches I
.I
or other suitable heating nozzles (Fig 28a). Oxy-acetylene flame cutters
i
must not be used for heating the socket.
Table 4 Pre-heating temperatures for sockets
Material of socket Pre-heating temperature
Mild steel
1.5% Manganese steel and other approved
steels to BS 2772 Part 2:1977
If manganese or other approved steel sockets are heated to the upper end
of the temperature range, better penetration of the white metal will be
obtained. When heating nozzles are used care must be taken to apply the
heat evenly to all parts of the socket to reach the required temperature.
Under no circumstances must flame be allowed to play on any part of the :i
rope. The socket temperature can be readily checked by applying suitable !
;·i
thermocrayons or a contact type pyrometer to various parts of the socket. i
Whilst the pre-heating operation is being carried out on the socket, the i
white metal (to BS 643:19'70 or NCB Specification 483/1970) should be
57
Rope man's handbook
I.' Methods of capping wire ropes

(a) Heating the socket
(b) Pouring the white metal
The wires within the socket should be treated with a non-acid flux or finely
powdered rosin, which must be dusted among all the wires within the
heated socket immediately before pouring the white metal.
After bringing the molten metal to a temperature slightly in excess of the
pouring temperature and immediately before pouring, stir the molten
metal thoroughly right to the bottom of the pot and skim off all dross from
the surface. Ensure that the stirring implement is clean and dry. It is helpful
if the pot has a vertical baffle close to the pouring lip and extending to
within 25 mm of the bottom. This allows only clean metal to be poured.
When the metal is at the correct pouring temperature (as determined by a
suitable thermometer) pour the metal into the socket in a continuous
stream until it reaches the top of the basket (Fig 28b). The pouring should
be done slightly off-centre to allow venting and gas escape. At the start of
the operation white metal should run from the tell-tale hole in the centring
clamp (Fig 28b). The metal should be allowed to run for two or three
seconds before the hole is plugged by a third person using a suitable
stopper. If a depression or 'pipe' occurs in the centre of the white metal
during the early stages of cooling it should be topped up with a small
amount of white metal. When the basket is full, the socket should be left to
cool naturally and undisturbed for at least one hour.

Dismantling the clamps and servings

(c) Neck of completed capping
Figure 28. Final stages in capping with molten white metal
(British Ropes Ltd)
prepared and heated to the correct \'ouring temperature of 350oC±l4'C .•
(660°F ±25oF). A predetermmed weight of white metal m excess of that ;
required to fill the socket should be broken up, placed m a clean pot ~d •·
heated in a furnace until molten; flame should not be allowed to play on! e ;
metal itself. New ingots of metal must be used for wmdmg rope cappmos.
After the completed socket has cooled, the rope-centring clamp and
two-bolt clamps should be removed and the socket neck examined to make
sure that penetration of the white metal has occurred round the whole of
the rope circumference. A further check can be carried out to ensure that
the cape! has been completely filled with white metal. If the remaining
metal in the pot after pouring, together with any spillage, is weighed, the
weight of the metal in the cape! can be determined.
The socket should be allowed to cool to air temperature before use. If
sufficient time for natural cooling is not available a stream of cold air may
be directed onto the socket to increase the rate of cooling, but this should
only be done after the white metal has completely solidified. In no
circumstances should the socket be immersed in water for cooling. The
long serving is then removed up to the point where it enters the mouth of
the socket. This is to facilitate subsequent examinations of the rope near
the socket mouth. It is useful to paint a well-defined mark about 12 mm
wide on the rope just below the socket (Fig28c). This serves to indicate any
broken wire which might occur at the socket neck, as movement of an
individual wire is immediately seen.

58 59
Ropeman 's handbook Methods of capping wire ropes

When the capping has reached air temperature the length of rope next to
the socket must be re-lubricated. The capping is then ready for use.

Possible faults in procedure

The white metal used must be of the correct composition (to BS 643:1970
and NCB Specification 483/1970) and heated to the correct temperature
(350°C±14°) otherwise it may fail to penetrate to the narrow end of the
conical part of the socket and, therefore, to the narrow end of the brush of
separated wires. On the other hand, the temperature of the white metal
should not exceed that specified otherwise the heat may adversely affect
the wires of the brush. An open socket (one with two lugs rather than a
bowed end) facilitates the pouring of the white metal.
The socket must be of the correct size; for winding ropes it must conform to
NCB Specification 465/1965. If the socket is too short, the length of each
wire embedded in the white metal will be insufficient to ensure that the wire
is securely gripped at loads up to its breaking strength; a length of (a) Half section of a socket showing imperfect (c) Fractured
embedded wire equal to about 40 times its diameter will ensure proper grip penetration of white metal and rope breakage outer wires
and leave a margin for safety, provided that the wire has been properly
cleaned. On the other hand, the socket must not be too long otherwise the
taper of the conical part will not be steep enough or wide enough to allow
the molten white metal to reach the narrow end of the socket before
solidifying; the taper should be 1 in 7 or steeper (1 in 6 is steeper than 1 in
7).
If the wires at the narrow end of the socket are loose and unsupported, they
will bend and twist with every movement of the rope and they will very
likely break in fatigue. Figs 29a and b show cappings where this occurred.
In Fig 29a the socket, with an insufficiently steep taper of 1 in 12, has been
cut open in the laboratory to show that the white metal did not penetrate to
the narrow end of the socket and that the wires at that part failed in fatigue.
It is to ensure that the wires at the narrow end of the brush are properly
embedded in white metal that the procedure stipulates that the narrow end (b) Imperfect penetration of white metal and fractured wires
of the brush should not lie right at the narrow end of the conical part of the
Figure 29. Faulty white metal cappings
socket but should lie further inside at a wider part of the socket. When
fitting sockets to NCB Specification 465/1965 a length of about twice the
rope diameter of seized rope should lie within the socket mouth.
The socket must be pre-heated uniformly and to the correct temperature. socket end of a locked coil rope which had not been cleaned properly
Inadequate heating could result in lack of penetration of the white metal; during capping. The outer wires were without lubricant and were securely .
over-heating could adversely affect the material of the socket or of the rope gripped by the white metal but the inner wires were very greasy and,
wires.
consequently, were not properly gripped. The result was that the outer
wires carried nearly the whole load - much more than their share; they
Careful cleaning of the wires throughout the brush is essential, otherwise were, therefore, loaded well beyond their fatigue limit (p 88) and finally
they will not be gripped properly by the white metal. Fig 29c shows the failed at the mouth of the socket.

60 61
Ropeman 's handbook
Recovery of socket
The white metal cone should be removed from the socket by pressing out.
Should this prove difficult the socket may be warmed·, provided that the
critical temperature for preheating, given in Table 4, is not exceeded.
Examination of the extracted cone will provide useful information on the
quality of socketing procedures.
Wedge cappings
Wedge cappings work on the principle of gripping the unopened rope
between interlocking tapered wedges (with grooves to suit the rope
diameter) enclosed in limbs encircled by heavy bands. After initial bedding
down, the rope should not move in the wedges and, because of their
interlocking action, the wedges cannot move indepensJently of each other.
The wedges and the rope must, however, be able to move as a unit, so that,
if the load on the cape! is sufficient to cause movement of this unit, the force
on the wedges will be increased and consequently the greater will be the
grip exerted upon the rope. A safety block is fitted to act as a rope
movement indicator and to assist movement of the wedges should this
become necessary.
The cape! can be used with stranded or locked coil ropes. These
instructions show its assembly on a locked coil rope; they apply equally to
assembly on a stranded rope.
Capel wedges are stamped with the rope type and size for which they are
grooved and also with the cape! identification number. Wedges should be
fitted only to a cape! having the same identification number. Check that all
component parts, ie limbs, bands and wedges, bear the same cape!
number. Capels should NEVER be used with a size or type of rope different
from that stamped upon the wedges. The number of bands will vary with
the design and manufacturers of the cape!.
Under no circumstances should liners be used in the grooves or atthe backs
of the wedges.
Serving and clamping
The rope must be securely served and clamped on both sides of the
proposed cutting position in the same way as for white metal cappings (see
p 52); the length CD (Fig 26a) for locked coil ropes should be equal to
20 rope diameters + the length of the safety block.
Cutting
Cut the rope in the same way as for white metal cappings (p 54).
62
Methods of capping wire ropes .
Fitting the safety block
Thread the safety block, which should be clean and dry and free from
rough places at its mouth, over the rope end so that the larger end of the
conical bore is towards the rope end. Now fit a temporary clamp over the
serving so that its top edge is th<( length of the safety block less one-half the
rope diameter from the rope end and remove the serving wire at the rope
end down to the top of this clamp. The procedure is now similar to that for
making a white metal capping. That is,
o Separate the wires at the rope end to form a small brush, cutting out the
fibre core, if present, close to the serving and avoiding undue bending
of the wires over the edge of the clamp (Fig 30a).
0 Thoroughly clean an· the wires in the brush with a water-soluble
degreasing fluid, keeping the brush in a downward position so that no
degreasing fluid enters the unopened part of the rope. Remove the
temporary clamp close to the brush.
o Pull the safety block into position over the rope brush so that a length of
serving equal to one half the rope diameter is projecting into the bore of
the block. The wire ends should be flush with the top of the block.
o Camp the rope, with the safety block in place, in a vertical position with
the large end of the block uppermost, taking care that the rope is in axial
line with the block for a distance of not less than 36 rope diameters. The
bottom of the safety block should be sealed with a tight serving of
asbestos yarn on the rope to prevent the escape of molten white metal.
o Heat the outside of the block with a blowtorch, gradually and evenly all
round the outer faces (see p 57). Avoid undue local heating and
particularly avoid heating the rope outside the block. Monitor the
temperature of the block with thermal crayons and when it has reached a
uniform temperature in accordance with Table 4 (p 57) fill the block with
molten, clean white metal, poured at a temperature of 350°C±14°C
(660°F ±2SOF). Heating of the block is essential to the free flow of molten
metal; undue heating may impair the strength of the rope wires.
o The white metal used should have been previously melted from new
ingots of the composition laid down in NCB Specification 483/1970 and
in BS 643:1970. The pouring pot should be of sufficient capacity to hold
the full amount of white metal to fill the bore of the safety block. The pot
should have a minimum capacity level mark for the quantity of molten
white metal required for the block and should incorporate a baffle plate
to ensure that only clean, bright fluid metal is poured into the prepared,
heated safety block. The temperature of the white metal should be
obtained immediately before pouring using a suitable thermometer.
.63
Ropeman 's handbook Methods of capping wire ropes

When the safety block is at the correct temperature and immediately

before pouring the white metal a non-acid flux or finely powdered rosin
should be dusted among the wires in the core of the block. Pouring
should be continuous, uniform and slightly off-centre until the white
metal completely fills the block, and when the surface of the white metal
sinks in the centre, a little more should be poured in from the pot (as with
white metal capping).
o Leave the rope and block undisturbed and allow it to cool gradually until
the white metal has set and the block has reached air temperature.
o Remove the asbestos yarn and the serving from below the safety block
and check that the white metal has fully penetrated the block.
o Check the length of rope to be gripped by the wedges for uniformity of
diameter and compliance with the cape! rope groove tolerances.

Fitting the cape!

Prior to assembly, remove any protective paint, grease or backing strips
from cape! limbs and wedges. Remove any traces of rust which may have {a) (b) {c) {d)
accumulated on the\vedge backs and grooves, and also on the inside of the
limbs over the area on which the wedges operate. Emery cloth only should
be used for this purpose. Remove any burrs or damage on wedges and limb
section ~ particularly the area over which the wedges operate ~ which
may have occurred in handling, storage or transit. (If left they may
interfere with the movement of the wedges.) Assembly may now be carried
out in the following order.
o Thread the cape! bands onto the rope in order of their numbers (usually
the largest number first, but always the band of smallest aperture first).
Make sure that the taper of the inside of the bands accords with the
outside taper of the cape! limbs. This is often shown by arrows stamped
on each of the bands and on the limbs; these must all point in the same
direction (Fig 30b ).
o Thoroughly clean any grease and lubricant from that portion of the rope
which will be gripped by the wedges and ensure that the rope is straight,
clean and dry.
o Clean the BACKS of the wedges and the inner sides of the cape! limbs.
Then apply a light smearing of grease to the BACKS (NoT THE GROOVES)
of the wedges and the inside of the limbs.
Note: Only greases recommended by the cape! manufacturer should be
used. Do NOT use tallow, graphite grease or grease containing (e) {f)
molybdenum disu!phide. THE GROOVES OF THE WEDGES MUST BE CLEAN AND
DRY.
o Place the wedges around the rope approximately in the position they will
occupy when in the cape!. Figure 30. Stages in assembling a wedge-type winding rope capel

64 65
Ropeman 's handbook Methods of capping wire ropes '1.'I,1,
ill
:ii
o Fit the cape! limbs over the wedges and draw downwards until the ends ·~
of the limbs are flush with the thin end of the wedges. The rope should
then be drawn through the wedges until the safety block is 20 mm (!in)
from the bottom of the wedges (Fig 30c).
o Draw the bands over and tap them down on the cape! limbs. The No 1
band should be fitted adjacent to and encircling the safety block (Fig
30d).
o Using purpose-made sets, which should fit snugly on the edges of the
bands adjacent to the cape! limbs, each working band (starting with No
2) should be partially tightened. This procedure should be repeated until
all the bands are finally driven down tight and solid (Fig 30e ). The
suggested weights of hammers to be used for driving on the bands are:
3 kg (7 Jb) -for capels to suit ropes up to 38 mm (H in) in diameter,
5.5 kg (12 Jb) - for capels to suit ropes between 38 mm (H in) and
48 mm (H in) in diameter and
6.5 kg (14 lb) - for capels to suit ropes above 48 mm (1,\ in) in
diameter. Figure 31. Hydraulic banding machine for assembling wedge-type winding
Two strikers should be employed to facilitate uniform tightening. The rope capels (by courtesy of Reliance Rope Attachment Co Ltd)
sides of the bands adjacent to the wedges should never be struck as
otherwise burrs can be caused which may foul the wedges and hinder
their movement. Band No 1 is intended only as a protection for the
safety block and need not be driven on to a very tight fit. The 'working'
bands (Nos 2, 3 and 4 in the illustration) when properly driven on, should The d~vice consists of a tail or length of steel wire strand, on one end of
be spaced about equally along the cape! limbs, the top ('point') band which IS cast a zinc cone. This is grooved so that the six strands of the rope
being slightly short of the end of the cape! (Fig 30!). are positioned and equally spaced around the cone. The cone is shaped so
that it fits snugly into the interior of either an open or closed socket to the
An alternative method of tightening the bands on the cape! limbs is to NCB Specification 353/1966 or 461/1965.
use a hydraulic banding machine (Fig 31) and press the bands tight with
suitable pressure. The cape! manufacturers will advise on the correct Method of fitting
values to use for the different sizes of cape!.
The preparatory stage (Fig 32a) shows the rope end, the socket and the
Precaution - Under no circumstances should a capeI be fitted to a rope without cone and tail unit. Only the correct size of socket and a new cone and tail
the white metal safety block. unit should be used. Both are stamped with the rope diameter for which
If slack rope should occur in a winding rope fitted with wedge-type they are designed. The tail of the unit should not be shortened.
cappings, care must be taken when the rope is being re-loaded. The
~bread the socket onto the rope. Remove the serving from the rope end
cape! bands must not foul obstructions otherwise they could be pushed
off the cape! limbs. and unlay three neighbouring strands for a length of approximately75 mm
more than the length of the cone and tail unit. Measure off from the rope
end the length of the cone and tail unit plus 10 mm. Remove the rope core
down to this position and cut it (Fig 32b).
Capping haulage ropes with inserted cones and tails
Insert the tail strand in place of the removed core and relay the unlaid
Cone and tail socketing is a simple field method of attaching sockets to strands to reform the rope. Place the strands one in each of the grooves
six-strand ropes. It eliminates the need for socketing by white metal, where proVI~ed on the cone, takmg care to follow the n,aturallay of the rope and
heating methods are not available. ensunng that the strands protrude over the end of the cone (Fig 32c).

66 67
Ropeman 's handbook Methods of capping wire ropes

Bind the rope tightly at the small end of the cone using fine wire of a size
which will allow the rope to pass through the small end of the socket. This
binding is to prevent unlaying of the rope end (Fig 32d).
Now draw the socket into position by applying a load equal, if possible, to
the working load. After this assembly load has been applied, or preferably
while that load is still on, a tight binding of soft iron single wire (not strand)
must be placed on the rope close up to and touching the mouth of the
Three strands socket (Fig 32f). This is to prevent the socket moving on the rope. This
binding should be equal to H rope diameters and the wire used must be of a
size sufficient to prevent the socket passing over it. The starting end of this
binding should be anchored under one strand of the rope. The assembly is
(b)
then complete.
This method of assembly is used for the open socket and for the closed type
Three strands socket, shown in Figs 32f and 32g respectively.
After the socketing has been completed, a trial run should be made and
Three strands·· followed by an examination of the termination, especially the coarse
binding at the small end of the socket. Should this binding cease to meet the
socket after a period of service, then it should be replaced as above.
(c)

Three strands
laid up tightly round tail

(d)

(f)

(g)

Figure 32. Progressive operati-ons for capping with inserted

zinc cone-and-tail units

68 69
 Rope examination

Chapter 5

Rope examination

(a) Micrometer (b) Eyeglass

Ropeman's tools and instruments
The ropeman needs a number of tools and instruments to enable him to
maintain and examine all types of rope efficiently. The tools needed for
serving or splicing a rope have already been described (Chapter 2) and the
following additional items would also be useful.

Wire micrometer (c) Scriber

This is a screw-operated instrument for measuring the diameter of a wire,

or the remaining depth of a worn or corroded wire. A micrometer with two
pointed measuring ends (Fig 33a), or with at least one pointed end, is I--- 90 mm ---1
suitable (the pointed end can be placed in a large corrosion pit to measure 1.--E._j~
the depth of the pit or the remaining depth of the wire).

Ropeman's magnifying eyeglass

'i.
A watchmaker's eyeglass with a magnification of two or three is suitable, ·I
for it can be held in the eye so as to leave the hands free (Fig 33b).

Sturdy penknife 320mm :

This has many uses, such as scraping corrosion scale from wires, inserting
between adjacent outer wires to check if they are loose and can be prised :i
apart, etc.

Scriber, for corrosion pits !,

A strong needle-pointed instrument is useful for exploring the size and

depth of scale-filled corrosion pits. A scriber With a replaceable needle
point such as. the type shown in Fig. 33c is particularly suitable.

Rope caliper (d) Calipers (el Hammer {f) Trammel

SMRE
This is a parallel jaw caliper, as shown in Fig 33d, used for measuring the
diameter of the rope. Figure 33. Ropeman's tools and instruments

70 71
Ropeman's handbook
Rope examination

Ropeman's hammer
This is for testing looseness of wires; it is a light hammer with a head having
one end fiat and the other end chisel-shaped as shown m Frg33e. It can be
purchased as carpenter's pinning hammer.

Rope lay trammel

This is for measuring the length of lay of ropes. The measurement will be
very inaccurate if the measuring scale of the trammel rs not kept truly
Jlarallel to the centre-line of the rope whrle the measurement IS bemg
made. A self-aligning trammel is, therefore, useful. The type shown m
Fig 33f has two V-notched end-pieces, whrch rest on the rope and ahgn
the trammel correctly. To assist in keeping the rope strmght when
measuring the lay, a grooved lay board is useful.
Incorrect (above) Correct (right)
Set of feeler gauges Jaws parallel to
Jaws on crowns of
four strands
opposing strands
These are. for determining the width of gaps between strands and between
or under individual wires.

Detailed rope examination Figure 34. Method of measuring rope diameter

A skilled ropernan is able to make enlightened examinations, knowing as
he does the various forms of deterioration (see chapter 6) that may affect
the rope and the signs or symptoms by which he can recognise them. He
can also· make reliable and informative reports such as wrll ensure that the
rope is properly maintained and that it can be taken out of servrce before rt
reaches a dangerous condition.
General external appearance
The examiner should note if there is any evidence of distortion, waviness,
displaced or broken wires, corrosion or damage (as distinct from
deterioration). He should note the amount of lubncant present on the
outside of the rope and whether it is of useful consrstency or has become
dry and useless. He should record his findings in a book or on a smtable
form.
Measurement of diameter and lay length
Wherever the rope diameter and lay length are to be measured, the
outside of the rope should be cleaned thoroughly. At each posrtron of
measurement the rope diameter should be measured wrth calipers (Frg
33d) in two directions at right angles to one another, the length of lay
measured with a self-aligning trammel (Fig 33f) and the results recorded.
72
When measuring rope diameters, the calipers should be placed across the
crowns of two opposite strands as in Fig 34 (right).
When measuring rope lays, the measuring scale or trammel must be truly
parallel to the centre-line of the rope otherwise the reading will be very
inaccurate. If a rope sample is being examined at a Testing Centre and if
·the sample should be slightly curved, a lay board can be usefuL This is a
board with a straight groove, of a size to take the rope, into which the
sample can be pressed to hold it straight whilst its length of lay is measured.
Detailed examination of exterior
The examiner should look in more detail for wear, corrosion, broken or
cracked wires, surface embrittlement, etc. He should note if the wear is
heavy or otherwise, if it is of a plastic nature (seep 80) or if martensitic
cracking (seep 96) is present on thewom crowns. If corrosion is present he
should note its severity and whether it shows any signs of penetrating
between the wires and strands. He should also consider if better lubrication
is needed. With stranded ropes, if internal corrosion is suspected the
Engineer may decide to call in the rope manufacturers who will be able to
open up the rope carefully over short lengths and visually examine the state
of the core and the undersides of the strands.
73
Rope man's handbook Rope examination

The examiner should also look for looseness of wires by carrying out the
hammer test. This consists of tapping the rope or sample at intervals with
the flat end of the head of a ropeman's hammer (Fig 33e). If there is any
looseness of the outer wires he will both hear and feel it chatter when he
taps the wires, for only the unsupported wires which he taps will vibrate,
not the whole rope. If there is a large amount of corrosion product (rust
mixed with dried lubricant) inside the rope he will obtain a muffled sound
and feel a soft reaction through the hammer. If the rope is well laid up, with
all the wires in hard contact with one another, he will obtain a ringing
metallic sound and a solid feel.

Detailed examination of interior

When short rope samples are being examined (eg recapping samples),
after the three examinations described above have been carried out the
sample should be stripped. In the case of stranded ropes the strands should
be removed from the sample and the condition of the main core checked
for lubrication, etc. The part of each strand which has been next to the fibre
core should be examined for lubrication and corrosion and the part which
has been in contact with other strands for nicking and corrosion. The outer
wires should then be removed from two or three strands and the interior of
the strand examined for lubrication, internal wear, internal corrosion, etc.
The position of any deterioration should be noted. Fig 35 helps in
identifying the different parts of a wire and strand.
When stripping a locked coil rope, care should be taken to avoid springing
of the wires. The following method is recommended. Secure the sample in
a vice that is firmly attached to a stout bench and lift the end of the first turn
of serving at one end of the rope. With a pair of pliers, remove two or three
turns of serving and wind the wire onto a short piece of wood. Then,
standing facing the end of the sample so that when the wires spring loose
you will be in a safe position, pull on the piece of wood and wind off the rest
of that serving. Repeat this procedure at the other end of the sample.
Remove the sample from the vice and lift no more than two or three
full-lock wires with a spike and wind them off the sample. Leaving the next
few wires in place, remove another two or three wires a short distance away
and repeat round the rope sample. In this way, the condition of the
lubrication and wire interfaces between the two outermost layers can be
examined without undue springing of the sample. The remainder of the
full-lock wires can then be removed and placed together. The second layer
can be removed by the same method, after which the layers down to the
centre of the rope may spring and become over-laid. The condition and
lubrication of each layer should be examined as the remaining wires are
stripped off and those in each layer kept separate. If necessary, the various
Figure 35. Characteristic form of a wire in a stranded rope
layers may be identified by the wire diameters and by the helical pitch of
the wires. A final comparison between the number of wires in each group
and the number specified by the manufacturer will ensure that no wires
have been placed in the wrong group.
If any cracks or fractures are found during removal or examination of the
wires, their nature (fatigue, tension, etc) and position (next to the fibre
core, at strand contacts, etc) should be carefully noted together with the
exact point of origin of any fatigue cracks (at strand contacts but directly on
opposite side of wire to nick, etc). Such observations should enable the
examiner to decide the cause of the cracks or wire fractures; for instance,
the presence of a fatigue crack directly on the opposite side of a wire to a
nick would suggest that accentuated secondary bending (p 89) was
responsible, and if several cracks are found at similar positions then the
matter is definitely proved. Cracks and fractures can be studied more
clearly by using a ropeman's magnifying eyeglass (Fig 33b).
Any corrosion scale should be noted and its effect on the steel checked; at
selected places the scale should be scraped off the wire with a penknife or
other suitable tool and the size and depth of any pits underneath the scale
should be explored by means of a scriber (Fig 33c) or similar instrument.
Any wires that are not to be tested in testing machines should be bent by
hand several times in various directions, in an effort to disclose any hidden
cracks. If a wire breaks during such bending the nature of the fracture, its
location (with respect to the rope structure), and the location of the point

74 75
Ropeman's handbook Rope examination

of origin of the crack (with respect to the various sides of the wire) should
be noted if at all possible. The ropeman should be able to recognise such
locations in a wire, even after the wire has been removed from the rope. A
wire that has been taken out of a stranded rope has a particular wavy form;
it will show alternate large and small bends as in Fig 35. The large bend is
the part that lay on the rope exterior where the bend of the wire around the
strand is in the same direction as the bend of the strand around the rope
(both having the hollow side of the bend towards the rope centre); the two
bends add together to give a large bend. The small bend is the part next to
the main core, where the above two bends are in opposite directions and (a) Wire waisting (b) Fractured ends
tend to cancel out. The nicks at strand contacts will be found about
half-way between each large and small bend (ie about half-way between Figure 36. Stages in the breaking of a wire in tension
the outside of the rope and the part against the main core). External wear
will be found on the crown; namely, on the outside of the curve at each After test, the wire fractures should be carefully examined. A normal wire,
large bend. (The inside or hollow side of the curve at the large bend is the without defects, will form a waist when it is just on the point of breaking
'underside' of the crown - the part contacting the inner wires or strand (Fig 36a); the two broken ends will show this waisting and a typical 'cup and
core immediately underneath the crown.) cone' appearance (Figs 36b and 37a and b). If defects such as severe wear
When studying worn, nicked, or corroded wires it is important to realise or corrosion are present a more brittle type offracture will be obtained (Fig
that a wire is no stronger than its weakest part. A condition in which deep 37c and d).
corrosion pits are spaced at short intervals along a wire, with good wire
between, is as serious as continuous pitting of the same severity. A narrow
strip of severe wear along one side of a rope is very nearly as serious as wear
of similar severity extending around the rope, for all outer wires will
eventually pass through the strip of wear as they spiral around the rope.

Wire tests at testing centre

After the sample has been dismantled a proportion of each size or layer of
wires should be cleaned and then straightened on a wooden block by means
of either a wooden mallet or a brass- or copper-headed hammer. Lengths
from each wire should then be tested in tension (pulling), torsion (twisting)
and flexion (bending) as described in BS 236, 330 and 2763:1968.
Tensile test
In this test, the breaking strength of each wire is obtained. From this value
and the measured diameter of the wire, the tensile strength of the steel can
be calculated. From these tests also the approximate breaking strength of
the complete rope can be calculated. The average breaking strength of
each size of wire is summed to give the aggregate breaking strength of the
sample (sum of the strength of all the individual wires). The actual
breaking strength is calculated from the aggregate breaking strength by
using a conversion factor which is dependent on the rope construction and
which can be obtained from the appropriate NCB Specification or British Figure 37. Tension fractures of unworn wires {a and b).and severlyworn
Standard. wires lc and d)

76 77
Ropeman 's handbook !Wpe examination

Torsion test Non-destructive testing of wire ropes

In this test, one end of the wire is fixed and the other end is rotated at one to
two revolutions per second until failure occurs. The number of turns to
failure is noted. This test magnifies the effects of corrosion pits, cracks,
wear, welds, etc, as twisting tends to be concentrated at such faults and the
number of turns to failure is, therefore, greatly reduced (Fig. 38).
(a) Normal wire tested in torsion
Ropemen regularly have to visually examine long lengths of rope within a
limited period of time. These ropes are often close to the roadway floor
making it difficult for the ropeman to examine the underside of the rope.
Non-destructive testing (NDT) methods of rope examination are being
developed to help the ropeman to locate defects in a rope whether they are
on the surface or concealed in the inner layers.
Alternating current (AC), direct current (DC) and permanent magnet
types of NDT instruments working on magnetic induction or elec-
tromagnetic principles have been designed for examining wire ropes and
these are being further developed.
The non-destructive testing of a wire rope will not be a substitute for a
visual inspection but will be used primarily to locate hidden defects and to
draw the ropeman's attention to them.

i:. it ~~
(b) Worn wire showing localised '"''i,tinc

Figure 38. Appearance of wires tested in torsion

Reverse bend test

In this test, the wire is bent backwards and forwards in a vice with specially
rounded jaws of specific diameters. The number of complete 180' bends
before wire failure occurs is noted.

78 79
 Types of deterioration in ropes

1.
Chapter 6

Types of deterioration in ropes

The main forms of deterioration in rope are as follows:

-~rear (a) Abrasive
- Corrosion
- Fatigue
- Corrosion-fatigue
- Surface embrittlement
- Accidental damage and distortion, leading to local deterioration.
If a rope is of unsuitable type or construction, some of the above forms of
deterioration are more likely to occur. For instance, flexible type ropes
hf!ving small outer wires of less than 2 mm (0.08 in) diameter are likely to
suffer deterioration by wear and corrosion; ungalvanised ropes working
under corrosive conditions are almost certain to deteriorate by corrosion,
especially if they are not kept well lubricated at all times. (b) Plastic
Figure 39. External wear on wires
Wear
Both external and internal wear are bound to occur to some extent in all Internal wear
ropes; but when wear becomes heavy the cause should be found and
corrected. It should be remembered that corrosion aids the advance of Wires in the rope interior which cross one another are bound to cut into
wear by helping to remove steel, just as wear aids the advance of corrosion one another to some extent. If they are of opposite direction of lay they will
by removing the corrosion scale and presenting a fresh surface for further produce short indentations or nicks on one another; if they are of the same
corrosion. direction of lay or in parallel lay they will produce long grooves. Fig 40
shows examples of nicks and grooves. In Fig 40a is shown a normal nick.
External wear
External wear may take the form of abrasive wear (Fig39a), in which metal
is removed from the crowns, or it'may take the form of plastic wear (Fig
39b) in which metal is displaced to form fins at the edges of the worn
crowns. Abrasive wear suggests that the rope has been rubbing too much
against some hard and abrasive surface which has rubbed off some of the
steei of the wire surfaces. Plastic wear suggests that the rope has beerr
bearing heavily on some hard surface (such as a pulley groove or drum) or,
in other words, that there has been too little area of contact between the
rope and the hard surface to give proper support to the rope and that the
(a) Normal nick (b) Twinned nick (c) Scuffed nick (d) Groove
steel of the wire surfaces has been splayed or deformed into fins by the
heavy pressure. Figure 40. Internal wear on wires

80 81
Ropeman 's handbook
Types of deterioration in ropes

Fig 40b shows a twinned nick caused by a crossing wire permanently

changing its point of contact with the wire shown to a slight extent, as a
result of the rope becoming somewhat loosely laid up at some time
subsequent to manufacture. Fig 40c shows a scuffed nick formed by a
crossing but very loose wire p1aying against the wire shown. Fig 40d shows
a long groove made by a wire of the same direction of lay as the wite in the
illustration. When the nicks or grooves become too deep, and there is no
corrosion present to explain their depth (for corrosion aids the advance of
wear), then it would appear that the wires are being pressed together too
heavily or driven together too forcibly by impact. Excessive pressure
(a) Unworn condition (b) Outer wires worn to half
would, in turn, suggest that the rope is bearing too heavily on some object
(such as a small drum or pulley in which case there will probably be
continuous plastic wear on the rope exterior); or that it is being pinched (as
by a tight pulley groove). Impact would mean that the rope is striking
against some object, in which case there will probably be intermittent wear
or damage on the exterior. Impact on a moving rope can also produce
martensitic surfaces on the wires with subsequent wire breakage (see alsop
96).

How wear leads to breakage
When the round outer wires of a rope or strand (or the round outer rods of
a guide rope) become reduced to half their original depth* (Fig 4lb) by
external wear or corrosion, there will no longer be any valleys remaining
between adjacent outer wires, and those wires will then be of such a shape
that they can be readily displaced by overriding one another as shown in
Fig 41b~ When the wires become reduced to less than half their original
depth they will also be reduced in width and will no longer be in contact
with their neighbours; there will then· be spaces or gaps between them (Fig
4lc). Such 'loose' wires are very easily moved about in the rope and very
readily override one another. If, in addition, internal wear (or internal
corrosion) has removed the 'undersides' of the outer wires and left those
wires loose on their inner wires (Fig 41d), then the outer wires will be very
loose indeed and will be even more easily displaced. When wires become
loose and override one another, they rapidly become broken as a
consequence of occupying such an exposed position and being displaced
first in one direction along the rope and then in the other as the rope
changes its direction of travel and the overriding wires foul obstructions.
Thus, if a rope remains in service after it has reached the highly dangerous
* The depth of a wire is measured in a direction towards the centre of the rope.
82
SMRE
(c) Outer wires worn to less than half (d) Internal wear and corrosion
Figure 41. Loosening of wires in a strand by wear and corrosion
condition in which wires have become loose and displaced, that rope will
proceed to fail wire by wire until its strength is so reduced that it can no
longer carry the load and the remaining wires then break in tension. A rope
IS m this highly dangerous condition when spaces can be seen between or
underneath the outer wires.
Fig 42 shows six stages of failure, wire by wire, of such a rope (a man-riding
haulage rope which broke m serVIce). In Fig 42a the wires are so loose that
spaces or 'daylight' can be seen underneath some; in Fig 42b a loose wire
has become displaced and bent into a Z-bend; in Fig 42c a wire has broken
at a Z-bend; in Fig 42d the broken ends of a wire are protruding from the
rope so that they are liable to catch on obstructions; in Fig 42e one of the
broken ends has been hooked back on itself as a result of catching on
obstructiOns;. m Fig. 42f that end has broken off short leaving a stubby
flexiOn (bendmg) fracture at an unworn part between strands which is not
the original fracture at a greatly worn crown. Of course, no rdpe should be
allowed to reach such a dangerous state where it is actually in the process of
breaking wire by wire.
83
Ropeman 's handbook I Types of deterioration in ropes

(a) Severed by wear (f) Battered fatigue

(b) Flexion (g) Corrosion fatigue

Figure 42. Stages in the break-up of a loosened rope

Wear fractures (c) Tension (h) Plastic wear

When a rope breaks as a result of excessive wear many of the wires will
show sharp chisel-end fractures (Fig 43a) denoting that they have been
severed or almost severed by wear, but some will probably show stubby
flexion (bending) fractures with slightly hooked ends at unworn parts, as in
Fig 43b and Fig 44. (Those wires were also severed by wear or broken in
some manner at their crowns, but have since lost their original broken ends
as a result of their catching on obstructions and being wrenched off.) A fair
proportion of the wires will show typical tension fractures at less worn (j) Martensite

parts, as in Fig 43c. (These are the wires that failed in tension when the
rope became so weakened that it could no longer carry the load.) A tension
fracture can always be recognised by the waisting (necking), ie the
reduction in diameter, that occurs at the broken end (seep 77).

Corrosion
Corrosion is the greatest enemy of colliery ropes. It is caused by water (e) Fatigue (k) Sheared end
spray, steam, fumes, acids, salt, unsuitable lubricants, etc. Any water will
cause corrosion if it gets into contact with the steel surfaces; it need not be
acid water. Common salt (sodium chloride) is very corrosive and may Figure 43. Types of wire fractures

84 85
Ropeman 's handbook
(a) Rope with fracture wires (b) Fractured end
Figure 44. Flexion fractures in a rope
reach the rope in the form of sea spray if the colliery is near the shore, or in
the form of salty water from the strata in the shaft. In fact, any type of
chloride in the water usually makes the water more corrosive. When
corrosion affects only a short length of a rope, it is possible that the rope IS
being attacked while it is standing idle. For instance, it may be caused by a
leaking steam or water pipe or by condensatiOn at the rope hole. m the
hooding of an upcast shaft. The high air velocity at the fan dnft and mr seals
in a shaft can also displace the rope lubricant (ie scour or suck it from the
rope surface) and so encourage the onset of corrosion. Corroskm may
attack only the outside of the rope.(external corrosiOn) or may do 1ts work
unseen within the rope (internal corrosion). However, it can be controlled.
External corrosion
External corrosion usually takes the form of mild rust or scale and is
seldom more serious than it appears, unless winding shocks have
contributed to deterioration by corrosion-fatigue (p 94). It may take the
form of pitting (as in the triangular strand rope in Fig 45a and the outer wire
of a locked-coil rope in Fig. 45b) when it must be remembered that the
corroded wires are no stronger than their weakest parts, ie at the largest or
deepest pits; or it may occur as edge-pitting, in which some or all of the pits
lie at the sharp edges of heavily worn crowns (ie at the contacts between
adjacent outer wires). Edge pitting is the more serious fori! means that the
corrosion is attempting to enter the rope between the wires. In F1g 45a
some of the pits have attacked the sharp edges of the heavily worn crowns
and have caused those edges to become serrated or saw-edged. Thus, the
rope in the illustration may be in a much worse condition than the external
86
Types of deterioration in ropes
(a) In a six-strand rope
(b) On a fully-locked wire from a locked-coil rope
Figure 45. External corrosion, severe pitting
pitting and wear would, at first, suggest. The ropeman should, in such a
case, suspect the presence of internal corrosion.
Internal corrosion
Internal corrosion is dangerous, for it may remain unknown, unless the
ropeman is aware of the external signs that disclose its presence. Internal
corrosion, when severe, loosens the wires by removing their bearing
surfaces in the same way as does severe internal wear (p 81) as shown in Fig
4ld. Returning to Fig45a it will be seen that the outer wires are loose; there
are spaces between most of them, some are riding high above the level of
others and would soon override them, and some are slightly displaced so as
to leave a large space at one side and none at the other. Corrosion has
definitely entered that rope and has attacked the undersides of the outer
wires, leaving those wires loose on their inner wires, as in Fig 41d; in fact,
the rope is approaching the highly dangerous condition of the rope shown
in Fig 42.
87
 Types of deterioration in ropes
Ropeman 's handbook

wire is subjected may be greater than expected. Sharp-edged surface

Corrosion fractures
irregularities, such as small but relatively deep corrosion pits, narrow
When corrosion is so severe that the wires are reduced to the extent that scratches, surface cracks, etc, encourage fatigue because the intensity of
they can no longer carry their load, they will break in tension and develop load (kgf per sq mm) at the bottom or root of the irregularity is always
tension fractures (with waisting) of the type shown in Fig 43c. However, greater than in other parts of the wire. The ropeman should be aware that
the corrosion pitting and scale may mask the waisting and make it difficult in a galvanised rope apparent nicking may be due only to localised
to recognise the type of fracture (Fig. 43d). When a broken wire is so displacement of the surface zinc.
reduced by corrosion \hat it could no longer have been expected to carry Its
load, the ropeman can assume that it has broken in tension, especially if Secondary bending fatigue
other wires in the rope show definite waisting at their fractures.
One fairly common cause of fatigue is accentuated secondary bending of
wires, which is illustrated in Figs 46 and 47. If a rope is in a well-laid-up
condition, all crossing wires will be in hard contact with one another, as in
Fatigue Fig 46a where a wire of one layer (wire B) is shown crossing over two
Fatigue is a form of deterioration leading to broken wires which sometimes supporting wires (wires Sand S1) while being pressed downwards or loaded
occurs in ropes that are free from corrosion. If corrosion is occurring at the by another wire (wire L). Wire B is acting like a small bridge, spanning the
same time, the wires may break in corrosion-fatigue (p 94) rather than in valley between wires S and S1, and being loaded by wire L which is
pure fatigue. probably not situated at mid-span. Provided that all wires remain in hard
contact with one another the valley will remain narrow and shallow and
Fatirue is not easy to define in a few words but an example will show clearly
wire B will only be bent slightly into it. These are the conditions of normal
what it means. If a rope is subjected to a single overload equal to its secondary bending which exist in most ropes and which do not lead to
breaking strength, it will immediately break in tension and its wires will fatigue, otherwise most ropes would deteriorate by fatigue.
show typical tension fractures with waisting at their ends (Fig 43c). If,
however, the rope is repeatedly loaded to only three-quarters of Its Now let it be supposed that the rope is loosely laid up or has become loosely
breaking strength it will eventually break in fatigue, after a certain number laid up, because it was supplied in that condition, or because it became
of loadings, and its wires will show fatigue fractures (Fig 43e) which are partly untwisted in handling at the colliery or for some other reason. Owing
quite different from tension fractures. Even if the rope is repeatedly loaded to the looseness, all the wires will have moved apart (as shown to an
to only one-half of its breaking strength it will still break in fatigue, but only exaggerated degree in Fig 46b) and the valley between wires S and S1 will
after a greater number of loadings because the loadings are not so severe. If
the rope is repeatedly loaded to one-quarter of its breaking strength it will
probably never break, because the fatigue limit of rope -wire (under
conditions of repeated liending to and fro as happens in a rope) is about
one-quarter of the breaking strength of the wire. Thus, if the repeated load
in each wire can be kept below one-quarter of its breaking strength, the
wire and the rope will not deteriorate in fatigue.
The repeated load in a wire of a rope is not only its share of the maximum
tensile load. To that must be added the shock loads in the wire during use,
also the primary bending load in the wire due to repeated bending of the
rope over pulleys and drums, and the secondary bending load in the wire
due to repeated bending of the wire over other wires in the rope as the
tension varies (see next sub-section). It is to cover these extra loads, and (a) Normal secondary bending in a well laid-up rope
the normal loss in strength during service, thatthe Engineer adopts a safety (b) Accentuated secondary bending in a loosely laid-up rope
factor (p 104) in calculating the size and breaking strength of rope
required. The ropeman need not bother about such calculatiOns; t?e extra Figure 46. Secondary bending in wires
loads are mentioned here only to show that the repeated load to which each
89
88
Ropeman 's handbook
Types of deterioration in ropes

be wider and deeper than before; this will cause a greater degree of
bending or flexing in the bridge wire (wire B). Also, owing to the
looseness, wire Lis now no longer confined in position by its neighbours in
the same layer, and will slide down the slope of the bent wire Band take up
a position at mid-span as in Fig 46b; this is its most effective position for
causing bending in wire B, so wire B will be much more bent than when the
rope was well laid up. All this causes pronounced flexing which is repeated
every time the rope tension varies and produces a variation in the pressure
of wire L. So, in a loosely laid-up rope the bridging wire (wire B) will be
repeatedly bent to a much greater extent than in a well-laid-up rope, and a (a) Loose rope
fatigue crack may develop on the stretched side of the bent wire, at Fin Fig
46b. That crack will then be directly on the opposite side of the wire to the
nick made by the pressure of the loading wire (wire L). That position of the
fatigue crack is the sign that the crack was caused by accentuated secondary
bending.

This explanation is theoretical. But such cases do occurin practice, and the
ropeman should know how to recognise the above sign if he is to become an
expert on rope deterioration. Fig 47a shows a rope which broke in fatigue
at a part some distance from that shown in the illustration. In the
illustration four outer wires have been cut out to reveal that the remaining
outer wires were so loose that the two hacksaw blades (total thickness 1.3
mm (0.05 in)) could be slipped underneath them. In Fig 47b one strand of (b) Fatigg_e fractures and nicks marking contact points. between strands
the rope has been placed in front of a mirror so that both sides of the strand
can be seen at once; one wire on each side of the strand has completely
broken in fatigue at the line of nicks made by the neighbouring strands. But
the fatigue cracks leading to these wire fractures did not start in the nicks;
all the cracks in that rope started on the opposite side of the wire and some
spread across the wire to reach the nicks. This point is best illustrated by
choosing a wire which is cracked but not completely broken. In Fig 47c a
cracked wire from the rope has been placed in front of a mirror; the crack is
directly on the opposite side of the wire to the nick- the sign of accentuated
secondary bending. This indicates that the fatigue in that rope was due to
accentuated secondary bending which, in turn, was due to either loose or (c) Fatigue crack starting on side of wire opposite to nick on contact side
loosened lay.
Actually, the trouble in the above rope was due to loosened lay; the rope Figure 47. Accentuated secondary bending in an actual rope
had become loose at some time after manufacture. This is shown by the
nature of the nicking. In Figure 47c the two nicks are not normal; they are
twinned nicks, each being made up of two mainly-overlapping nicks. In (Sand S' of Fig 46). It will be seen thatthese grooves are wider at the crack
other words, the contact points between this wire and other wires changed than elsewhere; this is because the wire was repeatedly pressed down into
permanently at some time when the rope became loosened. the valley between the supporting wires and the groqves made by those
wires bec~me widened by that movement. The two grooves overlap, and
There is even more information to be found in Fig 47c. The two long the crack 1s half-way along the length of the overlap; this means that the
grooves which cross the crack were made by the two supporting inner wires crack (and the nick opposite) were at mid-span in the small bridge (a very
90
91
Ropeman 's handbook Types of deterioration in ropes

greatly skewed bridge). There is a second nick, which has no crack
opposite to it; this is because the nick is opposite only one groove, and so
opposite a part which was riding right on top of one inner wire and,
therefore, at one end of the small bridge where it could not be repeatedly
bent down into the valley.
Thus, a fatigue fracture is abrupt, and atleast a small part of its end surface
will be smooth and :probably dark in_ colour; these are the signs of a fatigue
fracture Ill a wrre, JUst as wmstmg IS the srgn of a tension fracture.

Fatigue fractures
When a wire is deteriorating by fatigue it will show no signs of that
deterioration until it has completed more than 90 per cent of the repeated
loading necessary to break it in fatigue. Then a small crack will appear on
the wire surface, so small and fine that the rope man will have little chance
of finding it unless he knows where to look for it. Fig 48 shows an inner
layer of wires of a locked-coil rope; there are six fatigue cracks present. As
the crack grows deeper the wire (if subjected to bending as are most wires
in a rope) will break in the same way as a wire which has been partly sawn

Figure 48. Fatigue cracks in an inner layer of a locked-coil rope

through and then bent; it will break with a partly splintered end. Fig 49
shows a wire breaking in this way at a fatigue crack. The splintered part of
the fracture (Figs 49c and 43e) has nothing to do with fatigue; it shows only
that final fracture of the cracked wire occurred in bending. The ~mooth,
flat-surfaced part of the fracture is the part that formed one side of the
fatigue crack. The smooth part is usually dark or discoloured, because the
crack existed for some time before the wire broke. If the cracked wire is not
subjected to bending in service, the fatigue crack will extend completely or
almost completely across the wire, giving a smooth flat-surfaced fracture
with little or no splintered part. In all cases the fracture will be very abrupt
or sharp-edged, without any of the waisting found in tension fractures.
Fi~ure 49. Stages in the breaking of a wire at a fatigue crack
If a wire in a rope has been broken for some time, its ends may have rubbed
a~amst one another and become battered (Figs 50 and 43f), so that it is
difficult to recogmse the above details. However, the absence of waisting
will suggest fatrgue to the ropeman. If some lengths of wire from the rope
snap at unobserved fatigue cracks, when bent by hand, then he will have
proved that the rope rs affected by fatigue.

92 93
Rope man's handbook
Figure 50. Battered fatigue Figure 51. CorroSion fatigue
Corrosion-fatigue
Corrosion-fatigue occurs when there is a combination of the conditions
favouring both corrosion and fatigue, namely repeated loading under
corrosive conditions with insufficient lubricant or galvanised coating
.present to prevent the corrosion. There is, unfortunately, no corrosion-
fatigue limit or level of loading below which rope wire is safe from
corrosion-fatigue. Even if the value of the repeated load is kept very low
the corrosion may be of a severity or type that will still lead to
corrosion-fatigue. However, if corrosion can be eliminated, corrosion-
fatigue is unlikely to occur.
Fig 52b shows corrosion-fatigue in the inner layers of a mainly ungalvan-
ised locked coil winding rope (only the two outermost layers were
galvanised). The deterioration, which resulted in a loss in strength of
nearly 50 per cent, was not discovered until the outer wires distorted (Fig
52a) and the rope was withdrawn from service. The corrosion-fatigue had
been caused by water entering the rope.
Corrosion-fatigue fractures
The fractures shown by wires which have failed in corrosion-fatigue (FigS
51 and 43g) are often very similar to those occurring in pure fatigue (Fig
43e) but there will be some degree of corrosion present- though perhaps
very litlle. T<J establish definitely whether a wire has broken . in
corrosion-fatigue or in pure fatigue it is necessary for an expert to examine
the broken ends under a microscope. However, if a ropeman finds wire
fractures of the fatigue type in a rope which shows any degree of corrosion,
he would be wise to assume that corrosion-fatigue was the cause of the
94
Types of deterioration in ropes
(a) Distorted outer layer
(b) Corrosion-fatioue in inner wires
Figure 52. Corrosion fatigue in a locked coil rope
fractures and take steps to avoid corrosion-fatigue in future. Fatigue and
corrosion-fatigue cracks tend to occur in a line along the longitudinal axis
of the rope, often on the compression side where the rope is in contact with
the pulley or drum, and this symptom may indicate their origin.
Surface embrittlement
Surface embrittlement refers to the embrittlement of the worn surface of
outer wires that sometimes occurs in service in winding ropes and more
often in haulage ropes. There are two types of such embrittlement.
Plastic-wear embrittlement
It has already been shown (p 80) that plastic wear will occur on the outer
wires if the rope bears too heavily on some hard surface; the metal of the
crowns of the outer wires is then deformed or splayed into fins at the edges
of the worn crowns as in Fig. 39b. The fins will be britlle and are likely to
crack (Fig:S3a). These cracks, being sharp-edged surface irregularities may
become fatigue cracks and may extend across the wire causing it to break in
95
Ropeman 's handbook
fatigue; on the other hand they may turn through a right angle and extend
parallel to the wire (as shown in Fig 53a) and merely cause the fins
to flake off. Thus, in the case of plastic-wear embrittlement, it is a matter
of chance whether the wire breaks (Fig 53b) or the embrittled fin flakes off.
(b) Fractured wire
(a) Cracked wire
Figure 53. Plastic wear leading to cracks and fracture
Why is the fin brittle? When steel is deformed while cold (cold w?rk) it is
made harder and more brittle. Wire-drawing during manufacturers a form
of cold work in which the metal is deformed by the dies; but the wire
manufacturer takes the precaution of removing most of the brittleness, ie
restoring most of the ductility, by subjecting the wire to as many heat
treatments as are necessary during wire-drawing. When manufacture IS
completed the wire has sufficient ductility but it must not be subjected to
further cold work or the brittleness wrll return. Piastre wear rs cold work,
for the metal is deformed or smeared into fins. Thus, the deformed metal in
the fins is embrittled.
Martensitic embrittlement
Martensite* is a very hard and brittle form of steel produced when steel_is
heated to a high temperature (ie above 700°C (1290°F) for steels used m
wire rope manufacture) and then suddenly quenched. It IS like the steel of
which files are made; if a file is dropped or bent it will break, for it has
virtually no ductility. If a fast mo~ing rope rubs even lig_htly agamst a metal
obstruction, or if a slower moVIng rope gnnds heavily agamst such an
obstruction, the resulting friction can heat the extreme surface of the
rubbed wires above 700°C. The wire is heated to that temperature only to a
depth of about 0.02 mm (0.001 in). As soon as the wire ceases to be rubbed
(when it has passed the obstruction) the heat is quickly carried away to the
colder metal of the wire just underneath the heated surface. Thus, the
* Named after A Martens, a metallurgist.
96
Types of deterioration in ropes
surface of the rubbed wire is reduced from a temperature above 700°C, and
the result rs that the surface becomes brittle martensite to a depth of about
0.02 mm. The first trme that the wire is bent the brittle surface will develop
a senes of cracks along or near its centre line as in Fig 54a, each crack
runmng across the worn crown of the wire and being only about 0.02 mm
(0.001 in) deep .. But these cracks are perfect examples of sharp-edged
surface megulantres and they wrll certainly become fatigue cracks; it is
only a matter of trme. Further, the cracks are formed in the wire itself not
in an overhanging fin as in the case of plastic-wear cracks ~nd,
consequently, the wire is certain to break in fatigue when the fatigue crack
has extended far enough mto the depth of the wire. Thus martensitic
embrittlement is an extremely dangerous form of deterioration.
(a) Cracked wire (b) Fractured wire
Figure 54. Martensitic embrittlement leading to cracks and fracture
Figure 55. Chain pitting on a wire
It is an interesting fact that when corrosion affects a martensitic surface it
enters the cracks and chooses to attack the normal steel below the surface
rather than the hard martensitic steel on the surface. Thus, a corrosion pit
forms at the bottom of each crack and extends to join up with a pit at the
bottom of the next nearby crack. The undermined surface then flakes off
and the worn crown eventually displays a chain or chains of elongated
corrosion pits following the strip or strips of martensite on the surface.
Such chain pitting (Fig 55) is one of the signs of martensite; it is different
from the normal random pitting shown in Fig 45.
97
Ropeman 's handbook
Surface embrittlement fractures
Surface embrittlement fractures will always be of the fatigue type because
the wires will break only when the original surface cracks become fatigue
cracks of sufficient depth to break the wires; but they will always be
situated at the worn crowns of the wires and nowhere else. In the case of
plastic-wear embrittlement there will be fins present at the edges of the
worn crowns and the fatigue cracks will have originated at the fins (Fig
53b). In the case of martensitic embrittlement the fatigue cracks will have
originated in the worn crowns themselves; these cracks are often so close
together along the wire that a fracture may be of a stepped type extending
from one crack to its neighbouring crack (Fig 54b).
If the ropeman can obtain some unbroken wires from a rope suspected of
showing surface embrittlement, he should bend one gradually and gently
by hand so as to stretch the worn crown, closely watching the crown all the
time and preferably through a watchmaker's eyeglass (Fig 33b). If the
surface of the worn crown is embrittled he will see cracks opening, and he
should stop bending the wire or it will break. If the cracks start to open at
the edges of the worn crown where there are fins, then the cause of the
trouble is plastic-wear embrittlement. If the cracks start to open at or near
the centre-line of the worn crown and not at the edges, then the cause of the
trouble is martensitic embrittlement.
Accidental damage and distortion
Accidental damage and distortion are not really forms of deterioration, but
it is very important that the ropeman should realise that they may lead to
surprisingly rapid deterioration at the affected part.
A rope which has been dented by a blow may appear to be still in
reasonably good condition but may break within a couple of months due
to the development of fatigue at the damaged part. This is really not
surprising. If the damage is such that some wires are permanently
deformed into elbow-shaped bends, then every time the load varies during
operation the bent wires will be partly straightened and then allowed to
return to their bent condition; in other words they will be repeatedly bent
at one point as in the case of accentuated secondary bending and they will
probably break in fatigue. If the damage is such that some wires or strands
are forced apart so as to leave the rope open at that place, then moisture
will enter readily and internal corrosion or corrosion-fatigue may develop
at the damaged part.
98
Types of deterioration in ropes
Kinking
A true kink is formed when a rope goes slack, forms itself into a closed
loop, and is pulled tight (Fig 56). Normally, a slack rope forms a loop in
order to reheve Itself of twist; the twist taken out of the rope is stored in the
form of a loop. When such a loop is pulled tight the resulting kink (Fig56c)
IS not JUSt an elbow-shaped bend; It IS a short but very tightly twisted spiral,
because all the twist taken out of a long length of rope and stored in the
ongmalloop (Fig 56a) has been put back into the short length of rope at the
kmk (Fig 56b and c). It will be noted in Fig 56c that the rope is very tightly
twisted at the kmk or, m other words, the length of lay is shortened.
Figure 56. Successive stages in the formation of a kink
If a rope is permanently deformed into an elbow-shaped bend, but with no
change in length of lay at the deformation, then the deformation is not a
true kink but a permanent bend which may have been caused by irre!!Ular
coiling on the drum or in some similar incident. The rate of deteriorati~n of
a rope in such a case will depend on the extent to which the individual wires
are bent at the deformation.
A kink or permanent bend in a rope is most easily found by looking along
the rope, preferably when it is slack.
Distortion in ropes
Waviness (or corkscrewing) is a form of distortion usually confined to
locked-coil ropes, but it can also affect a stranded rope if it works in too
tight a pulley tread (p 118). In this form of distortion the rope ceases to be
99
Ropeman 's handbook Types of deterioration in ropes

straight over a considerable length and assumes a spiral form, something

like a corkscrew. Fig 57 a shows a locked coil rope which is slightly wavy; it
will be noticed that the bright external wear is concentrated at the crests or
high spots of the waves. Fig 57b shows a more pronounced degree of
deformation. The depth and length of a wave is measured by placing a
straight edge along the rope as shown.

There are many contributory causes of distortion, but the subject is not yet
fully understood. In locked coil ropes one cause is lack of lubricant
between and directly underneath the outer wires; this leads to the outer
wires binding or seizing up, instead of slipping freely on one another and on
the underlying wires, with the result that they cannot act as they should.
This is the reason why service lubrication of locked coil ropes is so
important. Another cause is loose or loosened lay; the inner layers are
always trying to rotate the rope around its centre-line so as to unlay
themselves and if the outer layer (laid in the opposite direction to the inner
layers) is not tightly laid on the)nner layers it will fail to prevent this
rotation until sufficient rotation has occurred to tighten the outer wires. In
fact, rotation of the rope about its centre-line figures largely in distortion;
for a rope which is fixed at both ends can rotate in one direction at one part
of its length provided that it rotates in the opposite direction at some other
part. In Fig 57c the rope at the distorted part rotated in a direction which
loosened the outer layer o£ wires and tightened the inner layers. This
tightening resulted in a shortening of that part of the rope so the loosened
outer wires had to rise up off the inner layers and overlap one another in
order to accommodate their lengths. In Fig 57d the rope at the distorted 1
, SMRE
part rotated in the opposite direction, so as to tighten the outer layer and / ~---

loosen the inner layers; these inner layers had no alternative but to attempt {a) Mild distortion ar.d (b) pronounced distortion
to burst through the outer layer in order to accommodate their extra Final distortion of:
{c) birdcage type and (d) hernia type
length, so causing a bulge or 'hernia'.
Figure 57. Corkscrew distortion in a locked-coil winding rope
What causes a rope to rotate about its centre line, even when its two ends
are fixed?
Locked coil ropes of less than 38 mm (H in) diameter have fewer layers of
Most ropes have some tendency to twist or rotate when loaded, although
wires and consequently, are less easily affected by those factors whrch can
some types are designed to reduce this to a minimum, for example locked
cause wa~iness, ie corrosion, drying out of lubricant, pinching in pulleys or
coil winding ropes and multi-strand ropes. The amount of twist is
incorrect handJina. this is one reason why in modern friction winding
dependent upon the load applied and the length of the rope. In the case of
installations seve;al small winding ropes are used (multi-rope friction
winding ropes operating without balance ropes, the length of rope and the
winding) instead of one large rope (single-rope friction winding). (The
tension decreases as the load is wound up the shaft and, therefore, the
main advantage in a multi-rope friction winder system hes Ill the fact that
amount of twist will vary along the rope's length. Locked coil winding
ropes are complex units consisting of a number of different layers of wires. the smaller ropes need only a small driving sheave.)
If, during service, the layers cease to move freely, the rope will become out Another cause of rotation is a large fleet angle (p 119) because, to take the
of balance and twist may build up until waviness or corkscrewing develops. case of a descending rope, the rope will first land on the flange of the

100 101
Rope man's handbook Types of deterioration in ropes

headframe pulley and then roll into the tread as it travels around the
pulley. This rolling again involves rotation of the rope. Yet another cause
of rope rotation, this time on friction winders, is a constant fleet angle due
to misalignment of the driving groove and, in the case of a tower mounted
system, the deflection sheave. This causes a continual rotation of the rope
in one direction throughout the wind.
Fractures at damage and distortions
There may be no wire fractures at damaged or deformed parts unless the
rope is allowed to remain in use too long after deformation. If wire
fractures appear, their type will depend on the nature of the damage or
deformation and on the working conditions. For instance, a kinked
winding rope will develop fatigue fractures because a winding rope wears
only slowly and fatigue will, therefore, have time to develop, but a kinked
haulage rope will rapidly wear through at the kink before fatigue has time
to appear. The ropeman should study the nature of any deformation which
he finds and should try to foresee how the deformed wires will act during
further service. Will they be repeatedly bent and straightened and,
therefore, liable to break in fatigue; do they protrude above the level of
other wires and become exposed to localised wear; have they been pushed
aside so as to leave the rope open and subject to localised internal
corrosion? A rope which shows distortion will probably not show broken
wires at all, but it may cause excessive sheave wear.
Runovers
fatigue or corrosion-fatigue will be much more likely in the busy rope.
However, there are certain degrees of deterioration that, under any
circumstances, cannot be exceeded with safety. Outer wires readily
override one another and become broken one by one if they have become
loosened by internal corrosion or internal wear or have become half worn
through by external wear (p 80). Thus, a rope should not be allowed to
remain in service if the outer wires have become definitely loose or have
lost about one-third or 33 per cent of their depth. A rope which has lost more
than one-fifth of its strength by corrosion or wear may soon break, even if
the remaining strength appears to be sufficient for the load. This is because
the distribution of the load amongst the individual wires may become very
uneven. Thus, a rope should be discarded when the loss in strength by wear
or corrosion, or both, reaches about one-sixth or 16 per cent of the original
strength. Loss in strength by fatigue or corrosion-fatigue is more serious,
because when some wires show cracks or fractures it can be assumed that
the other wires (which presumably worked under the same conditions) will
very shortly develop cracks and fractures. Thus, a rope should be discarded
before the loss in strength by fatigue or corrosion-fatigue exceeds one-tenth
or 10 per cent of the original strength. It will be impossible to calculate
accurately the loss in strength unless samples are actually tested, as at a
Testing Centre. Otherwise it will be necessary to judge the loss in strength
less accurately. All broken or cracked wires situated within a length of two
rope lays should be regarded as no longer contributing any strength to that
part of the rope, for a rope may well break over a length of two rope lays
rather than in one place.

When a haulage rope is run over by a tub or mine car it will be severely T-he circumstances to be taken into account in deciding when any type of
dented by the wheels and some wires may be partially or completely cut rope should be discarded are summarised in Appendix 2 but, regardless of
through (Fig 43k). The rope will, almost certainly, break at the damaged any stated limits of deterioration, a rope should be discarded if any doubt
exists as to its safe condition.
part if that part is not speedily withdrawn from service. Examination of
such fractures may show: many wires with tension fractures (Fig43c); some
with chisel ends (Fig 43a) if the rope was permanently bent at the
deformation; and some with smooth, bright, sheared ends (Fig43k) where
tne wires were cut through, or almost cut through, by the tub wheels.

When to discard a rope

In order to decide when a rope should be discarded it is necessary to take
into account the state of the rope and the conditions under which it works.
A rope which shows some deterioration but which has done little work may
be considered to be still in reliable condition, whereas another rope which
shows the same degree of deterioration but has done a great deal of work
may be considered to have reached the end of its useful life. The onset of

102 103
 'Winding ropes

(shock loadings, bending stresses, etc) and to allow for normal loss of rope
Chapter 7 strength dunng service due to detenoratmn. Although the ropeman will
not have to calculate the value of the maximum suspended load, it may
help him m his work to know what is included in that load.
Winding ropes
Table 5 Factors to consider when selecting winding ropes

Rope service requirements Rope design characteristics

Selection of winding rope
Strength Depends on rope construction and diameter, tensile
The main items to be considered in choosing a winding rope are: strength of wires and type of core
o The type of rope -locked coil or stranded (round strand, triangular Resistance to external wear Consider use of:
strand or multi-strand). - Outer wires as large as possible
- Locked coil ropes
D The type of strand- simple construction with large wires for resistance
- lang's lay rather than ordinary lay
to wear and corrosion, or compound construction for greater flexibility. - Triangular strand ropes
o The type of lay - left or right hand, Lang's or ordinary, cross lay or Resistance to corrosion Consider use of:
equal lay; the manufacturer will generally supply Lang's right hand lay - Galvanised ropes
unless instructed otherwise. - Outer wires as large as possible
D The type of wire- for locked coil ropes, the tensile strength may vary Resistance to bending fatigue Consider use of:
from 160 grade (160 to 189 kgf/mm2) to 200 grade (200 to 239 kgf/mm2) - Locked coil ropes
for round wires, and from 120 grade (120 to 144 kgf/mm2) to 160 grade - Lang's lay, round strand, equal lay constructions
- Independent wire rope cores (IWRC)
for shaped wires (see NCB Specification 186/1970). For stranded ropes - Triangular strand constructions
the grades are normally 160 grade or 180 grade (180 to 219 kgf/mm2). Resistance to crushing Consider use of:
D The surface finish - ungalvanised for conditions known to be dry and - locked coil rOpes
non-corrosive, but galvanised for conditions known to be corrosive or - Triangular strand ropes
possibly corrosive. - Equal lay constructions
D The size of rope- the diameter of rope required to give the necessary - Independent wire rope cores (IWRC)
breaking strength. Resistance to rotation Consider use of:
- locked coil ropes
Table 5 will give some guidance when considering the first five items above - Multi-strand constructions
but, in general, discussions should be held with rope manufacturers who - Ordinary lay rather than lang's lay
have wide experience of the type of rope best suited to any particular - IWRC rather than fibre core
working conditions. As to rope size, the Engineer must calculate the loads
to be carried and select a size (diameter) of rope that will have a breaking
strength which will give a satisfactory factor of safety. The factor of safety is
the number of times the breaking strength of the rope is greater than the In both drum winding and friction-winding installations the maximum
maximum suspended load to be carried by the most heavily loaded part of suspended load to be carried by the rope or complete set of ropes is the sum
the rope, namely, the part at the headframe when the cage or skip is at pit of:
bottom. For example, on a drum-winder, if the Engineer calculates that
the maximum suspended load at the most heavily loaded part of a 0 the weight of one conveyance (cage or skip) when loaded with the
particular rope amounts to 10,000 kgf and Regulations call for a minimum normal heaviest load;
factor of safety of 6!, he would select a size of rope that would have a o the weight of all attachments above and below that conveyance (chains,
breaking strength of at least 10,000x6.5 or 65,000 kgf. A factor of safety is adjusting links, detaching hook, cappings of winding ropes and of any
used to take care of extra loadings not usually included in the calculations balance ropes, etc);

104 105
Ropeman 's handbook
o the weight of suspended winding ropes (attached to the conveyance in
question) hangirig from the headframe pulley or sheave when the
conveyance is at pit bottom. In some shafts. the balance rope is heavier
than the winding rope. In these cases, the maximum suspended rope
weight is that of the balance rope and winding rope when the conveyance
is at the shaft top;
c the weight of any balance ropes hanging below the particular con-
veyance under consideration when that conveyance is at pit bottom;
c half the weight of any sheaves running in the loops of any balance ropes
below the conveyance.
With drum winders or single-rope friction winders the total of the above
items will give the maximum suspended load on the single rope involved.
In the case of a mnlti-rope friction winder the total of the above items will
give the maximum suspended load on the complete set of ropes and it must
therefore be divided by the number of ropes in the set in order to get the
load on each rope.
The maximum suspended load is the same as the maximum static load and
is the load in the rope while it is at rest. When the rope is travelling in the
shaft there may be sudden winding shocks and changes in speed which may
increase the load to about H times its original or static value. Also, bending
of the rope around pulleys, sheaves or drums will add further to the load in
the wires and secondary bending will add still more. To allow for all these
circumstances and also for normal loss in strength during service owing to
wear, etc, a factor of safety is chosen. which usually lies between 7 and 10.
According to Regulation 17(3) of the Shafts, Outlets and Roads
Regulations 1960, the rope must 'withstand a load of at least six and a half
times the maximum static load' unless an exemption has been granted by
an Inspector. A higher factor of safety is desirable for installations where
there is frequent starting and stopping of the rope, eg in shallow shafts,
than for installations in deep shafts where there may be fewer winds and
therefore fewer decking shocks.
Installation of winding ropes
The installation of a new rope will probably not be the responsibility of the
ropeman but he should be present to enable him to have full knowledge of
the condition of the rope after installation. The rope manufacturer should
be informed of any damage to the rope during installation.
It is a good idea for the Engineer to draw up a definite plan for each shaft
giving the step-by-step procedure for installing new ropes and the safety
precautions to be taken by all the persons involved.
106
Wmding ropes
During installation the rope reel should be mounted on a horizontal shaft
so that it is free to turn and fitted with some type of effective brake so that
Its rotatiOn can be kept under control (p 28). Great care must be taken to
ensure that the rope does not go slack as it is led off the reel and onto the
wmdmg system.
The two ends of the rope must remain secureJy served (p 30) throughout
the operation unul fitted to the conveyances or drum otherwise the ends
may 'sprin~' or become unlaid and the rope will be 'damaged. If a rope
tends to twist the conveyance or 1ts attachments and to displace the rope
gmdes It may be necessary to release or apply twist to the rope before
finally attaching it to the conveyance. However, no more turns than are
necessary should be released (usually not more than one or two turns)
other:v1se the rope will become loosely laid up and the loose wires may
detenorate m faugue as a result of being subjected to accentuated
secondary bending. The uncontrolled use of a swivel for releasing twist in
wmdmg ropes IS bad practice. If too many turns are released from a
tn~ngular-strand rope, each triangular strand may turn in the rope so as to
raise one of Its edges above the surface of the rope. External wear will then
become concentrated along that edge (Fig 58) and will be deeper than
under normal condihons where It is evenly spread over the outermost flat
faces of the strands. If rope twist is a problem at a particular shaft,
considerat:on should be giVen to employing one of the non-rotating types
of rope, either a multi-strand rope or a locked-coil rope; the preformed
type IS non-rotatmg or 'dead' oruy while it is unloaded. When installing a
locked-coil rope it is better if the rope can be allowed to hang freely to the
pit bottom then, If necessary, one turn or part of a turn may be put in but
always in a direction to tighten the cover. '
SMRE
1-
Figure 58. Wear on high edges of triangular strands in a triangular
strand rope
107
Ropeman 's handbook
Before installing a new rope it is very important to check that the groove in
the pulley or sheave is the correct size for that rope. For a newly installed
rope the groove radius should be at least 7! per cent greater than the
nominal radius of the rope. A groove which is too small or tight will pinch
the rope and may cause rope distortion or wire breakages. One particular
stranded rope, working in a tight pulley groove designed to suit the
previous smaller rope, distorted into a spiral form during its first week of
service. To overcome this, the groove was machined to a size larger than
the measured diameter of the rope and the distortion virtually disappeared
within a further week of service. However, in the case of a stranded rope
the groove should not be too large for although the shape of a locked-coil
rope may alter only slightly in an overlarge groove, a stranded rope will
deform and become oval in cross-section. It is also prudent to check the
size of the winding drum grooves against the rope size before a new rope is
installed, although it is unusual for a drum to wear sufficiently to require
machining.
During installation and withdrawal of ropes, the socket should not be
wound over the headframe pulley as this procedure may lead to a cracked
pulley flange.
It is a good idea, when installing a winding rope. to cut off a 2m (6! It)
length which has been securely served, well lubricated externally, and
properly labelled and to keep this sample throughout the life of the rope as
a specimen of the rope when in new condition. The rope man can then refer
to the specimen if he wishes to remind himself of the appearance of the
rope when new, or to settle any queries that may arise as to the exact size,
structure, etc of the rope as supplied. If the ropes are supplied by the
manufacturers pre-stretched and already cut and capped to the correct
length, the manufacturers could be asked for a short length of the new rope
to act as a reference sample. This sample would be in addition to the
sample of new rope which must be sent to the Testing Centre, at the time of
delivery, to ensure compliance with specification.
Capping of winding ropes
Winding ropes may be fitted with either white metal cappings or
wedge-type cappings. Whichever type is chosen, the procedures given in
Chapter 4 must be strictly followed.
Recapping drum-winder ropes
According to Regulations 65 and 67(2) of the Shafts, Outlets and Roads
Regulations 1960, every winding rope must be recapped at least once in
any period of six months service and any part cut off must 'forthwith be
108
Winding ropes
opened up and its internal condition examined by a competent person'
Further, according to Reg67 (1) a length of at least two metres of rope must
be cut off w1thm each penod of six months service unless the rope is used
for fnct10n wmdmg for wh1eh special regulations apply (seep 110). If, at
the date of any recappmg, the preceding capping was done not more than
three, four or five months previously, the part to be cut off need not exceed
1 m, 1.2 m or 1.5 m respectively.
There are sound reasons for these regulations. In the case of drum-
operated ropes it is wise to discard the cape! end at regular intervals for that
lS the part most affected by winding shocks. This regular cutting of rope
from the cape! end also results in spare rope being paid out from the drum
and the whole rope bemgmoved on towards the cape!, with the result that
no part remams long at the positions where conditions may be severe. For
example, the part just leaving the drum during decking at bank level (and
therefore hkely to be subjected to shocks) is moved on towards the cape!
end before fatlgue 1s hkely to occur under normal working conditions. The
opemng up and exammmg of recapping samples (the parts cut off) gives
much mformatiOn regardmg the condition of the remainder of the rope in
the case of drum-operated ropes (seep 116). Before a recapping sample is
cut from a rope, both ends of the sample and each side of the cutting
pOSltJOn must be securely served (and also clamped in the case of
locked-coli ropes) so that the wires will not slacken or spring during or after
cuttmg. The whole rope length should also be examined externally,
partJcularly for ev1dence of waviness, displaced or broken wires and
looseness of wires. The quantity and consistency of the external lubricant
should also be noted.
In practice, the two metre recapping sample is cut into two lengths. The
one metre len~h nearest to the old cape! is sent to the Testing Centre for
detmled exammat10n and for tests on the individual wires (seep 76). The
remammg length must be opened up immediately, at the colliery, as
reqmred by the Regulat10ns, and carefully examined for any cracked or
broken w1res or pronounced corros1on. A careful check for broken wires or
corros10n should also be made while the new rope end is being prepared for
the new cape!. If necessary, recappmg may be carried out at intervals of
less than six months or lengths of more than two metres maybe cutoff. On
some mstallatlons 1t mal' be beneficial to move the rope forward more than
two metres to ensure a s1gmficant change in rope positioning. When a rope
1S found to have broken w1res at the cape! end it is advisable to cut off a long
length In an attempt to discard the affected part of the rope. Frequent
recappmg wlll then keep the matter under review.
After recapping a drum-operated rope it is usually necessary to take the
tenswn off the part of the rope at the drum so that spare rope can be paid
109
Ropeman 's handbook
out from the drum to make good the length cut off at the cape! end.
Normally this is done by lowering the conveyance to a point near pit
bottom and supporting the weight of the conveyance and suspended rope
by means of a gland in the headframe. The type of gland usually employed
is the self-tightening wedge type in which any downward movement of the
rope should draw two grooved steel wedges further into a tapered frame so
as to further tighten them on the rope. These glands should always be
assembled according to the instructions given in Chapter 9.
Slack rope protection
Modern winding practice includes devices to detect the formation of slack
winding rope in conditions where the conveyance is held fast and the
winding ·engine continues to move. The rope man should be aware of this
equipment when working on the winding ropes.
Recapping friction-winder ropes
For friction-winder ropes the regulations regarding recapping are some-
what different since it is not possible to cut off any appreciable length at
either of the two cape! ends, for this shortens the working length of the
rope. Furthermore, any cutting at the ends does not change the position of
the rope with respect to the driving sheave or deflection pulleys.
Friction-winding ropes are covered by the Mines (Friction Winding)
Special Regulations which require that at each recapping, each capping is
'moved a distance of not less than six inches (152 mm) along the rope
towards its other end' at intervals not exceeding six months. The wires at
the rope end must be examined particularly carefully for any breaks or
corrosion when they are being opened up to form the brush for the new
capping. If the length cut off is not being sent to the Testing Centre for tests
then it too must be opened up and its wires examined at once, before the
rope is recapped and put back into service.
Factor of safety of friction-winder ropes
The minimum permissible factor of safety of a friction-winding rope is
calculated according to formulae which take into account the degree of
bending in the rope as it passes over the winding sheave, the depth of wind
(and hence the frequency of winding) and any reverse bending resulting
from the presence of deflecting pulleys. The Special Regulations state that
'each set of winding ropes ... shall have a combined breaking strength
when first installed of not less than F 1 times the maximum static load that
the ropes may be required to carry while persons are being carried or F 2
times the maximum static load that the ropes may be required to carry
110
Winding ropes
while carrying the mineral or material they will most frequently carry,
whichever is the greater'.
F 1 and F 2 are calculated in accordance with the following formulae:
F 1 =l.O+ 4.5(R+C)
R(l+0.0051-/M)-13.5
4.5(R+C)
R(l +0.0051 V M)-13.5
where
F1 =the factor of safety while persons are being carried;
F2 =the factor of safety while the mineral or material which the apparatus
most frequently carries is being carried;
R =the ratio of the diameter of the winding sheave to the diameter of the
winding ropes;
C = 35 where there is Nar a nearby deflecting sheave, or 43 where there is a
nearby deflecting sheave; and
M = the vertical distance in metres between the level of the top of the
highest winding sheave and the level at which the winding ropes meet
the suspension gear of the conveyance when at its lowest position in
the shaft.
Rope tensions in friction-winder ropes
Multi-rope friction-winding installations in Great Britain operate with the
winding ropes directly connected to the suspension gear of the con-
veyances and not through any form of compensating gear. It has been
found that, in order to keep rope tensions approximately equal, it is
necessary to keep the rope tread diameters as nearly as possible the same.
The deeper the shaft, the more important this is. Large differences in rope
tensions can cause distortion or broken wires in one or more of the winding
ropes. Most tower-mounted friction winders have groove machining
equipment installed and the grooves can be kept in good order by regular
checking and trimming as required.
When installing new ropes care should be taken to ensure that matched sets
of ropes are used to reduce differential stretch to a minimum. Then,
provided care is taken to establish the correct rope tread diameters when
the ropes are installed the extent of differential tread wear should be small
and it is often possible to avoid re-trimming grooves during the life of a set
111
Ropeman 's handbook Winding ropes

of ropes. However, it is necessary to keep the grooves clear of deposit from
the rope. One method of checking the differences in rope tread diameters
and rope tensions on multi-rope friction winders is to measure the relative
rope travel as follows:
Wind the conveyance associated with the ropes to be measured (Fig 59)
from the surface to approximately mid-shaft at a steady speed of about 3 to
4.5 m (10 to 15 ft) per second, bringing the conveyance to rest very
gradually without any sudden brake application.
Stage1 Stage 2 Stage3
and without any sudden brake application. A straight edge should again be
mounted accurately in a horizontai position, so that measurements can
easily be taken of each mark relative to the straight edge.
Any difference in rope travel can be corrected by trimming, in small
increments, the groove or grooves that give the largest rope travel, but if
the grooves are dirty it is advisable to trim them clean first. Followina each
trimming the conveyance should be wound through the shaft to bedin the
grooves and a re-check should be made of the measurements following the
procedure outlined above. The point at which trimming becomes
necessary is largely determined by experience, but for guidance it is
suggested that when discrepancies have reached the limits shown in Table 6
the treads should be trimmed.

Check rope
marks and
measure---
+ Table 6

Discrepancy
Mark ropes
Surface
+-----1-- Ropes where trouble has been experienced
First 12 months 6 mm (~in)
Second 12 months 3 mm (!in}

Mid-shaft Hopes where trouble has not been experienced

First 12 months 10 mm (i in)
Second 12 months · 6 mm (~in)

Note: A new rope will generally tolerate more inaccuracies than one that has been in
Pit bottom service for some time.

'Distance A should be a1: least 'tWo to

three drum revolutions equivalent

Figure 59. Method of checking rope tread diameters and rope

tensions on multi-rope friction winders
With the conveyance at mid-shaft, mark the ropes at some convenient
place, say ground level in the case of tower winders. The marks can be
made by pencil on a chalk background and should be in a horizontal line;
this is usually achieved by using a straight edge and spirit level but if site
conditions permit it would be advantageous to have permanent straight
edge supports available.
Having marked the ropes, the conveyance is then wound steadily up the
shaft for two to three drum revolutions until the rope marks are at some
convenient level such as, in the case of tower winders, near the drum or
deflecting sheaves, the winder again being brought to rest very gradually
Equalisation of the groove treads can usually be achieved by this method to
within 1 mm (1/32 in) of rope travel over a distance of two to three drum
revolutions.
In order to assist in making a detailed assessment of this method of
checking rope tensions and tread diameters, a record should be kept of the
following:
- the actual measurements and the date of checking;
- the date of trimming of each groove.
Statutory examinations
Three main types of examination are required by Regulations for ropes

112 113
Ropeman 's handbook
employed in carrying persons through a shaft, staple pit, or unwalkable
outlet. They are:
o the daily examination of winding gear, including ropes [Reg 19(2) of
the Shafts, Outlets and Roads Regulations 1960 and Special Regulations
for Friction Winding.]
o the special examination of ropes [Reg 19(3)].
o the examination of recapping samples [Reg 67(2)].
Additional examinations may be prescribed by the Colliery Manager in his
scheme of systematic examination and test in accordance with the Coal and
Other Mines (Mechanics and Electricians) Regulations 1965.
The daily examination of the rope
In this examination the rope must be given an overall inspection sufficient
to confirm its safe condition. The ropeman must look for major faults such
as broken wires, damage, distortion, etc while the rope is run slowly past
him at a speed of about H m (5 ft) per second. If he observes any such fault,
he should stop the rope and make a detailed examination of the affected
part. If he already knows that the rope shows such a fault at a certain part,
he must stop the rope at that part during each daily examination and make
a detailed examination for any worsening of condition or advance of
deterioration at that part. The rate of deterioration at a damaged area or
fault may be so rapid that it would be dangerous to delay detailed
examination of the affected part until the next Special Examination.
The special examination
This is the really effective examination as regards keeping a watch on the
gradual advance of deterioration at all parts of the rope. In the case of a
drum-operated rope the ropeman will already have information as to the
type or types of deterioration affecting the inside of the rope, from the
opening up and examination of recapping samples. In the case of a
friction-winding rope the recapping samples may or may not have supplied
him with this information. (Recapping samples of friction-winding ropes
may not in all cases supply reliable information as to the condition of the
remainder of the rope.) During the Special Examination he should,
amongst other things, search for external evidence of the advance of any
internal deterioration shown by recapping samples. For instance, if the
recapping samples show that internal corrosion has commenced at the
cape! end, the ropeman should search for evidence of more advanced
internal corrosion at other parts of the rope; such evidence is the loosening
of the outer wires (p 83). He must also look for less expected forms of
deterioration, for distortion and for damage.
114
Winding ropes
According to Reg 19(3}of the Shafts, Outlets and Roads Regulations 1960,
a special examination must be carried out at least every thirty days. In this
examination the rope must be stopped, cleaned and examined 'at all places
particularly liable to deterioration and at other places not more than three
hundred feet (90 metres) apart throughout its length .. .'
Ropes should be examined with particular care at the following points:
Drum-winder ropes Friction-winder ropes
For each rope: For each rope:
1 the capel end; 1 the capel ends;
2 the part on the headgear pulley when the 2 the part at the headgear pulley or deflect-
conveyance is at the bank; ing wheel (if any) when the conveyance is
3 the part leaving the drum when the con- at the bank;
veyance is at the bank; 3 the part leaving the driving sheave when
4 the part on the headgear pulley when the the conveyance is at the bank;
conveyance is at pit bottom; 4 the part on the headgear pulley or deflect-
5 the part leaving the drum when the con- ing wheel (if any) when the conveyance .is
veyance is at pit bottom; at pit bottom or at the most frequently
6 any other parts particularly liable to de- used inset;
terioration, such as a part leaving any 5 the part leaving the driving sheave when
hooding of an enclosed shaft at the ends of the conveyance is at pit bottom or at the
winds, the parts situated at the ends of any most frequently used inset;
scroll on a drum, the anchorage of the 6 any other parts particularly liable to de-
dead end of rope to the drum, the part terioration, eg the part opposite a fan drift
opposite a fan drift when the conveyances when the conveyances are parked;
are parked; 7 any section of rope that is not easily
7 any section of rope that is not easily accessible, eg the length of rope between
accessible, eg the length of rope between the capel and the deflector or driving
the drum and the headgear pulley on the sheave when at bank.
overlap position, and the length of rope
from the capel to the headgear pulley.
It is important to examine the rope at the point where it emerges from the
socket at the cape! end. Broken wires at this position would suggest a faulty
capping. (it is to facilitate such examination that any serving protruding
from the socket of a winding rope should be removed as soon as the
capping operation is completed as stated in Chapter 4.)
For the Special Examination, suitably designed inspection facilities should
be provided at the surface level such that the ropeman can be in a position
to clearly see and handle the rope without having to divert any of his
attention to his own safety. Good standards of artificial lighting should be
available and, if possible, tb.e ropeman should have an assistant helping to
watch one side of the rope as it is run slowly past. There is an
understandable tendency for ropemen to run the rope through their hands,
for the fingers are very sensitive in noting any changes in rope shape,
115
Ropeman 's handbook
displacement of wires and, of course, broken wires. A more suitable
method with locked coil winding ropes is to use a looped wire as shown in
Fig 24. However if, on a stranded rope, there is a suspicion that there may
be broken wires in the valleys, a further test would be to hold some cotton
waste loosely against the rope; a broken wire will then catch and retain
some of the cotton waste with less risk of injuring a finger.
If the ropeman suspects loose wires or internal corrosion he should carry
out the hammer test as described on page 74.
When the rope is stopped at one of the parts to be examined in detail the
ropeman should note its general appearance, measure its diameter and lay
length and make a detailed examination of the rope exterior as described in
Chapter 5 over a cleaned length of at least 1 m (3ft). If he finds a single
loose wire in a stranded rope he could make an effort to check if it is broken
inside the rope by attempting to release any broken end; for instance he
could insert a flat spike or flat tucking tool between the affected strand and
its neighbour, first on one side of the affected strand and then on the other,
so as to prise the strands slightly apart and allow any broken end to fly out.
If he finds a broken wire in a stranded rope he should break it off by
repeated bending through 180 degrees in line with the axis of the rope and
examine it under his magnifying glass (Fig 33b) in order to find the cause of
breakage. This can be determined from the type of fracture (fatigue,
tension, etc); the position of fracture (next to the fibre core, at the nicks
between strands, etc), and by noting the side of the wire on which any
fatigue crack started (where corroded next to the fibre core, directly
opposite to a nick, etc). For instance, if the wire shows a fati211e fracture at
the nicks between strands but with the crack starting on the o~posite side of
the wire to the nick, then it could be deduced that the wire had broken in
fatigue due to accentuated secondary bending. If corrosion scale is present
he should choose a badly affected wire and scrape off the scale. with his
penknife. If he finds corrosion pits under the scale he should explore their
size and depth with a scriber (Fig 33c}. If he already knows from the
examination of recapping samples that internal corrosion has commenced,
he should compare the looseness of the wires at the part of the rope
1mmedmtely above the cape! with the looseness at all other parts of the
rope. This will give him information as to whether internal corrosion is
more advanced at these other parts of the rope. Finally, he should
re-lubricate the cleaned part of the rope and have the rope moved slowly
untJI he reaches the next part to be submitted to detailed examination.
The examination of recapping samples at testing centres
The examination of recapping samples is the most searching and detailed
of the three examinations. It is carried out on part of the length of rope cut
116
Winding ropes
off during recapping (the one metre length nearest to the old white metal
capping or safety block) and is usually done at a testing centre. The
procedure must include a thorough external and internal examination of
the whole sample as described in Chapter 5 and samples of each size or
layer of wires tested as also described in Chapter 5, and in the British
Standard or NCB Specification for the type of rope concerned. The
ropeman responsible for the rope should be informed of the results of the
examination and test.
Keeping records
There is no point in making a careful and useful examination of a rope or
recapping sample if the results are not recorded. The entry in the Record
Book must be informative and give a summary of the findings. However, in
addition, the enthusiastic ropeman will wish to keep his own records in
which he can include all the details which will be useful to hiru in future
examinations, and reminders as to what he should look for with special
care. He should keep a separate small notebook for each of his ropes and
write on the cover the exact recognition details of the rope concerned, for
example:
'Lady Macbeth Colliery- No 1 Downcast Shaft- East or Overlap Winding Rope
(or, in the case of a friction winder, ·"No 3 Winding Rope") -Installed 6.6.74.'
On the first page of the notebook he could enter the details of the rope, for
example:
'Details of rope
38 mm diameter- galvanized, triangular strand 6x22 (9/12//::,) 160 grade-
minimum breaking strength 81.1 tonnes- makers, Z Ropes Ltd- received at
mine 15.3.74- Order No 1234- Reel No XYZ.'
Then he could enter the result of his examination of a sample cut off at the
time of installation, so as to record the condition of the rope when new, the
size of the wires, and any faults which might lead to trouble later, for
example:
'Rope sample at installation, 6.6.74
Diameter 38 mm. Lay 267 mm. Well lubricated throughout, except for fibre core
which was nearly dry. Corrosion may occur next to fibre. Outer wires 2.64 mm,
inner wires 1.63 mm diameter, over zinc coatings. Note: Report dryness of fibre
core.'
The next entry might be the findings of the first Special Examination and
might read:
'Special Examination, 5. 7. 74
Diameter 38 mm. Lay 267 mm throughout. Externallubiicant rather dry and dusty.
Outside of rope slightly discoloured over 20 m next to capping, but no rust. No
looseness.'
117
Ropeman 's handbook
Eventually the rope will begin to show some deterioration and the entryfo"
an examination of a recapping sample might then read:
'Recapping Sample, 5.12. 75
Diameter 36 mm. Lay 269 mm. Outside: well laid up, lubricant dry and dusty, zinc
blackened, no corrosion of steel. Outer wires (2.64 mm diameter) measure 2.39
mm at worn crowns. Inside: fibre core and adjacent wires quite dry, with blackened
zinc coatings and mild pitting of steel of both outer and inner wires next to fibre.
One inner wire broken. Looks like corrosion-fatigue. Corrosion getting through zinc
to steel, lubrication needs looking into.'
In this way the ropeman can use his notebooks to remind him of what he
found in his last examination of a particular rope, and to remind him of
what he should especially look for in his next examination of that rope. If
he keeps a separate notebook for each rope and puts the date above each
entry, he will be able to refer to the condition of any rope at any time
without delay or confusion. The entry in the Record Book can then be a
summary of the important points of the entry in the notebook, leaving out
the reminders, etc. If the ropeman is called upon to give his opinion on
whether a rope should be discarded at the next week-end or allowed to
remain in service for a further period, he can refer to his notebook and use
its contents in framing his advice.
Types of deterioration affecting winding ropes
Table 8 lists the main types of deterioration found in winding ropes
together with the possible causes, depending on the position and extent of
the deterioration, and some suggested remedies. The main points are
discussed below.
Wear
When external wear on a winding rope is heavy and of the abrasive type it
may have been caused by the rope vibrating excessively and striking some
obstruction such as the edge of the rope hole in the engine house or the
detaching plate in the headframe. Such vibrations can be caused by the
cross-over points on multi-layer winders or by irregularities on the drum
surface, such as the timber saddles sometimes fixed to the drum surface to
adjust the rope length. (This is not good practice.) Similar wear can also be
be caused by the rope slipping on the pulley during braking, etc.
Plastic deformation on a rope, either externally or internally, is usually the
result of high bearing pressures, against the drum, against other coils, or in
a pulley groove which is too small for the rope. A small ratio (drum to
rope), ungrooved steel-surfaced drum will provide only a small area of
contact for each coil of rope and could cause plastic deformation.
118
Wmding ropes
The values given in the following table are the minimum drum and
pulley/rope diameter ratios recommended for all winding ropes.
Table 7 Minimum drum and pulley/rope diameter ratios for winding ropes
Rope Size Ratio
Locked coil ropes less than 26 mm (1 in) 80
26--44 mm (1- H in) 100
more than 44 mm (H in) 120
Stranded ropes All sizes 80
Alternatively, the wear may be a combination of plastic deformation and
abrasion as a result of the rope bearing heavily against the flange of the
pulley, or against the next coil on the drum when the rope makes its largest
fleet angle with the pulley; this angle should not exceed H degrees (1 in 38).
A round strand rope which coils on top of itself in two layers on the drum
will tend to show plastic deformation, for there is only wire to wire contact,
of very little area, between a coil of rope in the top layer and coils in the
under layer. A triangular-strand rope or a locked coil rope has a greater
bearing surface and a change to such a rope may avoid further plastic
deformation. Such damage may also be caused by a pulley groove which is
the wrong size for the rope; the diameter of the groove should be not less
than 2! per cent greater than the rope diameter.
If a rope is subjected to corrosive conditions as well as wear, the rate of
deterioration will be increased. The external wear will continuously
remove the outer layer of corrosion products leaving fresh metal open. to
attack whilst corrosion will deepen further the nicks and grooves at contact
points between wires within the rope.
Corrosion
The most efficient method of preventing corrosion is, of course, to remove
all causes of corrosion, but that is not always feasible. However, leaking
pipes should not be allowed to blow steam on a rope, nor should water be
allowed to drip on a rope if it can be collected and led elsewhere. The
parking positions of the conveyances during idle periods should be
changed from time to time so as to prevent any one part of the rope length
being exposed to the most corrosive location for too long.
Ropes should be kept well lubricated at all times, as a defence against
corrosion, unless there is a sound reason against lubrication. For instance,
the outside of a friction-winding rope must not be permitted to become
119
 Ropeman's handbook
Winding ropes

greasy in case it slips on the driving sheave, but the Engineer may agree to Fatigue
different parts of the rope length being lubricated at differenttimes, using a
thin proprietary oil which will penetrate the rope to some extent and which Fatigue is one of the causes for the premature discard of winding ropes.
can be wiped off the exterior before winding is re-started. In general, only The onset of fatigue can be delayed if precautions are taken to avoid
rope lubricants should be used on ropes. Special lubricants exist which wmdm~ shocks, sharp bending of the rope around pulleys and drums of
contain additives to improve their usefulness (p 45), such as substances that msuflicient Size (p 118), loosening of the lay of the rope with consequent
help to prevent corrosion (rust inhibitors) and those that get the lubricant accentuatiOn of secondary bendmg and faults in rope design.
into direct contact with tbe wire surface even when the surface is wet (water
Severe rope oscillations, indicated by peaks on the decelerometer records
repellents). Rope manufacturers and oil companies will advise the colliery for that installation (Fig 61) cause increased stresses in the rope leading to
on the use of such lubricants. Every effort should be made to ensure that
broken Wires either throughout the workmg length or localised at the cape!
· the service dressings are compatible with tbe manufacturer's original
as a result of Sideways flexiOn. The mouth of a white metal socket or the
lubricant. narrow end of cape! wedges should always be smoothly radiused.
The best defence against corrosion is the nse of ropes of galvanised finish.
Even if there were no lubricant present, the zinc coating on the wires of
such ropes would protect the steel for many months under corrosive
conditions, but eventually tbe zinc would be corroded away. Unless there 0. 4
are sound reasons to the contrary (eg friction winders) galvanised ropes
should be kept well lubricated at all times. Under such conditions the zinc
coatings will protect the wires throughout the life of the rope except, 0.2
perhaps, on the rope exterior where tbe zinc may be removed by wear to an

~~- H I~ ~
extent which permits corrosion of the steel. The exterior, however, can
always be readily examined. 0
rvv '/-.~ :M. ' ..k.!.. ,.
VI
Nowadays, as a result of better lubrication and maintenance, together with "
the almost universal use of galvanised ropes, corrosion in windin·g ropes is -0.2
less of a problem than it was.
1 Second

Fig 60, which shows the number of winding rope breakages in all types of -0.4
c (a) Vert1cal accelerat1on
rope construction in tbe UK, illustrates the benefits of tbe improved .g
practices. ~
~u 0.4r----r----~----r----r----,-----,----r----,-----,----,
.\'

-0.21---1--1--t-----lrr-r---t---t____,.--t-~--+----i
1 Second

Year SMRE
-0.4'-----1-----'----'--:;:;-2:=--:=~....L:--..L-..L_l__J
(b) Horizontal acceleration SMRE
Figure 60. Winding rope breakages as a result of corrosion Figure 61.
1939-1976 inclusive Accelerometer re:_c?rds showing shocks due to irregular
ng1d guides
120
121
 Ropeman's handbook Winding ropes

If, at the beginning of a wind, the cage is accelerated smoothly, the ~ 0 ~

E > ell';:::: 0 0

resulting winding shocks will be small. If, however, slack rope or slack ~

::I' ..!. " .~

ID 0
~o
'Ui 0 ~ ID
~
til CD .0
chains are abruptly snatched tight, the load on the rope may be doubled for Ol)}l.:!::. .l:;::::l::c "Oro
0 ~
o.~
~ ID
~ "'""
ID~
.;om
~ 0 \!::·;:::I £0~ IV "5£ E8 ~

a moment and the cage will bounce or 'yo-yo' on the rope, causing further ~ 0 •.!::::: ro E 0 ~ m- 0 ~ ~
shocks; that is one reason why the rope length should be kept properly "0
ID
~
0 ~ > 0 ~:g~;£ -"m
~~
"0
rn ID c E-o
u ID .E:roo 0 u <t.l X ~ rn o~
--oo
adjusted. The use of keps results in the removal of all load from the rope, 0 E mEjB "--o-~ ID ID ~ ~ ".;::; c ·~ E
-c~VE';
~ ~
~~~ .... ~
only to be followed by the re-application of the load; it is such repeated and
large variations in load that cause fatigue. It is better if the load, or some of >
"0
""' "
-~
"0
~
'C
rn
u ~ 0
~·§'0
~ :g ~
c ..::.:: ::I ,_
~ g-o
tJ::,_E
0
IDC>
E 1:: ,_
!!! IV IV
-ou"'[j
o rn
0 u
:Ell'u
~
0 ~
:§:§e.E:~
..:!..:!~E~
the load, stays on the rope all the time. If a cage strikes and lifts heavy ID 0
.1!ro E ..Ci g: -co$Q ~VQ;E 0."0 +-'11'.:!200.

pit-head doors or gates, these impacts will virtually amount to collisions

E
~
"ii ::::~·- 0
,_ .Z. J; "(;;" §-gEIV§6c..~ "'~,_
.~ ~·==~~~~
causing further shock loadings which will probably lead to fatigue near the ID
E > .... -o(f.l<t.l'-
..::.::11'..::.::\VOCD
u-o u·- .... -c
e ~.~ g-·'8 ee{j'~
IV +-'"0 ,_::I Ol+-'00 C. ""0
rn ID
5-g.?:§£
~:;::: ~·.;::;.Q
:c ID
wcw:t::uc: u 00
,_1V.._ > o o.> -m-~o
capping. Badly aligned rigid guides may set up cage chatter and also cause ·;;;
~
"'rn
0
"§'~"§~ 1ii'?;
ro"-m<t.l't; mro.._
c_..:2c:~::::lc:=~IV c-0
E \!:: \!:: 0 ·;: $
wires to fail in fatigue near the capping (Figs 29 and 63). 0
-;; \!::~~08~10£
rn oog:;..oe
0.. ""u :E > ~ E E ::::1~ c.
~
·;;; 0 ~
0

"
Corrosion-fatigue
Corrosion-fatigue occurs in conditions which favour both corrosion and
fatigue. It is the most dangerous form of deterioration since there is no
•
,•"
-o·-
0
;!:::.~
~

~g'
"'
ID
"0
0 ~
rn o

~~
-~
rn
"'
rn
~
-"'
5
N
·;;;
0(/lui
o.>o
"' rn 0
E~:;;
rnrn"O
~ "'0
~
0
0
:E
"0
0
0
u
~ .?:'
~
"' c a. g "0

"' E
::::1 ~ ·- 0
lower limit of loading below which the rope wire is safe from such oo:O ~ ~ 0

deterioration. However, if corrosion can be eliminated, corrosion-fatigue "s;; rn o

~·~
~tl
u-"
~
~

~
e~ "~"'
m-.~
-"Ooo
rn
u
"'
E
X 0.
m1:: e :§
,•,_ "'
0.
=-0 ID 0
e
cannot occur and only the possibility of pure fatigue remains. Thus, the
first step is to eliminate corrosion by using galvanised ropes, by keeping the
2
~
~
rn
~
0."'
0 0
0:..::2
"'"·ro
C>O
.~
~"'
"' ,_
0
·;:
~ 0
>
0
e
o.rn~

~a. 8
rn "' o
~E~
-"'
j'l
rn
·;;
0
rope well lubricated at all times (unless there are sound reasons to the "'>
"'"' "'~
u ~ rn ~
ij 0.~ :f!OJ .0 - -rn"O
contrary) and, if possible, by the removal of the cause of corrosion. "'
:c ~..0 > 0 .cE
.~2
~~
rn oo m
(f.l . ' (f.l "0
"'
~
·;;; 11':2 ~U1i ~ 0 "' 00 0 rn >

;;
00
0
0..
o.o.
o
~
rn
~
0..0
e2
"" "0
-;;
o.~

:E
ClOO.
rn o x
u·.;::; m
0

-;;
00 "'
:E
Distortion
2
The likelihood of distortion will be reduced if the rope is kept tightly laid ii
," ~
0
~
oi'l
_o
~

""0,
~"'
up, if the pulley tread is within the correct limits for the rope (p 119), if the 0

fleet angle does not exceed H degrees and if the outer wires are not allowed 5 "'
xo
m o E
.0 ·-
~~o;
.!2
c. g: .~ '5
to become seized through lack of lubricant (NB The authority of the 8 -o'.P
0 ~
"00
m o
"' ~ ~.$.~
"0
ID
0
-"m
Engineer must be obtained before any attempt is made to lubricate a ~ rn o
c:·;: .!:2 C) § C5- c:
-~
~
"'o.
friction-winding rope, p 49). Waviness has little adverse effect on the .Q $
<Oo
u 0
o- .~
Orn"O
,_ E c
rn
u
.Q
e0
.c-0
~

breaking strength of a rope, but the decision to allow the rope to continue ·~~ - ro 23,$~ ~

in service or to be replaced should be taken in consultation with specialists "

D
:l.
o-
0..0 -ID
- Xo-
CD·~ Ul - -
(eg the rope manufacturers). The decision will be based on operating 0
-~
00
duties, the length and depth of the wave, the rate of development and its 1.' "0 ~ 0
0 0
position in the rope. Hernias and birdcages have a different effect from that ~
.0 in
of a wave on the strength of the rope and the rope should be removed. ~ .E
rn
"'E
rn
"Cl
Kinking can occur only while a rope is very slack and the only time a
winding rope is likely to become so slack is during installation, recapping,
>
>
0
D
.,
0
.0
~
0
·~
"sE x-
mrn
..:M "'
-.,
5
ID
"0
.u
u::
0
.2
e
00
cage suspension changes or cage changing. Thus kinking can usually be
avoided by preventing slack rope. '' ~
Cl
rn"'
~!;.
~
rn
0::
5
u

122 123
 Table 8 Winding ropes- (continued)
~
Position and extent Possible cause Possible remedy
Deterioration found
of deterioration
f
•
~·

improvements to guides or drum

ir
Numerous broken wires, (i) throughout rope a) excessive rope vibrations caused
all showing evidence by misaligned rigid guides or
of fatigue uneven drum surfaces, or t
b) too small a drum or pulley using rope of more flexible
diameter, or construction
c) excessive looseness in rope; consider using ropes of equal lay
secondary bending (p 22)
d) overloading of rope checl< loads

(ii) along two lines too small a pulley groove enlarge pulley groove diameter to at
least 2! per cent greater than rope
parallel to one
another and at diameter
about 140° round
rope circumference
from one another
(Fig 62)

a) frequency of winding cycle increase frequency of recapping until

(iii) at neck of capel
(Figs 29 and 63)
b) insufficient length of undisturbed
rope within mouth of socket
c) wires in brush not properly
cleaned, causing uneven
distribution of load
d) lack of penetration of white
metal; incorrect white metal,
capping temperature or type of
socket used
cause of broken wires can be found
and remedied
use correct capping procedures
wire brush always very thoroughly
degreased before being capped with
white metal
use correct capping procedures,
sockets to NCB Spec 465 and white
metal to BS 643 or NCB Spec 483

Table 8 Winding ropes- (continued)

Deterioration found Position and extent Possible cause I Possible remedy

of deterioration

(iii) continued e) mouth of socket or capel wedges check radius of these edges and inform
not smoothly radiused superior so that effective action may
be taken
f) excessive rope vibrations caused improvements to guides or drum
by misaligned rigid guides or
uneven drum surface

(iv} localised,outerwires dam8ge by falling object

only, martensite
possibly present

Corrosion-fatigue at any part conditions likely to cause fatigue removal of conditions I ikely to
together with those favouring at encourage corrosion and fatigue
least some degree of corrosion

Distortion (Figs 57, 64) (i) sometimes localised a) loss of useful internal lubricant, more frequent lubrication by more
(hernia), but often or penetrating lubricant
throughout length b) too large a fleet angle, or fleet angle should not exceed H
of rope (waviness} degrees
c) too small a pulley groove enlarge pulley groove diameter to at
least 2~ per cent greater than rope
diameter

(ii} localised; kink or occurrence of slack rop.e greater care in rope handling
permanent bend
~
~· "
Martensitic possibility localised, rubbing at speed against steel removal of the obstruction il
>--' obstruction
N embrittlement along one side - 5!
V>
Ropeman 's handbook
Figure62. Fatigue cracks (within circles) along.oneside of a locked coil rope
Front and rear views showing broken outer wires where rope was in contact
with corners of wedges. Position of wedges indicated by broken line.
Figure 63. Fatigue at a wedge capping
Martensitic embrittlement
Impact on a moving rope can produce a martensitic surface on the wires
with subsequent wire breakage (see p 96). It is important, therefore, to
ensure that close to the rope path there are no steel girders or other
obstructions which the rope might contact as it oscillates during a wind.
126
Winding ropes
(a) Localised (hernia}
(b) Waviness throughout long length of rope SMRE
Figure 64. Distortion in locked coil ropes
Maintenance of winding ropes
All winding ropes need to be carefully maintained. The statistics given
in Fig 60 reflect the improvement in the condition of winding ropes
resulting from their increased care and maintenance. The figures show that
only one winding rope broke during the period 1958-76 whereas
twenty-nine broke during the previous nineteen years (1939-57 mclusiVe ).
Methods of cleaning and lubricating drum-winding ropes and, where
practicable, friction-winding ropes are given in Chapter 3.
Life of winding ropes
Drum-operated winding ropes have a maximum statutory life of 3! years
(Reg 17(2) of the Shafts, Outlets and Roads Regulations, 1960)._ This
period, however, may sometimes be extended by the Inspectorate m the
case of light-duty winding ropes. The decision is based on an examination
of the whole rope by an Inspector and on the results of SMRE tests on a
recapping sample sent to them at the request of the Inspector.
127
Ropeman 's handbook

Friction winding ropes are covered by special regulations and are at Chapter 8
present limited to a maximum statutory life of two years (Special
Regulations for Friction Winding).
The premature discard of winding ropes as a result of different types of
deterioration is discussed in Chapter 6 and summarised in Appendix 2.
Balance ropes

Selection of balance ropes

Balance or tail ropes are employed to balance the weight of the winding
ropes on each side of the drum or of the rope on each side of the
friction-winding sheave. Each end of the balance rope is attached to the
bottom of one of the two conveyances and,, consequently, the rope hangs in
the form of a U-shaped loop which must bend sufficiently sharply to fit
within the distance between the centres of the two conveyances. (The ratio
of distance between conveyance centres to rope diameter should normally
be not less than 25: 1.) Thus, a flexible rope is required, and usually one
that has a similar weight per metre to the winding rope it has to balance. If
it is to work on a friction-winding installation, its breaking strength must be
at least six times its total suspended weight; this is also recommended for
balance ropes on drum-winding installations. Further, it should be a
non-rotating rope so as to reduce the danger of the loop in the sump
becoming twisted or snarled. The two types of rope that combine
non-rotating properties with flexibility are the multi-strand rope and the
flat rope (seep 16-17). The multi-strand rope is widely used. The flat rope
has the advantage that it can be bent even more sharply and it is also easier
to examine because a high percentage of the wire surface is visible. It is,
·however, more vulnerable to corrosion attack than an equivalent round
rope and for this reason flat balance ropes are becoming obsolete. As
balance ropes often operate in corrosive conditions they are normally
made from galvanised wire.

Installation and operation of balance ropes

As when installing winding ropes, it is desirable that the Engineer should
draw up a definite plan for each shaft, giving the step-by-step procedure to
be followed and the safety precautions to be taken by everyone involved.
The same care must be taken to ensure that the rope does not go slack as it
is led off the reel and that both ends of the rope remain securely served until
they have been properly capped and fitted to the conveyances.
Multi-strand ropes are often attached to the cage through a swivel (Fig65)
to further reduce the danger of the rope twisting and forming a snarl at the
loop. In any case, some positive means of preventing the loop from twisting

128 129
Ropeman 's handbook
Balance ropes

around itself should be adopted. Four systems give satisfactory service.

o The baulk system where a timber baulk is threaded through the loop and Open boarded box
is designed to break orlift if the rope loop lifts too far. The positioning of
the baulk should allow for the loop to rise and fall during normal
operations and also permit the necessary maintenance operations to be
carried out without the need to disconnect the balance rope.
o The open box' system (Fig 66) in which the loop of a balance rope is
surrounded by a retaining box of timbers (steel g1rders would damage
the wires). If twin balance ropes are used, a partitionis usually fitted to
I A

separate the two loops. These timbers should not rnterfere with the
movement of the rope any more than is necessary, for, although the
striking of a rope against timber causes only light wear or polishing on Monitor
the outside of the rope it can cause heavy internal wear in the form of
nicking between the strands (the strands being driven hard together at
each impact). (
A

----Conveyance members

SECTION A-A
/

.f'.... ~I
Mo. nitor-._
.
+-
i· i
--.-::ob-1---tiAngle should not
J:::.... .1 exceed26'

lockable swivel I
Conveyance CRS

Figure 66. Open box system of balance rope control

o The restricting frame system is an alternative to the open box and consists
of a number of suitably spaced substantial timber frames adequately
braced together and controlling the ropes above the loop.
D The guide hole system which controls each leg of the rope rather than the
loop itself. In this case, a timber-lined slot is used to control the two sides
of the rope and prevent twisting or, alternatively, holes are cut in the
Figure 65: Typical enclosed type balance rope swivel sump platforms to control the rope in all directions. The slots or holes
130 131
Ropeman 's handbook Balance ropes

should be lined with chamfered timbers to allow for both directions of Suspension
or stirrup
rope travel. They should be large enough to prevent localised wear on
the rope and to preclude the wedging of fallen debris which might
obstruct the passage of the rope. captivated
Clamp with retaining pin
Rising loop protection in the form of a monitoring device passing through chamfered
inside edges
the rope loop should" also be provided. Types of monitor which have
proved to be effective include: Thimble or
bobbin
- a hinged tubular lever; and
- a trip wire protected from falling debris by a light structural beam or tube
free to lift or hinge out of the path of the lifting rope (Fig 66).
The monitor is connected to a warning device or to the winding engine
safety circuit and operates if the rope loop contacts the lever or trip wire.
The position of the monitor is determined by observation, test and Two- orfour-
c\amps
experience.
Build-up of debris, water or other obstructions should not be allowed to
come into contact with the balance rope. Where rates of spillage may be
high (egskip shafts) mechanised means to remove the spillage are provided
in many cases.

Capping of balance ropes

Nowadays, balance ropes are often supplied pre-stretched and cut and
capped to the correct length by the manufacturers. The two types of
terminal fitting generally used for capping balance ropes are:
- white metal cappings for round ropes; and
- thimbles and clamps for round or flat ropes.
The method of fitting white metal cappings is the same as that used for
winding ropes and is described in Chapter 4.
Thimble and clamp terminal fastenings for balance ropes
Balance ropes may be attached to the cage or skip by means of a specially
formed pear shaped bobbin or thimble. The free end of the rope is bent
around the thimble, then laid back along the working rope and adequately
secured by a specified number of two- or four-bolt clamps.
The whole assembly is then suspended beneath the cage or skip by
purpose-designed suspension links or solid stirrup arrangements. The
bobbin or thimble is retained within the suspension links or stirrups by a
captivated retaining pin. Fig 67 shows the arrangement for a flat balance
rope.
Figure 67. Typical terminal fastening for flat balance rope
Examination of balance ropes
It is important that balance ropes are examined regularly. Apart from the
daily examination,_ British Regulations do not require balance ropes to be
exammed m deta!l every 30 days, as specified for winding ropes, but
mamtenance procedures should include provision for the periodic
thorough examination of balance ropes. Proper access and adequate
lightmg are necessary so that the examinations can be carried out safely
and effectively. Where the onsetter can, from his normal working position,
observe the balance rope, he should be encouraged to do so in order that
any unusual movement may be noted and the cause investigated before
damage occurs.

132 133
Ropeman 's handbook Balance ropes

Types of deterioration affecting balance ropes

Table 9 lists the main types of deterioration found in balance ropes and
these are discussed below.

Corrosion

The most common form of deterioration in balance ropes is corrosion.

When inspecting a multi-strand balance rope, the examiner should look for
evidence of external corrosion entering the rope between the strands and
for looseness of the outer strands that would occur when corrosion
between the layers of strands became advanced.

Wear
Internal wear in a balance rope will be heavy if it strikes any shaft fittings,
even timber, too often and too violently. It should not be assumed that c.
there is no internal wear merely because the only evidence of external wear 0
.2
or pressure is light polishing of the rope surface. Striking of a rope against
timber may give only light polishing on the rope exterior but deep nicking 1i
tl 2
in the rope interior. Fig 68 shows a multi-strand balance rope in which all
the inner strands failed in fatigue at a slight permanent bend which showed
"0
:0

"'
-~
~
£
""'ro
E
ro
"0

(b) External wear on outer strand at outside of bend at B

""'c.0
c:
1lc
.!!!
(c) Inner wires showing typical fatigue fractures
"'
Ill
c
0

Figure 68. Partial breakage of balance rope, in fatigue, following external

"'"
J5
·;;;
2
wear ~ 8
134 135
Ropeman 's handbook
only mild external wearresnltingfrom the bend repeatedly striking timbers
in the shaft. Should it be necessary, the rope manufacturer may examine
the interior of the rope by twisting it between two suitable clamps to expose
the interior. The ropeman should watch for any localised reduction in
diameter and, if possible, check the behaviour of the loop during winding.
In flat ropes, wear and breakage of the stitching strands is fairly common;
this leads to individual ropelets becoming detached and calls for
re-stitching of the affected length.
(a) Damaged outer wires, front and back views
(b) Intermediate strands
SMRE
(c) Inner strands
Figure 69. Fatigue breaks in inner strands of balance rope as a result of
external damage
136
Balance ropes
Damage and distortion
Occasionally, a balance rope may be damaged by an object falling down
the shaft and striking the rope sufficiently hard to displace some of its outer
strands. Although the external damage may appear relatively slight,
fatigue breaks are likely to develop in the inner wires as a result of the
increased secondary bending that will take place. Fig 69 shows one such
example four months after being damaged. A damaged balance rope
should be regularly and very carefully examined so that any further
deterioration, if it occurs, can be detected and appropriate action taken.
If spillage in the sump is allowed to build up to reach the balance rope, the
loop will become displaced; it may then eventually form itself into a large
knot and fail under holdfast conditions (Fig 70). Methods of controlling
spillage and of monitoring any unusual rise in the balance rope loop have
been discussed earlier in this chapter.
Figure 70. Knotted balance rope, the result
of spillage in the sump
Maintenance of balance ropes
Some advice on the care and lubrication of balance ropes is given
in Chapter 3 and further information may be obtained from the
manufacturers. It is most important that balance ropes should be kept well
lubricated since moisture can penetrate the sharp bend at the lowest part
of the rope in the sump, thus encouraging the start of internal corrosion.
As with spillage, in all winding installations water in the sump must not be
allowed to rise to the level of the balance rope. Care should also be taken
to check and counteract any localised drying effect of shaft heaters on the
rope lubricant.
137
Ropeman 's handbook
When to discard a balance rope
The breakage of a balance rope could have serious conseq~ences. The part
in the rope length most likely to be weakened by detenoration IS at the loop
under one or other conveyance when that conveyance is at pit bottom. The
most likely time of breakage, however, is when that conveyance is at, or
near bank level when the most weakened part of the rope has to support
the ~eatest length of rope. Should the balance rope break under these
circumstances it would fall on the lower cage. Also, breakage of the rope
would throw the winding system out of balance and might lead to an
over-wind or to slip on the driving sheave in the case of fnction-wmdmg.
Although balance ropes are virtually out of sight they should never be
regarded as out of mind as they are an important part of the wmdmg
system.
The limits of deterioration· permissible in balance ropes before discard
becomes essential are the same as for other ropes and are summarised in
Appendix 2. However, friction-winder balance ropes_ must be discarded
after three years' service, even if they are apparently still m good condition
(Special Regulations for Friction Winding).
138
Chapter 9
Guide and rubbing ropes
Selection of guide and rubbing ropes
The Regulations require that rope or rigid guides be used to guide the
conveyances in shafts which are more than 45 m (150ft) deep. Since guide
and rubbing ropes are stationary ropes hanging in the shaft and not
bending round pulleys they do not have to be as flexible as other ropes.
Therefore they are made of large wires to withstand the wear of
conveyance shoes or slippers. Rubbing ropes hang between the con-
veyances to prevent the conveyances from colliding; they are also made of
large wires to withstand rubbing and nipping between the conveyances.
Nowadays guide and rubbing ropes are of half-locked coil construction
since this gives a smooth rope surface, increased strength and excellent
locking properties. Round rod guides are becoming obsolete.
Guide and rubbing ropes are normally at least 32 mm (H in) in diameter.
The rope size will depend on such factors as the depth of the shaft, the
applied tension and the safety factor selected by the Engineer. The tension
is usually of the order of 1000 kgf (1 tonf) for every 100 metres of depth,
and the safety factor not less than five when the rope is new. The tensions
on each rope in the shaft should vary slightly, between about 10 per cent
above and below the average, so that the ropes in the system will not all
sway or oscillate w~th the same frequency.
Guide and rubbing rope constructions should be in accordance with NCB
Specification 388/1970. Galvanised ropes should be used when the
conditions are at all corrosive; even if the zinc coating is removed from the
rope exterior by wear, it will remain in the interior to resist internal
corrosion. Only ropes designed for the purpose should be used. Old
winding ropes are quite unsuitable and may be dangerous; their small outer
wires could rapidly become worn through and the broken wire ends foul
the conveyance.
Installation and attachment of guide and rubbing ropes
As when installing other shaft ropes, it is desirable that the Engineer
should draw up a carefully planned procedure to be followed and indicate
the safety precautions to be taken by everyone involved. The method
adopted should pay particular attention to the following points:
139
Ropeman's handbook
Guide and rubbing ropes

c The rope should be constrained from sudden twisting movements as
much as possible.
c Men should be carefully positioned to ensure that they will not be
endangered should the rope move unexpectedly.
o Acute bending should be avoided, for these ropes are constructed of
large wear-resisting wires. A permanent bend in a rope is liable to suffer
rapid and concentrated wear (p 159).
o The rope should be installed in a smooth, controlled manner to prevent
shock loading.
Normally the rope is attached in the headframe by means of a white metal
capping or wedge-type suspension gland. These attachments are normally
above the supporting structure where there is usually adequate space for
lifting, rotating and recapping the ropes. The white metal cappings should
be fitted according to the instructions given in Chapter 4. Wedge
suspension glands should be fitted in the following manner.
o Grease the BACKS, NOT the GROOVES, of the wedges before placing them
in position around the rope. Also, lightly grease the recess in the gland
case into which the wedges fit, using only approved greases. DO NOT use
tallow, graphite grease or any grease containing molybdenum disul-
phide,
o Insert the wedges and drive them firmly in to ensure that they are down
on the rope and starting to grip and that they are level and tight. To
prevent burring, a suitably shaped brass or copper set should be used in
conjunction with the hammer and care should be taken not to damage
the rope when driving in the wedges. When fitted correctly, the tops of
the wedges should be approximately H to 2 times the rope diameter
above the top of the gland case.
Tell-tale clamp

Before assembling the gland, the following points should be checked.

o Measure accurately the diameter of the rope at the point of suspension to
determine the maximum and minimum diameters. No gland should be
fitted to a rope which is outside the tolerances (for locked coil guide and
rubbing ropes ±0.75 mm (0.03 in) of the diameter stamped on the Final position of wedges
(1~to2timesrope -
--{~~;::
wedges). diameter above top of
o Check that the safe working load (SWL) stamped on the gland is not less gland case)

than the static load that will be imposed on the rope.

o Check that the assembly numbers stamped on the wedges and the gland
case are the same. Gland cases should be fitted only with wedges bearing Dowel holes
the same number.

Assembling the gland

Guide or rubbing rope
Projecting lug
o Clean the gland case and wedges to remove any protective grease or
paint. Remove any traces of rust from the backs of the wedges, the
grooves and the recess in the gland case using EMERY CLOTH ONLY. Support channels
Remove any burrs on the wedges or gland case recess caused in
handling, storage or transit. If left, they may interfere with the
movement of the wedges.
o Thoroughly clean the grease from that part of the rope to which the
gland has to be attached and ensure that this part of the rope is straight,
clean and dry.
0 Bolt the gland case round the rope at the required position. With all
types of suspension gland the JOINT of the casing must be SUPPORTED
ACROSS THE GIRDERS (ie the joint shouHbe at right angles to the girders-
Figure 71. Assembly of a spherically-seated wedge
see Fig 71). suspension gland

140 141
Ropeman 's handbook Guide and rubbing ropes

o The two-bolt clamps should then be fitted (NoT four-bolt clamps, which at least 10 or, for any axially loaded threaded portions present, 15, and
are less efficient). They must be the correct size for the rope and should their service life should be limited to 20 years. Since these weights and rods
be bolted on the rope in contact with and at 90 degrees to one another hang in a corrosive environment they must be very liberally- greased,
and with the bottom clamp in contact with the tops of the wedges. The especially between each weight. It is also helpful to use spacers between
clamp bolts, after cleaning and lightly greasing, should be tightened to the weights. If this is r.ot done, there is a danger of rust building up between
the torque shown in Table 10. the weights and, in time, this can bend or even break the rod.
In some cases, usually where there is some limitation on the space available
Table 10 in the sump, the rope is fixed to a girder at one end and tensioned by means
of a spring in the headframe or shaft bottom. Such spring tensioners need
Rope Bolt size Tightening torque Load carrying
diameter
to be regularly checked and adjusted if necessary, otherwise the ropes
capacity
per clamp could be too slack in hot weather and too tight in cold weather.
16--44 mm M 20 150 Nm (110 lbf ft) 1 tonne

45-64mm M 30 450 Nm (330 lbf ft) 2 tonnes

The number of contact clamps to be used is derived from the table and is
determined by the total load 10 be manoeuvred or supported. In addition
to the required number of contact clamps a marker or tell-tale clamp
should be fitted approximately 25 mm from the top contact clamp. This
space will act as an mdiCator should any rope slip occur. Fig 71 shows a
completed wedge suspension gland assembly.

Dismantling a gland
D Make sure the suspended load (ie weight and rope) is properly secure
and that slack rope is evident beneath the gland before attempting to
release It.
o Remove the two-bolt clamps.
o Raise the gland approximately 75 mm (3 in) above the supporting
structure.
o Loosen the gland case bolts.
o Strike the gland ca~e downwards with a sharp blow but avoid striking the
wedges or rope. This will release the wedges in the gland case.
o Remove the wedges.
o Remove the bolts from the gland case, split the case and set it aside. If
the gland is to be stored all parts should be thoroughly protected with a
rust preventative grease.
The ropes are positioned correctly at the top and bottom of the shaft but
otherwise, are normally allowed to hang freely. Each rope is tensioned'
usual!~ by attaching cheese-weights of the required value. These hang
freely m the sump and are carried on weight-rods attached to the rope by Figure 72. Typical sleeve for guide rope
smtable glands or clamps. The factor of safety of the weight rods should be at sump board

142 143
Ropeman 's handbook Guide and rubbing ropes

Whatever type of fixing or tensioning is employed, the suspended rope The rope wires should then be inspected to ascertain the degree and
should lead straight out, without any bend, from the cappings or end fixings position of any wear, corrosion, etc. After examination, each cleaned part
otherwise fatigue may be induced as the bend is repeatedly increased and should be carefully relubricated.
diminished by movement caused by the passage of the cage. A suitable
Records of the results of all examinations should be kept, as for other types
form of suspension gland for use in the headframe is one that incorporates
of rope, including the measurements of rope diameter at various positions
a spherical seating or cup-and-saucer type base (Fig 71). Provided such a in the rope length.
seating is well lubricated during installation it will permit the capping to
align itself with the rope and will also facilitate the regular turning of the
rope to ensure that wear does not become concentrated along one side.
When the rope passes through a hole in sump boards or any other confined
space a sleeve, packed with grease, should be fitted to prevent localised
wear and corrosion (Fig 72).
Examination of guide and rubbing ropes
In addition to the daily examination, guide and rubbing ropes should be (a) Appearance of sample as received and before cleaning
examined more thoroughly periodically to check their general condition
and the extent of wear and corrosion. The ropes should be examined
throughout the shaft and at all positions most liable to deterioration,
including those sections above the top landing and below the bottom
landing. At each position of examination, the rope should be thoroughly
cleaned with a wire brush to remove any dirt, corrosion scale or dried
lubricant and expose the wires so that their true condition can be seen
(Fig 73). (b) Sample after cleaning
The parts of guide and rubbing ropes particularly liable to deterioration,
which should be examined on each occasion, include:
o the cappings or end fixings (for evidence of slip or movement);
(c) Cross-section of corroded rope
o the parts leaving the cappings or end fixings (for broken wires);
o parts passing through the holes in sump boards or other confined spaces
(for localised corrosion);
o any parts showing slight deformation such as a permanent bend (for Figure 73. Corroded guide rope
localised wear);
o parts opposite the fan drift of an upcast shaft where the cage may be
drawn over to the fan drift by the air current causing one-sided wear on
the side of the rope away from the fan drift (Fig 74);
o the conveyance meetings (where maximum restriction of air takes
place); (Particular attention should be given to ruboingropes which may
become flattened in this area.)
o at positions corresponding to entry to or exit from receivers;
o at intermediate insets.
At each position of examination and after thorough cleaning, the rope Figure 74. Cross section of half-locked guide
diameter should be carefully measured in two directions at right angles to rope showing the effect of
one another. one-sided wear

144 145
 Guide and rubbing ropes
Ropeman's handbook

Types of deterioration affecting guide and rubbing ropes

The main types of deterioration affecting guide and rubbing ropes are
listed in Table 11.

Wear
Since one-sided wear affects all the wires (because of the rope construc-
tion), tbe actual loss in rope strength may be far greater than might be
expected. The use of brass or phosphor-bronze cage shoes helps to
minimise such wear and rotating the rope at intervals helps to equalise it
round the rope circumference. Lifting the ropes at intervals helps to
change the positions of localised wear and fatigue.

Corrosion
If corrosion (Fig 73) throughout the length of the rope is a problem more
frequent lubrication or a different type of lubricant may cure the trouble.
Any shaft water, even if not particularly corrosive, should be diverted
away from the ropes. A watch should always be kept for localised
corrosion, even on ropes which are otherwise little affected by it. Localised
corrosion may occur in confined spaces such as the holes where the rope
passes through the sump boards or at parts where the lubricant is dried
by the effect of shaft heaters and more frequent lubrication should be given
to these parts.

Maintenance of guide and rubbing ropes

Being stationary ropes and constructed of large wires, guide and rubbing
ropes usually give little trouble. Nevertheless, they must be adequately
maintained.
Both guide and rubbing ropes may deteriorate in fatigue where they leave
the headframe cappings or fixings. Thus, the position of the capping or
fixing should be moved along the rope from time to time. It is better to lift
the rope rather tban to lower it, thereby getting rid of any fatigued part
- - near tbe top of the rope, and it is recommended practice to lift it through a
minimum distance of H times the length of the headframe capping at
intervals of not more than five years. This will also help to spread any
effects of localised wear.
Cheeseweights in the sump should be inspected regularly to ensure that
corrosion products are not building up to an unacceptable amount and that
tbe weights are not being fouled by accumulated spillage. Water should not
be allowed to collect round the weights since buoyancy effects would
reduce the rope tension.

146 147
Ropeman 's handbook
In order to facilitate maintenance it is important that there should be
adequate and safe access to the ropes at both the top and bottom of the
shafts.
When to discard a guide or rubbing rope
As with other ropes, a guide or rubbing rope should be discarded when the
outer wires have lost one-third (about 33 per cent) of their depth by wear or
corrosion or both, or when the rope appears to be no longer in a safe
condition for any reason such as the appearance of broken wires. There is
no legal or statutory limit to the length of life of these ropes but it is
accepted practice that they should not remain in service for more than
20 years, even if their condition still appears to be satisfactory. In many
shafts much shorter lives are obtained.
148
Chapter 10
Haulage ropes
Choice of haulage rope
As with winding ropes, the main factors to be considered in choosina a
haulage rope are: rope and strand construction, type and direction of lay, "'
tensile grade of steel, surface finish and size of rope. However, the choice is
simplified since only two rope constructions (round strand and triangular
strand) are normally employed in haulage and only two tensile grades 160
(160 to 189 kgf/mm2 ) and 180 (180 to 219 kgf/mm 2), are available u~der
BS 330:1968 and NCB specifications for haulage ropes (see Bibliography).
The most important item is, therefore, the selection of a rope size which
will give the breaking strength necessary to deal with the maximum
working tension (or pull) in the rope and, at the same time, allow a
satisfactory safety factor (p 104). The ropeman will not be called upon to
calculate the breaking strength required but he might find it useful to know
how it is determined (see Appendix I).
In deciding between the use of a round strand or triangular strand rope, it
should be borne m mmd that the latter type has the larger wearing surface,
an Imj:>Ortant pomt m haulage. If the road is at all wet, or if it has been
consolidated by spreading chemicals such as calcium chloride then a
galvanised rope should be used. '
Installation of haulage ropes
The same care and precautions should be taken when installina a haulaae
"'
rope as when dealing with a winding rope (p 106). If the rope is supplied "'
on
a reel then rt should be paid out by revolving the reeL If it is supplied in the
forrn of a coil, then it should be paid out by revolving the coil (p 27). The
rope should never be pulled out sideways from a stationary coil for that
would kink it. '
Capping of haulage ropes
The types of capping used for winding ropes are not, in general, practical
for haulage ropes.
149
Ropeman 's handbook
White metal cappings
Since a flame cannot normally be employed underground to melt the white
metal and since it is not usually satisfactory to melt the metal at the surface
and convey it underground in an insulated container, the white-metal
capping is normally used only on haulage ropes that can be capped on the
surface, as in drift mines. When it can be used this type of capping is
satisfactory and the capping procedure in such cases is the same as for
winding ropes (Chapter 4).
Wedge-type cappings
These cappings are normally unsuitable for haulage ropes as their size and
weight would be excessive and the method of use may cause slackening of
the bands.
lnserted cone-and-tail cappings
The inserted cone-and-tail type capping is suitable hr haulage, and works
on the principle of inserting a pre-cast zinc cone into the rope end, between
the six strands, so as to form a conical enlargement at the rope end which
can be held in a conical socket. It is speedy to fit, and has been proved to be
reliable provided that three main points in design are followed:
o The cone must have six grooves equally spaced around its surface, to
take the rope strands, the depth of the grooves being about half the
diameter of a strand (see Fig 32a).
(If the cone were smooth instead of being grooved, the rope strands
would bunch together on one side instead of being equally spaced
around the cone. This would give rise to unequal loading oi the strands
and, perhaps, to fatigue in the wires of the most heavily loaded strands.)
o The cone must have a tail strand of wires of the required length
protruding from its narrow end, to hold it in place in the rope.
(This tail strand is laid up into the heart of the rope in place of the fibre
core, which is cut out for the required length. If there were no such tail
strand to anchor the cone in the rope, the conemightworkits way out of
the rope during service.)
o The grooved cones must be made of zinc (ie Zn3 or Zn4 of BS
3436:1961); white metal is too soft for these cones.
(Although white metal is excellent for the white-metal type of capping,
in which each wire is embedded inthe metal, itis not sufficiently hard for
use in inserted cones of the grooved type. The concentrated pressure of
each strand against the bottom of its groove is so great that the strand
might become completely buried in the groove and thus escape being
securely wedged and held between the cone and the inside of the socket.
150
Haulage ropes
Zinc, on t!'e other hand, has been proved to be suitable; at loads up to
the breakmg strength of the rope the strands do not become buried in
their grooves.)
Thus, for the inserted-cone types of capping to be thoroughly reliable, the
cone must be of zmc, 1t must be grooved and have a tail strand at least 0.7 m
(27 in) long.
The method of making such a capping is described in Chapter 4. The most
important pomts to remember when making such cappings are:
D Only new zinc cone and tail units should be used. Never re-use an old
cone and tail unit.
D The cone must never be hammered in an attempt to drive it firmly into
the socket. Such hammer blows could severely distort the zinc cone and
prevent it from pulling properly into the socket and gripping all the ~ope
strands evenly. The cone-and-tail unit should be drawn into the socket
only by applying a load equal, if possible, to the working load.
D After the capping has been fitted and the socket pulled into place under
load, a final coarse serving must be applied to the rope at the mouth of
the socket. This serving is designed to prevent the socket becoming slack
on the cappmg whenever the rope end is disconnected during use. This
final coarse serving is essential to prevent the socket moving back along
the rope when the load is released.
Cone-and-tail units to NCB Specification 353/1966 can be obtained from
one of the larger firms of ropemakers. The correct size of cone for the rope
must, of course, be used and the socket must match the cone in dimensions
and taper.
Somewhat similar cone-and-tail units are made to suit the size and tapers of
sockets to NCB Specification 461/1965 (BS 463:1958- Sockets for general
engmeenng purposes), and these can be used for haulage with their correct
type and size of socket when the Engineer so decides. Great care must be
taken to avoid the intermixing of components. The sockets and cones of
both types are marked with the rope size and sockets to NCB Specification
353 are also stamped w1th the letters NCB. Cones to NCB Specification 353
are coated w1th translucent blue lacquer on their large ends; those to NCB
Spec1ficatwn 461 (BS 463) are coated with translucent red lacquer.
Recapping of haulage ropes
Regulation 65 of the Shafts, Outlets and Roads Regulations, 1960,
reqmres that every haulage rope fitted with a capping (ie ropes other than
end!ess ropes) must be recapped at intervals not exceeding six months. In
addJtton, accordmg to Regulation 67, if the rope is used for transporting
151
Ropeman 's handbook
men at least six feet of rope must be cut off in each six-month period and
thos~ lengths must be opened up and examined in the same way as for
winding ropes.
When recapping, the complete old assembly should be removed and a
replacement socket fitted. Zinc cone-and-tail units must not be re-used. A
new cone-and-tail should be used on each occas10n.
The procedure during recapping is similar to that for capping but points to
remember when dismantling the old cappmg are:
o In white metal cappings, the socket must not be heated above the socket
pre-heating temperature permitted during cappmg (p 57).
o Sockets must not be hammered to release t~e cone. Hamll?er ~lows on
the socket could so distort the basketthat a zmc cone-and-tail umt would
be unable to slide properly into the basket and grip the rope strands
securely. The cone can be driven out by striking the cut end of the rope
with a suitable drift or punch.
Examination of haulage ropes
The legislation covering the examinatio~ of haulage ropes us~d ~or
carrying men through unwalkable outlets IS the same as that for wmdmg
ropes, and is included in the same regulat10ns (see Bibhograph~)- All
man-riding haulage ropes should be treated m the same way as wmdmg
ropes as reaards maintenance and exammat10n. Thts does not mean that
other rope~ used for the haulage of mineral or supplies should be
neglected. Thus, the three forms of examination employed for winding
ropes (examination of recapping samples, the daily exammat10n of the
rope and the special examination of the rope) should be employed also fo.r
haul~ge ropes where they are applicable.
Examination of recapping samples
The examination of recapping samples is exactly the same as for winding
ropes (p 116).
External examination
The rope can be examined visually, in good lig~t, w~ile it is runnin$ slowly;
particular attention should be paid to any splices m the rope. Kmks and
permanent bends in direct haulage ropes are most readily noticed by
looking along the rope, especially when It IS unloaded. Cappmgs shouldbe
included in the examination, to check that they are not drawmg or pullmg
out of their sockets; inserted cone-and-tail cappings should be checked to
confirm that the final coarse serving (p 69) is present and m Its correct
position hard against the mouth of the socket.
152
Haulage ropes
Special examination
The special examination should be carried out as nearly as possible in the
same way as for wmdmg ropes (p 114). The examiner should clean
m~asure, and ex.ami~e the rope at points along its length, looking fo;
evidence of d~tenoratwn by wear, corrosion, fatigue, corrosion-fatigue, or
surface embnttlement. He should also look for damage, deformation
(kmks and bends) and localized deterioration at such places as the tucks in
any splices. It IS a sound idea for the ropeman to have available a short
S]Jecimen of the rope in new condition, so that he can compare his rope
With that specimen. All such specimens should carry a securely-attached
label glV!ng the full recogmt10n details of the rope from which it was cut.
The roadway should also be examined regularly and frequently for
evidence of the rope havmg fouled obstructions, for seizure of pulleys on
the floor, roof, or wall, and for other faults that need correction.
Safety ropes, as employed with haulage systems, should not be overlooked
merely because they do not normally do any work. Their cappings or end
attachments should be checked, and note taken of any tendency for the
rol'es to be damaged by revolving axles. The rope clamps on man-riding
trams should be checked for tightness using a torque wrench at the
recommended setting.
Keeping records
Keepin¥ proper records of haulage rope examination is as important as
With wmdmg ropes; mdeed these records can often lead to greater
Improvements m the case of haulage, for the working conditions are
seldom as good as in winding.
Apart from making informative entries in the required records, the
ropeman should keep for hiS own use, a separate notebook for each rope,
the t1tle on the cover of the notebook showing which rope it refers to. In
this notebook he can record all details of rope construction, size, lay etc,
and the results of all examinations of the rope and of any recapping
samples. In the case of endless ropes he can note the dates on which new
lengths were spliced in, and any recognition details of the splices which will
help him to locate them in future, and thus arrange for regular replacement
of the older parts of the rope. A helpful method of locating and identifying
splices 1s to pamt them m different colours. To do this, the spliced length
should be cleaned, painted and regreased when the paint is dry. Repaint as
necessary. Although the paint will quickly wear off the strand crowns it will
remain visible in the valleys between the strands for some considerable
time. The ropeman can note in his book any improvements in working
153
 Haulage ropes
Ropeman 's handbook

conditions that he considers necessary, so that he can check later that they
have been carried out and record the results obtained. Such notes, for
example, might read as follows:
>
'Daily examination~ 1.7.75
Rope in good condition except at 7 m from cape!. Bad kink here, with severe wear ~
and two broken wires. Length of 10m cut off and opened up. Dry inside but in good "ro
condition apart from wear at kink, where most wires almost worn through. Rope
e
watched while working. Slack rope paid out by engine before empty tubs pushed
over brow 7 m from engine. Probably slack rope became kinked on one occasion.
Showed engineman and haulage hands the thinned wires at the kink and they
agreed to take care in future. Rope recapped to remove kink.'
This would be an example of an enlightened examination and action taken,
as distinct from a routine one, and is an example of a useful record.
An entry in another of the ropeman's notebooks might read:
'Special examination, 3.9. 75
Smallest diameter 26 mm. Lay 190 rom. Outside well lubricated and brigbt. Wear
moderate except near mid-length where it was somewhat heavier and brightly
polished. Many broken outer wires here, up to ten in 0.5 m lengths. Most broken
ends had been knocked off, but some remained and were cut out for examination.
All had many fine cracks across the worn crowns. ie martensitic embrittlement.
Rope grinding against something. Road examined while rope running. Rope
cutting into displaced arch leg. Wall pulley fitted until arch can be reset. Rope
reported unsafe and replaced. Bad part opened up and examined. In good order
inside, but all outer wires very brittle at worn crowns and nowhere else. Informed
under-manager who has deployed men to set back the arch leg.'
This is a much more useful record than merely repeating the entry 'rope in
good order' until the rope breaks; for it has resulted in a dangerous rope
being replaced and in the cause of the trouble being rectified. No more can
be asked of the expert ropeman except, perhaps, that he should note and
rectify the trouble before the rope is ruined. However, in some cases the
ropeman responsible for haulage ropes has to divide his time between
ropes and other general duties. If he finds that those other duties tend to
interfere with the regular examination and maintenance of the ropes and 00
their roadways, he should inform the Engineer accordingly. "c. _
e
"~
~
.c
Types of deterioration affecting haulage ropes 0

Table 12 lists the main types of deterioration found in haulage ropes and "mc
N
these are discussed below. Haulage ropes are particularly susceptible to ""c
corrosion and to the various forms of wear and damage. The types of ID 0
l" ID
deterioration can be recognised by the same signs as in other ropes and the CIJ .::
U:l:
means of avoiding them are basically the same.
155
154
Ropeman 's handbook
Haulage ropes

Corrosion
Corrosion is the main cause of deterioration in haulage ropes (Fig 75). In
wet roadways, water, which may or may not be corrosive, should be
diverted away from the rope and supporting rollers and not allowed to
accumulate in the roadway. If it does so it will almost certainly contaminate
and corrode both the rope and the roadway rollers which, if they are to
serve their purpose, should always be free-turning. A galvanised rope is
likely to give longer service than an ungalvanised one. Even though the
galvanised coating may be quickly worn from the strand crowns, it should
remain in the rope interior to give protection there.
(a) Cross-section of heavily worn (b) Heavy external wear causing
rope {original diameter (i) wires broken at crowns
shown in dotted liile) (ii) displaced and broken wires

Figure 75. Severely corroded haulage rope

Wear
Wear on a haulage rope can take several forms. If the rope rubs relatively (c) Outer wires showing the effects of haavywear on the
external crowns and 'chisel-type' fractured ends
slowly against the floor, rails or other obstructions, the wear may be purely
abrasive, metal being gradually removed from the external wire crowns
(Figs 76, 77). Removal of tbe obstructions or guiding the rope away from Figure 76. Effect of heavy wear on a haulage rope
them by the use of extra rollers should reduce such wear. Because of the
working conditions for most hanlage ropes, the outer wires of these ropes
should never be less than 2 mm (0.08 in) in diameter, otherwise they will
not be robust enough to withstand the wear and corrosion likely to be
encountered (Fig 78).
Localised wear can occur at a kink or at a permanent bend (Fig 79). True
kinking can occur only when the rope goes slack and forms itself into one or
more closed loops as in Fig 56. Kinking is much more likely to occur in
haulage than in winding because direct haulage ropes may go slack, as
when the tubs leave a gradient and enter a level part of the road, or when
the rope is disconnected from the tubs. Permanent elbow-shaped bends,
somewhat similar in shape to true kinks., may be formed by irregular coiling Figure 77. Haulage rope showing wires severed by severe external wear
156 157
Ropeman 's handbook Haulage ropes

on the drum (a coil in one layer spanning a gap between two open or
separated coils in the underlying layer and then being forced into the gap
by the pressure of a coil in the overlying layer). They may also be caused by
a haulage clip pulling too heavily on an endless rope when the tubs are held
back by an obstruction. Kinks and bends are more dangerous than might
be thought, for a rope may break within a few shifts as a result of
concentrated and rapid wear on the outside of these elbow-shaped
deformations. Thus, a rope which has been deformed by a kink or bend
should be examined by a competent person to ascertain the degree of
damage and decide the action to be taken.
A kink or permanent bend in a rope is most easily found by looking along
the rope, preferably when it is slack. When a rope breaks at srich a
deformation it gives a characteristic 'echelon' type fracture, each strand
being longer than the strand before it and each wire being longer than the
wire before it; this is because each strand and wire has been worn heavily
along only one side of the rope (the outside of the kink, or bend) and not at
one cross-sectiOn of the rope. Most of the wires will show chisel ends (Fig
43a) because they have been worn through, or ahnostwom through. Also,

(a) Gaps beneath severely worn and corroded crowns of

outer wires

(b) Severely worn rope

SMRE
(c) Severelv corroded rope
Figure 78. Deterioration of small flexible haulage ropes
Figure 79. Stages of deterioration at a kink in a haulage rope

158 159
Ropeman 's handbook Haulage ropes

the most heavily worn strands will be the two whose fractures lie half-way
along the rope fracture; they are the two that lay on the point of the elbow
and they were the first to break. The longest and shortest strands at the
rope fracture will be the least worn and the last to break; in fact one of these
may be pulled out straight at its end because it was the last of all the strands
to break. These points are illustrated in Fig 79 which shows a kmk at four
different stages of failure in the same rope.
Similar concentrated wear can occur on the raised strands of a badly made
-
splice (Fig 80a). Trouble can also be caused at a splice if the ends of the
tucked strands are not pushed well into the centre of the rope (Flg80b). A
protruding end can catch against obstructions so that the whole tucked
strand is pulled out, with the result that a holdfast and rope fmlure are
likely to occur as illustrated in Fig 81.

(a) Unevenly laid strands

Enlargement of the outbye side of the fracture.

Figure 81. Haulage rope breakage caused by faulty splice

(b) End of tucked strand protruding through outer strands

Figure 80. Examples of badly made splices

martensitic embrittlement. He should first remove the obstruction, or

Surface embrittlement
Some haulage ropes deteriorate as a result of surface embrittlement. This
may be caused by the rope rubbing heavily against metallic ob~tructions
causing martensite (Fig 54) or by heavy pressure on drums causm~ plast1c
deformation (Fig 53). If the ropeman observes that a low grrder, a ·
protruding arch leg, or a seized road roller has become grooved by the
rope, he should at once realise that the rope IS hable to have suffered
guide the rope past it by means of free-running rollers, and he should then
exaJnine the rope closely with his magnifying glass for fine martensitic
cracks on the worn crowns. If he finds such cracks he must keep the rope
under frequent examination and ensure that it is withdrawn from service as
soon as wires begin to break at the worn crowns. It would be better, of
course, if the ropeman kept a watch for possible obstructions and took the
necessary action before the rope suffered surface embrittlement.

160 161
 Rope man's handbook
Haulage ropes

Damage
y
Sometimes a haulage rope is accidentally damaged.
Slack rope
If slack rope forms so that a coil or coils fall over the side of the drum and
are pulled tight before being noticed, wires are likely to be damaged and
sheared at that part which has contacted the drum flange (Fig 82). Damage
of this type should not be ignored but should be carefully examined by a
competent person to decide the appropriate action to be taken.
Run overs
If a rope has been accidentally runover by tubs it can be severely crushed
and some wires may be partially or completely cut through (or sheared, Fig
43k). Again, such damage should not be ignored otherwise the rope is
likely to break at the affected part in subsequent service.
Trapping
A rope may become securely trapped by some obstruction or under a fall,
on a single occasion, and broken by the resulting overload. The rope will
show typical tensile fractures (Fig 43c) at the wire ends but, probably, no
other useful evidence. However, some ropes are known by their ropemen
to become partially trapped on many occasions but, because they free
themselves as the tubs approach the trap, no action is taken to rectify
matters. This is dangerous, because such ropes are almost certain to break
eventually. A rope which is repeatedly trapped by an obstruction is likely
to cut a groove in the obstruction and eventually be unable to free itself
when the groove becomes too deep. Examples of repeated trapping are
where ropes repeatedly get on the wrong side of a guide rail, or behind a
large bolt head or nut, or in the gap in the rails at a crossing or parting.
Consider the last example. When a rope runs in the gap in the rails (Fig83)
it will be pulled free as the tubs approach on all occasions until the rope has
undercut the top flange of the rail so deeply that it will be unable to free
itself; if the track is not pulled up by the rope, then the rope itself must
break. The broken end of the rope will show many wire fractures of the
tension type, because the rope has been overloaded on a single occasion,
and some wires may show sheared or partly sheared ends if the rope was
pulled hard against a sharp edge of the rail end. On the leading side of the
rope fracture one side of the rope surface will probably show a succession
(a) Possible cause of damage to rope at Y through coils falling over side
of bruises or bind marks spaced at decreasing intervals as the fracture is of drum
approached and with the final mark at the fracture; these are the points at
(b) Samples arranged to show tightening coil at X and point of damage
which the rope successively became seized in the gap with increasing force and eventual fracture at Y
during the final occasion on which it was trapped. A crossing designed to
prevent this type of damage is shown in Fig 84. Figure 82. Failure of haulage rope as result of earlier damage

162
163
 Haulage ropes
Ropeman's handbook

Maintenance of haulage ropes

Haulage ropes, whether galvanised or ungalvanised, should be kept well
lubricated. The various types of lubricant available and methods of
application have been discussed in Chapter 3. Galvanised ropes should be
used when conditions are corrosive.
No ropemaker can supply a haulage rope guaranteed to stand up to heavy
wear (requiring large outer wires) and at the same time to work
satisfactorily around small drums and pulleys (requiring small outer wires
for flexibility). It is usually faults in the working conditions that lead to
unsatisfactory rope service. The aim should be to avoid all unnecessary
bends in the rope; where the road turns, the rope should be guided
smoothly around the bend on large wheels or on arcs of smaller wall
pulleys. If a rope has to change direction through a large angle around a
single pulley or wheel, it is good practice, in order to increase rope life, to
use a pulley or wheel having as large a diameter as possible, preferably at
least 48 times the rope diameter (see BS 4878:1973 and NCB Specification
Figure 83. Haulage rope trapped in rails
601/1972). This is important if the rope changes direction by more than
about 10 degrees at any one pulley. If the change of direction is less than 10
degrees, the stress caused by bending is low. That is why the diameters of
road rollers and the rollers forming arcs of wall pulleys can be small. A
roller or wheel which produces a large change in direction should be of a
suitable diameter.
Ropes should be prevented from rubbing against roof girders, arch legs,
seized rollers, rails, rerailers, and other obstructions- particularly metal
ones. (Such rubbing will cause wear and is very likely to cause surface
embrittlement.) Ropes should not be allowed to run in the gaps in rails or
other potential traps (danger of overloads), nor should they bear against
the revolving axles of tubs in undertub haulage (local wear). Badly
designed or worn surge pads or segments on the driving wheel of an endless
haulage may cause plucking or uneven surging of the rope (leading to wear
and perhaps fatigue). Irregular coiling on the drum may cause local
deformations in the rope (leading to rapid local wear). Such bad coiling on
a drum, due to flapping of the incoming rope, may often be corrected by
mounting a pulley directly in front of the drum so that the pulley is free to
move along a long shaft extending across the whole width of the drum; the
flapping of the rope will then be damped or suppressed by the pulley before
it reaches the drum. Kinking leads to similar deformations.
A badly designed brake on a drum may heat the drum flange {rom the
normal temperature of about 60°F (15°C) to a temperature such that the
hand cannot be held continuously against the flange (above 150°F or 65°C),
Figure 84. Type of rail crossing designed to reduce trapping ofthe rope to a
in which case the lubricant in the coils of rope lying against that flange will
minimum become very fluid and will run out of the rope (and lead to corrosion).

165
Ropeman '.11 handbook
Anything that the ropeman can do, or get do":e, to correct such working
conditions will improve the performance of hiS ropes.
Thus the ideal conditions for a haulage rope are: a large drum or surge
whee\, a steady or smooth haul, a straight road which is either level or with
the same slope throughout, a rope running true between the rails on
well-maintained and free-running rollers mounted m pockets clear of
water , and no obstructions or water elsewhere in the path of the rope.
When to discard a haulage rope
The limits of deterioration which apply to haulage ropes are discussed in
detail in Chapter 6 and summarised for all ropes m Appendix 2.
166
Appendix 1
A method of determining the minimum rope
breaking strength for a direct haulage system
The tension in the haulage rope on an incline is due to two rna jor factors,
o the gravitational pull on the load and on the total weight of rope in the
system,
o the frictional resistances to motion of the load and the rope.
The gravitational force is dependent upon the gradient; the steeper the
incline, the higher is the tension in the rope. For accurate calculations, the
sine of the angle of gradient must be taken into account, but for all practical
purposes, the ratio of vertical rise to horizontal travel need only be
considered.
Vehicle friction can be taken as 1 per cent of the weight of the vehicle plus
contents for vehicles having rolling hearings and as 2 per cent of the weight
of vehicle plus contents for vehicles having plain bearings. Rope friction
can be taken as 10 per cent of the total weight of the rope.
Additional loads are imposed on the rope due to:
- the system being accelerated and
- the rope tension arrangement of endless rope haulages and
- bending the rope around deflecting pulleys and sheaves.
The maximum working tension, multiplied by the safety factor, gives the
rope breaking strength required to deal with that working tension.
The safety factor is intended to take care of the extra tensions in the wires
caused by sudden changes in speed, or jerking of the rope, bending of the
rope around pulleys, etc. The value of the factor varies with the type of
haulage. Direct haulage of mineral and material involves more starting and
stopping of the rope (ie many repeated shock loads) and a safety factor of
at least five is normally used. Endless haulage is generally smooth-running
(ie few shock loads) and a slightly lower safety factor may sometimes be
employed. However, the Engineer will probably calculate the rope
strength required to produce a suitable safety factor by employing the
formula reproduced overleaf.
167
Ropeman 's handbook
In order to determine the minimum required breaking strength of a direct
haulage rope the following formula may be used.
If S =minimum required breaking strength of the rope (kgf)
F =factor of safety
W = total weight of vehicles and contents (kg)
w =total weight of the line rope (kg)
e = maximum angle of inclination of the roadway (degrees)
ex = average angle of inclination of the roadway (degrees)
fJ., = vehicle friction
J.Lr = rope friction
g =acceleration due to gravity (ie 9.81 m/s') . o When the loss in rope strength due to wear, corrosion, or both is
a =maximum rate of acceleratiOn or deceleratiOn of the haulag
system (m/s')
Then:
S=F[ w(~+sin IJ )+w(~+sin a )+W,u,+w.u,]
or S=F[ w(~+sin O+,u, )+w(~+sin a+.u,)]
Where a is not known .:!. can be assumed to be 0.125 for all reasonable
a
service conditions. 0 depth as a result of any form of deterioration.
In the case of main and tail and endless rope ha-ulage systems the formula
becomes more involved and the Colliery Engineer will normally calculate
the minimum breaking strength required of the rope.
168
Appendix 2
When to discard a rope
As a general rule no rope should remain in service:
D When the Engineer considers that the factor of safety has become too
low (when the reserve of strength is no longer sufficient to ensure that the
rope can safely withstand the repeated shock loads. bends. etc).
approaching one-sixth or 16 per cent of the original strength (or any
lesser value set by the Engineer).
D When the loss in rope strength due to fatigue, corrosion-fatigue, or
surface embrittlement, or due to cracked or broken wires of any kind, is
approaching one-tenth or 10 per cent of the original strength (or any
lesser value set by the Engineer). The loss in strength may be estimated
by regarding all broken or cracked wires within a length of two rope lays
as no longer contributing any strength to that part of the rope. ·
D When the outer wires have lost about one-third or 33 per cent of their
o When the outer wires are becoming loose and displaced for any reason.
o When the rope has become kinked or otherwise deformed, distorted, or
damaged, and the affected part cannot be cut out.
D When the rope has been subjected to a severe overwind or overload, or
to severe shock loading, as a result of an accident.
o When examination of the rope leaves any doubt as to its safety on any
grounds.
D When a rope, which is still in good condition, rcachc~ the- maximum
statutory life for its type, as laid down in Regulations, or the maximum
life specified by the Engineer.
169
 Bibliography
BIBLIOGRAPHY NCB Specifications
NCB Spec No 175/1968
NCB Spec No 176/1968 WSire Ropes_for Mineral Haulage and Manrid' o-
List of regulations, specifications and official tranded Wire Ropes for w· d.
NCB Spec No 186/1970 Lock d eo·1
m'='.
In mg.
publications dealing with ropes e 1 Winding Ropes.
NCB Spec No 353/1966 Sockets, pins and zi
colliery haulage r~pe~~ cone and tml strand units for
NCB Spec No 366/1968
Round Strand Wire Ropes for Mine
~f::~~;~~fo~n~~~i~~~sulfor ~e!!~1;;~~ge.
NCB Spec No 367/1968
NCB Spec No 368/1968
NCB Spec No 386/1968 W' R '=' a age.
Ire opes 1or use with Coal Curt d
Face Machinery. ers an other Coal
Regulations NCB Spec No 388/1970 H If
The Law relating to Safety and Health in Mines and Quarries, Part 2, Section B-
NCB Spec No 461/1965
Sockets (BS 463 Pattern) f w·
a -locked Coil Guide Ropes
Haulage and General E . or . rre Ropes for Colliery
The Coal and Other Mines (Shafts, Outlets and Roads) Regulations, 1960. NCB Spec No 465/1 965 ngmeenn• Purpos
Reg 17(1) Use of spliced ropes. NCB Spec No 483/1970 Soc~ets for use with White MetatCa in es.
17(2) Maximum statutory life of ropes (shaft 3! years) White Capping Metal for Steel Wire l'fop~:
(staple pit 3,\ years) Note· The latest · ,,
. versrons OJ these standards and s ]ic .
( unwalkable outlet 2,\ years) The dates given here are co"ect at th ti pee~~ a~ons should always be used.
17(3) Minimum factor of safety (winding rope 6!). e me OJ gomg to press.
18 and 19 Examination and maintenance of ropes and attachments.
65 to 70 Capping, recapping, and examination of recapping samples.

Special regulations (friction winding)

A set of special regulations is issued for each colliery concerned and includes
regulations concerning capping, examination of any recapping samples, etc; they
are normally uniform in all cases as regards certain aspects such as maximum
statutory life of rope (winding ropes two years, balance ropes three yearS).

Specifications
British Standards
BS 236:1968 Stranded Wire Ropes for Mine Hoisting (Winding) Pur-
poses.
BS 302:1968 Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes, Excavators and General
Engineering Purposes.
BS 330:1968 Stranded Wire Ropes for Haulage Purposes.
BS 443:1969 Galvanised Coatings on Wire.
BS 463 Part 1:1958 Drop-forged Sockets for Wire Ropes for General En-
gine@Fing Purposes.
BS 463 Part 2:1970 (Metric Units) Sockets for Wire Ropes.
BS 525:1973 Fibre Cores for Wire Ropes.
BS 643:1970 White Metal Ingots for Capping Steel Wir.e Ropes.
BS 2763:1968 Round Steel Wire for Ropes.
BS 2772 Part 2: 1977 Iron and Steel for Colliery Haulage and Winding Equip-
ment: Wrought Steel.
BS 3436:1961 Ingot Zinc.

170
171
 Index

Drawn-galvanised finish, 25
Drum Feeler gauges, 72
Filler Seale lay, 22
attachment of rope to, 29-30
Index diameter, 18, 119, 121
Finish, surface, 23, 120
Fins, formation of, 80, 95
surface irregularities of, 118
Where a subject is discussed on more than one ~age, . Drum brakes, 165 Flat ropes, 17, 24, 129, 136
a page number in bold type indicates the main drscussron. Flat strands, 13
Drum-winding ropes
Fleet angle, 119, 122
Qeaning of wires during capping, 56, 63 deterioration of, 115 F1exibility of
Abrasive wear, 81, 119 factor of safety of, 104-106
Additives to rope lubricants, 45, 120 Coiling equal lay ropes, 23
lubrication of, 46-49
irregular, 99 fiat ropes, 17, 24, 129
on drum, 29 Ductility of wire, 10, 96
guide and rubbing ropes, 139
Balance rope loop control, 131-132 Cold work, 96 locked coil ropes, 17, 24
Balance ropes, 49,129-137 Cone and tail, 66-69, 150-151 Echelon fractures, 159 multi-strand ropes, 16, 24, 129
Bearing surface of rope, 80, 95 Cores Edge-pitting, 86 strands, 12
Bending strand, 11-12 Elbow-shaped bends, 99, 158 triangular-strand ropes, 16, 24
primary, 88 rope, 13-14, 16, 17 Electro-galvanising, 25 Flexible ropes, 80, 129, 156, 158
secondary, 75,88-92,98,116,121,137 Cork screwing {distortion), 99-102 Embrittlement, 73, YS-Y.S, 125-126, 160- Flexion fractures, 83, 86
Bending test for wires, 75 Corrosion 161 Fractures
Birdcage distortion, 101, 122 general, 75, 84, 109, 119-120, 134-135, Equal lay, 22 at damage and distortion 102
Breakages due to wear, 82-83 147, 156 Examination at kink, 102 '
Breaking strength, 88, 122, 149, 167 at damaged part, 98 bending {flexion), 83, 86
at testing centres, 76-78, 103, 108, 116
British Standards at martensitic cracks, rn balance ropes, 133, 137 chisel-end, 84
list of, 170 external, 72, 86, 109, 145 daily, 114 corrosion, 88
302 general engineering, 17 fractures, 88 corrosion-fatigue, 94
external, 73, 133, 144, 152
330 haulage ropes, 149 internal, 73, 82, 87, 109, 116 guide ropes, 144 echelon, 159
443 zinc coatings, 25 prevention of, 119-120, 123 fatigue, 92
haulage ropes, 152-153
463 sockets, 67, 151 scale, 75, 116, 144 internal, 74 fiexion, 83, 86
525 fibre core, 13 Corrosion-fatigue locked coil, 74 stepped, 98
643 capping metal, 57, 63 general, 86, 88, 94, 122 surface embrittlement, 96-98
recarping samples, 109
2763 rope wire, 10, 25 fractures, 94 speCial, 114-116 tensile, 77, 88
2772 wrought steel, 57 prevention of, 94, 122, 125, 156 winding ropes, 113-117 wear, 84
Brittleness of wires, 10, 96 Cracks Friction-winding ropes
Extension of statutory life, 127
Broken wires, 60, 72, 96, 97 fatigue, 92 Eye-glass, 70, 75 general, 110-113, 129
Brush, rope, 56, 60, 63 surface embrittlement, 95 deterioration of, 115
Buried wire serving, 32 Crossed tuck, 41 factor of safety of, 110-111
Cutting of ropes, 54 Factor of safety lubrication, 49, 119-120
Calcium chloride, 149 dtum-winder ropes, 104-106 recapping, 110
Caliper, 70, 72 Damage and distortion, 72, 98-102, 122, friction-winder ropes, 110-111 regulations, 110, 128
Cappings 125, 134-136, 162-164 guide ropes, 139 tensions in, 111-113
deterioration at, 60, 126 Deformation, 98-103, 136 haulage ropes, 149, 167 Full-lock wires, 11, 17
for balance ropes, 132-133 Depth of wire, 82 Fatigue
for haulage ropes, 66-69, 149-151 Deterioration general, 88, 121
for windingropes,52-66, 108,115,121, balance ropes, 134-137 at ~pping;60, 121, 126, 143, 147
cappings, 60-61, 126 Galvanised ropes, 23-25, 89, 120, 122,
126 at kmk, 102 139, 156
inserted cone, 66-69 damaged part, 98, 102, 136 at surface irregularities, 95, 97 Gland, wedge-type, 110, 140-142
wedge, 62-66, 108, 121, 126, 140-142 guide ropes, 147 cracks, 75
Grooved cones, 67, 150
white metal, 51, 52-62, 108, 121, 140 haulage ropes, 154-164 due to damage, 98, 102, 134-130 Grooves
Chain pitting, 97 winding ropes, 114, 118-126 due to martensitic embrittlernent, 96 in internal wires, 81
Chatter (of loose wires), 74 Diameters, drums and pulleys, 118, 119, fractures, 92, 116 pulley, 108, 122
Chisel-end fractures, 84, 159 121 limit, 88 Guide ropes
Clamps, 52, 59, 63, 109, 142, 153 Discard of ropes, 102-103, 138, 148, 166, prevention of, 88, 121-122 general, 139-148
Oeaning of ropes, 47, 72, 115, 127, 144, 169 secondary bending, 75, 89-92, 98, 116 half-locked, 19, 139
Distortion of ropes, 72, 99-102, 122, 125 121 ,
153 lubrication, 50

172 173
Ropeman 's handbook Index

NCB Spe9.:(ications (contd.L Rods, 19

Guide ropes ( contd.) Lay ( contd.)
461 sockets, etc (BS463 pattern), 67, Rollers, roadway, 156
tensioning of, 139, 142-143 measurement of, 72 151
ordinary, 19 Rope centring clamp, 57
wire for, 10 465 sockets for white metal cappings,
right-hand, 19, 29 Ropelets, 17, 136
Guides, rigid, alignment, 122 54,60
Seale, 22 Rope loop control, balance, 131-132
483 white capping metal, 57, 63 Rotation of ropes, 100-101, 107, 140
shortening of (at kink), 99 Necking, 77, 84
Half-locked guide ropes, 19, 139 types of, 19 Round strand ropes, 14, 24, 149
Nicking, 81, 116 Round strands, 12
Half-lock wires, 11 Warrington, 22 Non-destructive testing, 79 Rotind wires, 11
Hammer Life, rope, 127-128 Non-rotating ropes, 16, 24, 129 Rubbing ropes, 19, 139
ropeman's, 72 Loads
-test, 74, 116 general, 140 Run-overs, 102, 162
Haulage ropes, on haulage ropes, 167 Ordinary lay, 19 Rust inhibitors, 120
capping, 66, 149-151 on winding ropes, 105-106 Ordinary serving, 32
care of, 50 shock, 105, 121, 167 Oval strands, i3 Safety blocks, 62, 63, 117
choice of, 149 Locked-coil ropes Safety clamps, 142
damage to, 162-164 general, 17, 24, 54 Safety factor, 88, 104-106, 110-111, 139,
Parallel tuck, 41
deterioration of, 154-164 distortion of, 99-102 149, 167
examination of, 152-153
Parking positions, 119
examination of, 74 Paying out Safety ropes, 153
installation of, 149 lubrication, 45, 47 Scriber, 70, 75
haulage rope, 149
loads on, 167 Locked tuck, 41 Scuffed nicks, 81
lubrication oL 50, 105 winding rope, 107
Long splice, 36 Penknife, 70 Seale lay, 22
minimum breaking strength of, 167 Lubrication Secondary bending, 75,88,89-92,98,116,
Permanent bends, 98-99, 134, 144, 156
recapping; 151 after capping, 51 121, 137
Fitch of rope, 21
records of, 153 general, 14, 25, 44-S1, 72, 119, 127 Serving (seizing), 30-35, 52, 109, 152
Pitting, 70, 75, 86
safety factor of, 149, 167 of balance ropes, 49, 137 Serving mallets, 31
Pitting, chain, 97
splicing, 3S-43, 160-161 of drum-winding ropes;46-49, 119,122, Serving wire, 31
Plastic wear, 73, 80, 95-96, 160
when to discard, 102-103, 169 127 Shock loads, 105, 109, 121-122, 167
Postformed ropes, 23
working tension in, 167 of friction-winding ropes, 49, 119-120, Side-by-side tuck, 41
Preformed ropes, 23
Hernia distortion, 101, 122 122 Slack rope
Preheating temperatures, 57
Hot-dip galvanising, 25 of guide ropes, SO, 144, 147 kinking due to, 99, 154, 156
Pressure lubricator, 47
of haulage ropes, SO, 165 protection, 110
Primary bending; 88
Lubricator, pressure, 47 Protection, rising loop, 132 shocks due to, 122
Inserted-rone cappings, 66-69, 150-151
Pulley Sleeve, guide rope, 143
Installation of
Maintenance of diameter, 18, 119, 121 Snarling, 129, 137
balance ropes, 129-132
balance ropes, 137 grooves, 108, 122 Sockets, 52; 54; 67, 108
guide ropes, 139-144
guide and rubbing ropes, 147-148 Soldered servings, 34
haulage ropes, '149
haulage ropes, 165-166 Special examination, 114-116, 153
winding ropes, 106-108 Recapping
Instruments and tools, ropeman's, 31, 40, winding ropes, 127 Specifications, BS, NCB (list of), 170-171
haulage ropes, 151 Splicing,
70 Martensite, 96 samples, examination of, 74; 114, 152
Martensitic embrittlcment. 73,96-97, 125- general, 35-43, 152, 153, 160, 161
winding ropes, 108-110 tools, 40
126, 160-161 Record book, 117, 145, 153
Measurement of diameter and lay, 72, Static loads, 106
Kinking, 99, 152, 156-160 Recovery of sockets, 62, 152
116, 145 Statutory examinations, 113-117
Reddies, 17 Statutory life, extension of, 127
Micrometer, wire, 70 Reference sample, 108, 153
Multi-rope friction winders, 111-113 Stepped fractilres, 9&
Lang's lay, 19 Regulation Stitching, flat rope, 17, 136
Lay Multi-strand ropes, 16, 24, 129 17 (2), 127 Storage of ropes, 26
change in length of, 99 17 (3), 106 Stranded ropes
equal, 22 19, 114, 115 general, 13
filler Seale, 22 NCB Specifications
list of, 171 65 and 67, 108, 114, 151 multi-strand, 16
Lang's, 19 for friction-winders, 110, 128, 138 round strand, 14
left-hand, 19, 29 186locked coil ropes, 19, 104
353 sockets, zinc cone & tail, 67, 151 Reverse bend test, 78 triangular strand, 16
length of, 21 Rigid guides, alignment of, 122 Strands, 11
looseness of, 72, 89, 107 388 half-locked coil guide ropes, 19, 139

174 175
 Ropeman 's handbook

Strength of rope Wave form, of wire, 75-76

aggregate, 76 Waviness, 72, 99-102, 122
breaking, 76, 88, 122 Wear
loss of, 102-103 abrasive, 81, 118, 156
Surface at kink, 102, 156-160
finish, 23, 120 external, 73, SO, 107, 109, 134-135
irregularities, 95, 97 fractures, 84
, embrittlement, 73, 95-98, 160-161 in guide ropes, 145-147
Suspended loads, 105-106 in haulage ropes, 156-160
Swivels, 129 internal, 21, 74, 81, 87, 90, 109, 116
inwindingropes, 107,109, 116,ll8-119
Tail or balance ropes, 129-137 plastic, 73, 81, 95, 119, 160
Taper of socket, 60 prevention of, 118, 123
Temperatures Wedge gland, self-tightening, 110, 140-
socket, 57 142
white metal, 58, 63 Wedge-type cappings, 62-66
Tens1le strength White metal cappings, 52-62
general, 10 Width of wire, 82
of guide ropes, 10 Winding ropes
of haulage ropes, 149 capping, 52-66, 108
of winding ropes, 104 care of, 46-49
Tension choice of, 104-105
fractures, 77, 88 deterioration of, 118-126
in guide ropes, 139, 142-143 discarding of, 102-103, 169
maximum working, 167 examination of, 113-117
rope, 88, 111-113 factor of safety, 104-106
test, 76 installation of, 106-108
Test recapping, 108-110
at testing centre, 76-78, 103, 108, 116 reference sample, 108
hammer, 74 wear on, 118-119
non-destructive, 79 Winding shocks, 109
reverse bend, 78 Wiped serving, 34
tensile, 76 Wire
torsion, 78 crown of, 76
Tools and instruments, 31, 40, 70-72 depth, 82
Torsion test, 78 drawing, 10, 96
Trammel, rope lay, 72, 73 micrometer, 70
Trapping, 162-164 serving, 31
Triangular shapes, 11
strands, 13 tensile strength, 10
strand ropes, 16, 24, 149 used in haulage ropes, 149
wires, 11 used in winding ropes, 104
TUcking, 36, 39-43, 160 width, 82
Twisting, 100-101, 107, 129, 137 Wires
brittleness of, 10
broken, 60, 72, 116, 139
Uncoiling and unreeling, 27-28, 107, 149
Ungalvanised finish, 25 displaced, 72, 83-84
looseness of, 74, 82, 87, 116
Working tension, maximum, 149
Waisting, 77, 84
Warrington lay, 22
Water displacers and repellents, 44, 46, Zinc coating, 23-25, 120, 139
120 Zinc cone cappings, 66-69, 150-151

176